Visual Basic Tutorial-1

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Visual Programming Language
Visual programming language is a programming language that uses graphical elements and
figures to develop a program. Visual Programming Language employs techniques to design a
software program in two or more dimensions, and includes graphical elements, text, symbols and
icons within its programming context. Visual programming language is also known as
executable graphics language. Visual programming language enables the development of
software programs by eliminating textual software code with a series of visual graphics elements.
VPL incorporates these graphical elements as the primary context of the language arranged in a
systematic order. The graphics or icons included within a visual program serve as input,
activities, connections and/or output of the program. Visual language has a few types, such as
icon-based languages, diagramming languages and form-based language. Visual languages
should not be confused with GUI-based programming language as they only provide graphical
program authoring services. However, their code/context is completely textual.
Visual Programming
Visual programming is the creation of a computer program by utilizing pictorial elements.
Traditionally, a program is a sequence of text statements used to achieve a certain result or solve
some problem. Programming languages often have particular ways of representing the work to
be done thus leading to complexity. Visual programming attempts to make the creation of
programs simpler.
Advantages of visual programming
Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

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i. The structure of the visual programming is very simple, particularly as to the executable
code.
ii. Visual programming is not only a language but primarily an integrated, interactive
development environment
iii. The Visual programming IDE supports rapid application development. It is particularly
easy to develop graphical user interfaces and to connect them to handler functions
provided by the application.
ivThe graphical user interface of the Visual programming IDE provides a naturally appealing
views for the management of the program structure in the large and the various types of
entities.
iv. Visual programming provides a comprehensive interactive
Disadvantages of visual programming
i. Programs written in Visual basic cannot, easily, be transferred to other operating
systems.
ii. It is impossible to initialize an array of structures in Visual programming.
Features of visual programming
 Allows you to quickly and easily develop a bank of visual controls with sliders, switches
and meters or a complex form for a user to fill out.
 Flexible
 Easily and quickly learned

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 Visual programming is a Graphical User Interface (GUI) language. This means that a
Visual programming program will always show something on the screen that the user can
interact with.
 Modularization
Instead of thinking of a computer program as a single large collection of code, the good
programmer writes code so that you never need to look at more code than fits on the
screen (or page) at one time.
Examples of visual programming languages
 Visual basic
 Visual C++
 Delphi
Software considerations for visual programming
Ease of Learning
Clearly, the easier that the programming language is to learn, the quicker that programmers
become productive. Java is a lot easier to learn than C++; C is probably even easier. But you
learn once and program for a long time, so that ease of learning is of only limited value.
Ease of Understanding
Most code is written once and read many times usually, to focus on a particular point. Thus, it is
important that the reader quickly grasp the essence of what’s happening.

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Speed of Development
If you look at speed of development in the round, you must consider not only how long it takes
you to write code, but also how long it takes you to find a solution to the problem at hand and
find the bugs.
Help with Enforcement of Correct Code
The ideal programming language should turn logic errors into syntax errors. A powerful means
to this end is type checking. Most standard languages, such as Java and COBOL, have good type
checking. But some languages have an escape clause.
Supported Platform Environments
By platform environment, I mean not only the operating-system facilities, but also the
middleware facilities, database facilities, and system-management facilities.
Hardware considerations for visual programming
 User friendly
 Compatibility
 Portability

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Description of visual environment
Visual Basic is a programming language and development environment created by Microsoft
Corporation. It is an extension of the BASIC programming language that combines BASIC
functions and commands with visual controls. Visual Basic provides a graphical user interface
(GUI) that allows the developer to drag and drop objects into the program as well as manually
write program code.
Visual Basic is an event driven programming language. This simply means that the applications
that are developed using Visual Basic, much like any other windows applications, will act upon
the users actions (event procedures) such as Click, DoubleClick, DragDrop, MouseDown.
Whenever you want the control in your application to respond to an event, you put the
instructions in the appropriate event procedure. Of course the user does not initiate all the events.
Sometimes events are consequence of other events. For example as you start an application the
main Form is loaded in the memory and shows up on the screen. This is a Form_Load event,
which simply means that the Load event procedure is activated on the Form control.

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The Integrated Development Environment
IDE is a term commonly used in the programming world to describe the interface and
environment that we use to create our applications. It is called integrated because we can access
virtually all of the development tools that we need from one screen called an interface. The IDE
is also commonly referred to as the design environment, or the program. Programs written in
visual basic are done in an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The IDE allows a
programmer to:
 Create/design a user interface.
 Code the program.
 Set the properties for the controls.
 Run/compile the program.
 Debug the program.
Integrated Development Environment Elements
The Visual Basic integrated development environment (IDE) consists of the following elements.
Menu Bar
Displays the commands you use to work with Visual Basic. Besides the standard File, Edit,
View, Window, and Help menus, menus are provided to access functions specific to
programming such as Project, Format, or Debug.

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Context Menus
Contain shortcuts to frequently performed actions. To open a context menu, click the right mouse
button on the object you're using. The specific list of shortcuts available from context menus
depends on the part of the environment where you click the right mouse button.
Toolbars
Provide quick access to commonly used commands in the programming environment. You click
a button on the toolbar once to carry out the action represented by that button.
Toolbox
Provides a set of tools that you use at design time to place controls on a form.

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Controls in toolbox

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Project Explorer Window
Lists the forms and modules in your current project. A project is the collection of files you use to
build an application.

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Properties Window
Lists the property settings for the selected form or control. A property is a characteristic of an
object, such as size, caption, or color.

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Form Layout Window
The Form Layout window allows you to position the forms in your application using a small
graphical representation of the screen.

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Object Browser
Lists objects available for use in your project and gives you a quick way to navigate through
your code. You can use the Object Browser to explore objects in Visual Basic and other
applications, see what methods and properties are available for those objects, and paste code
procedures into your application.
Form Designer
Serves as a window that you customize to design the interface of your application. You add
controls, graphics, and pictures to a form to create the look you want. Each form in your

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application has its own form designer.
Code Editor Window
Serves as an editor for entering application code. A separate code editor window is created for
each form or code module in your application.

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Others
Immediate window
The Immediate window is a special window in which you can directly type Visual Basic
commands and view and change variables and control values during a program's execution.
Locals window
The Locals window displays the values and types of all variables that are within the scope of the
currently executing procedure. This window allows you to learn about the lifetime of a variable

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as you step through your application because you can see when it is initialized, when it changes,
and when it is destroyed. When a variable comes into scope it will be shown in the window.
Watch Window
The Watch Window is similar to the Locals Window, but you specify the variables you want to
track. You can track variables across modules and procedures and keep them in your Watch
Window to see their value no matter where the current line is.
Debug window
The debug window in visual basic is a utility that helps in debugging code. Whenever error
occurs in a project, visual basic compiler displays an error message, pauses the project execution
and highlights the statement which caused the error.

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Edit window
Form editor
Toolbox Controls with prefix
 Textbox - txt
A control for accepting user input.
 Label – lbl
A control that displays unedited text to the user.
 Command button – cmd
A control which represents a button. The user clicks on it initiate an action.
 Picturebox – pic
A control that displays images.
 Frame – fra
A control that is used to group objects.
 Checkbox – chk
A control that provides user with a toggle choice.
 Listbox – lst
A control that provides a list of items

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 Combobox – cbo
A control that provides a short list of items.
 Data – dat
A control for connecting to a database.
 OLE – ole
A control for interacting other windows applications.
 Shape – shp
A control that is used to draw circles, rectangles.
Creating visual Environment with objects
Visual basic is a Microsoft windows programming language. Programs written in visual basic are
done in an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The IDE allows a programmer to:
 Create/design a user interface.
 Code the program.
 Set the properties for the controls.
 Run/compile the program.
 Debug the program.

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Program Writin`g
Format of a visual program
Option explicit or implicit
Global variables
Procedure or function name with events and optional arguments
Local variables declaration
Statement(s)
End procedure or function
Where:
Option Explicit statement at the top of a code module forces the programmer to declare all
variables that you have used in that module, using Dim or similar.
Option implicit statement at the top of a code module does not force the programmer to declare
all variables that you have used in that module, using Dim or similar.
Global variables are variables that are accessible through the program when it executes.
Procedure or function name with events and optional arguments
Local variables are variables that are accessible within the function or procedures in which they
are declared.
Statements are instructions to be executed
End procedure or function stops execution
Variables
Variables are memory locations that hold values to be used by the program at execution time. It
is a valid identifier.

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Variable naming conventions (nomenclature)
 Variables cannot be keywords in visual basic.
 Variables must begin with letters.
 The maximum length of variable names is 255 characters.
 Variable names can contain letters, numbers and underscores.
Variables categories
 Static variables
They are those variables that don’t change when the program executes.
 Dynamic variables
They are those variables that change when the program executes.
Types of variables
 Global variables
These are variables that are accessible through the program when it executes.
 Local variables
They are variables that are accessible within the function or procedures in which they are
declared.
The keyword Dim is used to declare dynamic variables in visual basic. The keyword const is
used to declare static variables in visual basic.
Data Types
A data type shows the kind information or data a certain variable stores.
 Integer
Stores whole numbers ie non-floating numbers .
 Boolean

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Represents true or false values.
 Byte
Stores a byte of information.
 Double
Represents adouble precision floatingpoint numbers.
 Single
Represents a single precision floating point numbers.
 Strings
Stores a series of characters.
 Variant
Stores data types of any type.
 Date and time.
Stores date and time formats.
 Long
Stores whole numbers with greater magnitudes.
 Currency
Stores monetary values.

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Data type Bytes Range
Integer 2 -32768 to 32768
Byte 1 0 to 255
Currency 8 -922337203685477 to 922337203685477
Date/Time 8 1 January 100 to 31 December 9999
Double 8 -1.79769313486232E308 to 1.79769313486232E308
Long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483648
Boolean 2 True or False
Object 4 Any object type.
Single 4 -3.40823E38 to 1.44012998E-45
String 10+ 0 to 20,000,000,000
Variant 16 Any value within the range listed above.
Operators in Visual Basic
In visual basic an operator is an object that is capable of manipulating a value or operator. For
example, in "1 + 2", the "1" and "2" are the operands and the plus symbol is the operator.
Arithmetical Operators
Operators Description Example

Result
+ Add 5+5 10
- Substract 10-5 5
/ Divide 25/5 5
\ Integer Division 20\3 6

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* Multiply 5*4 20
^ Exponent (power of) 3^3 27
Mod Remainder of division 20 Mod 6 2
"George"&"
& String concatenation "George Bush"
"&"Bush"
Relational Operators
Operators Description Example Result
> Greater than 10>8 True
< Less than 10<8 False
>= Greater than or equal to 20>=10 True
<= Less than or equal to 10<=20 True
<> Not Equal to 5<>4 True
= Equal to 5=7 False
Logical Operators
Operators Description
OR Operation will be true if either of the operands is true
AND Operation will be true only if both the operands are true
Visual basic allows programmers to do mathematical operations using various arithmetic
operators.

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Vb operator Arithmetic operator Algebraic expression Vb expression

Addition + X+y X+y
Subtraction - a-b x-8
Multiplication * Yb Y*b
Division / u/v u/v
Division(integer) \ None u\v
Exponentiation ^ qp Q^p
Negation - -e -e
Modulus Mod Qmodr qmodr
Keywords
Keywords are the reserved words used in programming. Each keyword has fixed meaning and
that cannot be changed by user.
Visual basic expressions
An expression is a series of value elements combined with operators, which yields a new value.
The operators act on the value elements by performing calculations, comparisons, or other
operations.
Order of precedence
These are visual basic arithmetic rules that determine the sequence of evaluating values in a
visual basic expression.
Rules

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Use the operators in order of precedence. For operators on the same precedence, evaluate from
left to right in an expression.
Order of precedence Symbol Operator

1 () The value between the brackets
2 ^ The exponentiation
3 - Negative (negative values)
4 */ Multiplication and division
5 \ Integer division
6 Mod Remainder division
7 +- Addition and subtraction
Lastly & String concatenation
Example 1
Evaluate the expression below
Total=10+15*2/4^2
Total=10+15*2/16
Total=10+30/16
Total=10+1.875
Total=11.875
Example 2
Number= (8-5)*3^2
Number=3*3^2
Number=3*9
Number=27
Example 3
X= (8-5*3) ^2

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X= (-7) ^2
X=49
Example 4
Number= ((8-5)*3) ^2
Number= (3*3) ^2
Number=9^2
Number=81
Program Writing
Program
A set of coded instructions that a computer can understand to solve a problem or produce a
desired result. Programs are written either in one of high-level programming languages (such as
visual basic, C, Java) which are easier but execute relatively slowly, or in one of low-level
languages (assembly language or machine language) which are very complex but execute very
fast.
Properties
A property procedure is a series of Visual Basic statements that manipulate a custom property on
a module, class, or structure. Property procedures are also known as property accessors.
Objects
An object is a combination of code and data that can be treated as a unit. An object can be a
piece of an application, like a control or a form. An entire application can also be an object.

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Method
In visual basic is a procedure that is executed when an object receives a message. A method is
really the same as a procedure, function, or routine in procedural programming languages.
Events
In computing, an event is an action or occurrence detected by the program that may be handled
by the program. Typically events are handled synchronously with the program flow, that is, the
program has one or more dedicated places where events are handled, frequently an event loop.
Program coding
Computer instructions written in a programming language
Program compiling
In computer science compiling a program means to decode instructions written in a higher order
language and produces a Machine code language program
Program debugging
Program debugging is the routine process of locating and removing computer program bugs,
errors or abnormalities, which is methodically handled by software programmers via debugging
tools. Debugging checks, detects and corrects errors or bugs to allow proper program operation
according to set specifications
Program testing
Program testing is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the
quality of the product or service under test. Software testing can also provide an objective,
independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of

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software implementation. Test techniques include, but are not limited to the process of executing
a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs.
Program execution
Program execution in computer science and software engineering is the process by which a
computer performs the instructions of a computer program. The instructions in the program
trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects
according to the semantics of the instructions in the program. Programs for a computer may
execute in a batch process without human interaction, or a user may type commands in an
interactive session of an interpreter.
Program deployment
Software deployment is all of the activities that make a software system available for use. The
general deployment process consists of several interrelated activities with possible transitions
between them. These activities can occur at the producer side or at the consumer side or both.
Because every software system is unique, the precise processes or procedures within each
activity can hardly be defined. Therefore, deployment should be interpreted as a general process
that has to be customized according to specific requirements or characteristics.
Testing programs in visual programming
This is a process of running (executing) programs to find errors (bugs). The process of finding
bugs is called debugging as mentioned above. Program testing is part of the procedure which
ensures that the program corresponds with original program specification and that it works in the
intended environment.

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Test Plan
These are the stages involved in testing the programs. They include the following.
Desk checking
After writing the program the programmer goes through the program on a paper to eliminate any
error that might cause extra work later.
Translator system checking
After coding the program is checked using the compiler or translator to detect any syntax error.
The programmer corrects these errors and then resubmits the program to the compiler until the
errors are over.
Program run with test data
These are trial runs done with test data that includes all variations and extremes data including
data with errors to ensure that program does not grind to an halt if incorrect data is used.
Diagnostic procedures
For complex programs diagnostic procedures are used to find logical errors. A trace routine
prints the results at each stage to enable errors detected quickly. If the trace routine is not
available, the programmer can insert instructions in the program to print out intermediate results
at key points.
System test with actual data (full-scale) system

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Usually new systems are run parallel with existing system for a short period so that the results
are compared and adjustments made.
Test Data
This is the information that is used to test the new system or program. The program tried and
executed at least once every routine through the program and the accuracy of the program is
verified to meet the original design specification.
Categories of test data
Dummy data
This is the data input into a system for trial purposes. Used to test the system for correctness.
Real data (normal data)
This includes the general data for which the system was designed.
Exceptional data(Extreem)
Programs are designed to accept certain range of data. If illegal data is input it should be able to
detect and reject it rather than try to process it to avoid getting wrong results.
Example 1
Write a program that calculates the sum of two integers

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Algorithms
 Start
 Enter the integer values.
 Compute the sum the two numbers.
 Produce results
 Stop
Flowchart
Start
� Enter the two

integers
Compute the sum of the two

The sum of the two
integers
integers
Stop
Interface

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Code
Private Sub cmdcompute_Click()
Dim num1 As Integer
Dim num2 As Integer
Dim sum As Integer
num1 = Val(txtnum1.Text)
num2 = Val(txtnum2.Text)
txtsum.Text = Val(txtnum1.Text) + Val(txtnum2.Text)
End Sub

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Error handling in visual basic
Error Handling enables programmers to write clearer, more robust, more fault-tolerant programs.
Error handling enables the programmer to attempt to recover (i.e., continue executing) from
infrequent fatal errors rather than letting them occur and suffering the consequences (such as loss
of application data).
Error handling is designed for dealing with synchronous errors such as an attempt to divide by 0
(that occurs as the program executes the divide instruction). Other common examples of
synchronous errors are memory exhaustion, an out-of-bound array index, and arithmetic
overflow. Error handling provides the programmer with a disciplined set of capabilities for
dealing with these types of errors.
Error-handling code is interspersed throughout a program's code. Errors are dealt with the places
in the code where errors are likely to occur. The advantage of this approach is that a programmer
reading the code can see the error handling in the immediate vicinity of the code and determine if
the proper error handling has been implemented.
Debugging - Error Types in Visual Basic 6
• No matter how hard we try, errors do creep into our programs. These errors can be grouped into
three categories:
1. Syntax errors
2. Run-time errors

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3. Logic errors
• Syntax errors occur when you mistype a command or leave out an expected phrase or
argument. Visual Basic detects these errors as they occur and even provides help in correcting
them. You cannot run a Visual Basic program until all syntax errors have been corrected.
• Run-time errors are usually beyond your program's control. Examples include: when a variable
takes on an unexpected value (divide by zero), when a drive door is left open, or when a file is
not found. Visual Basic allows you to trap such errors and make attempts to correct them.
 Logic errors are the most difficult to find. With logic errors, the program will usually run,
but will produce incorrect or unexpected results. The Visual Basic debugger is an aid in
detecting logic errors.
 Logical errors
This is a human error. A programming mistake that makes a program code to output
results.
 Syntax error
These are errors that violate rules and regulations or the syntax of a language.
 Runtime error
These are the undiscovered error in a program.

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Ways to minimize errors
 Design your application carefully. More design time means less debugging time.
 Use comments where applicable to help you remember what you were trying to do.
 Use consistent and meaningful naming conventions for your variables, objects, and
procedures.
Run-Time Error Trapping and Handling
Run-time errors are trappable. That is, Visual Basic recognizes an error has occurred and enables
you to trap it and take corrective action. If an error occurs and is not trapped, your program will
usually end in a rather unceremonious manner. Error trapping is enabled with the On Error
statement:
On Error GoTo errlabel
This uses the GoTo statement. Any time a run-time error occurs following this line, program
control is transferred to the line labeled errlabel. Recall a labeled line is simply a line with the
label followed by a colon (:).
The best way to explain how to use error trapping is to look at an outline of an example
procedure with error trapping.
Private Sub Example ()

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Declare variables……………………..
On Error GoTo HandleErrors
Procedure code
Exit Sub
HandleErrors
Error handling code
End Sub
Once you have set up the variable declarations, constant definitions, and any other procedure
preliminaries, the On Error statement is executed to enable error trapping. Your normal
procedure code follows this statement. The error handling code goes at the end of the procedure,
following the HandleErrors statement label. This is the code that is executed if an error is
encountered anywhere in the Sub procedure. Note you must exit (with Exit Sub) from the code
before reaching the HandleErrors line to avoid execution of the error handling code.
Since the error handling code is in the same procedure where an error occurs, all variables in that
procedure are available for possible corrective action. If at some time in your procedure, you
want to turn off error trapping that is done with the following statement:
On Error GoTo 0

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Once a run-time error occurs, we would like to know what the error is and attempt to fix it. This
is done in the error handling code.
Visual Basic offers help in identifying run-time errors. The Err object returns, in its Number
property (Err.Number), the number associated with the current error condition. (The Err function
has other useful properties that we won’t cover here - consult on-line help for further
information.) The Error() function takes this error number as its argument and returns a string
description of the error. Consult on-line help for Visual Basic run-time error numbers and their
descriptions.
Once an error has been trapped and some action taken, control must be returned to your
application. That control is returned via the Resume statement. There are three options:
Resume lets you retry the operation that caused the error. That is, control is returned to the line
where the error occurred. This could be dangerous in that, if the error has not been corrected (via
code or by the user), an infinite loop between the error handler and the procedure code may
result.
Resume Next Program control is returned to the line immediately following the line where the
error occurred. Resume label Program control is returned to the line labeled label.
When executing the error handling portion of the code and the end of the procedure is
encountered before a Resume, an error occurs. Likewise, if a Resume is encountered outside of
the error handling portion of the code, an error occurs.

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Debugging Visual Basic Programs
These are errors that don’t prevent an application from running, but cause incorrect or
unexpected results. Visual Basic provides an excellent set of debugging tools to aid in this
search. There are no prescribed processes that you can follow to eliminate all logic errors in your
program. The usual approach is to eliminate them as they are discovered.
 The Immediate Window.
 The Locals Window.
 The Watch Window.
These windows can be accessed from the View menu (the Immediate Window can be accessed
by pressing Ctrl+G). Or, they can be selected from the Debug Toolbar (accessed using the
Toolbars option under the View menu):
All debugging using the debug windows is done when your application is in break mode. You
can enter break mode by setting breakpoints, pressing Ctrl+Break, or the program will go into
break mode if it encounters an untrapped error or a Stop statement.
Once in break mode, the debug windows and other tools can be used to:
 Determine values of variables

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 Set breakpoints
 Set watch variables and expressions
 Manually control the application
 Determine which procedures have been called
 Change the values of variables and properties
Debugging
 Unlike other examples, we’ll do this one as a group. It will be used to demonstrate use of
the debugging tools.
 The example simply has a form with a single command button. The button is used to
execute some code. We won’t be real careful about proper naming conventions and such
in this example.
 The code attached to this button’s Click event is a simple loop that evaluates a function at
several values.
Private Sub Command1_Click()

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Dim X As Integer, Y As Integer
X=0
Do
Y = Fcn(X)
X=X+1
Loop While X <= 20
End Sub
This code begins with an X value of 0 and computes the Y value using the general integer
function Fcn. It then increments X by 1 and repeats the Loop. It continues looping While X is
less than or equal to 20. The function Fcn is computed using:
Function Fcn(X As Integer) As Integer
Fcn = CInt(0.1 * X ^ 2)
End Function
This code doesn’t do much, especially without any output, but it makes a good example for
looking at debugger use. Set up the application and get ready to try debugging.

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Using the Debugging Tools
• There are several debugging tools available for use in Visual Basic. Access to these tools is
provided with both menu options and buttons on the Debug toolbar. These tools include
breakpoints, watch points, calls, step into, step over, and step out.
The simplest tool is the use of direct prints to the immediate window.
Printing to the Immediate Window:
You can print directly to the immediate window while an application is running. Sometimes, this
is all the debugging you may need. A few carefully placed print statements can sometimes clear
up all logic errors, especially in small applications.
To print to the immediate window, use the Print method:
 Debug.Print [List of variables separated by commas or semi-colons]
 Debug.Print Example:
 Place the following statement in the Command1_Click procedure after the line calling the
general procedure Fcn:
 Debug.Print X; Y and run the application.

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 Examine the immediate window. Note how, at each iteration of the loop, the program
prints the value of X and Y. You could use this information to make sure X is
incrementing correctly and that Y values look acceptable.
 Remove the Debug.Print statement.
Breakpoints:
In the above examples, the program ran to completion before we could look at the debug
window. In many applications, we want to stop the application while it is running, examine
variables and then continue running. This can be done with breakpoints.
A breakpoint is a line in the code where you want to stop (temporarily) the execution of the
program that is force the program into break mode. To set a breakpoint, put the cursor in the line
of code you want to break on. Then, press <F9> or click the Breakpoint button on the toolbar or
select Toggle Breakpoint from the Debug menu. The line will be highlighted.
When you run your program, Visual Basic will stop when it reaches lines with breakpoints and
allow you to use the immediate window to check variables and expressions. To continue
program operation after a breakpoint, press <F5>, click the Run button on the toolbar, or choose
Start from the Run menu.
You can also change variable values using the immediate window. Simply type a valid Basic
expression. This can sometimes be dangerous, though, as it may change program operation
completely.

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Breakpoint Example:
 Set a breakpoint on the X = X + 1 line in the sample program. Run the program.
 When the program stops, display the immediate window and type the following line:
 Print X;Y
 The values of these two variables will appear in the debug window. You can use a
question mark (?) as shorthand for the command Print, if you’d like. Restart the
application. Print the new variable values.
 Try other breakpoints if you have time. Once done, all breakpoints can be cleared by
Ctrl+Shift+<F9> or by choosing Clear All Breakpoints from the Debug menu. Individual
breakpoints can be toggled using <F9> or the Breakpoint button on the toolbar.
Viewing Variables in the Locals Window:
The locals window shows the value of any variables within the scope of the current procedure.
As execution switches from procedure to procedure, the contents of this window changes to
reflect only the variables applicable to the current procedure. Repeat the above example and
notice the values of X and Y also appear in the locals window.

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Watch Expressions:
The Add Watch option on the Debug menu allows you to establish watch expressions for your
application. Watch expressions can be variable values or logical expressions you want to view or
test. Values of watch expressions are displayed in the watch window.
In break mode, you can use the Quick Watch button on the toolbar to add watch expressions you
need. Simply put the cursor on the variable or expression you want to add to the watch list and
click the Quick Watch button.
Watch expressions can be edited using the Edit Watch option on the Debug menu.
Watch Expression Example:
 Set a breakpoint at the X = X + 1 line in the example.
 Set a watch expression for the variable X. Run the application. Notice X appears in the
watch window. Every time you re-start the application, the value of X changes.
 At some point in the debug procedure, add a quick watch on Y. Notice it is now in the
watch window.
 Clear the breakpoint. Add a watch on the expression: X = Y. Set Watch Type to ‘Break
When Value Is True.’ Run the application. Notice it goes into break mode and displays
the watch window whenever X = Y. Delete this last watch expression.

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Call Stack:
Selecting the Call Stack button from the toolbar (or pressing Ctrl+L or selecting Call Stack from
the View menu) will display all active procedures, that is those that have not been exited.
Call Stack helps you unravel situations with nested procedure calls to give you some idea of
where you are in the application.
Call Stack Example:
 Set a breakpoint on the Fcn = Cint() line in the general function procedure. Run the
application. It will break at this line.
 Press the Call Stack button. It will indicate you are currently in the Fcn procedure which
was called from the Command1_Click procedure. Clear the breakpoint.
Single Stepping (Step Into):
While at a breakpoint, you may execute your program one line at a time by pressing <F8>,
choosing the Step Into option in the Debug menu, or by clicking the Step Into button on the
toolbar.

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This process is single stepping. It allows you to watch how variables change (in the locals
window) or how your form changes, one step at a time.
You may step through several lines at a time by using Run To Cursor option. With this option,
click on a line below your current point of execution. Then press Ctrl+<F8> (or choose Run To
Cursor in the Debug menu). the program will run through every line up to the cursor location,
then stop.
Step into Example:
 Set a breakpoint on the Do line in the example. Run the application.
 When the program breaks, use the Step Into button to single step through the program.
 At some point, put the cursor on the Loop While line. Try the Run To Cursor option
(press Ctrl+<F8>).
Procedure Stepping (Step Over):
While single stepping your program, if you come to a procedure call you know functions
properly, you can perform procedure stepping. This simply executes the entire procedure at once,
rather than one step at a time.
To move through a procedure in this manner, press Shift+<F8>, choose Step Over from the
Debug menu, or press the Step Over button on the toolbar.

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Step over Example:
 Run the previous example. Single step through it a couple of times.
 One time through, when you are at the line calling the Fcn function, press the Step over
button. Notice how the program did not single step through the function as it did
previously.
Function Exit (Step Out):
While stepping through your program, if you wish to complete the execution of a function you
are in, without stepping through it line-by-line, choose the Step Out option. The function will be
completed and you will be returned to the procedure accessing that function.
To perform this step out, press Ctrl+Shift+<F8>, choose Step Out from the Debug menu, or
press the Step Out button on the toolbar. Try this on the previous example.
CLASSES OF DATA TYPES
Numeric data types
These are those data types that will store numbers or numeric values. They are computed
mathematically.
 Integers – store numbers.
 Byte – true or false values between 0 and 255.

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 Real (double) – store 8 bytes of numeric data.
 Currency – stores monetary values.
 Date and time – store and time format.
 Single – store 4 bytes of numeric data.
 Long – stores 4 bytes of numeric data.
 Decimal – stores 12 bytes of numeric data.
Character data types
They are data types that stores characters or strings of characters.
 String – fixed length. Stores 1 to 65,400 characters.
 String – variable length. Stores 0 to 2 billion characters.
 Date – January 1,100 to December 9999
 Boolean – stores true or false values.
 Object – stores any embedded object.
 Variant – numeric. Any value as large as double.
 Variant – text. Same as variable length.
Boolean data types

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Stores Boolean data types. Boolean is represented by either the keyword true or false or non-zero
or zero value. Boolean are stored in two bytes and have no type declaration character.
User defined data types
Visual basic lets the user create his own data type. This is done when you work with mixed data
types.
Creating user defined data types
When creating user defined data types use the key word “Type” statement in declaration section
of the form. Declare variables associated with the new data types.
Example 1
Private type employee
Name as string
Dateofbirth as date
Hiredate as date
Salary as currency
Gender as string
End type

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THE VISUAL BASIC CONTROL STRUCTURES
A control structure regulates the flow of a visual basic program, given a condition. Determine the
output depending on the conditions used in the program. It performs an indicated action only
when the condition is false or true.

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In its simplest sense, it is a block of code. More specifically, control structures are blocks of code
that dictate the flow of control. In other words, a control structure is a container for a series of
function calls, instructions and statements.
One or more set of instructions, statements or groups of statements in a programming language
which determines the sequence of execution of other instructions or statements.
Importance of control structures
i. Are very useful in writing code that gives flexibility to the programmer.
ii. Can be used to manipulate data by using logic to specify what should be done when a
user tries to change or modify the data.
iii. Gives power to the programmer because the programmer can specify when a situation
occurs, the function should do this or that.
Types of control structures
Selection
The selection control structure allows one set of statements to be executed if a condition is true
and another set of actions to be executed if a condition is false.
Iteration
These are control structures that repeat statements until a given condition turns true of false for
example while/wend, do/until, do/loop while, for/next, do/loop until.
Sequence
A control structure that executes statements in a program procedurally; one after another.
If/then selection control structure

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This is a control structure that is used to choose among alternative action to take.
Example 1
Determining the age of students in a class.
Interface
Enter the age
Message
Display the age
Pseudo code/Algorithms
Declare the variables i.e. age and message
Initialize variable age
If age is greater than or equal to 18 then
Display “you are a grown up. Learn to be responsible.”
End if

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Code
Private sub cmddisplay_click()
Dim age as integer
Dim message as string
Age=value(txtage.text)
If txtage.text>=18 then
Txtmessage.text=”You are a grown up. Learn to be responsible”
End if
End sub
Start
Flowchart
If Display the message

age>=18

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The above flowchart represents if/then selection control structure. It illustrates a single selection
control structure. It performs the indicated action only if the condition is true otherwise it is
aborted.
If/then/else selection control structure
The if/then/else control structure allows a programmer to specify that a different action can be
performed when the condition is true. It tsts for true statements in a program.
Example 1
A student sat for a DIT II exam an d score the below marks;
 SAD= 70

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 PI= 60
 PII= 80
 Maths= 40
Required:
Create a visual basic program that calculates the average mark. Use the average mark and assign
the student the grade according to the grading system below
Key to grading system:
A = 80 to 100
B =70 to 79
C =60 to 69
D =50 to 59
E =40 to 49
F =0 to 39
Interface
Sad
PI
PII
Maths
Average
Grade

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Pseudo code/algorithms
Declare variables
Initialize the variable that we input
Calculate the average
If average is greater than or equal to 80 then
Display “A”
Else if average is greater than or equal to 70 then
Display “B”
Display “C”
Display “D”

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Display “E”
Else if average is less than 40 then
Display “F”
Start
Input the marks
Compute average
Display average
Display “A”
Display B”
Display C”
Display “D”
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Display :”E”
Display “F”
Code Stop
Private sub cmdcalculate_click ()
Dim SAD, PI, PII, maths as integer
Dim average as single
Dim grade as string
SAD=val(txtsad.text)

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PI=val(txtpi.text)
PII=val(txtpii.text)
maths=val(txtmaths.text)
txtaverage.text= val(txtsad.text)+ val(txtpi.text)+ val(txtpii.text)+ val(txtmaths.text)/4
if txtaverage.text>=80 then
txtgrade.text=”A”
Else if txtaverage.text>=70 then
Txtgrade.text=”B”
Txtgrade.text=”C”
Txtgrade.text=”D”
Txtgrade.text=”E”
Else if txtaverage.text<40 then
Txtgrade.text=”F”
End if
End sub
Select case selection control structure
This is a control structure that allows programmers to enter multiple information in a program. It
can be used with multiple conditional statements.
Format

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Select case (expression)
Case value 1
Block of statements
Case value 2
Block of statements
Case else
Block of statements
End select
Example 1
Determining the grade of an exam in a class.
Marks
Marks
Grade
Algorithms
Display
Declare the variable marks and grade
Initialize the variables marks and grade
Select case marks
Case is 80 to 100
Display “Distinction”

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Case is 70 to 79
Display “Credit”
Case is 60 to 69
Display “Pass”
Case is 50 to 59
Display “Referred”
Case is 40 to 49
Display “Fail”
Case else
Display “Repeat the course”
End select
Visual basic code
Dim marks as integer
Dim grade as string
Marks=val(txtgrade.text)
Select case txtmarks.text
Case is 80 to 100
Txtgrade.text=”Distinction”

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Case is 70 to 79
Txtgrade.text=”Credit”
Case is 60 to 69
Txtgrade.text=”Pass”
Case is 50 to 59
Txtgrade.text=”Referred”
Case is 40 to 49
Txtgrade.text=”Fail”
Case is 8 to 39
Txtgrade.text=”Repeat”
End select
End sub
Note: the data type specified in the expression must match that of case values

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Start
Case
A Case A action
Case Case B action

B
Select case flow chart
Case Case Z action

B

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Switch selection control structure
This ia s control structure that is related to if/then/else control structure. Each argument passed to
switch control structure is either a condition or a value. If a condition is true the value associated
with the condition is returned.

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Example 1
A student sat for a DIT II exam an d score the below marks;
 SAD= 70
 PI= 60
 PII= 80
 Maths= 40
Required:
Create a visual basic program that calculates the average mark. Use the average mark and assign
the student the grade according to the grading system below
Key to grading system:
A = 80 to 100
B =70 to 79
C =60 to 69
D =50 to 59
E =40 to 49
F =0 to 39
Interface
Sad
PI
PII
Maths
Average
Grade
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Code
Dim grade as string
PI=val(txtpi.text)
txtgrade.text=switch(txtaverage.text>=80,”A”

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txtaverage.text>=70,”B”
txtaverage.text>=60,”C”
txtaverage.text>=50,”D”
Iterative control structure
While/wend repetition control structure
This is a repetition control structure that allows programmer to specify that an action is to be
repeated based on a true or false condition. The condition given may be true or false. If the
condition is false the action stops being executed, but if the condition is true the statements will
be repeated until the condition turns false.
Example 1
Printing numbers from 1 to 1000
Display
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Visual basic Code
Dim x as integer
X=2
While x<=1000
Print x
X=x*2
Wend
End sub
Do until/loop repetition control structure
The Do until loop repetition control structure repeats until a condition turns false. The statements
in the body of a loop are repeatedly executed as long as the loop continuation evaluates to false.
Example 1
Printing numbers between 1 and 10
Display

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Visual basic Code
Dim x as integer
X=1
Do until x<=10
Print x
X=x+1
Loop
End sub
Start
x<=10 x=x+1
False

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True
Stop
The For/next repetition control structure
It handles the details of counter controlled repetition. When a program starts executing counter
variable is initialized to a certain value. The condition is tested by visual basic.
The keywords to is used specify the range of values to be printed. The keyword step is also used
to specify the increment operator (value). That is how much will be added to variable counter
each time the for/next body executes.
If the keywords Step and to are omitted, the increment value defaults to 1. Always initialize the
control variable to certain value.
Example 1
Printing numbers between 1 and 10

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Display
Visual basic Code
Dim x as integer
For x=1 to 100 step 2
Print x
Next x
End sub
Components of typical for/next loop
e.g.
For x= 2 to 10 step 2
 For= keyword in visual basic
 x= control variable name
 2= initial value
 To=keyword to specify the range
 10=final value for the control variable
 Step= keyword to specify the increment value
 2=increment value in control variable

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Examples using for/next loop
 Varying the variable control between 1 and 100
For a=1 to 100 step 1
 Varying the variable control from 100 and 1
For b=100 to 1 step -1
 Varying the variable control between 7 and 77
For c=7 to 77 step 7
 Varying the variable control in the following sequence 99,88,77,66,55,44,33,22,11and 0
For d= 99 to 0 step 11
Example 1
Calculating the sum of numbers between 1 and 10 using for/next loop
Display
Visual basic Code
Private sub cmddisplay_click ()
Dim x as integer
X=1
Sum=0

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For x=1 to 1
Print x
Sum=sum+x
Next x
End sub
Do/loop while repetition control structure
This is similar to do while/loop control structure. The condition is tested at the beginning of the
Start
loop before the body of the loop is performed.
Action
Do/loop while control structure tests the condition after the loop body is performed. When the
loop terminates, execution continues with the statement after the loop while clause.
Flow chart
x<=10

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True
False
Example 1
Display

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Code
Private sub cmdprint_click()
Dim x as integer
X=1
Do
Print x
X=x+1
Loop while x<=10
End sub
Do/loop until repetition control structure
This is similar to do until/loop control structure. In do until/loop continuation the condition is
tested at the beginning of the loop. In do/loop until the body of the loop is performed first before
the condition is tested.
Flow chart
Start
Action
x<=10

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False
True
Display
Code
Dim x as integer
X=1
Do
Print x
X=x+1
Loop until x<=10
End sub
Exiting Do and For statements

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The exit Do and For statements alter the flow of the control structure. The exit Do when used in
do/until loop, do/while loop, do loop/while and do until/loop loops causes an immediate exit
from the control structure.
Example 1
Display
Code
Dim x as integer
X=1
Do
If x=50 then
Exit do
End if
Print x
X=x+1
Loop until x>=100
End sub

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Visual basic sub-programs
Refers to any set of statements forming part of the program used to perform a specific action.
The are procedures, modules or parts within the program that are used to carry out a specific task
before passing control to the main program.
A properly constructed subprogram should be self contained perform defined operation on a well
defined data and have an internal structure independent of the program in which it’s contained.
Types of sub-programs in visual basic
 Functions
 Procedures

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A function is any normal procedure but it is used to accept certain inputs and pass them to main
program to finish execution. It is used to pass or return a value which will be used to do a certain
operation. There are two types of function in visual basic:
 Built-in functions
 User defined functions
Built–in functions
 Msgbox() functions
The objective of the Msgbox function is to produce a pop-up message box and prompts
the user to enter or click on a command button before he/she can continue.
Format
Message=Msgbox (prompt, stylevalue, title)
 Prompt – will display the message in a message box.
 Style value – determine the type of command button will appear on the message box.
Example
Message=Msgbox (“click to proceed”1,”gretings”)
Style values in Msgbox function
Style Value NAMED CONSTANT BUTTON DISPLAYEED

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0 VbOk Ok only
1 VbOkCancel Ok and Cancel
VbAbortRetryIgnore
Abort, Retry and Ignore
2
3 VbYesNoCancel Yes, No, Cancel
4 VbYesNo Yes, No
5 Vbretycancel Retry, Cancel
Example 1
Sad
PI
PII
Maths
Average
Grade
Calculate

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Code
Dim grade as string
Dim message as string
PI=val(txtpi.text)
if txtaverage.text>=80 then
message=Msgbox(“DISTINCTION”,2,”Startup Menu”)
message=Msgbox(“CREDIT”,2,”Startup Menu”)
message=Msgbox(“PASS”,2,”Startup Menu”)
message=Msgbox(“REFERRED”,2,”Startup Menu”)

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message=Msgbox(“DISTINCTION”,2,”Startup Menu”)
Else if txtaverage.text<40 then
message=Msgbox(“REPEAT”,2,”Startup Menu”)
End if
End sub
Icons Displayed In Msgbox () Function
Style Value Text Displayed Icon
16 Stop sign
32 Question mark

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Exclamation point
48
64 Information icon
Input box function
The input box function is used to display a message box where the user can enter a value or
message in form of text.
Format
Message=inputbox (prompt, title, default text, x-position, y-position)
Prompt – the message normally displayed as a question.
Title – the title of the inputbox function.
Default text – a text that appears in the inputbox field where the users can use it as his or her
intended input or information he wishes to key in.
X and y position – indicate the coordinates of inputbox.
Example 1
Total

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Add
Private sub cmdadd_click()
Dim total as integer
Dim x, y as integer
X=inputbox (“enter the value of x”)
Y=inputbox (“enter the value of y”)
Txttotal.text=x+y
End sub
User defined functions
These are those functions that user/programmer creates to perform a certain operation.
Format

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Public function functionname (arg as datatype………….) as datatype
Private function functionname (arg as datatype………..) as datatype
Public indicates that the function is applicable is to the whole program and private indicates that
the function applicable to certain modules, statement or procedures only. User defined function
can be created with add procedure dialog box. They can also be created in the code window by
typing directly into it
Example 1
Write a visual basic program using a function to calculate the grade of student based on average
mark.
Interface

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Visual basic code
Public Function grade(marks As Variant) As Variant
Select Case txtmark.Text
Case 80 To 100
txtgrade.Text = "DISTINCTION"
Case 70 To 79
txtgrade.Text = "CREDIT"
Case 60 To 69
txtgrade.Text = "PASS"
Case 50 To 59
txtgrade.Text = "REFFERED"

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Case 40 To 49
txtgrade.Text = "FAIL"
Case 0 To 39
txtgrade.Text = "REPEAT"
End Select
End Function
Private Sub cmddisplay_Click()
Dim remarks As Variant
Dim mark As Variant
mark = Val(txtmark.Text)
remarks = grade(marks)
End Sub
Example 2
Using a visual basic function calculate the area of a circle given:
Pi=3.142
Radius=14cm
Solution
Interface
Visual basic Code

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Public Function area(r As Variant) As Variant
Const pi = 3.142
Area = pi * r * r
End Function
Dim radius As Variant
Radius = Val(txtradius.Text)
Dim areas As Variant
Areas = area(radius)
MsgBox ("The area is:" & areas)
End Sub

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Example 3
Write a visual basic function that will calculate and display interest in textbox given:
Amount =Kshs.10, 000
Interest rate = 10%
Period = 2 years
Solution

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Visual basic code
Public Function interest (p As Variant, r As Variant, y As Variant) As Variant
Interest = p * r * y / 100
End Function
Private Sub cmdcalculate_Click()
Dim amount As Variant
Dim principle As Variant
Dim rate As Variant
Dim years As Variant
Principle = Val(txtprinciple.Text)
Rate = Val(txtrate.Text)
Years = Val(txtyears.Text)
Amount = interest(principle, rate, years)
MsgBox ("The Future Value is: " & amount)
End Sub
Assignment to he students
 Using a function write a program that prints numbers from 10 to 0 but when it goes
below zero it exits from executing.

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 Write a visual basic program that accepts any three integers and then determines the
highest number among them. Use a function.
 Write a visual basic program that accepts any three integers. Let the program divide the
integers by numbers of integers entered. If it attempts to divide by zero exit the
execution.
Procedures
A procedure is a predefined function used to solve a problem in a project.
Types of procedures in visual basic
 Event procedures
These are procedures used to design programs that respond to events. For example
Block of statements
End Sub
 General procedures
These are procedures that are used to access any statement in a program. For example
Const pi=3.142
Rate=10%

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 Sub procedures
These are sub-routines which are logically accessed by programs in projects. They are
local to the main program for example:
Private Sub cmdcompute_Click ()
Block of statements
End Sub
Private sub calculate (arguments)
Block of statements
End sub
 Function procedures
A function returns a value to the calling function or statements for example:
Private Function area (length as integer, width as integer) as integer
Block of statements
End Function
Function and procedure calling

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A function or procedure is called tom perform a certain operation. It then returns a value to the
calling (main program) function statement or procedure.
A function return value is specified in the body of the program by assigning a value to the
function procedure name. Control then returns to the calling statement.
Call-by-value and call-by-reference
With call-by-reference the caller gives the called procedure or function the ability to directly
access data and modify data if he called procedure of function so wishes.
When an argument is called by value a copy of the of arguments’ value is passed to the calling
procedure. Arguments passed by value use keyword Byval or by enclosing the arguments in
parenthesis (). The arguments passed by references use the keyword Byref. For example:
Function interest (Byval x as integer as integer) as integer
Function interest (Byref x as integer as integer) as integer
Parameter passing
Parameters are those variables that are used to hold data to be passed to the calling statement or
procedure. The process of transferring these parameters is called parameter passing. Arguments
are real or actual values passed to calling statement or procedure.
Types of parameters

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 Formal parameters
These are labeled memory blank areas that are to be used to store values to be used
during execution. They are identifiers rather than reserved words.
 Actual parameters
These are variables that replace the formal parameters when the procedure or function is
called. They are given the actual parameter list of procedure call.
Classes of parameters
 Value parameters
Used to supply information to the procedure but they cannot be used to get information
out of a procedure. Value parameters are declared by including their names and the
corresponding datatype within a procedure header.
 Variable parameter
Used in applications where information must be transferred in both directions between
the procedure and procedure reference. When the procedure containing a variable
parameter is accessed the actual parameter in the procedure reference is substituted by the
formal parameter within the procedure itself.

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Recursive Functions
A recursive function/procedure calls itself either directly or indirectly through another call.
Functions call other functions or procedures to return values. It is equally possible for a function
to call itself.
A recursive function or procedure is called to solve a certain problem. A recursive function or
procedure problem solving approaches have a number of elements in common. The procedure
only knows how to solve the simplest case(s) so called base case(s). If called with base case, the
procedure stops recursively calling itself and simply returns to its caller.
If called with a more complex problem, the procedure divides the problem into two conceptual
pieces; a piece that knows what to do and a piece that doesn’t know how to do it. The latter piece
must resemble the original problem, but with a slightly simpler or smaller version of original
problem. Because this new problem looks like the original the procedure launches a fresh copy (a
call) of itself to go to and work on smaller problem. THIS IS CALLED RECURSIVE CALL.
Example 1
Demonstrating factorial function
Factorials are written using the! Symbol, and are defined as follows:
0!=1(by definition)
1!=1

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2!=2x1=2
3!=3x2x1=6
4!=4x3x2x1=24
5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
To get factorial quickly we multiply the number by the previous factorial, i.e. 5! = 5 x 4!
Similarly, 9! = 9 x 8! And 103! = 103 x 102! This means that if you know a factorial you can
easily get the next one in the series.
Visual basic code

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Public Function factorial(ByVal y As Double) As Double
If y <= 1 Then
factorial = 1 'Base case
Else
factorial = y * factorial(y - 1) 'Recursive call
End If
End Function
Private Sub cmdcalculate_Click()
Dim x, n As Integer
Call lstvalues.Clear
n = txtinput.Text
For x = 0 To n
lstvalues.AddItem Format$(x, "@@") & "!=" & -factorial((x))
Next x
End Sub

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Recursion and iteration
Both recursion and iteration are based on control structure. Iteration uses repetition control
structure while recursion uses selection control structure.
Both recursion and iteration involve recursion. Iteration explicitly uses repletion control structure
while recursion achieves repetition through repeated procedure calls.
Iteration and recursion each involve termination test. Iteration terminates when the loop
continuation condition fails, while recursion terminates when the base case is recognized.
Iteration keeps modifying a counter until the counter assumes a value that makes loop
continuation condition fail, recursion keeps producing smaller or simpler version of the original
problem until the base case is reached.
Both iteration and recursion can occur infinitely. An infinite loop loop occurs with iteration if
loop continuation test becomes false, infinite recursion occurs if the recursion step (call) does not
reduce the problem each time in a manner that converges on a base case.
Scope of variables
The scope of variables refers to the coverage or extent of variable reference in a program. In
visual basic there are three scopes of variable:

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 Local scope
These are variables declared in a procedure’s body. Local variables are only referenced
from where they are declared through end sub or end function.
 Module scope
These are variables declared in general declaration with dim keyword. By default,
module variables can only be referenced in module in which they are declared. They are
sometimes declared private scope.
 Public scope
Refers to variables that are declared public. They are accessible to all modules.

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Data structures
These are variable that are used hold data that contain two or more elements together instead of
single element. A tool for handling logically related data items. They are user defined and
provide a method for packing together of different types and structure.
Classes/types of data items
There are two types of data structure:
 Static fixed-size data structure
They are data structures that don’t change during program execution.
 Dynamic data structure
They are data structure that changes when the program executes.
Data structures types
 Arrays
This is a consecutive group memory of locations that all have the same name and
datatype. This is a list of variables all with the same name and data type. When we work
with single item, we only we only need to use one variable. However, if we have a list of
item which are similar in type we need to declare an array of variables instead of using a
variable for each item. For example:
Format

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Dim|Public|Private ArrayName(Subscript) As DataType
 ArrayName is the name of the array.
 Subscript is the dimensions of the array.
 DataType is any valid data type.
Dim name as integer ‘single item
Dim names (10) as string ‘more than two item
To refer to a particular location or element in the array, we specify the array name and an
array element position number. For example:
Dim numbers (3) as integer
 Fixed-size array
Dim array1 (6) As String
Private Sub Form_Load()
array1(0) = "Kisii"
array1(1) = "Kisumu"
array1(2) = 1234
array13) = 342

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array1(4) = 234
array1(5) = 9804
End Sub
 Dynamic array
Redim preserve array1 (0 to 7) As String
array1(0) = "Kisii"
array1(1) = "Kisumu"
array1(2) = 1234
array13) = 342
array1(4) = 234
array1(5) = 9804
Array1(6)=675
End Sub
Declaring arrays
Arrays can be declared as public in the code module, local. Module array are declared at
general declarations using dim or private keywords. Local arrays are declared I the
procedure using thew keywords dim or static. For example:
Dim names (10) as string

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Public declared arrays declare arrays that are used throughout the program or application. The
dim declaration arrays declare arrays that are only used in the procedure. The name of the arrays
states the name to be used to be used to store arrays. The value or position number defines the
upper bound (highest value) of the numbers and the lower bound(lowest value is zero(0).
Vb 1 dimensional array (1D)
Name(1) Name(2) Name(3) Name(4) Name(5) Name(6) Name(7) Name(8) Name(9) Name(10)
This is an array that consists of rows only.
Example 1
Use an array and print ten names on a form.

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Dim studentName(10) As String
Dim num As Integer
Private Sub cmdprint_Click()
For num = 1 To 10
studentName(num) = InputBox("Enter the student name", "Student names", "", 1500, 4500)
If studentName(num) <> "" Then
Form1.Print studentName(num)
Else
End

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End If
Next
End Sub
Example 2
Use an array and print ten names on a list box.

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Code
Dim studentName(10) As String
Dim num As Integer
Private Sub addName()
For num = 1 To 10
studentName(num) = InputBox("Enter the student name")
List1.AddItem studentName(num)
Next
End Sub

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addName
End Sub
Example 3
Use an array to print random numbers from 1 to 100 on a form.

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Code
Dim numbers(10) As Integer
Dim x As Integer
Randomize
For x = 1 To 10
numbers(x) = Int(20 * Rnd + 2)
Next x
For x = 1 To 10
Print numbers(x)
Next x
End Sub
Multidimensional arrays
These are those arrays that contain two or more indexes. Arrays that require two or more indexes
to identify. For example:
Dim a (2, 2) as integer
Dim x (2, 4) as integer

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Like one dimensional array, multidimensional arrays can have public and local module scope.
Function Lbound and Ubound can also used with multidimensional arrays. When calling the
Ubound and Lbound the dimension is passed as an argument.
Example 1
Write a visual basic that produces the data shown below on a form.
Sales for May 2010
Week Sun Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri
1 300 200 400 90 240 700
2 345 120 504 100 300 500
3 500 530 560 300 565 600
4 440 452 432 323 300 500
Solution

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Dim sales(5, 6) As String
sales(1, 0) = "WEEK"
sales(1, 1) = "SUN"
sales(1, 2) = "MON"
sales(1, 3) = "TUE"
sales(1, 4) = "WED"
sales(1, 5) = "THUR"
sales(1, 6) = "FRI"

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sales(2, 0) = 1
sales(2, 1) = 300
sales(2, 2) = 200
sales(2, 3) = 400
sales(2, 4) = 90
sales(2, 5) = 240
sales(2, 6) = 700
sales(3, 0) = 2
sales(3, 1) = 345
sales(3, 2) = 120
sales(3, 3) = 504
sales(3, 4) = 100
sales(3, 5) = 300
sales(3, 6) = 500
sales(4, 0) = 3
sales(4, 1) = 500
sales(4, 2) = 530
sales(4, 3) = 560
sales(4, 4) = 300
sales(4, 5) = 565

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sales(4, 6) = 600
sales(5, 0) = 4
sales(5, 1) = 440
sales(5, 2) = 452
sales(5, 3) = 432
sales(5, 4) = 323
sales(5, 5) = 300
sales(5, 6) = 500
End Sub
Private Sub cmddisplay_Click()
Print sales(1, 0), sales(1, 1), sales(1, 2), sales(1, 3), sales(1, 4), sales(1, 5), sales(1, 6)
End Sub
Control array

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Control arrays group together controls that provide same name and functionality. Each control
array element maintains its own properties but shares its event procedure code with other control
array element. Control arrays can be created in several ways, either by giving a control same
name as another or by copying the forms and pasting the copy on a form.
Function arrays
These are arrays that return a variant array at execution time. The values passed to arrays specify
element values in returned array. The returned array element Lbound I either 1 or 0 depending on
option base.
Searching arrays
There are two techniques to search for arrays:
 Linear search
The computer compares each element of an array with the search key. Search key Index
the index specify the way to search for.
 Binary search
In binary search the algorithm removes from consideration on behalf of the element in the
array searched for after each comparison. The algorithm locates the middle element of the
array and compares it with search key. If they are equal the search key is found and the
array index of that element is returned.

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Example 1
Demonstrating linear search
Vb code

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Private Sub cmdsearch_Click()
Dim searchkey As Integer
Dim element As Integer
lblresult.Caption = ""
searchkey = txtkey.Text
element = linearsearch(array3(), searchkey)
If element <> -1 Then
lblresult.Caption = "Value was found"
Else
lblresult.Caption = "Value was not found"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub lstdata_click()
Dim x As Integer
Call Randomize
Call lstdata.Clear
lblresult.Caption = ""

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For x = LBound(array3) To UBound(array3)
array3(x) = 1 + Int(100 * Rnd())
Call lstdata.AddItem(array3(x))
Next x
End Sub
Public Function linearsearch(y() As Integer, key As Integer) As Integer
Dim x As Integer
For x = LBound(y) To UBound(y)
If y(x) = key Then
linearsearch = x
Exit Function
End If
Next x
linearsearch = -1
End Function
Call lstdata_click
End Sub

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QUEUES
This a chain of of data items in the computer memory awaiting execution. Queues use FIFO, first
datum in is the first datum out.
Characteristics of queues
 Data is entered to the end but removed from the front.
 The term FIFO is used to describe queues because first datum in is the first datum out.
 Each data stays in the storage location until its turn comes thereby reducing time spent in
data movement.
Overflow and underflow
Underflow occurs when an attempt is made to remove data from an empty queue. Overflow
occurs when an attempt is made to add data to a queue when all available memory space are
occupied.
Linked lists
Lists are flexible ways of handling data items in order. For example:
Alex Does Not Like Cakes -1
Each word in the sentence is a data item, which is linked to the next data item by a pointer.
Datum plus a pointer make a node or element of a list. The last item in the list is a terminator.
This may be stored in an array of records. Each row of an array is one element in the list. A start

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pointer saying where the first datum is stored and a free storage pointer saying where the next
datum can go.
ROW NO DATUM POINT TO THE NEXT NO COMMENT
1 “ALEX” 2 NEXT DATUM

Start pointer
2 “DOES” 3 NEXT DATUM
3 “NOT” 4 NEXT DATUM
4 “LIKE” 5 NEXT DATUM
5 “CAKES” -1 LAST DATUM
6 EMPTY
7 EMPTY
Free storage pointer
Types of linked lists
 Single linked lists
The element of the record has only one pointer.
Address 1 Address 2 Address 3

Head

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 Double linked lists
The element of the record has two pointers, one pointer for giving the address of the
following record another for giving the address of the proceeding record.
Head
 Circular linked lists
The pointer of the last record gives the address first record thus this form a circular or
ring of records.
Address 1 Address 2 Address 3
Trees

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Trees these are hierarchal data structure constructed using rule of precedence for data items using
alphabetical or numerical sequence. The elements of a tree are called nodes and each element
consists of a datum and at least two pointers.
56 42 89 65 48
Left pointer Datum Right pointer
The first element is the parent node.
56 is the first datum placed I the tree. Its node is therefore called parent node or root node. We
add 42 to the tree next using rule of precedence; lower number to the left and higher number to
the right.
Start
56
42 89
-1 48 -1 -1 65 -1

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A
S
B D
S C
E A
S S J
E H
F
M Q
P
S
K
S
STACKS
They are used to temporarily store information or data. Related to queues but data is removed
and added differently. Data is added at the top and removed from top using LIFO.
Next removal pointer
Location of address 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Contents 20 4 19 12 16
Order of arrival 1 2 3 4 5
Order of removal 5 4 3 2 1
Visual basic files input and output

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A file is a collection of data on a given subject, stored in a storage memory. We have executable
files with .EXE extensions, library files with .DLL extensions, word files with .DOC extensions
etc.
Terms used in files
 Record
A logical section of a file that holds related data set.
 Field
A field is a section of a record which defines specific information.
 I/O
Stands for input output. This is a means of writing and reading from a file.
Types of files in visual basic
Method of storing files
 Sequential files
This is a method where the files are written in order from beginning to the end.
 Random files / .
A file where all records are accessible individually. They are scattered in a storage media.
 Binary file
The data is stored in byte level and you can read and write individually to the file.
 Serial file

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They are files stored in series of one another.
 Indexed files
These are files that are stored and accessed using indexes. The files are accessed using
keys.
Opening and closing files
The OPEN command is used to open files. Open command assigns the files to a numbered file
handle, also called channel or sometimes buffer.
Syntax/format
Open “file number” [accessmode][accessrestriction][locktype]as # filenumber
Example 1
 Open “Git.txt” for random read lock read as #1
 “Git.txt” is the name of the file i9n the directory.
 For random means access to the record can be random.
 Read restricts access of the file to read only.
 Lock read means that only persons reading the records can have access to it at any time.
 As # 1 means that the file is assigned to handle # 1.

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Access modes
 Input
It is open for sequential files input; the file will be read sequentially starting with the
beginning.
 Output
It is open for sequential files output; the file will be read sequentially starting with the
beginning.
 Random
Open to read and write; any specific record can be accessed.
 Append
Sequential output to the end of existing files; does not overwrite the file.
Closing files
The CLOSE command is used to close all the open files.
Syntax/format
Close #fileformat1 [, #filenumber2]……………………….

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Creating a sequential file in visual basic
There are two commands that allow reading and writing to a file sequentially.
 Print – reading
 Write – writing
They work almost the same only that print does not separate the fields in the file which makes
data harder to read later.
Format
Write #filenumber, outputlist.
 File number is the number the file was opened with.
 Output list is one or more variables you want write to the file.
Example 1
Create a simple address book file to store the student’s records (contacts).
File design

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 Determine the fields to have on the address book for example seven textboxes.
 Determine the name of the address book for example “addressbook.txt”
 Determine where to store the file for example “C:\”. We must know the location for the
purpose of the open statement.
 Determine the mod of access for the file when we output it for example input, output,
random, append etc.
 Set the tab order; use the tab index property at properties window for each control on the
form. It enables the user to tab as he enters data.
 For controls that don’t have focus such as labels set their tabstop property to false.

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In setting properties for textboxes we will use control arrays technique. This is where we name
one textbox and copy the same name to other six textboxes; txtfield (0) to txtfield (6). This
creates an array of textboxes for output form (file).
Vb code
Private Sub cmdcancel_Click()
Dim x As Integer
For x = 0 To 6
txfield(x).Text = ""

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Next x
txtfield(0).SetFocus
End Sub
Private Sub cmdexit_Click()
Unload Form1
End Sub
Private Sub cmdwrite_Click()
Dim x As Integer
Dim y As Integer
For x = 0 To 6
Write #1, txtfield(x).Text
Next x
For y = 0 To 6
txtfield(y).Text = ""
Next y
End Sub

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Dim x as Integer
For x = 0 To 6
txtfield(x).Text = ""
Next x
Open "c:\addressbook.txt" For Append As #1
End Sub
Creating a random file in visual basic
Since the file format for random file is different from the sequential file we will create a new
output file called “phonebook.txt”. We will add a field for Personid at the beginning of each
record. This allows the retrieval of records using a record number.
User defined data types
We will user defined data types to simplify input-output operations since the Get and Put
commands only insert one field at a time. We will create a new variable that contains a whole
record. The user defined data types must be declared in the module. Any information declared in
the module is available to all forms in the application.
Private type phonerecord
Personalid as integer
Fname as string * 15
Lname as string * 15

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Address as string * 15
Province as string * 10
Town as string * 10
Code as string * 10
Phone as string *10
End type
The type statement creates a new data called phonerecord. The remaining type can be like any
other string or integer. The individual fields in the structured variable can be accessed using dot
notation.
Txttown.text=inrecord.town
In random files it is important to determine the length of the string.
Fname as string *15
Writing and reading records
The command used to write records to random files is Put.

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Format
Put #filenumber, [recordnumber], variable.
The recordnumber is optional
Variables are written in the next record position after the last put or get statement if omitted.
The command to read records from the random file is Get.
Format
Get #filenumber, [filenumber, [recordnumber], variable
If record number is omitted the next record is read from the file.
Creating random file
We will write a code using the user defined data types called “phonebook” that will obtain the
next record number from file, accepts input from user and write the record out of the file.

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Dim outrecord As phonerecord
Dim inrecord As Integer
Dim position As Integer
Dim lastrecord As Integer
Private Type phonerecord
PersonalId As Integer
Fname As String * 15
Lname As String * 15
Address As String * 20

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Province As String * 15
Town As String * 10
Code As String * 8
Phone As String * 15
End Type
Private Sub cmdwrite_Click()
Dim x As Integer
poistion = position + 1
txtfield(0).Text = position
outrecord.PersonalId = position
outrecord.Fname = txtfield(1).Text
outrecord.Lname = txtfield(2).Text
outrecord.Address = txtfield(3).Text
outrecord.Town = txtfield(4).Text
outrecord.Province = txtfield(5).Text
outrecord.Code = txtfield(6).Text
outrecord.Phone = txtfield(7).Text
Put #1, position, outrecord
For x = 0 To 7
Next x
End Sub

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Dim x As Integer
For x = 0 To 7
Next x
Open "c:\contacts.txt" For Random As #1
Do While Not EOF(1)
Get #1, , outrecord
Loop
position = lastrecord
lastrecord = Seek(1) - 1
End Sub
LINKING VISUAL BASIC TO DATABASES

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BAGASA BIVON

Visual Programming Language

figures to develop a program. Visual Programming Language employs techniques to design a

executable graphics language. Visual programming language enables the development of

icon-based languages, diagramming languages and form-based language. Visual languages

program authoring services. However, their code/context is completely textual.

Visual programming is the creation of a computer program by utilizing pictorial elements.

Advantages of visual programming

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

provided by the application.

iv. Visual programming provides a comprehensive interactive

Disadvantages of visual programming

i. Programs written in Visual basic cannot, easily, be transferred to other operating

ii. It is impossible to initialize an array of structures in Visual programming.

Features of visual programming

and meters or a complex form for a user to fill out.

 Easily and quickly learned

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

screen (or page) at one time.

Examples of visual programming languages

Software considerations for visual programming

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

find the bugs.

Help with Enforcement of Correct Code

checking. But some languages have an escape clause.

Supported Platform Environments

middleware facilities, database facilities, and system-management facilities.

Hardware considerations for visual programming

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Description of visual environment

Visual Basic is a programming language and development environment created by Microsoft

Corporation. It is an extension of the BASIC programming language that combines BASIC

write program code.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

The Integrated Development Environment

 Create/design a user interface.

 Code the program.

 Set the properties for the controls.

 Run/compile the program.

 Debug the program.

Integrated Development Environment Elements

programming such as Project, Format, or Debug.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Project Explorer Window

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

object, such as size, caption, or color.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Form Layout Window

graphical representation of the screen.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

procedures into your application.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

application has its own form designer.

Code Editor Window

each form or code module in your application.

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone

Visual Basic 6.0 Prepared By: Hemphstone