Chapter 3- Climate Adaptation and Climate Mitigation

a. Climate Adaptation Vs Climate Mitigation

b. Philippine Strategy on Climate Adaptation
c. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Food and Agricultural Sector
d. International Initiative to Support Climate Change Mitigation
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Distinguish Climate Adaptation to Climate Mitigation
2. Explain the different strategies of the Philippines on Climate Adaptation
3. Discuss Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Food and Agricultural Sector
4. Discuss the International Initiative to Support Climate Change Mitigation

A. Climate Adaptation Vs Climate Mitigation

Climate Adaptation means anticipating the adverse effects of climate change and taking
appropriate action to prevent or minimize the damage they can cause, or taking advantage of
opportunities that may arise. Examples of adaptation measures include large-scale
infrastructure changes, such as building defenses to protect against sea-level rise, as well
behavioral shifts, such as individuals reducing their food waste. In essence, adaptation can be
understood as the process of adjusting to the current and future effects of climate change.
Climate Mitigation means making the impacts of climate change less severe by preventing or
reducing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. Mitigation is
achieved either by reducing the sources of these gases — e.g. by increasing the share of
renewable energies, or establishing a cleaner mobility system — or by enhancing the storage
of these gases — e.g. by increasing the size of forests. In short, mitigation is a human
intervention
that reduces
the sources of
GHG emissions and/or
enhances the sinks.
B. Philippine Strategy on Climate Adaptation
The formulation of the Philippine Strategy on Climate Change Adaptation builds on existing
institutional processes but gives strong emphasis on collaboration among national agencies,
the legislative branch, the academe, business and civil society. Eight technical working groups
were organized to tackle needs and concerns in eight major sectors, namely Agriculture,
Biodiversity; Coastal and Marine; Forestry; Water; Health; Energy; and Infrastructure.
Sector 1: The Agriculture Sector
Agriculture comprises about one-fifth of the Philippine economy, translating to 18 percent of
the country’s gross domestic product. The Bureau of Agricultural Statistics of the Department
of Agriculture reports that in 2008, the sector provided food and livelihood through the
production of 16.82 million metric tons (MT) of rice, 6.93 million MT of corn, 57.75 million
MT of other crops, 4.04 thousand MT of livestock and poultry, and 4.97 million MT of fish. The
sector generates about a third of the country’s total employment. Rice, corn and coconut
practically occupy almost 80 percent of the best arable lands which are generally cultivated
by poor, climate-vulnerable small farmers.
Almost half of these lands are suffering from degrees of soil erosion and land degradation,
which leads to higher requirement for oil-based farm inputs. Studies conducted by the Bureau
of Soil and Water Management indicate that major crops are suffering from serious soil
fertility depletion caused by soil erosion. This is especially true for corn and coconut.
The Agriculture Sector Technical Working Group
The Agriculture Technical Working Group on Climate Change Adaptation is developing
strategies through a series of multi-stakeholder consultations for sustainable agriculture and
natural resources management for agrobiodiversity conservation. The Department of
Agriculture, together with the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement (PRRM), leads this
collaborative process guided by the imperative of increasing resilience, self-reliance and
adaptive capacity of agriculture and its natural resources. The strategies will be developed
along the four key areas of capacity building to build:
1. Resilience into agriculture systems;
2. Research, development and extension to enhance the sector’s capacity to respond to
climate change;
3. Awareness and communication to inform decision making by farmers and rural
communities; and
4. Linking with mitigation strategies to reduce both climate related-risks and green house gas
emission of agriculture.
The proposed adaptation strategies will integrate climate-related risks with disaster risk
management at the local and national levels within the context of decentralization. They hope
to achieve an ecology and climate proofed production and sustainable food management
system and create well-informed, climate-resilient and food and income-secured farming and
rural communities.
Sector 2: Biodiversity
The Philippines is one of the 18 “mega” biodiversity countries in the world because of its
geographic location, diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. It ranks fifth in terms of
diversity in plant species and fourth in bird endemism. About 25 genera of plants and 49
percent of wildlife are endemic to the country. Furthermore, inland waters host 121 endemic
and 76 threatened freshwater species. There are two main types of threats to biodiversity: 1.
Human induced and direct stresses on species and ecosystem diversity; and 2. Climate change
stresses and impacts.
At present, the rich biodiversity resources of the country are threatened by forest clearing
and encroachment of agriculture, mining, rapid and widespread expansion of settlements and
urban development, water and air pollution, destructive fishing methods and other
environmentally unsound economic activities and physical development.
The Biodiversity Sector Technical Working Group
Recognizing the current issues and gaps in the sector, the Biodiversity Technical Working
Group on Climate Change Adaptation chaired by the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau of
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and co-chaired by the University of
the Philippines Institute of Biology, is leading the development of adaptation strategies that
that would minimize, if not prevent, the adverse impacts of climate change on species and
ecosystem diversity. The strategies would include developing vulnerability and risk
assessment models on climate change impacts on biodiversity, assessing vulnerability of
species and ecosystems and preparing adaptation plans and programs. The Biodiversity TWG
seeks to mainstream the biodiversity adaptation strategies to climate change in policies, plans
and programs of national and local government agencies.
Sector 3: Coastal and Marine
The Philippines, being an archipelago divided into numerous islands and islets, has a long
coastline. Internal seas and large oceans are a prominent geographic feature of the country.
Coastal and marine ecosystems of the country consist of beaches, mangrove forests, coral
reefs, seagrass beds, soft-bottom communities, open marine waters and small islands.
ng of beaches for minerals threatens to destroy considerable beach areas. Such disturbances
have reduced the capacity of these ecosystems to buffer strong wave action and storm surges
brought about by climate change. Reduction of mangrove areas has further compromised
their ecological function of support for fishery production and of serving as habitats for both
marine and terrestrial biodiversity. Sea grass beds and coral reefs have been subjected to
direct human disturbances through destructive fishing methods and other human activities.
All coastal ecosystems have suffered from pollution, including sediments from uplands due to
land erosion resulting from loss of forest cover, and also from dredging and land reclamation
in coastal areas.
The Coastal and Marine Sector Technical Working Group
The Coastal and Marine Management Office under the Protected Area and Wildlife Bureau of
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, supported by key stakeholders from
the academe, non-government organizations and other government agencies, is looking at
the development of adaptation strategies that will identify management actions to improve
the resilience of biological and ecological systems of the sector against the impacts of climate
change.
This area needs much research because the tolerance limits of marine species to changes in
their environment are still largely unknown. The methodology to determine the
vulnerabilities of the coastal and marine sector in the difference parts of the country also
needs to be defined. Other responses would be interventions that lessen negative physical
effects, such as direct effects of storm surges on coastal land areas and salt water intrusion
into land.
Sector 4: Energy
The main concern of the Philippine energy sector about climate change relates to its mandate
of ensuring adequate supply of oil, power and gas for domestic, transport and industrial use
to drive the country’s economy. The starting point for energy-related climate change policy is
confronting the country’s current reliance on fossil fuels to generate power and to run
machines for transport and manufacturing.
The Philippine energy sector faces two main challenges as a result of the changing climate.
One is responding to the increase in energy demand as a result of increasing temperatures
(Air-conditioning systems are the main driver of increased demand in electricity). The second
challenge is the ability of energy infrastructure (e.g. power plants, refineries, depots,
transmission and distribution system) to adapt to changing climatic conditions.
The Energy Sector Technical Working Group
The key themes for the energy sector’s adaptation to climate change are in the fields of power
generation and energy efficiency and conservation. The Department of Energy, which chairs
the Energy Technical Working Group, will focus on the development of renewal energy and
less on fossil fuels. Energy efficiency and conservation are just as important as seeking
alternative power for transport and manufacturing such as natural gas and electricity. . This
key policy concern is a promising area of development because the country is endowed with
renewable energy.
Sector 5: Forestry
Forests are indispensable to society. Their various ecosystems are vital to human survival and
stability of cultures, supporting and regulating environmental processes including the
maintenance and regeneration of biodiversity, soil formation and nutrient cycling, crop
pollination, infiltration of water, and enhancement of microclimate.
Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere that cause global warming. Furthermore, they erode the various ecosystem
services; destroy biodiversity; eliminate livelihoods; and are often cited, rightly or wrongly, as
the cause of floods and landslides whenever such calamities occur.
The Forestry Sector Technical Working Group
The Forestry Sector Technical Working Group is working on a strategic adaptation program
that would assist local communities, specifically barangays situated inside or adjacent to
forests, in forming their Barangay Forestry Organization (BFO) and managing on a sustainable
basis the part of forest ecosystems that fall in their territory.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) will formulate together with
stakeholders a climate-smart Management Framework Plan (MFP) for SDUs, while local
governments will work with their barangays on climate-smart Forest Management Plans
(FMP) with DENR providing technical support. FMU management by BFOs would be
monitored and controlled internally by LGUs and externally by DENR through accredited third-
party certifiers formed by academic institutions, NGOs, and private professional groups.
Sector 6: Health
The impacts of climate change have far-reaching consequences on human health and survival.
Climate change knows no country boundaries and thus will affect those that are more
vulnerable – health wise. It will significantly contribute to the global burden of disease and
may wipe out any health gains that development may afford. Direct effects of climate change
on health come from variable climate events such as floods and heat waves which may cause
death.
In climate change, diseases, disabilities and deaths are brought about extremes of climate
variation as they interplay with the disease occurrence triad. Their frequency and severity
mark the intensity by which diseases can be expressed when human populations are
vulnerable and at risk.
The Health Sector Technical Working Group
The Health Technical Working Group is tasked to come up with adaptation strategies that will
frame the current response to health and climate change. This is expected to result in
improving health outcomes as a tool for poverty alleviation; the fulfilment of the Millennium
Development Goals for health, and healthy communities resilient to climate change.
Sector 7: Infrastructure
Infrastructure refers to structures that cater to the needs of transportation, communication,
agriculture, water supply, storm water and flooding, health, energy and investments in public
and private buildings of all types.
Infrastructures are directly exposed to climate change. Prolonged and frequent rainfall, strong
winds, temperature variations (extreme heat and cold) among others can lead to accelerated
structural fatigue and materials failure, as well as greater demands on flood control and
drainage, construction, and operation and maintenance needs.
The Infrastructure Sector Technical Working Group
Infrastructure cuts across the concerns of other sectors such as settlements, water,
biodiversity, energy, and health. For example, improperly planned transportation systems
such as roads and bridges, runways, ports and harbors and railways may affect biodiversity
and natural infrastructure such as rivers and wetlands and may result in displacement of
settlements and changes in land use. Energy sector infrastructure such as power gridlines,
power plants, and hydropower dams will have impacts on the use of water competing with
agriculture, water supply for domestic and commercial use, recreation and flood control.
Sector 8: Water
Current issues on climate change inevitably will have to adequately tackle water. It is the key
medium that will link the rise in temperature to the physical and human systems. Through the
alteration of the hydrologic cycle, water is the first element by which climate changes are
manifested. The warming of the atmosphere and oceans will change major weather systems
and consequently alter the temporal and spatial patterns of rainfall, resulting in greater
likelihood of extreme droughts and floods in different parts of the world.
The national and local capacities in climate change adaptation and integrated water resources
management remain inadequate for supporting a management framework and potential
adaptation strategy. The gap in research on water resources supply and demand is also
reflected in the lack of updated scientific information in the sector. This leads to conflicts in
the implementation of water resources policy (e.g. awarding water use rights) and poor
regulation of resource use and development.
The Water Sector Technical Working Group
The National Water Resources Board, supported by the Philippine Network on Climate
Change, leads the sector’s stakeholders in developing strategies to build adaptive capacity on
integrated water resources management for climate change adaptation at the national and
local levels. This comprises significant actions to identify and fill knowledge gaps to enable
effective adaptation action at all levels.
 C. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Food and Agricultural Sector

Maintaining food security in a changing climate

Many countries worldwide are facing food crises due to conflict and disasters, while food security
is being adversely affected by unprecedented price hikes for basic food, driven by historically low
food stocks, high oil prices and growing demand for agro-fuels, and droughts and floods linked to
climate change. High international cereal prices have already sparked food riots in several
countries. In addition, rural people (who feed the cities) are now, for the first time, less numerous
than city dwellers and developing countries are becoming major emitters of greenhouse gases.
Many traditional equilibriums are changing, such as those between food crops and energy crops
and cultivated lands and rangelands, as is the nature of conflicts in general. These changing
equilibriums are, and will be, affected by changing climate, resulting in changed and additional
vulnerability patterns.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that during the next decades,
billions of people, particularly those in developing countries, will face changes in rainfall patterns
that will contribute to severe water shortages or flooding, and rising temperatures that will cause
shifts in crop growing seasons. This will increase food shortages and distribution of disease
vectors, putting populations at greater health and life risks. The predicted temperature rise of 1
to 2.5o C by 2030 will have serious effects, including reduced crop yield in tropical areas. The
impact of a single climate-, water- or weather-related disaster can wipe out years of gains in
economic development. Climate change will result in additional food insecurities, particularly for
the resource poor in developing countries who cannot meet their food requirements through
market access. Communities must protect themselves against the possibility of food-shortage
emergencies through appropriate use of resources in order to preserve livelihoods as well as lives
and property. It is imperative to identify and institutionalize mechanisms that enable the most
vulnerable to cope with climate change impacts. This requires collaborative thinking and
responses to the issues generated by the interaction of food security, climate change and
sustainable development.
Impacts and vulnerability
Impacts of climate change on food security are global and local. Climate change will affect
agricultural food systems in all countries, including exporters and importers as well as those at
subsistence level. Changes in mean rainfall and temperate as well as the increase in extreme
events will affect agriculture, livestock, forestry as well as fisheries. Many impacts, such as
increased land degradation and soil erosion, changes in water availability, biodiversity loss, more
frequent and more intense pest and disease outbreaks as well as disasters need to be addressed
across sectors.
Climate change impacts on food security
FAO defines food security in four dimensions, namely food availability, access to food, stability of
food supply and utilization of food (see Definitions in Annex 1). This goes far beyond food
production. In the short term, socio-economic factors such as those linked with market forces
may dominate food security. However, in terms of the long-term stability and sustainability of
food production and food supply, environmental factors become crucial. Although there will be
some positive impacts, the following list illustrates that climate change will have mostly negative
effects on the food security dimensions:
• availability of food – will be reduced by a drop in food production caused by extreme events,
changes in the suitability or availability of arable land and water, and the unavailability or lack of
access to crops, crop varieties and animal breeds that can be productive in conditions have lead
to changes in pests and diseases;
• access to food – will be worsened by climate change events that lead to damages in
infrastructure and losses of livelihood assets as well as loss of income and employment
opportunities;
• stability of food supply – could be influenced by food price fluctuations and a higher
dependency on imports and food aid;
• utilization of food – can be affected indirectly by food safety hazards associated with pests and
animal diseases as well as the increased presence of human diseases such as malaria and
diarrhoea.
Mitigation in the natural resources sector should focus on its five major sectors, namely:
livestock, forestry, rangeland, agriculture and fisheries. The classical mitigation options in the
agricultural sector at large include forest-related measures of reducing deforestation and
forest degradation and increasing afforestation and reforestation, along with forest
management interventions to maintain or increase forest carbon density, and efforts to
increase carbon stocks in wood products and enhance fuel substitution.

Sector Key mitigation technologies and Environmentally effective

practices currently commercially policies, measures and
available. instruments
Agriculture Improved crop and grazing land Financial incentives and
management to increase soil carbon regulations for improving land
storage; restoration of cultivated peaty management, maintaining soil
soils and degraded lands; improved rice carbon content, and making
cultivation techniques and livestock and efficient use of fertilizers and
manure management to reduce CH4 irrigation.
emissions; improved nitrogen fertilizer
application techniques to reduce N2O
emissions; dedicated energy crops to
 replace fossil fuel use; improved energy
efficiency; mulch farming, conservation
tillage, cover cropping and recycling of
bio-solids.
Forestry Afforestation; reforestation; forest Financial incentives (national
management; reduced deforestation; and international) to increase
harvested wood product management; forest area, reduce
use of forest products for bioenergy to deforestation and maintain and
replace fossil fuel use. By 2030, forest manage forests; land-use
mitigation technologies will include: regulation and enforcement.
tree species improvement to increase
biomass productivity and carbon
sequestration. Improved remote
sensing technologies for analysis of
vegetation and soil carbon
sequestration potential, and mapping
land-use change.

D. International Initiative Support to Climate Change Mitigation

U.S. Department of State - Office of Global Climate Change
The Office of Global Change is responsible for implementing and managing U.S. international
policy on climate change. It represents the U.S. in negotiations under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, and several other international climate change
forums.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The UNFCCC commits signatories' governments to reduce atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) with the goal of preventing dangerous anthropogenic interference with
Earth's climate system. There are over 190 parties to this treaty, including the U.S.
The Paris Agreement (Accord de Paris)
Adopted by consensus in December 2015, the Paris Agreement is an agreement within the
UNFCCC that deals with GHG emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance beginning in 2020. It
aims to respond to the global climate change threat by keeping a global temperature rise well
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
Kyoto Protocol, 2005.
The Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005, was the first legally binding
climate treaty. It required developed countries to reduce emissions by an average of 5 percent
below 1990 levels, and established a system to monitor countries’ progress. But the treaty did
not compel developing countries, including major carbon emitters China and India, to take action.
The United States signed the agreement in 1998 but never ratified it and later withdrew its
signature.
Montreal Protocol, 1987.
Though not intended to tackle climate change, the Montreal Protocol was a historic
environmental accord that became a model for future diplomacy on the issue. Every country in
the world eventually ratified the treaty, which required them to stop producing substances that
damage the ozone layer, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The protocol has succeeded in
eliminating nearly 99 percent of these ozone-depleting substances. In 2016, parties agreed via
the Kigali Amendment to also reduce their production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), powerful
greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change.