EPE2300

Control Engineering
Lecture 7: Routh Hurwitz and Root Locus Analysis of
Closed-Loop Systems
Dr. Khalid ABIDI
 Objectives
Students will be introduced to:
• The Routh-Hurwitz approach to determine stability of Control Systems.
• Basic Controller Design using Routh-Hurwitz approach.
• Root Locus analysis of Control Systems.
• Basic Controller Design using Root Locus approach.
 Stability
The most important problem in linear control systems concerns stability. That is,
under what conditions will a system become unstable? If it is unstable, how should
we stabilize the system? In previous lectures it was stated that a control system is
stable if and only if all closed-loop poles lie in the left-half s plane.

Stability was defined based on whether the system output converges to the target
reference or not. If the output diverges then the system is unstable. If it converges
then the system is stable.

Figure 1: Stable System Figure 2: Unstable System

 Stability
Mathematically speaking, if any system pole
jω
has a positive real part, then the system is
unstable. If all the system poles have
negative real parts, then the system is Stable Unstable
stable.
0 σ

Figure 1: Stability and instability regions on the s-

plane
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
Most linear closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the form
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝑏𝑏0 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛−1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠)
= 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛−1
=
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑎𝑎0 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠)

Routh’s stability criterion tells us whether there are unstable roots in a polynomial
equation or not without solving for them. This stability criterion applies to
polynomials with only a finite number of terms. When the criterion is applied to a
control system, information about absolute stability can be obtained directly from
the coefficients of the characteristic equation.
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
The procedure for Routh’s Stability Criterion is as follows:
1. Write the polynomial in 𝑠𝑠 in the following form:
𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑎0 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 0

2. If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one
positive coefficient, a root or roots exist that are imaginary or that have positive
real parts. Therefore, the system is not stable. If we are interested in only the
absolute stability, there is no need to follow the procedure further. Note that all
the coefficients must be positive. This is a necessary but not sufficient condition.
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
3. If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows
and columns according to the following pattern:
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎4 𝑎𝑎6 ⋯
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎5 𝑎𝑎7 ⋯
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3 𝑏𝑏4 ⋯
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−3 𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3 𝑐𝑐4 ⋯
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−4 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑3 𝑑𝑑4 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒2
𝑠𝑠1 𝑓𝑓1
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑔𝑔1
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total
number of rows is 𝑛𝑛 + 1.) The coefficients 𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑏𝑏3 , and so on, are evaluated as
follows:
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎3
𝑏𝑏1 =
𝑎𝑎1
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎4 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎5
𝑏𝑏2 =
𝑎𝑎1
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎6 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎7
𝑏𝑏3 =
𝑎𝑎1
⋮
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
The evaluation of the b’s is continued until the remaining ones are all zero. The
same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is
followed in evaluating the 𝑐𝑐’s, 𝑑𝑑’s, 𝑒𝑒’s, and so on. That is,
𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2
𝑐𝑐1 =
𝑏𝑏1
𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎5 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏3
𝑐𝑐2 =
𝑏𝑏1
𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎7 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏4
𝑐𝑐3 =
𝑏𝑏1
⋮
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
Routh’s stability criterion states that the number of 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎2 𝑎𝑎4 𝑎𝑎6 ⋯
roots of 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠) = 0 with positive real parts is equal to 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎3 𝑎𝑎5 𝑎𝑎7 ⋯
the number of changes in sign of the coefficients of
𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3 𝑏𝑏4 ⋯
the first column of the array. It should be noted that
the exact values of the terms in the first column need 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−3 𝑐𝑐1 𝑐𝑐2 𝑐𝑐3 𝑐𝑐4 ⋯
not be known; instead, only the signs are needed. 𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛−4 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑3 𝑑𝑑4 ⋯
The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
lie in the left-half 𝑠𝑠-plane is that all the coefficients of
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠) = 0 be positive and all terms in the first column 𝑠𝑠 2 𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒2
of the array have positive signs. 𝑠𝑠1 𝑓𝑓1
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑔𝑔1
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
Example: Check the stability of the system with the following characteristic
polynomial
𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 4 + 2𝑠𝑠 3 + 3𝑠𝑠 2 + 4𝑠𝑠 + 5

We start by looking at the coefficients of 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠). The coefficients are all

positive, therefore, we can proceed by constructing the table below:

𝑠𝑠 4 1 3 5
𝑠𝑠 3 2 4
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2
𝑠𝑠1 𝑐𝑐1
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑑𝑑1
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
The coefficients are evaluated as follows:
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎3 2 × 3 − 1 × 4
𝑏𝑏1 = = =1
𝑎𝑎1 2
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎4 − 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎5 2 × 5 − 1 × 0
𝑏𝑏2 = = =5
𝑎𝑎1 2
𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎1 1 × 4 − 2 × 5
𝑐𝑐1 = = = −6
𝑏𝑏1 1
𝑐𝑐1 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐2 −6 × 5 − 1 × 0
𝑑𝑑1 = = =5
𝑐𝑐1 −6
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
Therefore, the completed table is as follows

𝑠𝑠 4 1 3 5
𝑠𝑠 3 2 4
𝑠𝑠 2 1 5
𝑠𝑠1 −6
𝑠𝑠 0 5

When we go from the 3rd row to the 4th row the sign changes from positive to
negative and when we go from the 4th row to the 5th row the sign changes from
negative to positive. This means that there is a total of 2 sign changes and,
therefore, the system has two poles (roots) on the right-hand side of the 𝑠𝑠-plane.
Thus, the system is unstable.
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
In addition to analyzing the stability of a system, Routh’s Criterion can also be used
in Controller Design.

Example: Check the range of the parameter 𝑘𝑘 that will ensure the stability of the
system with the following block diagram

R(s) C(s)
k
+
– s(s2 + s + 1) (s + 2)
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
For this system, the Open-Loop TF is
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2
= 4
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 3 + 3𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠

Stability of the Closed-Loop System depends on the Closed-Loop TF not the Open-
Loop TF. The Closed-Loop TF is given as
𝐺𝐺OL (𝑠𝑠) 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = = 4
1 + 𝐺𝐺OL (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 3 + 3𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 𝑘𝑘

and the characteristic polynomial is given as

𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 4 + 3𝑠𝑠 3 + 3𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 𝑘𝑘
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
We start by looking at the coefficients of 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠). The coefficients are all positive if 𝑘𝑘 >
0. So, this gives us the first requirement on the parameter 𝑘𝑘. Let us now proceed
with the construction of the table

𝑠𝑠 4 1 3 𝑘𝑘
𝑠𝑠 3 3 2
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2
𝑠𝑠1 𝑐𝑐1
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑑𝑑1
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
The coefficients are evaluated as follows:

𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 −𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎3 3×3−1×2 7

𝑏𝑏1 = = =
𝑎𝑎1 3 3
𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎4 −𝑎𝑎0 𝑎𝑎5 3×𝑘𝑘−1×0
𝑏𝑏2 = = = 𝑘𝑘
𝑎𝑎1 3
7
𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎3 −𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎1 ×2−3×𝑘𝑘 9
3
𝑐𝑐1 = = 7 =2− 𝑘𝑘
𝑏𝑏1 7
3
9 7
𝑐𝑐1 𝑏𝑏2 −𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐2 2− 𝑘𝑘 ×𝑘𝑘− ×0
7 3
𝑑𝑑1 = = 9 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑐𝑐1 2− 𝑘𝑘
7
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
Therefore, the completed table is as follows:
𝑠𝑠 4 1 3 𝑘𝑘
𝑠𝑠 3 3 2
2
7
𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘
3
9
1 2 − 𝑘𝑘
𝑠𝑠
7
𝑠𝑠 0 𝑘𝑘
Note that in the 4th row, to ensure the coefficient is positive we must have
9 14
2 − 𝑘𝑘 > 0 → 𝑘𝑘 <
7 9
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
14
Thus, the coefficient 𝑘𝑘 must be smaller than . Note that initially it was found that
9
14
𝑘𝑘 > 0. Therefore, the allowable values for the parameter 𝑘𝑘 are 0 < 𝑘𝑘 < . Any
9
value of 𝑘𝑘 outside of this range will cause the system to be unstable.
 Root Locus Method
We have seen that using Routh’s Criterion it is possible to analyse the stability of
the system as well as to design the controller parameters to ensure stability.
However, knowing that the system is stable is not sufficient in controller design. In
addition to stability, knowledge of the performance characteristics (rise-time,
overshoot, etc.) is necessary. Therefore, another approach to analyse the stability is
used that will allow us to assess the stability of the system as well as the
performance characteristics of the system. This approach is called the Root Locus
Method.
 Root Locus Method
The Root Locus is defined as the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter is changed.
Response depends on the system and controller parameters. The task is to design
the controller parameter(s) such that the system performance is satisfactory.
 Root Locus Method
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) +_
𝐶𝐶(𝑆𝑆)
𝐾𝐾 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) 10
jω
8

𝑘𝑘 2
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = X0
σ

𝑠𝑠 + 1 0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = -4

𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 𝑘𝑘 -6

Pole when 𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 -8

-10
we have 𝒔𝒔 = −𝟏𝟏 − 𝒌𝒌 • Root locus starts from the Open Loop
As gain 𝒌𝒌 increases the pole moves pole location.
further in the negative x-direction • Ends at 𝑠𝑠 = −∞
 Root Locus Method
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) +_
𝐶𝐶(𝑆𝑆)
𝐾𝐾 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) 6
jω

2
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 X-2 X-1
σ

𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 0
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0 0.5

-2

Pole when 𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 -4

−𝟑𝟑 ± 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌)

𝒔𝒔 = -6

𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏
Thus, we have two real poles until
𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 < (𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌)) i.e. 𝑘𝑘 > 0.25
 Root Locus Method
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) +_
𝐶𝐶(𝑆𝑆)
𝐾𝐾 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
6
jω

𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 2

𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 σ
0
-2.5 -2
X
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5

Pole when 𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 -2

−𝟑𝟑 ± 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌) -4

𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏 -6

Thus, we have two real poles until

𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 < (𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌)) i.e. 𝑘𝑘 > 0.25
After that we have −ve number
and the pole becomes complex.
 Root Locus Method
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) +_
𝐶𝐶(𝑆𝑆)
𝐾𝐾 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
6
jω

𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 2

𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 σ
0
-2.5
X-2 -1.5
X-1 -0.5 0 0.5

Pole when 𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 -2

−𝟑𝟑 ± 𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌) -4

𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏 -6

Thus, we have two real poles until • Starts from the OL pole location.
𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 < (𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟏 × (𝟐𝟐 + 𝒌𝒌)) i.e. 𝑘𝑘 > 0.25 • Collides at a point.
After that we have −ve number • Moves on a straight line perpendicular
and the pole becomes complex. to the real axis and ends at -1.5 ±j∞
 Root Locus Method: Examples
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘
Root Locus
5
CE: 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0

1. Starts from the OL pole location.

Imaginary Axis
2. OL pole is already complex, no change in real 0

component.
3. Moves on a straight line perpendicular to the
real axis.
4. Symmetrical with respect to the real axis -5
-1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0

5. Ends at −1±𝑗𝑗∞ Real Axis

 Root Locus Method: Examples
𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 3
𝑠𝑠 + 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 6
𝑘𝑘 Root Locus

𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 3 5

𝑠𝑠 + 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 6 + 𝑘𝑘 4

3
CE: 𝑠𝑠 3 + 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 6 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 2

1
1. Two poles collide and then they follow an

Imaginary Axis
0

asymptote which is not perpendicular to the real -1

axis. -2

-3
2. Symmetrical with respect to the real axis -4

3. The other pole goes to - ∞ -5

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
 Root Locus Method: Examples
𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 2
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 3
𝑠𝑠 + 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 6
𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺CL 𝑠𝑠 = 3 Root Locus

𝑠𝑠 + 6 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 2 + 11 + 2𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 + 6 + 2𝑘𝑘 1

CE: 𝑠𝑠 3 + 6 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 2 + 11 + 2𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 + 6 + 2𝑘𝑘 = 0

0.5

1. Starts from the OL pole location.

Imaginary Axis
2. Two poles collide and then they follow an
0

asymptote which -0.5

3. is not perpendicular to the real axis.

4. They do not diverge to infinity but converge to
-1

the two complex zeros. -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2

Real Axis
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0

5. Symmetrical with respect to the real axis

6. The other pole goes to -∞
 Root Locus Method
We seem to have root loci that:
Root Locus
5

• Are symmetrical about the real axis 3

• Indicate that poles head toward +/- infinity

1

Imaginary Axis
0

• Have poles which tend toward an asymptote

-1

-2

-3

• And the poles terminate at the open-loop -4

zeros. -5
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
Real Axis
-2 -1 0 1

Root Locus

0.5

Imaginary Axis
0

-0.5

-1

-4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0

Real Axis
 Root Locus Method
• Transient response of CL system is closely related to location of CL poles.
• Variable gain 𝒌𝒌 will alter position of the poles. Therefore, alter the dynamics of the system.
• Need to know how poles move to design system.
• Poles determined by characteristic equation.
• Alter 𝑘𝑘, then alter CE – repetitive calculation of roots.
• Graphical rules do exist to plot the trajectory or locus of the roots.
 Root Locus Method
Root locus method is a plot of the loci of the poles of a closed loop system as the
proportional gain 𝑘𝑘 is varied from 𝑘𝑘 = 0 to 𝑘𝑘 = ∞.

The loci are plotted by hand or using a computer aided tool (Matlab >> rlocus(𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ,
𝐷𝐷𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ))
𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺
𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = = + 𝑘𝑘 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
1 + 𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 1 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷 + 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻 -
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷
𝐻𝐻
𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻
= ⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶: 𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻 + 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻 = 0 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻 +𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝐻𝐻

𝑘𝑘=0
⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶: 𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻 = 0 which gives the poles of 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)
Root Locus Method
Notation used for Root Locus plots

“x” => OL poles.

“o” => OL zeros
“□” => CL poles.
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
= ⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶: 1 + 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 0 ⇔ 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = −1
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠)

Magnitude criteria Angle criteria

𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = 1 arg 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) = −1 = ±180 2𝑛𝑛 + 1 , 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3.....

𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑧𝑧1 s
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑝3 A3 θ3

arg( 𝑠𝑠) = −𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝜃𝜃3 + 𝜑𝜑1 B1

p3
= ±180 2𝑛𝑛 + 1 , 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3..... A1
φ1 θ1
𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵1
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = =1 z1 p1
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴3

A2 θ2
Every point (on RL) satisfies these two criteria.
p2
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
Example: For this system
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝐺𝐺OL 𝑠𝑠 = 2 ⇒ 𝐺𝐺CL = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘
Check if the points 𝑠𝑠 = −1.8 ± 1.5𝑗𝑗 and 𝑠𝑠 = −1.5 ± 1.5𝑗𝑗 are on the RL.

The poles of the OL are found by solving 𝑠𝑠 2 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑝𝑝1 = −1 & 𝑝𝑝2 = −2.
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
We can sketch the OL poles on the complex plane as well as plot the point of
interest as shown in the figure below:
s = − x ± 1.5 j

A2
A1
θ2 θ1

p2 p1

We need to determine the angles 𝜃𝜃1 , 𝜃𝜃2 and the segments 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 .
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
s = − x ± 1.5 j s=
s =−x ± 1.5j
−2± xj

A2 1 .5
1.5
A1
θ1 θ2

s = −x s = −1 s = −2 s = −x

x −1

2−x

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

tan 180 − 𝜃𝜃1 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃1 = 180 − atan tan 𝜃𝜃2 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃2 = atan
𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥

𝐴𝐴1 = 1. 52 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 𝐴𝐴2 = 1. 52 + 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
To check the angle condition, we can use the formula

� 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = ±180 2𝑛𝑛 + 1

For
𝑠𝑠 = −1.8 ± 1.5𝑗𝑗
1.5 1.5
𝜃𝜃1 = 180 − atan = 118.07o and 𝜃𝜃2 = atan = 82.40o
1.8−1 2−1.8

𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 − 0
� = 118.07o + 82.40o = 200.47o ≠ 180o
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
To check the angle condition, we can use the formula

� 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − � 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = ±180 2𝑛𝑛 + 1

For
𝑠𝑠 = −1.5 ± 1.5𝑗𝑗
1.5 1.5
𝜃𝜃1 = 180 − atan = 108.43o and 𝜃𝜃2 = atan = 71.56o
1.5−1 2−1.5

𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 − 0
� = 108.43o + 71.56o ≈ 180o
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

𝐴𝐴1 = 1. 52 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 = 1. 52 + 1.5 − 1 2 = 1.58 𝑘𝑘

= 1 ⇒ 𝑘𝑘 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 = 2.5
𝐴𝐴2 = 1. 52 + 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 = 1. 52 + 2 − 1.5 2 = 1.58 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

Point -1.5±1.5j exists on the root locus for a gain of 𝒌𝒌 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓

 Root Locus Method
Before we learn the basic steps of drawing a root locus, we need to know some
basic definitions and terms related to Root Locus:
• Branches: Branches are the paths that individual closed-loop poles move on as
the gain k is varied. Each branch starts from an open-loop pole and ends at an
open-loop zero or infinity. The number of branches are equal to the number of
open-loop poles (𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 ). The number of branches that end at the open-loop zeros
are equal to the number of open-loop zeros (𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 ).
• Asymptotes: Branches that don’t end at an open-loop zero will go towards
infinity. The direction those branches take to infinity are specified by the
Asymptotes. Each branch (that ends at infinity) will have its own Asymptote. The
number of branches that go towards infinity is 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 − 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 .
 Root Locus Method
• Break-in/Break-away points: Branches that start on the real-axis may leave the
real-axis at some point that is called the Break-away point. Branches that are not
on the real-axis may intersect with the real-axis at some point that is called the
Break-in point.
• Angle of departure/arrival: The angle at which a branch starts from an Open-
Loop pole is called Angle of departure. The angle at which a branch ends at an
open-loop zero is called Angle of arrival.
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏)(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐) Even number Odd number
1. Plot the open loop poles and zeros on r.h.s on r.h.s
2
• Poles @ s=0,-1,-2, np=3, nz=0
• No. of branches = np=3
• No. of asymptotes = np-nz=3 1

2. Determine the break away/in points σ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- = 0 (poles/zeros on real axis) -1.5 -0.42
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
-3
X-2 X-1 0
X0 1
• 𝐶𝐶. 𝐸𝐸. = 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0
• 𝑘𝑘 = −𝑠𝑠 3 − 3𝑠𝑠 2 − 2𝑠𝑠
-1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• = −3𝑠𝑠 2 − 6𝑠𝑠 − 2 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• ∴ 𝑠𝑠 = −1.5, −0.42 -2

• Angle criteria to select the point

• Only S=-0.42 exists on the root loci
-3
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏)(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐)
4. Asymptotes (If np= nz then skip)
2

• Number of asymptotes:
np-nz=3
• Angle between asymptotes and real 1

(2𝑛𝑛+1)
axis: × 1800 where 180° σ
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 −𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧
60°
n=0,1,2…..
-3
X-2 X-1 -0.42
0
X0 1
Angles: 60°, 180°, 300°, 60°…. 300°

• Asymptotes intersect the real axis at:

∑ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−∑ 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 -1
𝑠𝑠 =
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 −𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧
0−1−2
𝑠𝑠 = = −𝟏𝟏 -2
3

-3
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏)(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐)
5. Intersection with imaginary axis:
2
𝐶𝐶. 𝐸𝐸. = 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑠𝑠 3 + 3𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 j1.4
Intersection with IM axis at 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 1

Sub into C.E:

σ
−𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔3 − 3𝜔𝜔2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0
0
𝜔𝜔 = 0 -3 -2 -1 -0.42 0 1
IM: −𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔3 + 2𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 = 0 ⇒ �
𝜔𝜔 = 1.4
Sub 𝜔𝜔 = 1.4 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 3𝜔𝜔2 + 𝑘𝑘 = 0 -1

So 𝑘𝑘 = 6 - j1.4

-2

-3
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
Using MATLAB
>> N=[1];D=[1 3 2 0]; rlocus(N,D)
Root Locus
4

3
Imaginary Axis 2

-1

-2

-3

-4
-6 -4 -2 0 2
Real Axis
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐) 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐 , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑 Odd number
1. Plot the open loop poles and zeros on r.h.s
2

• 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 @ 𝒔𝒔 = −𝟐𝟐
• 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 @ 𝒔𝒔 = −𝟏𝟏 ± 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 X j1.41

-3
o-2 -1
0
0 1

2. Determine the root loci on the real axis using the RL can exist only
angle criteria. here on real axis -1

X - j1.41

-2

-3
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐) 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐 , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑
3. Determine the break away point
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• 𝐶𝐶. 𝐸𝐸. = 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3 = 0
X j1.41

1
−𝑠𝑠 2 −2𝑠𝑠−3
• 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑠𝑠+2
σ
duv − udv -3.73 -0.268
d u ds ds o-2
• Use = 2
0
ds v v -3 -1 0 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+2 − 𝑠𝑠 2 +2𝑠𝑠+3

• =− =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+2
-1
2
• 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠 + 2 − 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3 =0
X - j1.41
𝒔𝒔 = −𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
• 𝑠𝑠 2 + 4𝑠𝑠 + 1 = 0 ⇒ �
𝑠𝑠 = −0.268 -2

-3
 Root Locus Method: Example
𝒌𝒌(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐) 3 jω
𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐 , 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑
4. Determine the angle of departure of the complex
poles θ
2

• 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 2
= 54.7° X j1.41
1
1
• Using the angle critera:
• ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 1800 φ
σ

• 90 + 𝜃𝜃 − 54.7 = 180 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕 -3

o-2 -1
0
0 1

-1
90°
X - j1.41

-2

-3
 Angle & Magnitude Conditions
Using MATLAB
>> N=[1 2];D=[1 2 3]; rlocus(N,D) Root Locus
2

1.5

Imaginary Axis 1

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis
 Root Locus Method: Summary
1. The branches are always symmetric with the 6. According the angle criterion, a root locus
real axis. exists on the real axis if the number of poles
and zeros to the right is odd.
2. The number of branches equal the number
of OL loop poles. 7. The break in and break out points occur when
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3. Every branch starts from an OL pole (k=0) =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and ends at an OL zero (k=∞). If there are 8. The intersection with the imaginary axis
more poles than zeros we assume there are occurs at 𝑠𝑠 = ±𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗. Substitute this into the
imaginary zeros at ∞. CE.
4. There are np-nz asymptotes which intersect 9. Departure/Arrival angle from/to a complex
the real axis at pole/zero is found by using the angle criterion
∑ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−∑ 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 1800
𝑠𝑠 =
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 −𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧

5. The angle between the asymptotes and the

(2𝑛𝑛+1)
real axis is × 1800
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 −𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧
 Root Locus Method: Tutorial
The system shown in figure 2 is controlled by a proportional controller with gain KP;
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝟏𝟏 𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠)
+ 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 𝟐𝟐
(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟒𝟒)(𝒔𝒔 + 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)
-

Figure 2.

a) At what value of proportional gain 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 is this system marginally stable?

[5 marks]
b) Using the root locus method plot the trajectory of the closed loop poles as the
proportional gain 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 is varied.
[10 marks]