Week 01

Introduction to Biology, Discovery of the Cell, The Cell Theory

Discovery of the Cell & The Cell Theory

Principles of Cell Theory
1. Zacharias Janssen
• Invented the first primitive microscope 1. Every living organism consists of one or more
which was used to view microscopic cells. cells. - THEODOR SHWANN
2. Robert Hooke
• Observed microscopic cork cells. 2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life. It is the
• Was the first to observe the cells by using smallest structural and functional unit of all
a cork from the bark of an oak tree under organisms. - MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
the microscope
3. Francesco Redi 3. Cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells
• Discovered spontaneous generation contain hereditary material, which they pass
• Disproved the long-believed theory of to their offspring when they divide. - RUDOLF
spontaneous generation, which states VIRCHOW
that life comes from inanimate objects.
4. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
Generalization
• Made his own microscope
• First to see and describe microorganisms • All organisms are made up of one or more
from a drop of water using his self-made cells (unicellular & multicellular)
practical microscope. • All living things or organisms as we call it
5. Matthias Schleiden biology are indeed composed of a cell/s
• Proposed that plants are made up of cells and are even covered with some dead
• One of the proponents of cell theory that cells.
stated plants are made up of cells • Cell is the basic unit of life
• Says that the cell is the basic unit of life • Chemical processes even energy flow
6. Theodor Schwann happen in cells
• Proposed that animals are made up of • Cells exist from pre-existing cells alone
cells and not from dead matters
• Also a proponent of cell theory who
stated that all organisms are made up of
cells.
7. Rudolf Virchow
• Proponent of the cell theory who stated
that cells come from pre-existing cells.
• Through successive cell division, many
cells can be produced from a single cell.

1
Week 02
Characteristics of Life and Spontaneous Generation

Characteristics of Life
1. Organization
5. Homeostasis
• From a single cell, a community of
• Living organisms regulate their internal
organisms are being formed and develop
environment to maintain relatively
that live in various habitats with specific
narrow range of conditions needed for
niches/ functions.
cell function.
• Inside every cell, there are atoms, which
make up cell organelles and structures.
6. Respond and adapt to their environment
• Living life forms show “touchiness,”
implying that they react to boosts or
Atoms – Molecule – Cells – Tissue – Organs –
changes in their current circumstance.
Organ System – Organism – Population –
Community – Ecosystem
PHOTOTROPISM- Plants response to light

GEOTROPISM- Plants response to gravity

2. Growth and Development
• Living creatures go through controlled THIGMOTROPISM- Plants response to touch
growth
HYDROTROPISM- Plants response to water
• Singular cells become bigger, Multicellular
life forms collect numerous cells through
cell division.
7. Evolution
3. Reproduction • Populaces of living life forms can go
through advancement, implying that the
• Passing on of genetic information to a
hereditary cosmetics of a populace may
new generation
change over the long run.
• Sexual Reproduction is when DNA form 2
separate organisms combines to form a
unique new individual Spontaneous Generation Theory
• Some reproduce asexually, they make an
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of
identical copy of their DNA
the earliest recorded scholars to articulate
spontaneous generation. SG is the notion
4. Metabolism
that life can arise from non-living matter.
• Living things must use energy and
consume nutrients to carry out the Aristotle proposed that life arose from non-
chemical reactions that sustain life. living material if the material contained
• Metabolism can be subdivided into pneuma (vital heat).
anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism,
organisms make complex molecules into
simpler ones. Catabolism, they do
reverse.

2
Week 02
Characteristics of Life and Spontaneous Generation

3. Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1729- 1799

The Disproving of Spontaneous Generation Theory
• Italian scientist, Spallanzani, performed a
1. Francesco Redi, 1626- 1697 similar experiment to Needham. He
• Redi was an Italian physician and the first decided that Needham’s broth had been
scientist to suspect that the theory of SG contaminated between the boiling pan
may be flawed. and the flask.
• Needham’s response claimed that air was
necessary for the SG and that the “vital
heat” in the air had been destroyed
during Spallanzani’s experiment.

2. John Needham, 1723- 1781

• Needham, an English naturalist and an
avid supporter of SG theory, performed
an experiment in which he boiled up a 4. Louis Pasteur, 1822- 1895
broth and poured it into a covered flask. • Pasteur, a French scientist designed a
• Microorganism= Animalcules series of flasks with the necks bent into
an S shape.
• He boiled the broth inside the flask and
did not see any microbes in the broth for
many months
• He had proved that the microbes from
which life arises are present within the
air and are not spontaneously generated.

3
Week 03
Cell Structures and their Functions
o Non-polar
o Interacts with cholesterol located in
between the phospholipid tails

CHOLESTEROL- responsible for the fluidity of cell

membrane
If Cholesterol goes up, Fluidity goes down (vice versa)

Membrane Proteins

What are Organelles?

• Channels or Transporters
• Internal compartments that carry out specific
o Move molecules in one direction
cell functions.
• Cellular machinery
• Receptors
• Two general kinds:
o Recognize certain chemicals
o Derived from membranes
o Bacteria-like organelles
• Glycoproteins
o Identify cell type
Cell Parts and their Functions
• Enzymes
1. Cell Wall (rigid)
o Catalyze production of substances
• Surrounds the cell/ plasma membrane
• Commonly found in plants, fungi, and
bacteria Cell Parts and their Functions
• The plant cell wall is made up of cellulose
• The fungi cell wall is made up of chitin 3. Cytoplasm
• The bacterial cell wall is made up of • Vicious fluid containing the organelles
peptidoglycan • Consists of interconnected filaments &
• Not present in animal cells fibers and a fluid called cytosol

2. Cell/ Plasma Membrane 4. Cytoskeleton (transport)

• Selectively permeable as it does not allow • 3 types: Microfilaments. Microtubules,
materials to enter and exit in a certain and Intermediate Filaments
cell. Consist of 2 main parts: • Intended for mechanical support, anchor
Phospholipids and Proteins. of organelles, and the movement of
• Doesn’t allow ions to enter. Lightweights substances in a cell.
can easily enter •
5. Cilia and Flagella
Phospholipids
Cilia- Short and used to move substances outside
• Hydrophilic Head
human cells
o Polar
o Interacts with water Flagella- Whip-like extensions. Found on sperm
• Hydrophobic Tail cells.

4
Week 03
Cell Structures and their Functions

8. Ribosomes
• Site of protein synthesis in the cell
• Responsible for making proteins
• Composed of rRNA
• May be located:
(a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (making it “rough”)
(b) Free in the cytoplasm/ freely floating
around
6. Centrioles
• Pairs of microtubular structures that play
a role in cell division process

7. Nucleus
• Command center of the cell
• Separated from the cytoplasm by a
nuclear envelope
• Contain genetic material (DNA & RNA)

Nuclear Envelope- double layer of membrane that

protects the nucleus

Nuclear Pores- Permit exchange between

nucleoplasm & cytoplasm

Chromatin (in the semifluid nucleoplasm)-

a. Chromatin contains DNA of genes, and proteins

b. Condenses to form chromosomes

c. Chromosomes are formed during cell division

Dark Nucleolus- Produces subunits of ribosomes

5
Week 04

Cell Structures and their Functions (Continuation)

Cell Parts and their Functions 1.3 Lysosomes (Stomach of the Cell)
They are membrane-bound vesicles which are
1. Endomembrane System produced by the Golgi Apparatus. They
Series of intracellular membranes that contain powerful digestive enzymes and are
compartmentalize the cell, restrict enzymatic highly acidic for the ff:
reactions to specific compartments within • Digestion of large molecules
the cell. • Recycling of cellular resources
• Apoptosis (programmed cell
Consists of: death)
1. Nuclear Envelope • Responsible of digestion or
2. Membrane of ER breaking down substances
3. Golgi Apparatus (Hydrolytic Enzymes)
4. Vesicles
AUTOLYSES- release to destroy when
1.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) contaminated
A system of membrane channels and sacules
2. Vacuoles
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- studded Membranous sacs that are larger than
with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic side. vesicles to ttore materials that occur in excess
- Performs the function of Protein anabolism and others very specialized
to do the ff: • Plants typically have a central vacuole
• Synthesizes proteins (fills up 90% volume of some)
• Modifies and processes proteins
o Add sugar to protein Functions in:
o Results in glycoproteins 1. Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and
waste products
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- no 2. Development of turgor pressure
ribosomes - some functions are performed by
o Site for Lipid synthesis lysosomes in other eukaryotes
o Functions in detoxification and as
storage. Forms transport vesicles
3. Energy- Related Organelles: Chloroplast
VESICLES- responsible for transport Bounded by double-membrane organized
flattened by disc-like sacs called
1.2 Golgi Apparatus (Packaging Center of Cell) thylakoids.
Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved resembles • Green due to Chlorophyll (Found only
stack hollow pancakes. Modifies proteins. in inner membranes or Chloroplast)
• Receives vesicles from ER on cis • Chlorophyll and other pigments
• Packages them in vesicles capture solar energy
• Prepares for “shipment” • Enzymes synthesize carbohydrates
• Can export materials from the cell exocytosis

Glycosylation
Phosphorylation

6
Week 04
Cell Structures and their Functions (Continuation)

4. Energy- Related Organelles:

Mitochondria (powerhouse of the cell)
• Contain ribosomes and their DNA
• The inner membrane surrounds the
matrix and is convoluted (folds) to
form cristae.
• Involve in cellular respiration
• Produce most ATP utilize by the cell

7
Week 05
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Cells and Cell Types

• Pili- censory
Cell Types
ARCHAEBACTERIA & EUBACTERIA
They come in 2 major types: Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic • both are the same, but eubacteria have
• These major cell types are still divided into evolutionary changes
different groups according to some quality • disease causing organisms
they possess.
B. Eukaryotic Cells
A. Prokaryotic Cells
• most modern major cell type
• single celled organisms • usually have more than one chromosome
• ex. Bacteria, Archaebacteria that contains large amounts of genetic
• capsule made of sugars information
• many have cilia/ tails for movement • multicellular & unicellular
• not part of the multicellular organism
• no nucleus DNA => DNA (DNA REPLICATION)
• the chromosomes float in the cell - codes for protein

DNA => RNA (TRANSCRIPTION)

RNA => PROTEINS (TRANSLATION)

• membrane-bound organelles
o endoplasmic reticulum
o lysosomes
o mitochondria
o once prokaryotes- showed symbiotic
relationship

=> Primitive/ Old TYPES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

=> Karyon- Nucleus
=> no nucleus- nucleoids (coding protein, contains 1. Animal Cell
genetic material • heterotrophic (eat other nutrition, only in
=> 1st Organisms animals)
• no cell wall
2 TYPES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS • no chloroplast
• centriole for cell division
• reproduces by cell division (asexual • cell division for growth and development
reproduction, binary fission) • reproduction
• single chromosome - asexual & sexual
• Plasmid (excess genetic material memorizes - ASEXUAL ex. Starfish (regrow)
the code) ex. Antibiotic • Kingdom: Animalia
• horizontal gene transfer (all offspring are
identical, no variation)

8
Week 05
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Cells and Cell Types

4. Protist Cells/ Protista

• eukaryote
• unicellular or multicellular
2. Plant Cells • “almost” (almost animal, plant, fungi)
• Cell wall: made of cellulose - show characteristics of the 3
• Chloroplast: site for photosynthesis - does not fulfil / satisfy the category
• Vacuole: large central vacuole, helps provide • diverse
structure • little in common, more differences
• Autotrophic • Earnst Haecket => created kingdom Protista
• Reproduction • Protista is also called “junk drawer”
- ASEXUAL (ex. grafting)
- pollination TYPES OF PROTIST CELLS
• Kingdom: Plantae
A. Protozoa
- animal-like
- heterotrophic

=> Amoeboid Protozoans

• pseudopods
• “false feet”
- capturing and
engulfing food
- most found in
water
3. Fungal Cell • no specific
• like animal and plant cell, they have a structure
nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
mitochondria => Flagellated Protozoans
• Cell wall made of Chitin • have flagella
• Cause diseases • eats other
• Reproduction microscopic
- ASEXUAL => Spores (ex. mushroom, yeast) organisms
• Saprophytes- absorb nutrients from dead • free-living as
matter well as parasitic (ex. Euglena- has chloroplast)

9
Week 05
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Cells and Cell Types

=> Ciliated Protozoans Distinguishable Features

- cilia for locomotion &
nutrition Presence of Nucleus
- aquatic - The main feature that distinguishes Eukaryotic cells
- ex. Paramecium from prokaryotic cells.
-Presence of a nucleus with a clear nuclear membrane
=> Sporozoans that encloses genetic materials.
• spore-like stage - Prokaryotic cell: Genetic material (DNA) are
• fungi concentrated in a region of the cytoplasm called
• plasmodium nucleoid.
- malarial parasite
- they get the Cell Wall & Cell Membrane
nutrition from our body - Present in almost all prokaryotes, but not in most
eukaryotes.
B. Molds/ Moulds
- Saprophytes Plants => Cellulose
- Fungi-like protists Fungi => Chitin
- Spores => reproduction Bacteria => Peptidoglycan
- Feed on the dead/ decaying matter
As to cell membrane structure, prokaryotes do not
2 TYPES: have sterols in the cell membrane but have a sterol-
1. Slime Molds like lipid component called hopanoid.
2. Water Molds
In eukaryotes, the sterols that are present in the cell
- multi nucleated (many nucleus in one cell) membrane are cholesterol (animals), phytosterol
(plants), and ergosterol (fungi).
C. Algae
- can perform photosynthesis (autotrophic) Endomembrane System and Other Organelles
- unicellular or multicellular - Refers to the interacting organelles between the
- gives the most oxygen nucleus and the cell membrane.
- have cell wall - Includes rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus,
lysosome, endosome, and vacuole
Globa Algae (volvox) - Endomembrane system, mitochondria, and
Spirogyra chloroplast are present in eukaryotes, but not in
Netrium prokaryotes.
Green Algae - Presence of organelles in eukaryotes provide
compartmentalization (increase surface areas)
Kelp- not plants, but multicellular algae => Different organelles can simultaneously
and independently work on their functions

10
Week 05
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Cells and Cell Types

Ribosomes DNA Replication

- Translation - Process of synthesizing a new DNA strand using an
- Protein Synthesizing old DNA strand as a template
- Both present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes - Eukaryotes: longer time because they have more
- Prokaryotes: scattered on their cytoplasm DNA than prokaryotes. Multiple points of origin.
- Eukaryotes: rough ER, nuclear membrane, near - Prokaryotes: DNA replication occurs in 2 opposing
mitochondria directions at the same time in the cytoplasm.

The Shape of DNA and Number of Chromosome

Chromosome
DNA Histones
| |
codes & genetic info help chromatin transform to--
------------|--------------------------- chromosome
to transfer genetic info DNA replication happens on nucleus
from one generation to
another Eukaryotic- one-way
Prokaryotic- both ends
Histones are essential in packaging the strands of
DNA into nucleosomes and helping it to condense. Transcription and Translation
- Refers to the synthesis of RNA using DNA as a
Cell Size template.
- Prokaryotic cells are smaller compared to - Process of protein synthesis.
eukaryotic cells. However, eukaryotes can still - Prokaryotic: Transcription and Translation can be
perform metabolic activities efficiently due to the done at the same time in the cytoplasm
compartmentalization of cellular parts. - Eukaryotic: Transcription occurs in the nucleus and
translation occurs in the cytoplasm.
Mode of Reproduction - DNA contains exons (coding part)
- Prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary fission - Contains introns (non-coding part)
and some reproduce through spores. - Post transcriptional processing is done in eukaryotes
- Binary fission => no changes, identical to remove introns and come up with the final RNA.
=> cytokinesis - Ribosomes read the code
- Eukaryotic cells reproduce through mitosis and - tRNA helps ribosome
meiosis
- Meiosis => egg cell, sperm cell
=> production for sex cells only

11
Week 06
Cell Modification

Specialized modification (ex. stem cell) reacquired by

the cell after cell division
- Form follows function
- Acquisition of modification

Types of Cell Modification

1. Apical- found on the apical (apex or tip)

surface of the cell

A. Cilia- for locomotion/ movement

B. Flagella- whip-like structure
- for movement
Specialized Cells For Animals
C. Microvilli- epithelial/ epithelial layers
- faster and more efficient
Microvilli
absorption
- Made of actin microfilaments that serve as their
D. Pseudopods- engulfing food
structural core.
- ex. amoeba
- They are found in the small intestines, kidneys, egg
E. Extra-Cellular Matrix- outside cell
cells, and white blood cells.

2. Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes-

Cilia and Stereocilia
Hemidesmosomes are the ones that anchor
- Found in between the nine pairs of microtubules on
epithelial cells to their basement membrane.
the outside ring of a cilium is the dyenin.
Basal infoldings increase the surface area of
- Cilia are found on the respiratory tract.
these cells, they are also responsible for ion
- Stereocilia are surface extensions of the epidermis
and fluid transport
which can be found in the epididymis of the testis and
in the inner ear of humans and animals.
3. Lateral cell modification- specialized
structures to fit a certain function. To serve a
Flagella
purpose only they can achieve because of
- Are found in sperm cells which can help them travel
their specialize structure.
from the male reproductive tract to the egg cell in the
fallopian tube.
Tight Junction- prevents leakage of extra-cellular
- regulate movement of water and
Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes
solutes between epithelial layer
- Both found in the basement membrane of epithelial
cells.
Adhering Junction- Hemidesmosomes but on sides
- Basal infoldings increase the surface area of the cell.
- fasten cells to one another
Responsible for ion and fluid transport.

Gap Junction- communication junction

- glue together cells

12
Week 06
A Cell Modification
Cell Junctions Root Hairs
- Specialized structures found on the lateral - Responsible for absorbing water from the
membrane of the cells. Soil, and water is then distributed throughout
- Responsible for adhering cells to other cells or to the the plant’s body.
extra-cellular matrix. - Increasing the rate of the absorption of water
- They may also facilitate the transport of certain In roots is advantageous to plants
substances between the adjacent cells of epithelial
tissue. Mesophyll Cells
- Photosynthesis happens in mesophyll layer of
Red and White Blood Cells the leaves located between the lower and upper
- Some cells lack or have an excess of these structures Epidermis.
like red and white blod cells. - Cells in this layer are loosely packed and have many
- RBC or erythrocytes are blood cells that lack nuclei spaces in between them. The spaces between the
and mitochondria. Resposnible for transporting cells in the spongy layer allow more efficient gas
oxygen throughout the body exchange during photosynthesis.
- WBC or leukocytes are specialized cells that are
classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes. Cells of Xylem and Phloem
- Granucolocytes are WBC that contain - Tube-like cells that transport water, food and
granules in their cytoplasm which are observable nutrients obtained from soil.
under a light microscope. - Xylem: transporting water and nutrients
- Defenders of our bodies by identifying and - Phloem: transporting food
targeting disease-causing microorganisms and
parasites and even developinh cancer cells.

Sperm and Egg Cells

- Egg cells are the largest cells in the human body and
are necessary for sexual reproduction
- Sperm cells have a flagella to help them move. 3
distinct parts: head, midpiece, tail

Specialized Cells and Cell Structure In Plants

Trichomes
-Hair-like structures that developed form the plant’s
epidermis and are mostly found on the leaves.
-May also help plants to adapt to a hotter and drier
environment by acting as a
shade on leaves, as well on
stems.

13
Week 07
Application of Mitosis and Meiosis, and Disorders that Result from Cell Cycle Errors

Mitosis & Meiosis - Can also be caused by external influences like

exposure to specific chemicals or radiation.
- Both involve cells dividing to make new cells Types of Mutation
- MEIOSIS: makes the cell needed for sexual
reproduction to occur A. Chromosomal Mutations- changing the
- process by which sexually reproducing structure of a chromosome or the loss or gain
organisms make their sex cells of part of a chromosome
- haploid
- MITOSIS: replicates non-sex cells needed for growth 1. Deletion- due to
and repair. breakage, a piece of a
- diploid (2n) chromosome is lost

Significance of Meiosis and Chromosome Number

Examples:
Chromosomes are the cell’s way of neatly arranging • Cri du Chat (cry of the cat)
long strands of DNA. Non-sex cells have 2 sets of - high-pitched cry
chromosomes, one set from each parent. Meiosis - poor muscle tone
makes sex cells with only one set of chromosomes. - small head size
- low birth weight
Significance of Meiosis for Diversity
-problems with language
- psychomotor disabilities
One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the
diversity it produces within a population. That
• Prader-Willi Syndrome
variety is a direct product of meiosis. Every
- error in one or more genes located in a
fertilization event produces new combination of
region of chromosome 15
traits.
- due to missing paternal genes on
chromosome 15, deleted paternal
Significance of Mitosis for Sexual Reproduction
chromosome 15 that led to a duplicated copy
Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction of maternal chromosome 15
indirectly. It allows the sexually reproducing organism 2. Inversion- Two
to grow and develop from a single cell into a sexually breaks in one
mature individual. chromosome.
Segments break
Cell Cycle Errors off, flips around,
and then attach
- Genetic mutation may happen in the pats of the back into the chromosome.
DNA responsible for regulating the cell cycle.
- Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence Examples:
of DNA that may occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed • Haemophilia
to offspring) or in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be - blood doesn’t clot normally
passed to offspring. - bleeding takes longer
- Mutation happens when DNA fails to copy - lacks sufficient blood-clotting proteins
accurately
14
Week 07
Application of Mitosis and Meiosis, and Disorders that Result from Cell Cycle Errors

• Walker- Warburg Syndrome

- caused by mutations in at least a dozen
4.Duplication- occurs when a
genes
gene sequence is repeated
- affects the development of the muscles,
brain, and eyes Example:
- congenital muscular dystrophies, which
cause muscle weakness and wasting • Charcot- Marie
(atrophy) beginning very early in life. Tooth Disease
- most affected individuals do not survive past - condition affecting
age 3 the transmission of information between the
central nervous system and the rest of the
body
- type of peripheral neuropathy
3.Translocation- Involves 2
chromosomes that are not
homologous. When our cells
divide, a duplicate copy of our 5. Nondisjunction- failures of chromosomes to
chromosomes is made. separate during meiosis. Causes a gamete to have too
Sometimes this process goes many or too few chromosomes
wrong, and a portion of a
piece of one chromosome may end up attached to
another chromosome.

Two Types of Translocations:

A. Balanced- equal parts of the 2 chromosomes

are exchanged, so there is no extra or missing
genetic information Examples:
B. Unbalanced- unequal portions of
• Down Syndrome or Down’s Syndrome
chromosomes and leads to extra or missing
- caused by the presence of all or part of the
genes.
third copy of chromosome 21.
Examples: - associated with growth delays, mild to
moderate intellectual disability, and
• Mental retardation characteristics facial feature
• Infertility - flattened face/ bridge of nose, almond-
• Cancer shaped eyes that slant up, short neck, small
• “Philadelphia Chromosome”- between hands and feet, single line across the palm
chromosomes 9 and chromosomes 22 causes:
• Chronic Myeloid Leukemia • Turner Syndrome
- tends to grow and progress slowly - affects only females, results when X
- immature white blood cells chromosomes are missing or partially missing
• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia - short height, failure of the ovaries to
- mostly affects children develop, and heart defects
- all affects immature lymphocytes (type of
WBC- known as blasts)

15
Week 07
Application of Mitosis and Meiosis, and Disorders that Result from Cell Cycle Errors

B. Gene Mutations- changes in the nucleotide 2. Frameshift Mutation- Inserting or deleting one or
sequence of the gene; may be due to copying more nucleotides; Changes the “reading frame” like
errors, chemical, viruses, etc. changing a sentence; Proteins are built incorrectly

1. Point Mutations- Includes the substitution of ONE Original:

nucleotide in a gene - THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
Frame Shift (“H” removed):
Example: - TEF ATC ATA TET HER AT
• Sickle Cell is the result of one
nucleotide substitution in the
hemoglobin gene

16
Week 08
Mitosis
Cell Growth and Reproduction Interphase

Reproduction is an important biological function. During Interphase,

Allows organism to produce new individuals of their the cell undergoes
kind. Ensures that, as old individuals die, new ones are normal growth
born to take their place to continue the life of the processes while also
species. preparing for cell
division. For a cell to
The Cell Cycle move from
interphase into
Stages: mitotic phase, many
A. Interphase internal and external
B. Cellular Division conditions must be met.
=> mitosis (body cells) somatic cell, non-sex cell
- except sperm & egg - not dividing phase
- blood cells - longest part/ stage
- skin
=> meiosis (sex cells)/ gametes/ germ cells 3 STAGES:
- sperm &egg
C. Cytokinesis • Gap 1 (G1) Phase
- period of growth
Mitosis Functions: - organelles & cytoplasmic components
=> Growth- increase in size replicate
=> Development- advancement, improvement, ability
to think • Synthesis (S) Phase
=> Repair - synthesize DNA/ DNA replication
=> Recovery- can regenerate (ex. lizard) !! SIGNIFICANT!!
=> Asexual Reproduction- ex. starfish creates another - proteins
body -RNA
=> *Sexual Reproduction- germ cells= parent cell
===============================(egg cell) • Gap 2 (G2) Phase
- 1 germ cell= healthy cell - period of growth
- once there’s no more, there - enzymes
///////////////////////////will be menopause in girls - prepare & aid cellular division
- proteins

If there are problems in Gap 1, It will Proceed to Gap 0

• Gap 0 (G0) Phase

- cell will become dormant => APOPTOSIS
- programmed cell death
- incomplete

17
Week 08
Mitosis

Cellular Division

Prophase 3 TYPES OF SPINDLE FIBER

1. Kinetochore- shorten to pull the chromatins
- Chromatin condenses into chromosomes 2. Polar- push/ elongate the cell
- Each chromosome contains 2 identical chromatins 3. Aster- Anchor centrioles on the pole
connected by centromere

! Centrioles are the tube! => creates spindle fibers

The whole is Centrosomes => helps in cell division

- nuclear envelope breaks down

Anaphase

- separation of sister
chromatids
- spindle fibers
not attached
to chromatids
will elongate the cell to
prepare for cell division.
- cytokinesis prelim

Telophase

- opposite of the prophase process

Metaphase
- continuously elongate
- nuclear membranes &
- middle equator
nucleoli
- they will line in the middle/ metaphase plate (not a
reappear
physical structure)
- two new nuclei
- two kinetochores of each chromosome should be
form
attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles
- spindle fiber
disassemble

18
Week 08
Mitosis

Cytokinesis

- contractile ring (actin ring => ring of protein) creating

cleavage furrow
- pinches the cell in half (cleavage furrow)

Plant Cell- Cell plate instead of Cleavage furrow

- this stage either begins in either anaphase or

telophase
- doesn’t finish until telophase

19
Week 09
Meiosis

Phases of Meiosis 1 - the part where they overlapped is called CHIASMA

- exchange of genetic material
Prophase 1
D. Diplotene- Chiasmata (plural)
- chromosomes thicken & shorten - slowly separate
- nucleolus disappears E. Diakinesis- separated already
- nuclear membrane disintegrates - in preparation for metaphase 1
- crossing-over occurs
- centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus Metaphase 1

- pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the

equator of the cell (metaphase plate)
- maneuvered into place by the microtubules

Anaphase 1

- Homologous chromosomes move to the opposite

poles of the cell
- sister chromatids still attached at the centromere
- spindle microtubules pull the homologous
chromosomes apart

Telophase 1

- two nucleus, 23 chromosomes each

- chromosomes become diffuse
- nuclear membrane reforms
Tetrads- 4 chromatid
Non-sister Chromatids- 2 chromatid not connected by Cytokinesis
centromere
- final cellular division to form two new cells, followed
Bivalents- set of two chromosomes
by Meiosis 2
Homologous Chromosome- off the same trait
- Meiosis 1 is a reduction division: the original diploid
- same trait
cell had two copies of each chromosome; the newly
- same gene sequence
formed haploid cells have one copy of each
- size & height
chromosome
STAGES:
Phases of Meiosis 2
A. Leptotene- chromatin start to condense
Prophase 2
B. Zygotene- Synapsis => chromosome will look
for their pair (homologous chromosome)
- condensation of the chromosomes (haploid)
- Paired chromosome are Bivalents
- nuclear envelope disappears
C. Pachytene- important
- centrioles are formed
- crossing-over => non-sister
- microtubules extend across the cell
chromatids will overlap each other
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Week 09
Meiosis

Metaphase 2

- Chromosomes line up with their centromeres on the

metaphase plate.
- One sister chromatid is on each side of the plate

Anaphase 2

- equal number of haploid chromosomes

- sister chromatids separate
- division is known as equational division

Telophase 2 & Cytokinesis

- cell is now divided into two and the chromosomes

are on the opposite ends of the cell
- Cytokinesis or plasma division occurs
- new nuclear envelopes are formed around the
chromosomes

END RESULT:
- there are 4 cells, each haploid, with only 1 copy of
the genome
- these cells can now be developed into gametes, eggs
in females, and sperm in males
- “4 daughter cells that are not genetically identical”

Recombination

- occurs when 2 molecules of DNA exchange pieces of

their genetic material with each other
- when this occurs during meiosis, the cell’s
homologous chromosomes line up extremely close to
one another. The DNA strand within each
chromosome breaks in the same location, leaving two
free ends.

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