UNIVERSITE ALASSANE OUATTARA

U.F.R. Communication Milieu et Société

DEPARTEMENT D’ANGLAIS

Licence 2

Academic year: 2019-2020

COURSE CONTENT

I-TENSES
II COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
III- REPORTING SPEECH
IV- EXPRESSING WISHES
V-IF CLAUSES
VI- QUANTIFIERS: THE CASE OF BOTH, EITHER, NEITHER, MUCH, MANY, FEW,
LITTLE
VII- PHRASAL VERBS

Suggested Bibliography

La Grammaire anglaise de l’Etudiant

A practical English grammar
English grammar in use
I- TENSES

THE PRESENT TENSE

The present
simple

Form

Positive statement: I play, He plays

Negative statement: I do not play (I don't play), He does not play (He doesn't play)
Question form: Do you play? Does he play?
Negative question: Do you not play? (Don't you play?) Does he not play? (Doesn't he play?)

Are you a student? Is he in London? I am not at home. He is not happy. Can you sing? Must I
come? I
cannot swim. He mustn't stay.

Use

1. We use the present simple tense for activities that happen again and again (everyday,
sometimes, ever, never).

I sometimes go to school by bike. You don't speak Greek. Do they get up

early? He often travels. She doesn't work. Does she ever help you?

2. We use it for facts that are always true.

Our planet moves round the

sun. Lions eat meat.

3. With a future time expression (tomorrow, next week) the present simple is used for planned
future actions (timetables).

The train leaves at

8.15. They return
tonight.

The present
continuous
Form

Positive statement: I am playing, You are playing, He is playing

Negative statement: I am not playing (I'm not playing), You are not playing (You aren't playing),
He is not playing (He isn't playing)
Question: Are you playing? Is he playing?
Negative question: Are you not playing? (Aren't you playing?) Is he not playing? (Isn't he playing?)

The present continuous tense is formed with the verb to be and the present participle (-ing
ending).

Use

The present continuous tense is used:

1. If we want to say that something is happening at the time of speaking. We often use it with
time expressions such as now or at the moment.
I am doing housework at the
moment. You aren't listening to
me now!
Look at him! What is he doing?

2. For temporary activities that are true now, but maybe not happening at the time of speaking.
Time expressions such as today, this week or these days are typical of this use.
I am in London. I am learning English here.
She can't go out today. She is preparing for an
exam. You can't meet him this week. He is
working in Bath.

3. For planned future arrangements. The time of the action must be given in the sentence
(soon, tomorrow, on Monday, next week), otherwise it is not clear that we talk about future.
I am coming soon.
We are leaving on
Monday. She is starting
next week.

4. With always to express the idea that something happens too often and it annoys the speaker.
I am always forgetting my keys.
He is always smoking in the living room!

We do not normally use in the continuous the following groups of verbs (so called state verbs):

1. Of senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste. On the other hand, look, watch or listen are action
verbs and can be used in the continuous:
I can hear you. - I am listening to you.
Can you see the bird? - Are you looking at the bird?

2. Of liking and disliking: like, love, hate, fear, detest, want,

wish... I like animals.
I hate snakes.

3. Of mental states: agree, believe, forget, know, remember, suppose,

think... I agree with you.
I suppose you are right.

4. Of permanent states: be, have, belong, contain, owe, own,

possess... This pen belongs to me.
I have a new pet.

5. Appearance: seem, appear, look, sound...

It seems that it will rain.
Your new haircut looks really good.

If some of these verbs are used in the present continuous, they have a different meaning. In
such a case they become action verbs.
I think he is my best friend. (mental state) - I'm thinking of giving him a present. (mental activitiy)
He has a new bathroom. (possess) - He is having a bath. (take a bath)
I see what you mean. (know) - I am seeing a doctor. I am ill. (visit)
The flower smells beautiful. (scent) - The dog is smelling the sausage. (sniff)
This wine tastes sour. (It has a sour taste.) - She is tasting the soup if it is warm enough.

The present
 perfect
(I have done)
We use the present perfect tense when we want to talk about:
a- an event which started in the past, continues in the present and may continue into the future.
My parents have been married for twenty years.

b- a recent event in the past which has relevance to the present.

A man has appeared in court charged with the murder of the missing person.

c- an event which happened in the past without saying when it happened (because we do not consider this is
important).
Have you seen Jill?
I’ve read Hamlet but I’ve never seen it performed

We use the continuous form

a- to emphasise the continuity and duration of the event.
The Smiths have been living in the same house ever since they got married.

b- to indicate that a continuous activity in the recent past is responsible for a present situation. This activity may or
may not be unfinished.
I’m not crying – I’ve been peeling onions.

THE PAST TENSE

The past simple

- We use the past simple tense when we want to refer to an action or event which is finished and:
a- took place at a specific time and place in the past.
Judy went to Spain in 1999.

b- took place over a specific period in the past.

She lived in Spain between 1999 and 2002.

c- was habitual during a specific period in the past.

When Judy lived in Spain, she ate dinner at about 10 p.m.

The past
continuous

We use the past continuous to indicate:

a- a continuous event in the past .

Dick was working for this uncle when I knew him.

b- a temporary event in the past which was in progress before another event took place.
I’ll always remember what I was doing when I heard the dreadful news.

c- an event which started before another event in the past and continued.
When Neil and Cathy eventually turned up, all the other guests were already eating their dessert.

d- simultaneous, continuous actions in the past.

While I was trying to phone her, she was trying to phone me!
e- repeated actions occurring over a period of time in the past.
Before I got my own flat, I was always arguing with my parents.

The past perfect

There are two past perfect tenses in the English language.

Past perfect simple

Form
It is formed with the auxiliary verb "had" + past participle (-ed ending for regular verbs, e.g. worked,
travelled, tried, different forms for irregular verbs, e.g. written, made, sung): I had done, I had not done (I
hadn't done), Had I done? Had I not done? (Hadn't I done?)

Use
1. We use the past perfect to make it clear that an action was completed before another action in the past.
The door bell rang at last. I had been in the room since breakfast.
(The bell rang at noon. I came in the morning - before
that.) When I arrived there Sarah had already left.
(I arrived after lunch. Sara went before lunch.)
I was so hungry! I had not eaten anything since the
morning. (It was late at night.)

2. It is used to refer to an activity that was completed before a point of time in the past.
In 2005 I had lived in the same place for ten years.
Had you ever travelled by plane before your holiday in Spain?

Past perfect continuous

Form
It is formed with the auxiliaries had been + present participle (-ing ending, e.g. working, trying, writing,
singing): I had been doing, I had not been doing, Had I been doing? Had I not been doing?

Use The past perfect continuous is used for activities that began before a point of time in the past and were still
continuing at that point of time.
Last summer Josh had been renovating his house for two years.
(He started three years ago and last summer he was still renovating his house.)
THE FUTURE TENSE

Future simple - will

Form
Positive statement: I will learn (I'll learn), He will learn (He'll learn)
Negative statement: I will not learn (I won't learn), He will not learn (He won't learn)
Question: Will you learn?
Neg. question: Will you not learn? (Won't you learn?)
We can also use shall in the first person singular and plural (I, we). But this form is quite formal in modern
English and is not very common.
I shall do it for you.
We shall come soon.

Use
1. Will is used as a modal auxiliary verb to show a general intention.
He will change his job.
We'll travel abroad. (short form of
will) I will not need it.
They won't change the telephone number. (short form of will not)
Will you take the exam?
2. Will is used for predictions or
opinions. It will snow in winter.
The horse will not win.
We can use following verbs or adverbs to express that we assume something, but we are not sure: think,
be sure, hope, believe, suppose, perhaps, possibly, probably, surely.
They'll probably study art.
I don't think she'll accept it.
3. Will is used to express a decision or offer made at the moment of speaking.
Can I walk you home? - No, thank you. I'll take a taxi.
Please, tell Peter about it. - O.K. I'll call him.
But:
I am going to call Peter. Do you want me to say hello to him?
(Going to expresses our decision made before the moment of speaking.)

Future continuous

Form
Positive statement: I will be sitting (I'll be sitting)
Negative statement: I will not be sitting (I won't be sitting)
Question: Will you be sitting?
Neg. question: Will you not be sitting? (Won't you be sitting?)

Use
1. This tense is used for an action that will be in progress at a point of time in the future. It will start before that
point of time and will continue after it. The point in time can be given by a time expression or by another action
in the future simple (will). This usage is very similar to the past continuous in this aspect.
At 8 o'clock I will be travelling to Dorset.
This time tomorrow we'll be lying on the beach.
(In these two sentences the point of time that we refer to is given by a time expression.).
Will you be working? I'll be sleeping when you come back.
(In these two sentences the point of time that we refer to is given by another activity.)
2. The future continuous describes the idea that something will happen in the normal course of events. It
refers to a routine activity, not an intention, decision or plan.
I'll be writing to you again. (I always write to you, so I'll do it again, as usual.) They'll
be leaving on Friday. You can join them. (They normally leave on Fridays.)
Everybody will be working on a computer sooner or later. (If nothing special happens.)
Future continuous vs present continuous
We are going to the cinema next weekend.
(The present tense means that we have already arranged it. We know the time and place and probably have
the tickets.)
We'll be going to the cinema next weekend.
(The future continuous only tells us how we will spend the weekend. But we have not arranged anything
and, probably, we do not even know which film we want to see.)
I am seeing Susan tomorrow.
(I have some reason. Susan and I have arranged the time and
place.) I'll be seeing Susan tomorrow.
(Susan is my classmate and because I will go to school tomorrow, I will see her as usual.)
Future simple vs continuous
Bill won't play football tomorrow.
(The fact is that Bill cannot play or does not want to play for some reason.)
Bill won't be playing football tomorrow.
(Bill will not play, because it will be Friday and he never plays on Fridays.)
I'll call Mimi tonight. I'll ask her.
(I will do it because I need to talk to
her.) I'll be calling Mimi tonight. I can
ask her.
(I call her every night, that is why I will call her tonight too.)
In these examples the future simple shows intentions, while in the continuous there is no intention, it
expresses routine actions.
Notes
In some cases we can use several forms for future events. But every form will have a slightly different
meaning.
I'll be meeting Jim next week.
(I meet Jim every week and it will be the same next
week.) I'll meet Jim next week.
(I intend to meet Jim next week or I suppose that I will meet him.)
I'm going to meet Jim next week.
(I decided to meet Jim some time ago and now I am expressing my intention.)
I'm meeting Jim next week.
(We have arranged the time and place because we have some reason to meet.)
It will rain, I'm afraid.
(I assume it will rain, it is my opinion. But who knows!)
It's going to rain.
(I am sure it will rain because I can see the dark clouds in the sky. My opinion is based on clear evidence.)

The present tense (I am meeting) is more definite than be going to (I am going to meet) and will is the
least definite (I will meet).

Exercise 1 Complete the sentences with the best form.

Shall I say hello to Sharon? I ....... to her today. a)

write
b) be writing
c) will be writing

Can I help you? I ........ you that blouse. a) will

be showing
b) will show
c) won't show

Good Lord! The engine has stopped. - No problem. Bill ........ a look at it. a) is
having
b) will have
c) will be having

Why don't you have dinner with us? I ........ anyway. a) will
be cooking
b) am cooking c)
cook

This time next week we ........ round the Aegean Sea. a) sail
b) will be sailing c)
will sail

If you take three cassettes, you ........ one cassette free. a) are
going to get
b) are getting c)
will get

I ........ my work before they arrive. a) will

be finishing
b) finish
c) will finish

By the end of this century everyone ........ English. a) will

be speaking
b) is going to speak
c)speaks

Exercise 2

Ask questions to get more information.

My students will be taking part in the show.

What kind of show .......................................................................... part in? She'll
make something to eat for you.
What .............................................................? We
won't give any presents to him.
Why ............................................................. any presents to him? I'll be
decorating my office next week.
............................................................................ your office on Monday? I hope
we will go on holiday in summer.
Where ............................................................? This time
tomorrow we'll be watching a comedy.
.............................................................. a romantic comedy? Do you
like it? I'll buy it for you.
And ............................................. it for my brother, too?
In a short time many more people will be using electric cars.
 .................... anybody .................................. petrol engines?

Future perfect tense

Future perfect simple

Form
Positive statement: I will have painted, I will have written, He will have painted, He will have
written (I'll have painted, He'll have painted)
Negative statement: I will not have painted (I won't have painted), He will not have painted (He won't have
painted)
Question: Will you have painted?
Neg. question: Will you not have painted? (Won't you have painted?)

Use
We use the future perfect simple for events that will be completed before or at a certain time. It is often used
with a time expression beginning with by: by then, by that time, by midnight, by the end of the year. The time
can also be given by other time expressions (on Sunday, before 31 June) or other activities
expressed in different future tenses.
I will have sent the project by Friday.
On 11 August this year we will have been married for five years.
When the mountaineers get back to the base, they'll have been in the snowstorm for two days.
We'll have reached the top before noon.
How long will she have worked here by the end of this year?
In all these examples, at a given time the future perfect actions will be in the past.

Future perfect continuous

Form
Positive statement: I will have been meeting (I'll have been meeting)
Negative statement: I will not have been meeting (I won't have been meeting)
Question: Will you have been meeting?
Neg. question: Will you not have been meeting? (Won't you have been meeting?)

Use
We use the future perfect continuous tense for activities that will continue until a point of time in the
future and will not be completed. Like the simple tense it is normally used with by or other time
expressions and future actions.
I'll go home on 20 June. By then I'll have been staying at this hotel for a fortnight. At
six o'clock we'll have been waiting here for three hours.
When you arrive, we'll have been sitting in the classroom all day.

Future perfect simple vs continuous

It is used for incomplete, uninterrupted activities. If we refer to a number of individual actions or actions that
were repeated, we must use the future perfect simple.
When I am sixty, I'll have been building houses for thirty years. (one incomplete activity)
When I am sixty, I'll have built more than fifty houses. (fifty individual actions)
By 5 o'clock I'll have been washing this car for an hour and a half. (one uninterrupted activity)
By 5 o'clock I'll have washed this car and replaced the tyres. (two completed activities that will be done one
after another)
In this respect the simple and continuous aspects are similar to the other tenses (the past tense, present
perfect, past perfect), which you can study on this website to get more details and more examples.

Future perfect simple and continuous

Exercise 1
 Use the verbs in brackets to make the future perfect tense.
In five years' time there will be no houses in this street. (demolish)
In five years' time they ..................................................................... all the houses in this street.
The Christmas tree will be ready before our children come back. (decorate)
We ............................................................... the Christmas tree before our children come back.
This is my tenth year of teaching experience. (teach)
I ...................................................................................... for ten years this year.
I am going to finish my second book by the end of this year. (publish)
My second book ..................................................................... by the end of this year.
Greg will call me and I must think about his proposal before that. (consider)
Before Greg calls me, I ............................................................... his proposal all the time.
You will be hot until you open the window. (sweat)
You .......................................................................... until you open the window.
On Thursday we will have all the needed information. (receive)
By Friday we .................................................................. all the needed information.
We planted the trees nearly three years ago. (grow)
This year the trees ............................................................... for three years.
We will be in Paris sooner than at 5 p. m. (arrive)
We ................................................................... in Paris by 5 p. m.
Our English workshop will start at 8 o'clock and it will finish at 12 o'clock. (work)
At noon we ................................................................... on our English project for four hours.

Exercise 2
Use the verbs in brackets to complete the dialogue
A: How long have you been preparing your campaign, Derek?
B: By the end of this month I ............................................................................. (work) on it for a year. A: For
a year? And do you think you ....................................................... (launch) it by the end of June? B: I hope so.
I suppose we ................................................ (make) all the posters and TV shots by then. A: Why has it
taken you so long?
B: We needed a lot of data to support our arguments. Before we start it in July, several teams of experts
...................................................... (collect) data for six months. And we'll have to sort them out. But we
...................................................... (finish) it by the end of June.
A: I wish you all good luck, Derek. And I hope that before your campaign ends, the public transport
in our city ...................................................... (change) for the better.

II- COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

1- ADJECTIVES
a- Regular adjectives with one syllable
Adjective Comparative Superlative
tall Taller the tallest
large Larger the largest
big Bigger the biggest

NOTES
1- Adjectives ending in two consonants or two vowels and a consonant add –er / -est: long, short, bright, smooth, cool, clean,
great.
2- Adjectives ending in –e add –r / -st: nice, late, safe, strange, rude, wide
3- Many adjectives ending in a single vowel + single consonant double the consonant and add – er / -est: fat, thin, flat, sad,
wet

b- Regular adjectives with two or more syllables

Adjective Comparative Superlative
heavy heavier the heaviest
modern more modern the most modern
important more important the most important
more common / the most common /
common
commoner the commonest

NOTES
1- Adjectives ending in –y change y to I and add –er / -est: happy, dirty, funny, tidy, busy, early, empty, dry

2- Most longer adjectives use more and the most: comfortable, independent, insignificant, uninteresting.
3- Some two-syllable adjectives can form their comparatives and superlatives in two ways: by adding – er / -est or with more
and most: clever, pleasant, gentle, narrow, shallow, simple, tired

c- Irregular adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Good Better the best
Bad Worse the worst
old elder / older the elder / the oldest
Far further / farther the furthest / the farthest

d- Comparative and superlative adjectives in context.

1- more / -er + than

I’m taller than my brother.

My brother’s more serious than me
I’m more intelligent than he is / him

2- the most / -est

I’m the tallest student in the class.
My sister’s the most intelligent student in her school.

3- less + than / the least

That film was less interesting than the last one I saw.
It was the least interesting film I’ve seen all year.

e- Qualifying comparative adjectives

1- Use these words and phrases to refer to big differences: far, a lot, much.
Cars are a lot faster and much more comfortable than bicycles.

2- Use these words and phrases to refer to small differences: a bit, a little, slightly.
The weather’s a bit hotter than it was yesterday.
2- THE + COMPARATIVE + THE
This construction links two actions or situations - when one thing happens, another thing follows. A comparative expression
in the first clause is balanced by a comparative expression in the second clause. Several grammatical patterns are possible
here:
a- adjective … adjective
The harder a job is, the more rewarding I find it.

b- adverb … adverb
The sooner we start, the quicker we’ll finish.

c- adjective … adverb, or adverb … adjective

The easier a job is, the more quickly I do it.

d- more (+ noun) … more (+ noun).

The more money Jack earned, the more clothes he bought.

e- less (+ clause) … less (+ uncountable noun), fewer (+ plural countable noun)

the less Bob earned, the less food / the fewer holidays he could afford.

f- more (+clause) … less (+clause).

The more you sleep, the less you do.

g- Other combinations of these patterns are possible.

The harder Job worked, the more he earned.
The more he ate, the fatter he got.

NOTES

1- Neither of the two clauses in the + comparative + the sentences makes sense without the other.
2- In writing, a comma is used to separate the two clauses.
3- Both clauses need a verb.
4- In some expressions with better no verbs are needed.
Jim When shall I come round to see you?
Tim The sooner, the better.

3- OTHER COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

a- as … as
This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to make comparisons between two things or people.
I’m as tall as my brother.
Trains don’t travel as fast as planes.
In negative sentences so can be used instead of the first as.
Cats aren’t so friendly as dogs.

b- Comparative + and + comparative

This construction can be used with adjectives or adverbs to refer to a trend.
Towards the end of the film, I became more and more frightened.
As the exams approached, I work harder and harder.
Over the last twenty years, televisions have become less and less expensive.

EXERCISES
A- Underline the correct or more likely alternative. If both are possible, notice the difference between them.
1- I think I’d describe her as more pretty / prettier than beautiful.
2- He had always seemed unfriendly, but now they were alone he seemed even more cold / colder.
3- I bought this tennis racket because it’s more strong / stronger.
4- There were two routes up the hill, but as we had lots of time we took the more long / longer, more winding / windinger one.
5- Sam isn’t a bad boy really. He’s more naughty / naughtier than dishonest.
6- The exam was more hard / harder than I thought it would be.

B- Complete the sentences with in or of.

1- The building is said to be the highest ………… Europe.
2- The Democrats are the smallest ………….. the four main political parties.
3- The hotel enjoys the most spectacular setting …….any on the south coast.
4- For many people, it is the most important day ……. the whole year.
5- She’s without doubt the best swimmer ………... my school.

III- REPORTING SPEECH

1- Reported speech
When we report the idea and not the actual words a person says we often make changes. These changes are usually to verb
tenses, pronouns, word order, and time and place references.

2- Reporting statements
a- Changes in verb tenses
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, e.g. said, we usually move the tenses in the sentence we are reporting one step
back in time.
Direct speech Reported speech
Present simple Past simple
‘I’m a nurse’, she said She said she was a nurse
Present continuous Past continuous
‘I’m not going’, he said He said he wasn’t going
Past simple Past perfect
‘I haven’t read it’, she said She said she hadn’t read it
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
‘I was lying’, he said he said he’d been lying

Will future Would

‘I’ll get it’, she said She said she would get it.
Can Could
‘I can speak French’, he said He said he could speak French
May Might
‘I may be late’, she said she said she might be late
Must Had to
‘I must go’, he said He said he had to go.

NOTE
The past perfect and the modals might, ought to, could, should and would do not change in reported speech.
b- No changes in verb tenses
1- When the reporting verb in the present tense, e.g. says, we do not change the tense of the original verb. For example
when we are reading what someone has said in a newspaper or letter:
Darren says he’s been too busy to write before.
or when we are passing on a message:
Lucy says she’ll be late

2- When the reporting verb is in the past tense and we want to emphasise that the statement is still true we can keep the
same tense if we wish.
‘Bill is my cousin’ She said Bill is her cousin.

c- Changes in time and place references

Some typical changes that may have to be made are:

Direct speech Reported speech

today that day
tomorrow the next day, the following day
yesterday the previous day, the day before
two days ago two days before, two days earlier
now then
here there
last night the night before, Thursday night
last week the week before / the previous week

Unless time and place words are reported at the same time and in the same place as they were originally said, they change.
‘Marie phoned yesterday’. (said on Monday)
He said that Marie has phoned two days ago / on Sunday (said on Tuesday)
d- Other changes
1- Pronouns may change when we are reporting speech. This depends on who is reporting.
‘I’ll give you a lift’, (Jack to Barbara)
Jack said he would give me a lift, (Barbara to someone else)

2- The determiners this, that, these, those may change to the.

‘These jeans are too tight’, Cyril said.
Cyril said the jeans were too tight.

3- The pronouns this and that may change to it.

‘Give me that!’ Jayne said
Jayne told me to give it to her.

3- Reporting questions
a- Changes
We make the same changes to verb tenses, time and place references and pronouns as we do when we report statements.
We also change the form of the original question into a statement and omit auxiliary verbs ( do, does, did) and questions
marks.
‘When are you arriving?’
He asked me when I was arriving.
If there is no question word in the original we must use if or whether
‘Do you understand?’
He asked her if / whether she understood.

b- Reporting verbs
To report questions we can use the verb ask or the structure want to know.
‘Are you enjoying yourself?” Mr Jones asked.
Mr Jones wanted to know if I was enjoying myself.

5- Reporting functions
a- Reporting advice, commands, requests and warnings
We can report these kinds of speech using the verbs advise, tell, ask and warn + personal object pronoun + infinitive.
Advice
“You really should stop!”
She advised me to stop.
Command
“Don’t interrupt me!”
He told me not to interrupt him.
Request
“Could you close the door please?”
She asked me to close the door.
Warning
“If you tell anyone, I’ll…!”
She warned me not to tell anyone.

NOTES
1- The structure after ask is different depending on whether we are reporting a request or a question.
“Can you remind me please?” (request)
He asked me to remind him.
“Can you come tomorrow?” (question)
She asked me if I could come the next day.

2- The structure after tell is different depending on whether we are reporting a command or a statement.
“Come on! Hurry up!” (command)
She told us to hurry up
“It doesn’t start till 8”. (statement)
He told us (that) it didn’t start until 8.

b- Reporting suggestions
We can report suggestions with the verb suggest + clause.
For example, to report “Let’s stay in.”:
She suggested that we (should) stay in.
She suggested that we stayed in.
She suggested staying in.

NOTE: You cannot use the infinitive in this structure.

EXERCISES

The following sentences are direct speech:

Don’t wait for me if I’m late - Mind your own business - Please slow down! –
Can you open your bag. please? - Hurry-up! - Will you marry me? - Don’t worry, Sue. - Could you get a
newspaper? - Do you think you could give me a hand, Tom?
Now choose one of these to complete each of the sentences below. Use reported speech.
1- Bill was taking a long time to get ready, so I told him to hurry up
2- Sarah was driving too fast, so I asked …………………………………………………………
3- Sue was nervous about the situation. I told …………………………………………………
4- I couldn’t move the piano alone, so I ………………………………………………………….
5- The customs officer looked at me suspiciously and ………………………………………
6- Tom was going to the shop, so I ………………………………………………………………….
7- The man started asking me personal questions, so I …………………………………..
8- John was very much in love with Mary, so he ……………………………………………..
9- I didn’t want to delay Helen, so I ………………………………………………………………….

Exercise 1

Complete these sentences in the reported speech.

Example:
"I went to shops." - John said he had gone to shops.

"It is so sad."
I said ........................................................................................................................................................... "I've
already done it."
He claimed that .......................................................................................................................................... "I saw
you at the station."
Kim told me ............................................................................................................................................... "I can't
help you."
Dan explained that ..................................................................................................................................... "I
could fail the exam."
He was afraid that ...................................................................................................................................... "The
Amazon is the biggest river."
He knew that .............................................................................................................................................. "I may
come a bit late."
Bill told me that ......................................................................................................................................... "I've
been reading a book."
He replied that ............................................................................................................................................ "David
must be on a diet."
The doctor said ........................................................................................................................................... "You
haven't written the essay."
The teacher thought that ............................................................................................................................ "I was
with her."
Jim admitted that ........................................................................................................................................ "I'm
texting my boyfriend."
She said ...................................................................................................................................................... "I will
finish the picture."
Marion promissed ...................................................................................................................................... "I
would accept it."
She said ......................................................................................................................................................

Exercise 2

Choose one of the options to complete sentences with correct forms.

"I wish you were with me."

Trevor said he wished ................................................................................................................................ a) I

was with him b) I had been with him

"While I was having dinner, the phone rang."

He told me that ................................................................................................................. the phone rang. a)

while he was having dinner b) while he had been having dinner

"Fiona started her project when she had raised enough funds."

I knew that ........................................................................................ when she had raised enough funds. a)

Fiona started her project b) Fiona had started her project

"We used to work long hours."

She claimed that ...................................................................................................................... long hours. a) they

had used to work b) they used to work

"It is time we got up."

Sue suggested that it was time ................................................................................................................... a) we

had got up b) we got up

"You must be tired after work."

He said that .............................................................................................................................. after work. a) I

must be tired b) I had to be tired

"Sam may contact you."

My dad thought .......................................................................................................................................... a) Sam

may contact me b) Sam might contact me

"I'm enjoying my holiday."

Carmen says that ........................................................................................................................................ a) she
is enjoying her holiday b) she was enjoying her holiday

"If I got a new job, I would move."

My friend was convinced that ...................................................................... a new job, he would move. a) if he

had got a new job b) if he got a new job
 "I shall appreciate your support."

The manager informed us that ................................................................................................................... a) he

shall appreciate our support b) he would appreciate our support

Exercise 3

Change the reported speech into the direct speech.

He said that he had never seen me.
".................................................................... ," he said. We
told them that we were working on it.
"................................................. on it," we told them. She said
she lived in York.
"................................ in York ," she said.

Paul claimed that he had been exercising for several years.

"......................................................................... for several years," claimed Paul. He said
that at one o'clock he had been having lunch.
"At one o'clock .............................................. lunch," he said. They
replied that they had started on time. "........................................... on
time," they replied.
Phil said he wanted to be a lawyer.
".............................................. a lawyer," said Phil. Mary told us
she wouldn't be in her office. "...................................................
office," told us Mary. He claimed that he had always been my
friend.
"........................................................ friend," he claimed.
Betty told me that she hadn't known about the email I had sent to her.
"................................... about the email ............................................................. ," told me Betty.

IV- EXPRESSING WISHES

We use wish to talk about situations we would like to change but can’t, either because they are outside our control or
because they are in the past. The tense of the verb after wish does not correspond to the time we are thinking about; it
changes. The verb tense is one step back in time (as in reported speech.)
a- A wish about a present or future situation is expressed with a pest tense.
Situation Wish
I am an only child I wish I wasn’t an only child.
I can’t drive I wish I could drive.
Rod isn’t coming to the party I wish Rod was coming.

NOTE
In formal English we say I/he/she/it were/weren’t.

b- A wish about a past situation is expressed with a past perfect tense.

Situation Wish
I’ve lost my best pen I wish I hadn’t lost it.
I didn’t remember I wish I’d remembered.
c- Wish … would
We use wish … would:
1- When we want to complain about a present situation.
Situation Wish
A dog is barking. I wish that dog would stop barking!
The road is icy I wish you wouldn’t drive so fast.
NOTE
We can’t say I wish I would…

2- When we are impatient for an event outside our control to happen.

Situation Wish
You’re waiting for the bus I wish the bus would come

NOTE
It is not possible to use wish … would with the verb be unless we are complaining. We say I wish it were Friday
and I wish it would be Friday.

EXERCISES
A- Write the sentences beginning I wish…
1- I don’t know many people (and I’m lonely). I wish I knew more people.
2- I don’t have a mobile phone (and I need one). I wish …………………………………….
3- Helen isn’t here (and I need to see her). ………………………………………………………..
4- It’s cold (and I hate cold weather). ………………………………………………………………..
5- I live in a big city (and I don’t like it). ……………………………………………………………..
6- I can’t go to the party (and I’d like to). …………………………………………………………..
7- I have to work tomorrow (but I’d like to say in bed). ……………………………………..
8- I don’t know anything about cars (and my car has just broken down). ………….
9- I’m not feeling well (and it’s not nice). …………………………………………………………..

B- What do you say in these situations? Write sentences with I wish … would …
1- It’s raining. You want to go out, but not in the rain.
You say: I wish it would stop raining.
2- You’re waiting for Jane. She’s late and you’re getting impatient.
You say to yourself: I wish ……………………………………………………………………………
3- You’re looking for a job - so far without success. Nobody will give you a job.
You say: I wish somebody ……………………………………………………………………………..
4- You can hear a baby crying. It’s been crying for a long time and you’re trying to study.
You say: I wish………………………………………………………………………………………………

C- Imagine that you are in these situations. For each situation, write a sentence with I wish.
1- You’ve eaten too much and now you feel sick.
You say: I wish I hadn’t eaten so much.
 2- There was a job advertised in the newspaper. You decided not to apply for it. Now you think that your
decision was wrong.
You say: I wish I ………………………………………………………………………………………………
3- When you were younger, you never learned to play a musical instrument. Now you regret this.
You say: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4- You’ve painted the gate red. Now you think that red was the wrong colour.
You say: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5- You are walking in the country. You’d like to take some photographs, but you didn’t bring your camera.
You say: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6- You have some unexpected guests. They didn’t phone first to say they were coming. You are very busy and
you are not prepared for them.
You say……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

V- IF CLAUSES & CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

There are four basic types of conditional sentences in the English language. Each type has two parts - the
main clause and the if clause.

Zero conditional: I take my umbrella if it rains.

First conditional: I'll call you if I work late.
Second conditional: If the bus didn't arrive on time, I would drive you to the airport.
Third conditional: She wouldn't have come if I hadn't invited her.

Zero conditional

The zero conditional describes situations that are always true. If has the same meaning as when or
Whenever.
If I go to school, I get up at seven. (Whenever I go to school I get up at the same time.)
If you park your car on double yellow lines, you pay a fine. (Whenever you park illegally, you pay a fine.)

Form
We use the present simple tense in both the main clause and the if clause.

First conditional

The first conditional refers to the present or future. First conditional sentences are used to speculate about
possible situations that can really happen.
If he studies hard, he'll pass the exams. If we catch the 10.15 train, we will arrive on time. If you don't get the
ticket, what will you do?

Form
If clause: if + present tense
Main clause: will + bare infinitive

Second conditional
The second conditional also refers to the present or future. In second conditional sentences, we speculate
about situations that will probably never happen.
If I had more time, I would help you. (But I am not free at the moment. I can't help you).
If I won a million dollars, I would start a business of my own. (But I know that it is not realistic.)

Form
If clause: if + past tense
Main clause: would + bare infinitive

Note: the verb to be can have a specific form in the if clause.

If I were rich, I wouldn't work. If he were younger, he would marry her.
(But was is also possible: If I was rich, I wouldn't work. If he was younger, he would marry her .)
But: If I were you, I wouldn't do it. (In this expression, were is much more usual than was.)

The first conditional versus the second conditional

The main difference between the first and second conditional is about probability: the first conditional is
realistic, the second conditional is unrealistic.
Sometimes we can use either the first or second conditional with the following difference in meaning.
If I see him, I will tell him. (I suppose I will see him, because we go to the same school.)
If I saw him, I would tell him. (I don't think I will see him, because he is ill.)
If I need your help, I'll call you. (It is probable that I will need your help.)
If I needed your help, I'd call you. (It is not very probable that I will need your help.)
Sometimes we must use either the first or the second conditional, because it is clear that the situation is real
or unreal.
If you get up late, you will miss your bus. (a real situation)
If I came from your country, I would understand your problems. (an unreal situation - I am not from your country.

Other forms

Apart from the basic forms (if + the present simple + will and if + the past simple + would), we can use other
verb forms in the first and second conditional sentences in the English language.

Type 1
If you have finished your dinner, you can ask for the bill.
If you are feeling tired, take a rest.
If he is a good skier, he might make it.
If you want to be slim, you should eat
less. If you meet her, could you let me
know?

Type 2
If I knew his address, I might go and see him.
If we were on holiday, we would be lying on a beach now.
Why are we watching this film? If we were watching the news, it would be more interesting.

Third conditional

The third conditional sentences always refer to the past. We speculate about situations that happened or did
not happen in the past.
If I had won a million, I would have started a business of my own. (But I didn't win anything.)
If he had met her, he would have told her. (Unfortunately, he didn't meet her.)
If we hadn't practised, we wouldn't have won the match. (But we practised and won.)

Form
If clause: if + past perfect
Main clause: would + perfect infinitive (have + past participle)
Other forms

Apart from the basic form of the third conditional sentences, we can use other verb forms in English.
We didn't save any money. If we had saved some money, we might have bought the house.
She wasn't there and I wasn't sitting next to her. But if she had been there, I would have been sitting next to
her.
I was looking at the trees when I fell off the bike. If I hadn't been looking at the trees, I wouldn' t have
fallen off the bike.

Mixed conditionals

In the mixed conditional sentences we can combine the second and third conditional.
If he had left immediately, he would be here now. (He didn't leave immediately and isn't here.)
If I had studied hard when I was young, I wouldn't be a porter now. (I didn't study and I am a porter.)
If we hadn't told him the way while he was preparing for his journey, he would get lost now. (We told him and
he isn't lost.)

Inverted conditionals

We can also make conditional sentences by changing the word order in the if clause.
Had he booked the hotel room, he wouln't have slept at the camp. (If he had booked ... )
Were I in your position, I would accept it. (If I were ... )
This form is less common, quite formal and is mostly used in writing.

Note:If is the most frequent expression in the if clauses, but other expressions are also possible. Even if,
provided (that), unless, on condition (that), in case
You will leave tonight even if you don't want to.
You can have your birthday party provided that you aren't noisy. We'll
sell you the ranch on condition you pay in cash.
You should take a dictionary with you in case you forgot some words.
Unless you do something, she won't come back. (If you don't do anything, ... )

Exercise 1

Part 1: Choose the beginnings of the sentences to complete the text.

Lions

If a lion joins a group of other lions

If lions go hunting
If a lion roars
If lions are active
If male lions use cent marking
........................................................................................................, it can be heard over five miles away.
................................................................................................, it usually stays with them for three years.
..................................................................................................................................., they work in teams.
....................................................................................................................., they establish their territory.
.................................................................................................................................., it is usually at night.

Part 2: Choose the endings of the sentences to complete the text.

they are blind for six days.

they show their affection.
the loser often dies.
they have to leave their mothers.
 lions fight them off.

If lions rub each other's heads, ......................

If any strange males try to enter their territory,……………..
If lions start fighting, …………….
If cubs are born,……………………
If male cubs are two years old, .................

Exercise 2

Complete the sentences with verbs in brackets.

Peter, what do you do if your parents are at home?

If my parents .................. at home at weekends, I have to help with housework. (stay) If my mother
.................. at home, I do the washing up or hoovering. (be)
If she .................. at home, I wash the car or work in the garden with my dad. (not be)
If they .................. at home on weekdays, I do my homework first and then go out. (be)
If my father .................................. in the evening, we play games on his computer. (not work)

And what do you and your sister do if your parents are not at home?

We ............................... the housework if they leave the house. (not do) I just
.............. in bed if there is nothing to watch on TV. (lie)
Or I ................ with my friends on Skype if they feel like chatting. (chat)
My little sister usually .................. with her best friend if she comes to our place. (play) But she
................................ what to do if her friend can't come. (not know)

Exercise 3

Underline the mistakes and correct them.

Example: I stay in bed if I was ill. am

1.If you not pay on time, you have to pay a fine.
2.If you never showered, you are sweaty and smelly.
3.If you park your car on double yellow lines, your car would be pulled away.
4.If you weren't at home, you can collect your parcel at the post-office.
5.If you will delete an email, it stays in your trash for 30 days.
6.Normally, you would be charged late fees, if you return your car late.
7.Please, read what happens if you cancelled your booking.
8.I don't have any breakfast if I overslept.
9.Find out what you can do if you will travel without a ticket.
10.I always take my umbrella if it rained.

VI- QUANTIFIERS: THE CASE OF BOTH, EITHER, NEITHER

MUCH, MANY, LITTLE, FEW
We can express emphatically a combination of two things (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) by using both…..and:
Examples: He has both the time and the money to play polo.
- She both built and endowed the hospital.
 - It was both cold and wet.
- we express two alternatives emphatically by either….or for the affirmative or interrogative:
- Examples: we can have either tripe or liver.
And by using either…or plus a negative verb or neither…nor + and affirmative verb for the negative.
Example: I cannot eat either tripe or liver. Or I can eat neither tripe nor liver.
- either, neither, nor and so , in addition to remarks
When a negative verb is repeated with a new subject, either may be placed at the end of the sentence:
EXAMPLE: He did not go and she did not either.
But this can be more neatly expressed by using neither/nor plus auxiliary verb (affirmative) + subject:
Example: He did not go and neither did she.
The same construction can be used in the affirmative with so:
Example: I went and she went also OR I went and so did she.

-MUCH (in negative sentences) and A LOT OF (in affirmative sentences)

Ex: He does not earn much money.
He earns a lot of money.

-MANY is used with a plural and countable noun

Ex: They have many books.

-LITTLE (uncountable nouns) = hardly any

Ex: He has little chance
-A LITTLE (uncountable nouns), a small amount, or what the speaker considers a small amount so that ‘a little
time’ can mean days or years, depending on the speaker. = not so much
He earned a little money.

- FEW (countable) =hardly any

Ex: They have few friends.
- A FEW (countable) = some= a small number, or what the speaker considers a small number.
‘A few friends’ can mean two or three, or twenty or thirty.

EXERCISES: Use LITTLE or FEW in the following sentences:

,1. With ….work and….luck, you are bound to fail.
2. He has too….friends to expect any help.
3. This company has too ….power to be dangerous for us.
4. There is too….time left for the Work to be finished in time.
5. So ….of the Workers went on strike that they could not expect their claims to be met.
VII PHRASAL VERBS
From the Words or group of Words lettered A to D, choose the Word or group of Words that best completes
each of the following sentences.
1. Araba called……her uncle when she went on holidays.
A. in B. off C. On D. at
2. The headmaster advised his students to take heed…..What subject teachers said.
A. of B.to C. at D. in
3. You do not have to show……because of your intelligence.
A. by B. of C. off D. about
4. When he could no longer convince his wife, he………………
A. gave up B. gave off C. gave over D. gave through
5. A chameleon is an animal that can take …..the colours of its environment.
A. in B. up C. on D. off
6. The car’s engine Went………suddenly as the fuel run ………..
A. out B. off C. of D. away
7. The remark you made at the meeting was not…………………
A. called for B. done with C. done for D. called at
8. Ato, be careful, I can’t……any longer with your rude attitude.
A. put off B. put on C. put by D. put up
9. It is rude to…………when elders are talking.
A. break through B. cut in C. break up D. cut through
10. The meeting was put………until further notice.
A. of B. off C. on D. out