Basic Dats Structures: Abs cares. stacks, queues, inked lists and Storrs eves, hashing, binary trees, balanced Bess, se Searching: Internal sod external searchang, use of bashing and balancing techniques. im Memory Management: Garbage collection algor@hens for sorage allocation for objects with muxed size, budily system equal sized bh ¢ a Physical Devices: Chcactersiss of storage devices such as disks and tapes, Ih indice Bask: File Symem Opermions Create, open, close, extend, delete, read- Siock wmnblck, peviecons mechemsms. 51. Gomis srstems. indexme using B-vee, B+ tree and thes vanants, hashing ~ hash Secu. cols bandime methods extendible heshme 12L ae bf 2Data Structures eA data structure Isa scheme for organizing data in the memory ofacomputer. j« data structures include lists, «Some of the more commonly used and graphs. arrays, stacks, queues, heaps, trees, «The way In which the data Is organized affects the ofa program for different tasks. mala | «Computer programmers decide which data structures to use based on the nature of the data and the processes that need to be performed on that data.40-Mar-23 Data Stmucture can be classified as: Y linear Y non-linear Linear (elements arranged in sequential in memory location) i.e. array & linear link-list Non-linear such as a tree and graph. Operation: 7 “Traver.. . Searching, Inserting, Deleting, Sorting, Merging Array is used to store a fix size for data and a link-list the data can be varies in size.An algorithm takes the input to a problem and transforms it to the output using a function. A problem can have many algorithms. A computer program is an instance, or concrete representation, for an algorithm in some programming language. Analgoritt: esses the following properties: Litmus 0. ects \ TL. It must be composed of a series of concrete steps. There can be no ambiguity as to which step will be performed next. mm. IV. Itmust be composed of a finite number of steps. © VE Tt must terminate. 40-Mar-23There are often man problem. How do we * At the heart of com e b \puter program design are two (sometimes conflicting) goals: ° 'y approaches (algorithms) to solve a choose between them? 1. To design an algorithm that is easy to understand, code, debug 2. To design an algorithm that makes efficient use of the computer's ' Tesources. © Note(1) >1 ut algorithm that is easy to understand, code, debug. is the con 7 vare Engineering. © Note(2) > Ju design an algorithm that makes efficient use of the computer’s resources, is the concern of data structures and algorithm analysis. 10-Mar-23oe 10-Mar-23 In mathematics, behaviour of a fu particular value or infinity, functions. Big O notation is used to describe the limiting nction when the argument tends towards a usually in terms of simpler In computer science, big O notation is used fo classify algorithms by how they respond (e.g., in their processing time or working space requirements) to changes in input size. Big O notation characterizes functions according to their growth rates different functions with the same growth rate may be re ved using the same O notation. A description of a function in terms of big O notation usually only ane an upper bound on the growth rate of the function.algorithm, A description ofa function in terms of big O notation usually only ‘Provides an upper bound on the growth rate of the ction. > Associated with bi eusing the symbols bounds on g O notation aré several related notations, 2, Q, @, and ©, to describe other kinds of mptotic growth rates. A more detailed explanation of Big O analysis: it measures the efficiency of an algorithm based on the time it takes for the algorithm to run as a function of the input size.- ° vt is a sum of several terms, the term with the larg kept, and all others omitted. Tf f(x) is a product of several factors, that do not depend on x) are omitted. ~ For example, let f(x) = 6x! -2x°+ 5, and suppose \ this function, using 0 Notation, to describe its approaches infinity. This function is the sum of thr. a and 5. ie any constants (te: ° i Of these three terms, the one with the highest groy with the largest exponentas a function of x, namely = Now w apply the second rule: 6x* is a prox Whicl. x‘ factor does not depend on x. Omittin in the simplified form x4. = Thus, we say that f[x) is a big-oh of (x*) or matheme { Sx) = OC"). - We may confirm this calculation using the fo Sx) = 6x* - 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x*. Applying the for 40-Mar-28Pove, the statement that f{x) = O(x4) i orseveral terms, the term wit S omitted, tof several factors, d on x) are omitted. let f(x) = 6x4 -2334 5, and su , Using O notation, finity. This function i: th the largest growth rate is any constants (terms in the product PPose we wish to simplify to describe its growth rate as x is the sum of three terms; 6x!, =238, \ > terms, the one with the highest growth rate is the one st exponentas a function of x, namely 6x4, \pply the second rule: 6x* is a product of 6 and x* in factor does not depend pn x. Omitting this factor results ied form x4. that f(x) is a big-oh of (x*) or mathematically we can write this calculation using the formal definition: let ae and g(x) = x‘. Applying the formal definition atement that f(x) = O(x') jjEt JUS = xt ~2x84 5, and suppose we wish to simplify using 0 Notation, to describe its growth rate as x inity. This function is the sum of three terms; 6x4, -2x3, tms, the one with the highest growth rate is the one Onent as a function of x, namely 6x4, the second rule: 6x‘ is a product of 6 and x‘ in actor does not depend on x. Omitting this factor results ed form x‘. hat f(x) is a big-oh of (x*) or mathematically we can write firm this calculation using the formal definition: let x? + 5 and g(x) = x*. Applying the fc finition from tement that f[x) = O(x*) is equivalent to its expansion, 49Time Complexity * The number of executes during its computer science, (machine) instructions which a running time 5 S Program is called its time complexity in Time complexity of an algorithm quantifies the amount of time taken by an algorithm to run as a function of the length of the string representing the input. eB CO} nly expressed using bip O notation, which exclude vients and lower order terms. When expressed this wa ) - time complexity is said to be described asymptotically, i.¢., as the input size goes to infinity. ‘ ane 2 f size ~ Eg, if the time required by an algorithm on all inputs of siz a at most sa 3n, the asymptotic time complexity is O(n"). ~~ §€©€6€«63§$ ee_ elementary operations performed by the algorithm, where an elementary operation : takes a fixed amount of time to perform. t Thus the amount of time taken and the number of e! lementary Operations performed by the algorithm differ by at most a constant factor. \ Big Onot s used in computer algorithms as a worst-case scenariv i:....\ration. Constants are not considered as we are only concerned on how a function f(x) can grow respectively to g(x) in a way so, f(x) = O(g(x)) @ ‘=i 40-Mar-23complexity, of an algorithm, denoted as Ten, Which is defined as the maximum amount of time taken on any input of size n, 1L-Constant time complexity + An algorithm is ‘sid 16'be constant time (ado written as (1) time) if the value of T(n) is bounded by a value that does not depend on the size of the input. Eg Stack, hashing scheme 2-Logarithmic time complexity * Analgo i s said to take logarithmic time if T@) = O(og n). Dueitoin . of the binary numeral system by computers, the logarithm is frequently base 2. ; ¢ Eg- Algorithms taking logarithmic time are commonly found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search. o epee. 10-Mar-23.D dimensional arrays ress 2000 + 4S \ can be represented as a are also sometimes calledagsasscesean a) Very simple if full use of memory b) Economy ~ ne same time ) Random accessed att + Disadanlase ay ory ifn not fully used + wasting MmHomogeneous data: a) Elements are Tepres b) Elements are saved i locations. Number of elements, N-> length or Se of an array. a If: UB: upper bound ( the largest index) LB: lower bound (the smallest index) Then: N=UB-LB+1 Length = N = UB when LB = 1 nted through indexes. e tial in memory in sequen«In FORTRAN, PL/I an as, 1,2,3, «+92 is i = written symbolically + Allelements 10 Armay are written sym! * the subscript. *e. Al, A2, A3, fea d BASIC > A(1), A(2), «+» ACN) InC,CH, Java > A[0), A[ 1], ---+ A[N-1] , subscript starts from 0, LB=0, UB=N-! In visual basic the array can start from any number like 5,10,15,100 or it may be like A[5],A[10],A[15],A[100] 31 {» — Ingeneral, index function: Loc (X[iJ) = Loo(X{LB)) + w*(i-LB); cation required. h of memory lo d character: 1 byte. where w is lengtl 4 byte, integer: 2 byte an For real number: Example: IF LB = 5, Loc(X{LB]) = 1200, and w= 1B ec eiah + (8-5) w=4,find Loc(X[8]) ? =1212on Lal [add counter]Dnsertion Algorithm at the back is easy iddle requires the if there is a Space. Insert «Insert item tem in the m movement of all elements as in Figure | to the right ® Arravinderes New item iE ry Ne eis k MAX _LIST-1 a MAX_LIST items ADT list positions Mas Rig S igure 1; Shitting items for insertion at position 3 . 35,Peon Agony s Delete item (a) A Array indexes Delete 19, = 7 MAX_LIST- MAX_LIST size items ° ADT list positions 23. 37« Example algorithm: [DELETE(LA. N, K. ITEM) 1, ITEM=LA[K] 2. Repeat for 1 = K to N-2 IfLB=0 2.1 [Shift element 1+ 1, forward] LAI] =LA(I+1] 3. fend of loop} 4. [Reset Nin LA] N=N-118-Mar-23 \ Binary search algorithm is efficient if the array is sorted, | A bina ry search is used whenever the list starts to become large. | The binary search starts by testing the data in the element at the middle of the array to determine if the target is in the firstc: « md half of the list.18-Mar-23 If it is in the first half, we do not nee half. If itis in the second half, we do n half. In other words we eliminate hal consideration. We Tepeat this process until we find the target or determine thatit is not in the list d to check the second, jot need to test the first If the list from further To find the middle of the list, We need three variables, one to identify the beginning of the list, one to identify the midcie he list} and one to identify the end of the list. We analyze two cases here: the target is in the list (target found) and the target is notin the list (target not found). atyY Searc gorithm ° Target found ‘case: Assu; sorted list as follows; a[0] a1] a(2] a[3] a[4) af: » DT hola] me we want to find 22 ina a[6} a7] a8} a[9) af10} af1a) e © The « - indexes are first, mid and last. Given first as 0 and last as 11, mid is calculated as follows: mid = (first + last) / 2 mid =(0+11)/2=11/2=5 18-Mar-23 42ary Search Algorithm » At index location 5, the target is (22> 21). Therefore, eliminate the array locations 0 through 5 (mid is automatically eliminated), To narrow our search, We assign mid + 1 to first and Tepeat the search. first mid Tast =a 7] 0 5 || ) 44 Be ¥ greater than the list value mh a{1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5] af6) a[7} a[8] a9] a[10] ait] 4 | 7] 8 |10] 14] 21 [22 [36] 62 [7 si jor] 22>21Binary Search Algorithm — | The next loop calculates mid with the néw value for first and determines that the midpoint is now 8 as follows: 18-Mar-23 mid = (6 + 11)/2=17/2= a[O] ali] a[2] [3] a[4] a[5] 8 / first mid 8 [aa [4 [7 [s Dolial a[7] _a[8] a[9] a[10) afi)When we test the tar, discover that the tar et to the value at mid and recalculate mi@. This step effe elements 8 through 11 from c arrived at index location 6, wh This stops the search, ctively eliminates onsideration. We have now Ose value matches our target. first mid last a / a[0} alt] al2] a[3) af4] als: 7] a[8} [9] af10] aft) 22 equals 22 18-Mar-23 _ s ) }* These settin; follows: mid = (3 + 4)/2=7/2=3 igs of first and last set the mid index to 3 as first mid last eee a[0} afi] af2} al3} a[4] alseS thal value, so we set first to mid + aS location 4 * follows: € target is greater than the list or 4. We now test the data at and discover that 11 < 14, The mid is as calculated as last SIC} 9(0) af2] af3} af4) af5] a6} 217) af8) af9) af20) af1) [io[ [at [22617 first mid last 18-Mar-23mid + di discover that 11 ent values; in other woBinary Search Algorithm Example algorithm: (variables used) DATA - sorted array : | IZEM - Info AB LB — lower bound UB - upper bound Sis’ Location MID - idle Location LAST - last Location 50 18-Mar-23~ ee Variables] T= LB, LAST= UB; Pape = (ST+LAST)2; - Repeat 3 and 4 DO sT <= - IfITEM For example, Minx chain bys ordering can be soh _ logarithmic time on a Paral . Solved in poly el Random Access Machine ‘Linear time An algorithm is said to take linear time, or O(n) time, if its time complexity is O(n). * Informally, this means that for large enough input sizes the Tuning time increases linearly with the size of the inputComplexity 9} {N algorithm, Aeno} the Maximum amount Of time taken SNany inp ‘ ae time Complexity * An algorithm is sai ‘0 be constant time (ago written plo Ime (also writ time) if the Value of T(n) is bounded by a value cates a depend on the size of the input, 7 Eg Stack, hashing scheme \ ; 2-Logarithmic time complexity An algorithm is said to take Logarithmic time if 11) = O(log ni), Due to the use of the binary numeral system by computers, the logarithm is frequently base 2, ; * Eg- Algorithms taking logarithmic time are suman found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search, ted as. 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Even W only y TERISLETS are A fo hold tem NPOFATY Values Within the Subrouting 7 ‘ariable stack Of some Sort iy required (9 Save register values ™{Ps calling route bey . they are destroy odae by Speci ial ha King 1S ty hy Xpress a i ms st compiler aie we a ney 8 operation” Sire Stagg TS N pee * Th the Case of Interpreted ed language, (NO stacks ary 0 Contains the pe e1 pend ne US that avvait ison oS Ries Sperations, © other g Contains the ‘Meme input tee ay penidin ng SPerations, 8Ssociated with the Ina Compiled language, the compiler keg during Us instruction pt track of the Beading operations inst feneration, and the evaluation stack toho wanwane Uses @ Single ANPRSiOn Nd Iermediate results«oy of Ee ie a in r indire ti N Wasp tine for co ; nt Calling ts its alt Rat e Ving the etme a Subroutine ig Ously saved Tetum allocated stack automatically at ac} call, TECUrsive Toutines May call themselves Without any Se probArray is ° st ganise, sequentially (ee chunk of Memory), 7 It is a homo, neo: le. i i Which are of the Sie eR oe MW etl “Tene a° The datq ‘spe of array can double and d ine: €ven user defi Ora class, C Sense that the Mother in a Continuous data js be inbuilt like int, float char, d that is CTeated using a structure ° The main use of an array is to Oragnize homoge iy) gnize together as a Stroup to perform Operations on ealtcciae Manner since traversal and Tetrieval becomes easy, i mensional or Multi- lenever a homogeneous list(One Dimensional Da has to be implemented we make use of array, 8Unearp A Array B Stack G queve D. Unkedtist Ata, Structure tS * Noniline AL Tree B. Graph > Ae data st vucture.* Space complexity = The am algorithm to run to completion m* Some algorithms may be more efficient i into memory ‘ount of memory Tequired by an . data completely loaded 1. Fixed part: The size required to store certain q data/variables, that is independent of the size of the problem: eg. name of the data collection ° 1 ize Is . Variable part: Space needed by variables, whose 3 4 Heserdencoh Ree of the problem: eg actual textAn algorithm is said fo mn ae O(log ny, for some er Polplogarithmic time if Tin) >For example, matrix chain > Tha ordering can be solved ye logarithmic time on’ Paralle| Random Access Machine ' . ‘Linear * An algorithm is said to take linear time, or O(n) time, if its time complexity is O(n). - * Informally, this means that for larg: Tunning lime increases linearly with the enough input sizes the size of the input