Atomic Structure As Chemistry

Mubashir Sulehri 0322 4307040

O / AS / A – Level Chemistry
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Atomic Structure As Level
Introduction to Atomic Structure As Level Chemistry

As you read in O – Level, the whole mass of an atom is concentrated in

the central region called nucleus. Protons and neutrons are present in
nucleus whereas electrons revolve in orbits.

Figure shows the atomic structure of oxygen.

Every element is represented by a symbol. These symbols are derived

from Latin, Greek or English words

Properties of the sub - atomic particles [Protons, neutrons and electrons.]

rela�ve mass rela�ve charge

proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron 1/1836 -1
Sub – atomic particles in electric fields

What happens if a beam of each of these particles is passed between two electrically charged plates - one positive and
one negative

Protons are positively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path towards the negative plate.
Electrons are negatively
charged and so would be
deflected on a curving path
towards the positive plate.
Neutrons don't have a charge,
and so would continue on in a
straight line.

Nucleon No is the sum of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus. Complete the following table.

Protons Electrons Neutrons

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Sodium 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵

Calcium ion 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
+𝟐𝟐

Chlorine ion 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪
−

ISOTOPES:-

ISOTOPES:- are the atoms, which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
OR.
Isotopes are atoms with same no of protons but different no of neutrons.
e.g. Hydrogen has 3 isotopes. Their Structures are shown :

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level

Calculating Relative atomic Mass of Isotopes

35
Chlorine-35 and Chlorine -37 are examples of isotopes. 17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 and 37
17𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Average mass of isotopes can be calculated if we known their relative abundance. Cl – 35 is 75% and Cl – 37 is 25%.
35 × 75 + 37 × 25
=
100
= 35.5
NOTE Relative abundance of Isotopes is calculated by using Mass Spectrometer. The Mass Spectrum can be given as

X – axis shows the atomic mass [ mass to charge ratio , m/e]

And y – axis shows the abundance of isotopes

So there are two isotopes of Chlorine, Cl – 35 and Cl – 37, and their

abundances are 3 [ 75%] and 1 [ 25%] as shown in graph.

35 × 3 + 37 × 1
=
4
= 35.5
Electronic Configuration

The principal quantum shells ( Orbits) can be divided into subshells. The levels (or shells) are numbered as 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5,
etc. and the subshells ( Orbitals) are indicated by the letters s, p, d, or f. The maximum no of electrons that can be
present in a sub – shell are given in table
Sub Shells Max Electrons
First principal quantum shell can have maximum 2 s 2
electrons. These 2 electrons are present in s orbitals. p 6
d 10
2nd shell can have maximum 8 electrons. 2 are present in f 14
s subshell and 6 are present in p subshell. Similarly in
3rd shell, maximum 18 electrons can be present. 2 in s subshell, 6 in p subshell and 10 in d subshell can be present.
Principal Quantum Shell No of Electrons(2n2) Orbital
1 2 s
2 8 s, p
3 18 spd
4 32 spdf

NOTE:- s = sharp, p = principal, d= diffuse

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Division of Sub - Shells
Sub – shells are further divided into orbitals. S contains only one orbital, p contains 3 orbitals, d contains 5 orbitals etc.
Each orbital can have maximum 2 electrons.
The number of orbitals in each subshell are given in table

Subshell Atomic orbitals Total Electrons NOTE:- s has only one orbital
s s 1*2=2 p orbitals are named as px, py and pz. These orbitals are
p p p p 3*2=6 degenerate. d orbitals are named as dxy dyz dxz
d d d d d d 5 * 2 = 10 dx2 – y2 dz2. These orbitals are also degenerate
f f f f f f f f 7 * 2 = 14
Shapes of s and p orbitals
Energy level of orbitals

s orbital px orbital Py orbital pz orbital

An s orbital has a spherical shape. The 2s orbital has

the same shape as the 1s orbital. Electrons of 2s have
more energy than the electrons of 1s.

There are three p orbitals. Each p orbital has two lobes

as shown in shape. These three orbitals are at right
angles to each other so they are named as px, py and pz.
These three p orbitals have same energy level.

Filling Orbitals
Three important rules for filling electrons in orbitals are as
I. Aufbau Rule. Lowest energy orbitals are filled first. Thus, the filling pattern
is 1s, 2s, 2p ,3s,3p,4s , 3d, etc.
II. Hund’s Rule. Electrons prefer to live as unpaired electron in orbitals as long
as possible, all possessing the same spin direction.
III. Pauli Exclusion Principle. Only two electrons are permitted per orbital and
they must be of opposite spin.

So the filling order is

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s ----------------

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Atomic Element Electronic Atomic Element Electronic
Number configuration Number configuration
1 H 1𝑠𝑠1 9 F 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝5
2 He 1𝑠𝑠 2 10 Ne 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6
3 Li 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠1 11 Na 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠1
4 Be 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 12 Mg 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠 2
5 B 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝1 13 Al 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠 2 3𝑝𝑝1
6 C 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝2 14 Si 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠 2 3𝑝𝑝2
7 N 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝3 15 P 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠 2 3𝑝𝑝3
8 O 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝4 16 S 1𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑝𝑝6 3𝑠𝑠 2 3𝑝𝑝4
Orbitals in boxes form.

Orbitals can be represented as boxes. Each box shows one orbital. Electrons are represented as arrows, direction of
arrows show spin of electrons. When two electrons are present in orbital, then there arrows are in opposite direction.

NOTE:- electronic configuration of Chromium and copper.

Chromium has [Ar]3d54s1 and copper has [Ar] 3d104s1
These elements do not follow the general pattern. Actually, d orbital prefer to be half filled or completely filled

Electronic configuration of ions

Ions are the atoms or groups of atoms which carry an electric charge because they have either gained or lost one or more
electrons. If atom gains electrons it acquires a negative charge. If it loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
Electronic structure of s and p block ions.
Electronic configuration of ion can be written like atom. For –ve ions , electrons are added and for +ve ions, electrons
are subtracted.

To write the electronic structure for Cl -:

Cl 1s22s22p63s23px23py23pz1 but Cl- has one more electron
Cl -
1s22s22p63s23px23py23pz2

To write the electronic structure for O2-:

O 1s22s22px22py12pz1 but O2- has two more electrons
O2- 1s22s22px22py22pz2

To write the electronic structure for Na+:

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Na 1s22s22p63s1 but Na+ has one less electron
Na+ 1s22s22p6

To write the electronic structure for Ca2+:

Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 but Ca2+ has two less electrons
Ca2+ 1s22s22p63s23p6

The electronic structure of d-block ions

Note:- When these metals form ions, the 4s electrons are always lost first.

To write the electronic structure for Zn2+:

Zn 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 Only two electrons removed

Zn2+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 from 4s

To write the electronic structure for Fe3+:

Fe 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 4s electrons are lost first and

Fe3+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d5 Then one electron from 3d
Ionization Energy ΔHi.e
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion.

1st Ionization Energy

The first ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
isolated gaseous atoms to form one mole of 1+ ion.
M(g)  M+(g) + e ΔHi1= +ve
The first ionization energy of hydrogen can written as
H(g) H+(g) + e- ΔHi1=1312.0 kJ/mol

Patterns of first ionisation energies in the Periodic Table

2500
first ionisation energy (kJ

2000
per mole)

1500

1000

500

0
0 5 10 15 20
atomic number

First ionization energy is different for different elements as shown in graph. This graph shows a periodicity. From Li to
Ne, it is increasing, then again increasing from Na to Ar.

various trends in this graph which can be explained by reference to the proton number and electronic configuration of
the various elements. A number of factors must be considered

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level

Explaining I.E of first few elements

Factors Affecting the ionization energies

I. The charge on the nucleus Hydrogen has an electronic structure of 1s1.

It is a very small atom, and the single
II. The distance of the electron from the nucleus.
electron is close to the nucleus and
III. Shielding Effect
therefore strongly atracted. There are no
IV. Electron paired or unpaired electrons screening it from the nucleus and
so the ionisa�on energy is high (1310 kJ mol-
1. The charge on the nucleus 1
).
Energy is required to remove electrons from atoms in
order to overcome their atrac�on to the nucleus. The Helium has a structure 1s2. The electron is
greater the number of protons, the greater the being removed from the same orbital as in
atrac�on of the electrons to the nucleus and the hydrogen's case. It is close to the nucleus
harder it is to remove the electrons. The number of and unscreened. The value of the ionisa�on
protons in the nucleus is known as the nuclear charge energy (2370 kJ mol-1) is much higher than
hydrogen, because the nucleus now has 2
2. The distance of the electron from the nucleus protons atrac�ng the electrons instead of 1.
Atrac�on falls off very rapidly with distance. An
electron close to the nucleus will be much more Lithium is 1s22s1. Its outer electron is in the
strongly atracted than one further away second energy level, much more distant
from the nucleus. You might argue that that
3. Shielding Effect would be offset by the addi�onal proton in
The effect of nuclear charge, however, is cancelled out the nucleus, but the electron doesn't feel
to some extent by the other electrons in the atom. Each the full pull of the nucleus - it is screened by
inner shell and inner sub-shell electron effec�vely the 1s2 electrons but the distance is
cancels out one unit of charge from the nucleus. This is important so Lithium's first ionisa�on
known as shielding energy drops to 519 kJ mol-1 , whereas
hydrogen's is 1310 kJ mol-1.
4. Electron paired or unpaired
Two electrons in the same orbital experience a bit of
repulsion from each other. This offsets the atrac�on of H 1312 N 1402
the nucleus, so that paired electrons are removed He 2372 O 1314
rather more easily than you might expect. Li 520 F 1680
Be 899 Ne 2080
B 800 Na 496
C 1086 Mg 737

Trends in Ionization Energy

Trends across period

In general, the first ionisation energy increases across a period because the nuclear charge increases but the shielding
remains the same.

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Compare the first ionisation energies of Li (1s22s1) and Be (1s22s2). Be
has one more proton in the nucleus than Li, and no extra inner-shell
electrons, so the effective nuclear charge on Be is higher and the Be
electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus. Thus the first
ionisation energy of Be is higher than that of Li.

Compare the first ionisation energies of Be (1s22s2) and B (1s22s22p1).B

has one more proton in the nucleus than Be but there are also 2 extra
inner sub-shell electrons. So 2p1 electron of B has more shielding than
Be. So B electrons are less strongly attracted to the nucleus and thus
less difficult to remove. Thus the first ionisation energy of B is lower than that of Be.

From B (1s22s22p1) to N (1s22s22p3) the proton number increases, but the number of electrons shielding the nuclear
charge remains the same. Thus the effective nuclear charge increases from B to N and the electrons become
progressively harder to remove and Thus the first ionisation energy increases from B to N.
The electronic configurations of N and O must be considered more carefully:

1s 2s 2p
N ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑

O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

Note that in N the electron is removed from an unpaired orbital, but in O it is removed from a paired orbital. In a paired
orbital, the two electrons share a confined space and so repel each other. They are therefore less stable and easier to
remove. This repulsion effect reduces the higher effective nuclear charge in O.
Thus the first ionisation energy of O is lower than that of N. The first ionisation energies increase as expected from O to
Ne, due to the increase in effective nuclear charge.

So in period 2 the first ionisation energy increases across a period but two exceptions are seen,

I. the first ionisation energy of B is lower than that of Be

II. the first ionisation energy of O is lower than that of N

The same trend can also be found in Period 3 (Na - Ar). There is a general increase,
but a drop between Mg and Al and also between P and S.

Trend down a group

As you go down a group in the Periodic Table ionisation energies generally fall.

This is because the electron to be removed from the outer energy level is
increasingly distant from the nucleus, as a result the attraction of the nucleus for the
electron becomes less, and it becomes easier to pull electron away.

Electrons in the inner energy levels also produce a screening effect. These inner electrons reduce the attraction of the
nucleus for the outer electrons. The screening effect will increase as the number of inner energy levels increases.

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Successive Ionization Energy

The amount of energy needed for removing all the electrons (one by one) of a gaseous atom is known as successive
ionization energies. These are basically termed as 1st , 2nd, 3rd or 4th …… ionization energy and these depends
completely on the removal of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd electrons respectively.
1st ionization energy
• 2nd ioniza�on Energy: It is the energy needed to remove a second X →(g)X+ + (g)
e−
electron from each ion in 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to give gaseous
2nd ionization energy
2+ ions.
• 3rd ioniza�on Energy: It is the energy needed to remove a third X+ →(g)X2+ +(g)e−
electron from each ion in 1 mole of gaseous 2+ ions to give gaseous 3rd ionization energy
3+ ions.
X2+ → X(g)3+ + e(g)−

Finding electronic configuration of an element

Once you have removed the first electron you are left with a positive ion. Trying to remove a negative electron from a
positive ion is going to be more difficult than removing it from an atom. Removing an electron from a 2+ or 3+ (etc) ion is
going to be progressively more difficult. So the value of successive ionization energies increase. This increase in values
are very helpful in finding the electronic structure of atoms.

Table Shows the Successive ionization Energies of first 13 elements

Example:- Electronic Structure of Lithium from I.E

The successive ionization energies of Lithium are as

519 7300 11800

2s 1s 1s

This shows that there are three electrons, 1 in the outermost sub – shell and two in inner sub – shell. So the inner sub
shell is 1s and Outer sub shell is 2s. The electronic configuration will be as 1s2, 2s1.

This configuration also shows that there are two principal quantum shell as there is a big jump (multiples of 519) in values
from 519 to 7300.

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level
Example:- Electronic Structure of Aluminium from I.E
Consider the successive ionisa�on energies of Variation of ionisation energy with number of
aluminium. 1s22s22p63s23p1. Its shows that there are 13 ionisations for aluminium
electrons.
1000000
1stIE: 578 kJmol-1, 2ndIE: 1817 kJmol-1, 3rdIE: 2745 kJmol-1.

ionisation energy
These IE are closer to each other as 3 electrons are 100000

removed from third shell (i.e. 3s23p1) but there is a huge 10000

jump to the 4th ionisa�on energy , this shows that 1000

electrons from inner shell are removed. So a 2p electron
100
is now being removed. The shielding effect and distance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
of electron has fallen. number of ionisations

4th: 11578 kJmol-1, 5th: 14831 kJmol-1, 6th: 18378 kJmol-1 7th: 23296 kJmol-1, 8th: 27460 kJmol-1, 9th: 31862 kJmol-
1
10th: 38458kJmol-1, 11th: 42655 kJmol-1. From 4th to 11th , there is a smooth increase in IE, so these 8 electrons are
removed from same shell. There is a huge jump to the12th ionisa�on energy, and this show that electron removed
from further inner shell. This 12th electron is removed from 1s and 13th is also removed from 1s.

Variation of ionisation energy with number of

Example:- Electronic Structure of Silicon from I.E ionisations in silicon
There are two Large jumps
• 1st between 4th and 5th 1000000
ionisation energy

• 2nd between 12th and 13th. 100000

Therefore there are three shells: The first contains 2 10000

electrons, the second 8 and the third 4. The electronic
1000
configura�on is 1s22s22p63s23p2
100
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
number of ionisations

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry

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Atomic Structure As Level

Mubashir Sulehri [ 0322 4307040 ] O / AS / A – Level Chemistry