f) Precipitation

TOPIC 1. UNDERSTANDING g) Evaporation

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE h) Transpiration
INTRODUTION
WHAT IS HYDROLOGY?

● Hydrology is the scientific study of the

waters of the earth.
● Hydrology examines the properties of
water as well as its planetary occurrence,
distribution, and movement.

WHAT IS
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE?
● The hydrologic cycle is often called the
i) Snowmelt
water cycle.
j) Surface runoff
● It is the vertical and horizontal movement
k) Streamflow
of water as either vapor, liquid, or solid
l) Springs
between the earth’s surface, subsurface,
atmosphere, and oceans.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE COMPONENTS

m) Infiltration
n) Groundwater Discharge

a) Water storage in oceans.

b) Water storage in ice and snow.
c) Water storage as groundwater in aquifers.
d) Water storage as freshwater lakes, ponds
and reservoirs.

THE ACCOUNTING BUDGET

➔ Inflow (I) – Outflow (O) = ± Change in
storage (S)
OR

e) Condensation ➔ I - O = ± ∆S

1
➔ Also called the continuity ➔ The area where an ocean or sea and river
equation/conservation of mass. meet is an estuary, an important type of
ecosystem.
➔ The amount of water in a particular
location can be calculated in a general ➔ This is where seawater and freshwater
sense by using an accounting budget mix together and tidal influences are
approach. present.
➔ The volume of water at any point in a ➔ Droughts or floods can affect an estuary
hydrologic system can be viewed simply and have important environmental and
as the difference between the inflow and economic consequences.
outflow of the system and the resulting What is Freshwater?
change of storage.
✔ Although freshwater is classified as
➔ In other words, inflow minus outflow having one gram or less per liter of
equals change in storage. dissolved solids, a water quality
level greater than 0.5 gram per liter
➔ Hydrologists also call this the continuity
(or 0.05 percent density) is
equation or the conservation of mass. undesirable for drinking and many
➔ Other more complex formulae are also industrial uses.
used in hydrology. These include methods ✔ Seawater has about 35 grams per
for estimating water velocity, movement of liter of dissolved solids (3.5 percent
water through a stream channel network, density), which makes it about 3.5
and movement of water through the soil, percent denser than fresh water.
among other physical processes. Note: Freshwater has multiple uses besides
drinking (e.g., irrigation and manufacturing).
DISTRIBUTION SNOW AND ICE
➔ The polar icecaps and glaciers account for
➔ The water in the hydrologic cycle is a little more than 2 percent of the earth’s
distributed in different forms. In order to water.
understand the nature of water, we need
to look at how and where water is ➔ Mountain snowpacks are an important
distributed and how water moves between source of water, especially in arid and
different stored forms. semi-arid regions.
OCEAN ➔ In some areas, snow makes up a
➔ The oceans store over 97 percent of the significant part of the annual precipitation.
earth's water as seawater. ➔ Predicting snowmelt runoff is a
➔ Seawater is different from freshwater and complicated process that involves
typically has about 35 parts per thousand estimating changes to the snow water
of dissolved solids, most of which is equivalent, or SWE, of the snowpack over
sodium chloride. This is the same as 35 time.
grams per liter and is much higher than ➔ It is also important to look at energy
freshwater.
budgets, and ground surface properties.
➔ Freshwater typically has 1 gram per liter or Why does ice float?
less of dissolved solids. Freshwater ✔ Under normal atmospheric
makes up the earth's rivers and most of its
conditions, the density of water is
lakes.
about 1.0 gram per cubic
➔ The amount of dissolved solids centimeter, whereas density of ice
determines how water is used within is about 0.92 grams per cubic
ecosystems and influences certain centimeter. Since ice is less dense
physical properties of water. The water in then water, ice floats.
the hydrologic cycle is distributed in
different form.

2
 SURFACE WATER ◆ a region beneath the earth's
➔ Surface water storage and distribution surface composed of
unconsolidated rock and soil
◆ occurs in lakes, ponds, rivers, and particles.
streams.
◆ This region is able to transmit and
◆ accounts for less than 0.01 percent store water for extraction.
for the earth's water.
➔ At any point in time, the volume of water
within a lake depends on the amount of
water coming into and leaving the lake.
➔ Water leaves a lake by either:

◆ An outlet to let water flow

downstream, or
◆ by evaporation,

◆ plant transpiration,

◆ seepage into the ground,

◆ artificial removal, or ➔ Less than 1 percent of the earth's total

water supply is stored as groundwater or
◆ any combination of these
soil moisture.
processes.
What is the largest body of freshwater in the ➔ Various terms used to describe the
world? groundwater system are shown in this
figure. These features are covered in more
◆ By itself, Lake Baikal in Russia is
detail in the Groundwater section of this
estimated to hold about 20 percent module.
of the available freshwater on the
earth's surface. ➔ Springs are almost completely fed by
groundwater sources.
◆ This is as much as all five Great
Lakes on the U.S./Canada border ➔ If enough groundwater is taken out of
combined. Although the Great storage and the local water table is
Lakes may be larger in surface lowered, baseflow,
area, Lake Baikal's deepest point
◆ the water in a stream occurring
is 5,370 feet deep (1,637 meters).
during non-storm or dry periods,
◆ The oldest lake in the world, (25-30
◆ will decrease and springs may
million years old) it measures 395
miles (636 km) long by 50 miles disappear.
(80 km) wide, and has 1,305 miles
(2,100 km) of coastline.
ATMOSPHERIC
◆ Its basin is made up of three
underwater depressions, which WATER
together hold a volume of 14,664
cubic miles (23,600 cubic km) of ➔ Atmospheric water is the result of the
water. Under normal atmospheric. distribution and transportation of water
vapor by transpiration, evaporation and
GROUNDWATER sublimation.
➔ Groundwater typically occurs in the ➔ In many regions of the earth, precipitation
aquifer, is the only way freshwater is transported
to that area

3
 polygons are determined by
CONDENSATION/PRECIPITATION creating area boundaries that are
Condensation is the movement of water from a equidistant from each gauge.
vapor state to a liquid state. ✔ Isohyetal contours, in other words,
✔ This process releases energy as contour lines of equal precipitation,
latent heat can also be used for rainfall
estimation with a gauge network.
✔ is needed to create precipitation. Other methods to estimate rainfall include radar
For most of the earth, precipitation is the single and satellite observations. In the U.S., NOAA's
most important factor controlling the local National Weather Service operates a network of
hydrologic cycle. about 140 Weather Surveillance Radar sites.
The type of precipitation, such as rain, snow, or Geostationary (GOES) and polar orbiting (POES)
hail for example, the seasonal timing, and the satellites are used for rainfall estimates
area distribution are all factors the hydrologist particularly in areas without radar or rain gauge
must take into account when studying a region. networks. Radar has the advantage of providing
Traditionally, precipitation measurements have high-resolution, directly sensed precipitation
been with rain gauges. estimates, while satellites provide indirectly
✔ One disadvantage is that a rain measured estimates several times per 24 hour
period.
gauge is a point measurement. The end result of these various methods is to
✔ Even with a network of gauges, provide the hydrologist with an estimate of how
much precipitation has fallen onto a region. If
there will be area gaps in the data.
recording rain gauges or radar are used, storm
✔ Also, some gauges are read only intensities can be determined as well. The rate of
once a day. This does not allow rainfall (intensity) is helpful information a
storm intensities to be measured. hydrologist can use to better estimate surface
runoff.
✔ Furthermore, rain gauges are EVAPORATION
subject to mechanical and
➔ Evaporation is the movement of water
electrical malfunctions. The
hydrologist must keep in mind all of from a liquid to a vapor state, the opposite
these problems when estimating of condensation.
the average rainfall for a basin. ➔ Any time liquid water is in contact with the
atmosphere, evaporation can occur.
➔ In arid regions, evaporation from a water
surface may be as great as 2,000 mm per
year.
➔ Several ways exist to measure
evaporation. All have limitations of one
kind or another. One of the simplest
methods is an evaporation pan. The daily
drop in the water level is an indication of
free-water surface evaporation.
The Pan Evaporation Paradox
Areal precipitation amounts for a specific ✔ The pan evaporation paradox
watershed can be determined by various
methods. results from conflict between the
expected results and the actual
✔ One of the simplest is to average observations. Studies indicate the
all of the amounts from the gauge surface of the earth on average
network for a particular period. has warmed about 0.15°C per
decade for the last 50 years. Yet at
✔ Another approach is to area-weight the same time there has been a
each gauge amount by using decrease in pan evaporation
Thiessen polygons. Thiessen values between 1950 and 1990

4
 based on data from the United weighing type measures the weight
States and the former Soviet change in a volume of earth. The
Union. Warmer air near the earth’s zero-tension type collects soil
surface should increase the rate of water that is naturally percolating
evaporation, but this has not downward through soils, in other
occurred. This unexpected result is words, water that is influenced by
called the “Pan Evaporation gravity. The tension type has a
Paradox." vacuum applied to gently pull soil
water through a porous material.
✔ Additional studies are being
Zero-tension lysimeters are
conducted to examine diurnal designed to capture soil water that
temperature ranges and solar might otherwise make its way into
insolation to see how these factors groundwater or lower soil horizons.
affect evaporation in an overall By contrast, tension lysimeters are
warmer climate. designed to capture soil water that
Lysimeter Types roots might take up.
✔ Another evaporation measurement ✔ Zero-tension lysimeters are
method uses a device called a designed to capture soil water that
lysimeter. These devices are might otherwise make its way into
placed in the ground and collect groundwater or lower soil horizons.
soil water and measure the change By contrast, tension lysimeters are
in mass from water loss for a designed to capture soil water that
volume of soil. The mass of soil roots might take up.
➔ Finally, evaporation can be estimated from
meteorological measurements. Several
physical characteristics affect evaporation
such as
◆ temperature of the air

◆ temperature of the water

◆ air flow over the water surface

◆ vapor pressure deficit.

➔ Vapor pressure deficit is a measure of the

"dryness" of the air, or how much water
water changes as water vapor is needed to saturate the air. High
evaporates. vapor pressure deficits tend to occur with
✔ Lysimeter types include weighing, low relative humidity.
zero-tension, and tension. The

5
 ◆ This results in greater potential for ➔ Within a forest, deciduous trees will
evaporation because there is more typically transpire over a shorter period of
vapor pressure pushing up from time than conifers. Tree transpiration rates
the moist surfaces than pushing are usually some of the highest of all
down from the atmosphere. plants. For example, a mature Monterey
Pine can have a maximum daily water use
➔ Conversely, a low vapor pressure deficit
of about 350 kg per day whereas a Rose
occurs with a high relative humidity. Gum may have a maximum daily water
◆ This results in a decreased use of only 140 kg per day. Weather
conditions, age, leaf area, and leaf type all
potential for evaporation because influence plant transpiration.
the amount of vapor pressure
pushing down from the
SUBLIMATION
atmosphere is almost equal to the → Sublimation is the direct conversion of
vapor pressure pushing up from snow and ice to atmospheric water vapor.
the moist surfaces. Through this process, the water content
TRANSPIRATION within a snowpack may be reduced
without melting.
✔ Sublimation causes significant
cooling of the snowpack.
✔ The energy needed for sublimation
is about 680 calories per gram of
ice as compared to 80 calories per
gram for melting. In other words,
the energy used for the sublimation
of one gram of snowpack is the
same amount of energy needed to
melt 8.5 grams of snowpack.
→ Sublimation is enhanced under low
humidity and windy conditions.
➔ Transpiration is the process by which the → Some regions can lose large percentages
soil moisture is taken up by a plant root of the snowpack under the right
system and eventually evaporated. circumstances. However, when these
➔ The combined effect of evaporation and meteorological conditions do not exist,
very little snowpack may be lost to
transpiration is often termed sublimation.
evapotranspiration, or ET, and generally
constitutes the largest loss component
from the soil water system. SURFACE WATER
➔ The vegetation type, canopy density, and
→ Surface water is that part of the water
coverage of plants directly influence the
cycle where liquid water is flowing over the
amount of soil water removed from the
surface of the earth.
watershed through transpiration. Specific
plant characteristics such as the types and → Anytime water changes its location to the
depth of roots, how much water moves surface, it can be classified as surface
into and out of leaves, and the light water. For example, once rainfall hits the
reflected off the plant surface are all ground and begins to run off, the
important factors. precipitation becomes surface water.
➔ Plants such as grasses, shrub vegetation, When groundwater emerges onto the
surface, for example a mountain spring, it
and some agricultural crops have shorter
is termed surface water.
growing season, and thus shorter periods
of transpiration, than forest vegetation.

6
→ Surface water comprises all rivers and ✔ organic matter
streams, lakes and reservoirs, or any
✔ pore space, which is the void or
other water that is on the earth’s surface.
INFILTRATION empty space between soil particles

→ Infiltration is defined as the downward → The volume of mineral particles is

about 45 percent. The volume of pores
is typically between 40 and 60 percent,

movement of water through the soil

surface into the soil profile. Infiltration is
the means by which ground water supplies
are recharged and water is made
available to sustain vegetation.
→ The terms infiltration and percolation are
often used interchangeably, however,
percolation specifically refers to the
movement of water within the soil, while
infiltration refers to water entering the soil
surface. depending on the texture of the soil.
The pores can be filled with either
→ The infiltration rate is the amount of water
water or air and will vary over time.
that enters the soil in a specified time
period. The infiltration rate is directly → The degree to which the pore spaces
influenced by soil texture, soil cover, are filled with water determines the soil
moisture content of the soil, soil moisture conditions.
temperature, precipitation type, and
rainfall intensity.
SOIL MOISTURE

→ Infiltration capacity, which

✔ includes surface infiltration and

percolation together
✔ is often expressed in depth of
water per unit of time, usually
inches per hour or centimeters per
hour.
→ Whenever the precipitation rate is greater
than the infiltration capacity, surface runoff
occurs.
SOIL COMPOSITION
→ Soil is composed of → If the pore spaces are completely filled
and water drains freely from the soil under
✔ mineral particles the influence of gravity as "gravity water,"
then the soil is called saturated.

7
 → As the water drains from the soil, some → Clay therefore has a higher percentage of
pores will become filled with air and water soil water at field capacity compared to
vapor. When the pores no longer drain other soil texture types.
under the influence of gravity, the capillary
tension of the water holds the water in
place. Some of the larger pores will have
drained but most still contain water. At this
point the soil is said to be at field capacity.
→ As water continues to be removed from
the soil through evapotranspiration, more
of the pore space will empty of water. As
this process continues, only the tightly
held water next to the soil particles
remains.
→ There is a point where the tension of the
water to the soil particle becomes so tight
that the water cannot be used by plant
→ Sandy soils, on the other hand, have
roots. This is called the "wilting point."
larger mineral particles and larger pore
→ The amount of rainfall that can infiltrate a space but have a smaller percent of
given volume of soil is determined by the porosity and corresponding lower percent
available empty space within the soil. soil moisture at field capacity and wilting
→ For example, a given volume of soil with point as compared to clay. With sandy
texture soils, the soil becomes saturated
the soil moisture level at field capacity will at a much lower percent of soil moisture.
infiltrate less rainfall than the same volume
of soil at wilting point. Thus, it is very → Water movement through soil is also
important to know the soil moisture influenced by its texture. Once the water
conditions when trying to model runoff has infiltrated the soil, it percolates
from a storm. downward. Sandy texture soils allow for
more rapid water movement than clay
SOIL MOISTURE texture soils.
→ Soil texture determines the amount of → As a result, a clay texture soil will have
water held for different moisture higher soil moisture conditions for a longer
conditions. Clay-type soils have very small period following precipitation than a sandy
mineral particles and very small pores. texture soil.
Sandy soils have larger mineral particles RUNOFF
and
→ Simply stated, runoff is that portion of
rainfall that does not infiltrate into the soil.
In the case of a paved area, the expected
runoff would equal the amount of rainfall
minus evaporation and any small amount
of surface storage.
EXPECTED RUNOFF = RAINFALL –
(EVAPORATION + SURFACE STORAGE)
→ As the soil becomes saturated, less
infiltration will take place.
→ For identical storms, the amount of storm
thus larger pore spaces. Although it may runoff will vary depending on the soil
seem counter-intuitive, smaller pore
spaces in clay soil actually add up to a
larger total amount of space than in an
equivalent volume of sandy soil.

8
 moisture conditions.
✔ soil and vegetation

✔ channel network and drainage

pattern
✔ land use

✔ soil moisture conditions at the time

of the storm

→ Sometimes less infiltration is available

because of a previous storm. The amount
of water that infiltrated during an earlier
storm increases the current soil moisture.

→ A critical issue is how to determine exactly

what comprises runoff. One component is
the water visibly flowing across the ground
surface

→
This means that the soil cannot absorb as
much water as before. This results in a
decreased infiltration rate and more
surface runoff from the later storm.
→ A graph of streamflow is called a
hydrograph. The shape of the hydrograph
is influenced by the storm and watershed .
characteristics. → As water infiltrates, some water will flow
→ Storm factors includes: just below the surface. This is called
through-flow, interflow, or subsurface
✔ Amount stormflow.
✔ Duration → That portion of rainfall percolating to lower
✔ Intensity layers becomes part of the groundwater.
Groundwater flow to a stream or river is
✔ Areal extent of precipitation termed baseflow. It is baseflow that
supports streamflow during non-storm
→ Watershed factors include: periods.

✔ basin size → Streamflow increases during the rising

limb of the hydrograph. After the peak
✔ shape flow, the falling limb, or recession, occurs.
✔ overall basin slope → The recession continues until the next
storm occurs or the level returns to a value
✔ topography
close to the pre-storm flow. Because of the

9
 storm, the baseflow component may be
✔ Water
slightly enhanced.
✔ Soil

✔ the void space within the soil

GROUNDWATER
✔ subsurface material beneath the
→ Groundwater is an important part of the earth's surface.
hydrologic cycle and an important source
of water for many regions around the → The water stored in the void space is
world. Because the water is underground, divided into two general types: unconfined
it is not subject to the same evaporation and confined.
→ In unconfined aquifers, the groundwater is
in contact with the atmosphere through
the pores of the overlaying soil. The top of
the groundwater is termed the water table.
→ In confined aquifers the groundwater is
restricted by a nonporous or very low
porous layer termed an aquiclude and is
not in contact with the atmosphere.
→ Whenever the land surface drops below
the top of the water table, consistent
surface water features such as lakes,
ponds, and rivers are likely to occur.
→ The depth to the water table can be
rates as a lake on the surface.
mapped. Such maps show the variability
AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS

→ An aquifer is an underground volume of of the groundwater distribution for a basin.

rock and sand that contains water.
→ This is a water table map of Cochise
→ Groundwater stored within the aquifer is County, AZ. It shows a varied water table
an important part of the hydrologic cycle. from the surface to depths of greater than
Researchers estimate that 30 percent of 800 feet (244 meters).
surface streamflow comes from WATER YIELD AND FLOW
groundwater sources. Additionally, about
50 percent of all drinking water in the U.S.
comes from groundwater. Globally, about
half of the world's population depends on
groundwater.
→ Aquifer material is composed of

10
 or other natural surface flows infiltrating
→ When the water table is lowered, the
and percolating into groundwater supplies.
aquifer material will produce a certain
percentage of water. → Artificial or induced recharge includes
ways to increase groundwater supplies
→ A 0.15 storage coefficient means that 15
beyond what would occur naturally.
percent of the total volume of aquifer Artificial techniques include water
material is composed of water that will spreading (or flooding), ditches, and
drain freely by gravity. The rest of the pumping techniques.
volume (85 percent in this example) is
made up of water that does not drain by → Another type of recharge is incidental
gravity and earthen material such as rock, recharge. This consists of actions such as
sand, gravel, or clay. This means that a 10 irrigation and water diversions which add
unit drop in the water table over an area to groundwater supplies but are intended
does not produce 10 depth units of water. for other purposes such as irrigation or
It produces 15% of those 10 units or 1.5 transportation of water through a canal
depth units of water. system. Recharge may also refer to the
amount of water added to an aquifer.
→ Water flow through an aquifer can range
WITHDRAWAL
upwards.
✔ from 1,000 meters per day for
gravel type materials
✔ down to millimeters per year for
clay and similar materials.
→ Because the water movement through an
aquifer is so much slower than surface
water, climate effects such as droughts or
wet periods can be delayed and
attenuated.
RECHARGE
→ Withdrawal is the artificial extraction of
groundwater through a well or network of
wells.
→ When groundwater withdrawal rates are
greater than the recharge of water into the
ground, a lowering of the local water table
occurs. This process is sometimes called
"groundwater mining."
→ A depression of the water table around the
well occurs and is termed a "cone of
depression." If this situation continues, a
general lowering of the water table will
occur.
→ Land subsidence is the lowering of the
→ Recharge is the introduction of surface
ground surface from changes that take
water to groundwater storage such as an place underground. Most common causes
aquifer. of land subsidence come from human
→ Recharge or replenishment of activities such as groundwater pumping or
the drainage of organic soils (also termed
groundwater supplies can occur in hydrocompaction).
different ways.
→ As the ground surface lowers, problems
→ The most common type is natural
occur and can include:
recharge, which consists of precipitation, (1) change in the elevation and slope of a stream.

11
(2) damage to infrastructure, such as bridges,
✔ Wind
roads, storm drains, streets, sewers, canals, and
levees. ✔ relative humidity
(3) damage to private and public buildings; and
(4) failure of well casings from forces generated ✔ air temperature
by compaction of fine-grained materials in aquifer
systems. ✔ insolation

SNOWPACK/ SNOWMELT

SNOWMELT
→ Snow and ice are critical parts of the
hydrologic cycle, especially at higher
latitude or mountainous locations. The
water stored in a frozen state is released
during the spring, providing water during
the rest of the year.
SNOWPACK CHARACTERISTICS
→ A snowpack consists of a mixture of

✔ ice crystals

✔ air
→ The snowpack undergoes changes
✔ impurities
between the time snow first falls onto the
✔ if melting, liquid water. basin and snowmelt occurs. The individual
snow particles change from the crystalline
→ Snowmelt provides significant volumes of snowflake that fell during a storm to a
water to river systems. more granular form of ice as
meteorological factors and liquid water
→ The timing, volume, and rate of the come into play.
melting of a snowpack depend on several
→ Initially the snow within the snowpack
characteristics of the snowpack, local
topography, and meteorological settles, resulting in a higher density.
conditions. The specialty field of snow → As thawing and melting starts at the
hydrology focuses on these factors.
snowpack surface, ice lenses may form.
→ The characteristic of most interest to the
→ When spring and summer come to a
hydrologist is the amount of water held
basin, air temperatures increase and a
within the snowpack.
warming of the snowpack occurs. The
→ This is termed the “snow water equivalent” maximum temperature of the snowpack
or SWE. cannot exceed the melting point of ice.
→ Factors that affect melting rate include: → As the entire snowpack approaches this
temperature, it becomes “ripe,” or
✔ the snowpack temperature isothermic. When this condition is met,
any additional energy added to the
✔ albedo (the reflective property of
snowpack will result in snowmelt.
the snow)
→ The liquid water is usually released from
✔ density
the bottom of the snowpack. As the
✔ volume of the snowpack snowpack releases water, runoff factors
become important.
→ Melting rate is also influenced by factors
such as,

12
 about 20 percent when the temperature is
0°C.
→ Most of the snow that falls in the western
Cascade Mountains of Washington and
Oregon tends to be slightly higher density
snow than that in the eastern Cascade

Mountains.
→ In the western Cascades, the percentage
→ Since the snowpack is ice, it contains a
of water content in the snowpack is
certain volume of water. As the snow around 20 to 30 percent in the winter and
melts, liquid water is released. increases to 30 to 50 percent in the
→ The relationship between the volume of spring.
liquid water or snow water equivalent → However, in the eastern Cascades, the
(SWE) and the depth of the snow will snowpack density is much less as weather
depend on the density of the snow. conditions are usually colder and drier.
→ In all cases, the depth of the snow will Percentage of water content for snowpack
always be larger than the equivalent depth in this area ranges from 10 to 20 percent
of liquid water produced by the snowpack. in the winter and 20 to 40 percent in the
spring.
→ After the snow falls its density increases
→ The following relationship can be used to
due to
calculate the liquid water equivalent of a
✔ gravitational settling snowpack, if the depth of snow is known
or can be estimated:
✔ wind packing SNOW DEPTH X SNOW-WATER RATIO =
SNOW WATER EQUIVALENT
✔ melting
→ for example, if the snow depth was 125
✔ refreezing.
centimeters and the snow-water ratio was
→ Snow densities are often expressed as a three to one, the estimated liquid water
within the snowpack would be:
ratio of snow depth to liquid water
equivalent. For example, one unit of liquid → 125 cm snow x 33 per cent = 41.7 cm
can equal 20 units of snow depth for fresh liquid water
snow. As snow becomes more compacted
and aged, the ratio decreases.
→ The percentage of water content of newly
fallen snow ranges from about 5 percent
when the air temperature is about -10°C to

13
 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

‭
‬
TOPIC 2. PRECIPITATION 1. Drizzle or Rain

‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ consists of quite uniform
‭
‬
INTRODUCTION

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
precipitation with drop less ranges

‬
PRECIPITATION

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
from.
‭
‬
➔ Precipitation is the water in a liquid or

‭
‬
➔ is a form of precipitation which is in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
solid state falling from clouds or formed on

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the form of water drops of a size
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the earth’s surface and ground objects

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
that is larger than 0.5mm. The
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
due to condensation of airborne water

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
maximum raindrop size is about
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
vapor.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
6mm. Drops of larger size break up
‭
‬
➔ Precipitation formed on the earth’s surface

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
into smaller drops as it falls down
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
is called ground hydrometeors and

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
on the Earth’s surface.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
includes dew, different type of rime,

‭
‬
2. Snow
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hoarfrost, black and hard frost and glaze.

‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ is composed of a grouping of small
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
ice crystals known as snowflakes.
RAINFALL

‭
‬
➔ consists of ice crystals in a flaky
‭
‬
➔ Rainfall is the amount of rain that falls in a

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
form, having an average density of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
location over a period of time . 0.1g/cc. It is also an important form
‭
‬
➔ Rainfall is formed when saturated air is

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of precipitation that usually forms
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
heated (air that cools down at dew point) in colder climates and higher
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
and rises either by a mountain, altitudes.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
conventional currents or frontal action. 3. Sleet
‭
‬
➔ Condensation takes place when the water
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ forms when raindrops are falling
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
droplets join together on the condensation through air having a temperature
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
nuclei to form raindrops. below freezing.
‭
‬
➔ As the cloud develops further, they ‭
‬
➔ is frozen raindrops that are formed
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
become heavy and unstable, but cooling when rainfall passes through the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
down at the dry adiabatic rate. air in the atmosphere at
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
subfreezing temperatures.
‭
‬
4. Hail Stone
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ an accumulation of many thin
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
layers of ice over a snow pellet.
‭
‬
➔ is a kind of showery precipitation in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the form of pellets or lumps that
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
have a size greater than 8mm. Hail
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
occurs during the violent
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
thunderstorms.
‭
‬
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
‭
‬
1. Cyclonic Precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Cyclonic precipitation is caused
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
due to the movement of moist air
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
mass to this region by the
PRECIPITATION PROCESS
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
difference in pressure
‭
‬
➔ Precipitation formation involves multiple
‭
‬
a. Frontal – When two air masses, because
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
physical concepts: of contrasting densities and temperatures,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
1. Processes lift air masses up higher clash with each other, precipitation and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in the atmosphere. condensation occur on the surface of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
2. Rising clouds expand due to a contact.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
decrease in atmospheric pressure b. Non-frontal - the moist warm air mass is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
with altitude. stationary, and the moving cold air mass
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
3. Clouds (gases) get cooler as they meets it.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
expand.
‭
‬
4. Water vapor condenses when
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
clouds cool.
‭
‬
1
‭
‬
 WHAT IS QPE?

‭
‬
2. Convective Precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ It is caused by natural rising of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
warmer lighter air in colder, denser
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
surroundings.
‭
‬
➔ Convective precipitation is showery
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
by nature. This type of precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
occurs in varying intensities.
‭
‬
➔ The term Quantitative Precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Estimation, or QPE, refers to the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimation of observed precipitation.
‭
‬‭
‬
➔ This is different than a forecast of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation which is referred to as a
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Quantitative Precipitation Forecast, or
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
QPF.
‭
‬
➔ Observed precipitation is only an estimate
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
because the tools used provide inexact
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
approximations of the actual
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
magnitude and distribution of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation.
‭
‬‭
‬
3. Orographic Precipitation QPE METHODS AND TOOLS
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ It is caused by moist air masses,
‭
‬
Radar
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
which strike some natural
‭
‬
→ is a remote sensing QPE tool with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
topographic barriers like
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
mountains, rise up and causing excellent spatial and temporal resolution.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
condensation and precipitation. However, radar coverage may be
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
inconsistent from place to place and from
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
storm to storm.
‭
‬‭
‬
Satellite
‭
‬
➔ is another remote sensing QPE tool, but
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
with much coarser resolution than radar.
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
Rain gauges
‭
‬
➔ which are ground-based measurements,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
➔ The precipitation that occurs is are subject to errors and cannot resolve
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the spatial detail of precipitation patterns.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
greater in the windward side of the
‭
‬‭
‬
Precipitation climatology
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
barrier when compared to the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
leeward side of the barrier.
‭
‬
2
‭
‬
 ➔ is sometimes used to augment the REFLECTIVITY-RAINFALL RATE (Z-R)

‭
‬
AND DROP SIZE DISTRIBUTION (DSD)
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimates of observed precipitation.

‭
‬
➔ Radar reflectivity (Z), expressed in units
‭
‬‭
‬
◆ This can be very useful in regions

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of dBZ, is used to compute rainfall rates
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
where precipitation distribution, and

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
(R) in mm/h using a reflectivity to rainfall
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the ability to observe it, is greatly

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
rate relationship.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
affected by terrain features.

‭
‬
➔ This is known as the Z-R relationship.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Rainfall rates then get integrated over time

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to produce accumulation for various time

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
periods.

‭
‬
➔ The relationship between reflectivity and

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
rainfall rate, and thus the Z-R relationship,

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
varies with time, location, and season.

‭
‬‭
‬
➔ Hydrometeor properties that influence the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Z-R relationship include size,

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
concentration, and phase.

‭
‬‭
‬
➔ Accuracy of derived rainfall rates is further
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
impacted by the presence of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
non-hydrometeors, and whether the radar
◆ The Parameter-elevation
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
is sampling a region that is representative
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Regressions on an Independent of precipitation reaching the ground.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
Slopes Model, or PRISM, provides
➔ Hydrometeor shape, which is related to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
a commonly used precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
climatology tool. hydrometeor size and phase, is also
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
● PRISM climatology data important information for understanding
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
may be particularly useful the relationship between reflectivity and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
for supplementing the data
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in Mountainous regions.
‭
‬
➔ Measurement technologies like radar,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
satellite, and rain gauges will continue to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
evolve and improve.
‭
‬
REMOTE SENSING OF precipitation rates.
‭
‬
QPE
‭
‬‭
‬
➔ Large liquid drops are more oblate in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
shape than smaller ones. For horizontally
➔ Precipitation accumulation is routinely
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
polarized radars like the WSR88-D,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
derived from radar and satellite greater horizontal diameters reflect more
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
energy back to the radar. This results in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
observations.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
greater derived rainfall rates.
‭
‬
➔ Despite
‭
‬
the inconsistencies in
➔ Even relatively small 13-mm (half-inch)
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar-derived precipitation from diameter hailstones contribute greatly to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
location to location and from season to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar reflectivity. That’s why the presence
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
season, radar guidance is considered
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of hail results in anomalously high
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
superior to satellite guidance of QPE in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
derived-rainfall rates. This anomaly is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
many areas. This is mainly due to the typically minimized through use of rainfall
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
superior resolution in both space and rate thresholds.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
time and often better quantitative ➔ In Depth: Reflectivity Factor, Z
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
guidance.
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
Z = ∫ N(D) D6 dD
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ Z = reflectivity factor
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
3
‭
‬
 ◆ D = drop diameter ➔ This can cause very high reflectivity and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
overestimated rainfall rates at the ground
◆ N(D) = number of drops of given

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
below where the radar is sampling the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
diameter per cubic meter

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ This equation is presented to explain the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
sensitivity of reflectivity factor, Z, to drop
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
diameter. Because the drop diameter is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
raised to the 6th power, small changes in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
drop diameter result in very large changes
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to Z. And large changes to Z result in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
large changes to derived rainfall rates.
‭
‬
➔ Drop size distribution (DSD) refers to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the size and concentration of drops in a
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
volume, say a cubic meter. Here we show
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
two DSDs.
‭
‬
➔ The radar is more sensitive to the melting layer aloft.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
horizontal diameter of the hydrometeors ➔ Pure snowflakes and crystals violate the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
than it is to the concentration of
assumption of liquid hydrometeors that go
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydrometeors.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
into the Z-R equation.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Therefore, a small number of large
➔ However, several research institutions are
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydrometeors can result in the same
working on radar-derived snowfall
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
reflectivity value as a very large number of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
including Z-S, or reflectivity snowfall rate
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
smaller drops. But the DSD on the right is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
relationships.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
producing greater rainfall rates. The two
‭
‬
PRECIPITATION ESTIMATES WITH DUAL
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
DSDs should therefore be represented by
‭
‬
POLARIMETRIC RADAR
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
different Z-R relationships.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The DSD can vary significantly and ➔ Advances are made in radar technology
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
quickly in both space and time. every year. As this lesson is being
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
developed the most promising with
‭
‬
➔ This means that it may be appropriate to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
respect to precipitation is dual polarized
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
have more than one Z-R relationship in radar, or polarimetric radar.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effect at the same time. ➔ A network of polarimetric radars
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ As of this writing, the NOAA National promises to alleviate some of the errors
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Mosaic and Multisensor QPE (NMQ) associated with the phase, size, and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar precipitation product can utilize distribution of hydrometeors. Ultimately,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
numerous Z-R relationships based on this means the problems associated with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmospheric conditions. inappropriate Z-R conversions should be
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
minimized.
➔ Here we have a region with a squall line
‭
‬
➔ Excellent
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
that most likely has a DSD consistent with training on precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
convective rainfall. Nearby stratiform measurement using polarimetric radar is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation will exhibit a different DSD available from NOAA’s WDTD.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
and should be associated with a different ➔ The basic premise behind polarimetric
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Z-R relationship than the convective area.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar is that in addition to reflectivity
‭
‬
➔ As the precipitation system moves, the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimates that we are familiar with, it
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Z-R relationship at any one location estimates the shapes of hydrometeors.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
should change with time. This is accomplished by using both a
‭
‬
‭
‬
REFLECTIVITY AND SNOW ◆ horizontally and a vertically
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ As snowflakes begin to melt, a coating of polarized radar beam.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
water can make them “appear” as very ◆ measuring the different returns from
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
large raindrops to the radar.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
these two polarizations, one can
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
4
‭
‬
 estimate the shape and the effects 3. The density of radar sites is

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
from different hydrometeor shapes. sufficient. In other words, the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radars are close enough to each
➔ For example, we can determine if the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
other so that all radar sampling is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
prominent reflectors are large raindrops,

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
occurring in the low levels of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
which tend to be oblate with a large

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmosphere.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
horizontal axis. We can also determine if

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the hydrometeors are more spherical,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
consistent with small raindrops. Or we can
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
measure if the hydrometeors are highly
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
reflective and generally spherical,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
consistent with hail. Other measures can
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
be used to estimate the presence of snow,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The radar beam gets higher in the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmosphere with distance from the radar.

‭
‬
➔ Even a low tilt angle like 0.5° is ~1.5 km
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
(5,000 ft) above the ground at 100 km
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
from the radar, and 5.2 km (17,000 ft) high
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
at 230 km. Therefore, to sample the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
low-level precipitation, which is most likely
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
insects, or ground targets. to be representative of the precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
reaching the ground, radars need to be
‭
‬
RADAR SAMPLING OF PRECIPITATION
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
close to each other.
‭
‬
➔ Most of the discussion so far is applicable
‭
‬
➔ For stratiform precipitation it is best to
‭
‬
‭
‬
for areas with good radar coverage. Good
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
sample the lowest 1 km of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar coverage is determined by three
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmosphere, which typically occurs within
‭
‬
‭
‬
main factors:
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
50 km of the radar. Beyond 50 km the
‭
‬
1. There are no obstructions of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar sample may be questionable. This
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
low-level radar beam from terrain
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
range can be limited further by terrain
‭
‬
features or other ground targets
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
blocking of the radar beam. Sampling of
‭
‬
‭
‬
like buildings.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
stratiform precipitation is almost always
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
poor beyond 100 km from the radar.
‭
‬
◆ Sample lowest 1 km.
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ Must be close to radar.
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ Very limited in rugged terrain.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Convective precipitation is distributed
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
2. Precipitation systems extend over a much deeper layer of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
through a deep portion of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmosphere than stratiform precipitation.
‭
‬
‭
‬
troposphere, as we see with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Therefore, in seasons and locations where
‭
‬‭
‬
convective storms.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
convection is common and terrain is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
minimal, the radar may be able to sample
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation well at long distance from the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar, perhaps beyond 150 km. Shallow
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
convection may be under sampled by the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar at closer ranges than 150 km.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Range coverage is worse for snow.
‭
‬
5
‭
‬
 northwestern portion of the contiguous
◆ Distributed through a deep

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
United States.
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
atmospheric layer.

‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ Often well sampled out to 150 km or
RADAR CLIMATOLOGY
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
more

‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ To account for the geographic and

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
RADAR COVERAGE seasonal variability, the NWS has radar
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Here are the NWS radar locations with coverage maps. Here we see the

‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
warm-season effective radar coverage for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the ideal 230-km range shown with yellow

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the Northwest. The color-shaded areas
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
circles. The density of weather radars is

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
are where radar climatology shows good
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
generally lower in the western United

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
coverage from at least one radar.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
States and Alaska than in other parts of

‭
‬
➔ The individual colors depict which radar
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the country. These maps do not account

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
for terrain features that can greatly reduce the “good” coverage will come from. For
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the radar coverage.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
example, the white area shows where
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ For many locations and precipitation radar estimates would come from the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar at Boise, Idaho, KCBX.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
regimes, it’s unrealistic to expect good

‭
‬
➔ KCBX is considered good here because,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation estimates with the ideal
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
230-km coverage shown here. A more 1. that radar is able to sample
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
realistic radius of 100 or 150-km would
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
show bigger and more numerous gaps,
‭
‬
2. in areas of overlap with neighboring
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
especially in the Western United States. In
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radars, KCBX is sampling from a lower
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the winter, the range of realistic coverage
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
elevation.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
may shrink to less than a 100 km radius.
‭
‬
➔ The jagged appearance is caused by
‭
‬
➔ A more realistic coverage is shown here
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
mountains preventing uniform good
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
with a map of the height above ground
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
coverage throughout the entire 230-km
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
level (AGL) of the radar sampling. It is for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radius.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
November 10th, 2008. Although this map
‭
‬
➔ These are produced by the NWS radar
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
can change depending on weather
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
conditions and radar operations, the basic climatology program, RADCLIM.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
pattern will be the same.
➔ The precipitation frequency of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The light blues show where there is good occurrence starts with a precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
coverage of the low levels. The best threshold for defining what we will
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
low-level coverage is obviously in areas consider precipitation. Let’s use a
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
with relatively flat terrain and good radar threshold of 0.0 mm which means that any
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
density. time there is more than 0.0 mm detected
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
by the radar, we have a precipitation
➔ Recall that for stratiform precipitation,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
event. We could choose a higher
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
radar coverage can be significantly
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
threshold if we want to filter out light
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
impacted if the radar sampling is 1 km or
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
events.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
more above the ground, as shown in the
‭
‬
➔ The frequency of precipitation, for each
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
dark blue, greens, yellows, and reds.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
radar bin
➔ Even in the central and eastern U.S.,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
stratiform precipitation may be significantly ◆ is the number of times more than
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
underestimated in places. 0.0 mm was observed
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ In the West, radar sampling can be more ◆ divided by all of the radar
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
than 3 km above the ground in large observations in the data set.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
areas. This results in completely missing
➔ We get this image for the Boise radar. The
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation systems, especially
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar is in the center of the 230-km radius
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
stratiform. This is also a problem in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of ideal radar coverage.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Alaska. As an example, let’s look more
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
closely at radar coverage in the ➔ The different colors show the different
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
frequencies of occurrence. As distance
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
6
‭
‬
 increases from the radar the frequency of
‭
and distance on radar precipitation

‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation decreases, indicated by blue estimates are more severe. Note the
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
and black colors. sharp decrease in good radar coverage in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the radar coverage map for the Northwest
➔ Note the large areas with very low

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in the cool season.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
frequencies of occurrence, seen as black.

‭
‬
➔ These types of radar coverage maps,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
These do not represent natural

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation distribution. Rather, it shows based on radar climatology, are used in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
where the radar sampling is greatly MPE to determine where radar-derived
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
inhibited by terrain blocking. data should be used.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
RADAR COVERAGE MAP SATELLITE QPE
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ So now we want to choose a ➔ Satellite estimation of precipitation is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation frequency threshold to potentially useful in areas with poor
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
represent effective radar coverage. In coverage from radars and rain gauges.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
other words, we will say,
◆ Although satellite sampling is more
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ “Only when precipitation occurred at consistent from place to place than
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
least this often, will we trust the radar sampling, satellite-derived
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
radar estimates.” precipitation is lower resolution and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
generally less accurate than
➔ This is all non-black shaded areas shown

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar-derived precipitation.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
on the radar coverage map as white

‭
‬‭
‬
◆ It is therefore considered a
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
shading. So, the white shading is where
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
we assume good radar coverage. We supplement, not a replacement for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
should assume bad coverage in the black the radar products.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
areas. In the black areas, precipitation
➔ Satellite-derived rainfall products perform
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimates should come from other radars
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
best in the tropics and in the middle
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
or other sources such as rain gauges and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
latitudes during the warm season.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
satellite.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The choice of frequency threshold is ➔ In other words, it verifies best when the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
somewhat subjective, based on forecaster wind shear is relatively low and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation is dominated by convection.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
experience regarding what produces the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
These are not the conditions in the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
most useful guidance.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
radar-sparse western United States during
‭
‬
➔ Radar climatologies are generated for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the wintertime wet season.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
specific months or seasons. Let’s go back
➔ This NOAA product known as the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to the summer season radar coverage for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydro-estimator applies a terrain factor
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the northwestern portion of the contiguous
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to the precipitation estimate using 700 mb
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
United States. All of the non-black areas
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
winds. This helps with resolving the spatial
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
are where we can assume good radar
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
distribution of the precipitation. Other
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
coverage. Again, here is the Boise
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
improvements to precipitation rates may
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
coverage area that we just talked about.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
be achieved by applying factors related to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
So, the white shading is where we can
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
cloud, moisture, and stability
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
assume good coverage.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
characteristics.
‭
‬
➔ In the cool season, there is more low-level
‭
‬‭
‬
➔ In addition to adjustments based on both
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
measured and modeled environmental
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
properties, there is increasing use of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
additional sensor capabilities such as
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
microwave satellite sensing and lightning
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
detection.
‭
‬‭
‬
➔ Passive microwave observations allow
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
detection of water and ice within the cloud
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
for derivation of more accurate rainfall
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
rates. However, because microwave
precipitation and thus the effects of terrain
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
sensing capabilities are specific to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
7
‭
‬
 polar-orbiting satellites, the temporal
‭
times the error in those

‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
frequency is much less than that of the measurements can become quite
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydro-estimator products based on large.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
geostationary satellites.
◆ Sources of error include.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
● the construction and

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
exposure of the gauge itself

‭
‬
● the character of the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation

‭
‬
● the weather conditions.

‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Even a perfectly accurate rain gauge

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
network, if such a thing exists, may not be

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
representative of the areal variations in

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the precipitation accumulation. Because

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
they are point measurements, gauges are

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
only representative of the immediate

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The SCaMPR product, (which stands for vicinity where they are located.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Self-Calibrating Multivariate Precipitation EXERCISE: GAUGES, WIND, AND FALL

‭
‬
ANGLE
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Retrieval) is an example of combining the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
temporal resolution of geostationary ➔ In still air the hydrometeors that make up
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
satellites with the more accurate
precipitation fall vertically downward to the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimation of rainfall rates of polar orbiters ‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
and previews the next generation of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
operational satellite-based precipitation ➔ Wind causes precipitation to fall at an
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimation tools. angle with respect to the vertical. In
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Future multi-satellite precipitation products addition, the gauge itself presents an
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
obstacle to the flow. This results in altered
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
will also benefit from the new constellation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
wind patterns near the gauge.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of polar-orbiting satellites, known as the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
GPM, or Global Precipitation ➔ The effects of the wind will vary depending
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Measurement mission. on hydrometeor phase and size.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ No wind: precipitation falls vertically
RAIN GAUGE
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
downward.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ As long as humans have kept weather ◆ Wind causes precipitation to fall at
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
records there has been a need to capture an angle.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation in some sort of collection ◆ Wind causes altered wind patterns
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
device.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
near gauge.
‭
‬
➔ Today’s precipitation gauges, hereafter
‭
‬
◆ Wind effects vary with hydrometeor
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
referred to as rain gauges, are the current
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
phase and size.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
version of those collection devices.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Rain gauges come in a variety of styles, ➔ Of course, there is a great deal of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
both manual and automated... variability controlling the fall angle.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Influences on the angle include the
‭
‬
➔ and are used to measure rain as well as
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
steadiness of the wind, disruption to the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the liquid equivalent of frozen flow, and very importantly, the size and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
phase of the hydrometeor.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation.
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
ARE THEY REALLY GROUND TRUTH? GAUGES, WIND, AND TURBULENCE
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Often referred to as “ground truth”, rain ➔ The fall angle considerations represent a
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
gauges are subject to errors from a variety worst-case scenario. But in addition to fall
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
angle considerations, turbulence in the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of sources.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
flow may influence the trajectory of
‭
‬
◆ Although gauges do often provide
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydrometeors. This may partially offset
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
excellent point measurements, at errors caused by the wind. Spacing
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
8
‭
‬
 between hydrometeors may also change
‭
underestimation factor of 0.80, or a 20%

‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
due to wind effects, possibly offsetting underestimation of the rainfall.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
some of the wind-induced errors.
➔ There is a large envelope of uncertainty
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Ground-induced turbulence in the vicinity due to the variability in drop sizes, the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of the gauge may be much more steadiness of the wind, and the gauge
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
IMPORTANT for improving gauge catch location. Here are a few main points to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
than turbulence induced by the gauge remember.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
itself.
➔ The best measurements in windy
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ As long as the ground objects are not tall conditions will be in situations with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
enough to intercept incoming precipitation,
◆ large raindrops
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the turbulence-induced downward motion

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
has the effect of turning the hydrometeors ◆ gauges near ground level
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
vertically toward the ground.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Elevated gauges are less likely to benefit ◆ shielded gauges

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
from ground-induced turbulence. → The poorest measurements will be with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ A clearing within the trees may provide the ✔ small raindrops and drizzle drops
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
best balance between reducing wind
✔ when gauges are directly exposed
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
speed but not altering precipitation

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
distribution too much. Remember that the to the wind.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effects from deciduous trees are seasonal. SNOW, GAUGE CATCH, AND WIND
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Although vegetation may provide natural ➔ Snow is more severely impacted by wind.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
barriers to generate turbulence-induced
➔ This photograph shows the typical
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
downward motion, wind shields are often
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
constructed to specifically induce this collection of snow in a rain gauge with
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effect. Although these may result in some relatively light winds of 5 m/s (11 mph).
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
improvement, considerable wind-induced The snow is drifted up on one side
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
error may still exist. illustrating that only a portion of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
RAIN, GAUGE CATCH, AND WIND opening, on the downwind side, was
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effectively collecting the snow.
➔ In summary, gauge catch of rain is
‭
‬
➔ A 5 m/s (11 mph) wind will result in gauge
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
influenced by both the fall angle and the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
turbulence in the vicinity of the gauge. undercatch for snowflakes on the order of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
tens of percent. The studies plotted on this
➔ Fall angles that depart from the vertical
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
graph show that at a wind speed of 7 m/s
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
will result in a reduction of the gauge's (15 mph) the gauge may be catching only
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effective collection area. Turbulence 10-50% of what actually falls! Even in the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
partially offsets this problem by inducing two studies where the gauge catch was
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
downward motion around the gauge.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
improved through use of wind shields, the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ This graphic shows the generalized gauge catch at 7 m/s is still 50% or less.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
The magnitude of the problem will vary
relationship between wind speed and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
with snowflake characteristics. Denser
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge catch for liquid hydrometeors. The
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
crystals will have less gauge catch errors
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge catch is expressed as the ratio of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
than low density crystals.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the gauge measurement to what actually
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
fell, so values less than 1.0 are measures ➔ Snow pillows are a technology used at
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
of underestimation by the gauge. SNOTEL sites in the western United
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ For a typical size raindrop of 2-2.5 mm, a States. These weigh the snow on the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
ground to get a liquid equivalent. Users in
general rule of thumb is to expect a 1%
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the NWS generally find that these data are
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
loss of precipitation for every 1 mph
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
superior to those provided by automated
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
increment in wind speed. This converts
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauges.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to 2.2% for every 1 m/s.
‭
‬
EFFECTS FROM GAUGE
‭
‬
➔ Therefore, a 9 m/s (20 mph) wind speed
‭
‬
CHARACTERISTICS
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
may be expected to result in an
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
9
‭
‬
 ➔ A gauge aperture of at least 102 mm (4 ◆ this can and often does lead to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in) in diameter is desirable. These sublimation or evaporation of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
NOAA-approved clear plastic gauges precipitation without measuring it,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
have 4-inch diameter apertures. Smaller resulting in underestimates.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
openings will increase the likelihood of
◆ in addition, if the snowfall rate is
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
under catch.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
very great, the melting will not occur
‭
‬
➔ The NWS cooperative climate station

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
fast enough to prevent gauge
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
manual gauges have a 203 mm (8 inch) overflow, again leading to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
aperture. underestimation.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ As mentioned earlier, gauge catch is ➔ Precipitation rate can also impact the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
sometimes improved when nearby accuracy of the gauge measurement.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
vegetation disrupts the wind. A good Although this varies with gauge design,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
location may be a forest clearing where the problem has been primarily with the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the trees are not close enough to directly tipping bucket style gauge as described in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
intercept the precipitation. the rain gauge webcast referred to earlier.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ The reason to elevate gauges or place ➔ The NWS is testing an automated
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
them on rooftops is often driven by “weighing” gauge known as the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
security concerns rather than science. all-weather precipitation accumulation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
This increases the likelihood of gauge (AWPAG). There is still some
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
wind-induced errors. heating of the rim to help direct snow into
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
MEASUREMENTS FROM AUTOMATED the gauge where a weight will determine
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
GAUGES the liquid equivalent. However, the heated
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
area is not nearly as large as that in the
➔ Automated rain gauges are preferred by
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
tipping bucket gauges used by the NWS.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
many professional users such as the Therefore, the errors with evaporation and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
NWS. Automation allows for the sublimation should be reduced.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
assimilation of numerous reports from
➔ Initial testing showed disappointing results
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
remote regions.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in snow, perhaps due mainly to wind
➔ A widely used type of automated gauge in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
effects.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the United States is the tipping bucket
➔ A new double wind shield version of the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
style. These allow for high temporal
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
resolution. AWPAG gauge that is being deployed may
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
help reduce the problems with measuring
➔ Problems associated with automated
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
snow.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge measurements are often a
➔ As mentioned earlier, “snow pillow”
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ function of precipitation rate. estimates at SNOTEL sites are often used
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
instead of gauges where they are
◆ precipitation phase.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
available.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Precipitation phase refers to whether the MEASUREMENTS FROM MANUAL
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
hydrometeors are liquid, liquid and below GAUGES
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
freezing—such as freezing rain—or ➔ Manual gauge reports suffer from the lack
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
frozen, such as hail or snow. of high temporal resolution. This makes
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Freezing and frozen precipitation manual reports less suitable for software
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
present a difficult problem for gauge programs that need fast access to high
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
resolution gauge reports.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
measurement. This is particularly true for
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the popular automated tipping bucket ➔ However, manual gauges are visited
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge. routinely and therefore problems that
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ To obtain a liquid equivalent affect gauge measurement may be
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
measurement. identified more quickly.
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ the gauge must be heated to melt ➔ These problems can include.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the frozen precipitation.
‭
‬
10
‭
‬
 wind, for exposed gauges, and for
◆ insect or bird nests

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
snowflakes and small liquid drops.
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ leakage ➔ Wind-induced fall angles reduce the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ overflow effective catch area of the gauge.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Turbulence can induce downward motion
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ blockage from rapidly growing that partially offsets the fall angle problem.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
vegetation\ ➔ In situations where good radar coverage
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ vandalism exists, it is possible that high wind

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
situations may cause greater uncertainties
➔ Provided that gauge overflow does not

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
in the accuracy of the gauges than that of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
occur during intense hail or snowfall, the radar. A user of multiple precipitation

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
manual gauges may allow more accurate sensors may want to consider the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
liquid equivalent measurements with possibility that under such conditions it

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
frozen precipitation. Snow and hail are may not be wise to adjust the radar with

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
melted and measured manually. the rain gauge data.

‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ In addition, the observer may collect a
PRECIPITATION
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
“core” measurement of snow from the

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
ground if she/he determines that this will
CLIMATOLOGY/PRISM
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
provide a more representative sample
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
than the snow that was collected by the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge. Core measurements are intended ➔ Precipitation climatology guidance can
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
to minimize the errors caused by the wind. be used to help fill in the gaps where
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
A well-trained observer may therefore
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimates of observed precipitation are
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
provide improved liquid equivalent
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
poor. The most widely used precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
readings.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
climatology tool in the United States as of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ There are numerous manual gauge 2009 is the Parameter-elevation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
networks. Two well-known ones are the Regressions on an Independent Slopes
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Model, or PRISM. Prior to its use in MPE,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
cooperative observing network and the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
PRISM was used extensively in several
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
River Forecast Centers in the western
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Snow observing network (CoCoRaHS).
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
United States.
‭
‬
➔ The cooperative observing network, which
‭
‬
PRISM
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
is sponsored by NOAA’s National Weather ➔ Developed at Oregon State University,
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Service, has observers in every state.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
PRISM climatology products include
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Roughly 80% of the network still uses
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation climatology guidance for the
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
manual gauges.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
contiguous United States...
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ ...the Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Rico,
‭
‬
‭
‬
RAIN GAUGE QPE KEY POINTS Guam, and...
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Rain gauges can provide excellent ➔ ...Alaska, along with portions of
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
information if they are neighboring Canadian provinces.
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ well-maintained ➔ PRISM precipitation climatologies are
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ optimally located. based on the historic record of measured
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation at point locations, geographic
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ the wind is light. input, especially terrain information, and in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
some cases, the prevailing wind direction.
➔ Rain gauges are point estimates and will
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
Streamflow discharge measurements are
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
not necessarily provide good spatial used to correlate basin precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
resolution. climatology with runoff climatology and
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ Wind causes significant errors in the thus provide a rough validation check on
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
the precipitation amount.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
gauge catch resulting in underestimation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
errors. These errors are greatest in strong
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
11
‭
‬
 basically a distance-weighted gauge
➔ Point observations are rarely sufficient to

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
analysis.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
represent spatial patterns of precipitation.

‭
‬
OTHER PRECIPITATION CLIMATOLOGY
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
This is especially true in regions with

‭
‬
TOOLS
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
sharp changes in elevation and/or nearby

‭
‬
➔ The U.S. National Climatic Data Center
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
large bodies of water.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ PRISM uses the known relationships of (NCDC) is developing another potential

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
tool for spatial climate data. Precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation with geographic features. An

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
products will be part of this NCDC climate
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
automated statistical approach is used for

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
tool. Here we see the preliminary look at
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
efficiency, but this is guided by human

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
products for January and July precipitation
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
expertise.

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
climatology in the contiguous United
‭
‬
BASIC USE OF PRISM

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
States.
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ PRISM precipitation climatology may be LIMITATIONS OF PRECIPITATION

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
used for both CLIMATOLOGY

‭
‬
‭
‬
◆ observed precipitation (QPE) ➔ As with any climatological data, there are

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
limitations. Climatology averages the
◆ forecast precipitation (QPF).

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
individual events in a data set. Individual
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬‭
‬
‭
‬
precipitation events may show large
➔ Deriving QPE from PRISM precipitation

‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
departures from climatology, especially in
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
climatology starts with point values, such the locations of extreme and sharp
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
as reading from a rain gauge. From there gradients. However, even with these
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
we derive the ratio of the point value to the limitations, there are regions that will likely
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
PRISM value. benefit somewhat from climatological
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
➔ In this example we assume the gauge tools.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
reading is 40 mm (1.57 in) and the PRISM ➔ Individual events will often be closer to
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
value at that point is 20 mm (0.79 in). The climatology in regions with large
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
ratio of 40 over 20 is 2.0. Now, we apply orographic influences.
‭
‬
‭
‬
that ratio to other PRISM values.
➔ In addition, regions that tend to receive
‭
‬
➔ This
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
adjusts the areal precipitation
widespread, stratiform precipitation will be
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
estimate by the ratio of 2.0 but it closer to climatology than areas
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
preserves the gradients and the relative dominated by convection.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
magnitudes that we see in the PRISM
➔ So, the western coasts of North America
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
data.
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬
‭
‬