School of agricultural sciences.

ANURAG UNIVERSITY.
Course code: - A14212
Course title: - Principles of seed technology.
Theory Notes As per syllabus with previous year question
papers and objectives

Prepared
by
G. Shiva Kumar Asst prof.
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding.
 Lecture -1
Seed and seed technology: introduction, definition, and importance
Introduction The history of agricultural progress from the early days of man has been the
history of seeds of new crops and crop varieties brought under cultivation. In the early days it
was achieved through the cultivation of indigenous but useful plants and those taken through
introductions. Later through the well-known techniques of selection, hybridization, mutation,
polyploidization and plant biotechnology the scientists made available many new and better
varieties. However, to the farmer all this scientific research would be of little value unless he
gets seeds, which are genetically pure, high germination percentage and vigour, high purity,
sound health etc., When the farmers do not get seeds possessing these qualities the yields they
obtain may not be as expected. The pace of progress in production, therefore, will largely
depend upon the speed with which we are able to multiply and market good quality seeds of
high yielding varieties.
Definitions of Seed Technology
Cowan (1973) identified seed technology as “that discipline of study having to do with seed
production, maintenance, quality and preservation”.
Feistritzer (1975) defined seed technology as the methods through which the genetic and
physical characteristics of seeds could be improved. It involves such activities as variety
development, evaluation and release, seed production, processing, storage and certification.
Thus, seed technology is essentially an inter disciplinary science which encompasses broad
range of subjects. In its broadest sense,” seed technology includes the development of superior
crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed
storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality control, seed marketing and distribution
and research on seed physiology, seed production and seed handling based upon modern
botanical and agricultural sciences”.
In a narrow sense “seed technology comprises techniques of seed production, seed processing,
seed storage, seed testing and certification, seed marketing and distribution and the related
research on these aspects”.
Concept of seed technology the distinction between seed and grain is vital, being of seminal
importance to agriculture. A seed, strictly speaking, is an “embryo” a living organism
embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. The seed pertains to material (seed, fruit
or vegetatively propagating material) meant for saving for planting purposes, the essential
function being the reproduction. The seed when scientifically produced (such as under seed
certification) is distinctly superior in terms of seed quality, namely, the improved variety,
varietal purity, freedom from admixtures of weeds and other crop seeds, seed health, high
germination and vigour, seed treatment and safe moisture content etc. A grain on the other hand,
includes cereals and pulses meant for human consumption.
Role of seed technology:
Feistritzer (1975) outlined the following roles of improved seed.
 1. Improved seed – a carrier of new technologies the introduction of quality seeds of new
varieties wisely combined with other inputs significantly increase yield levels. In India, the
cultivation of high yielding varieties has helped to increase food production from 52 million
tonnes to nearly 180 million tonnes over a period of 40 years.
2. Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food supply. The successful implementation of the
high yielding varieties programme in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and
food imports from other counters have been brought down in spite of rapid increase in
population.
3. Improved seed – the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable areas of
production. The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is
one of the important contributions to secure higher crop yields. 4. Improved seed – a medium
for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster. In case of floods and drought
affected areas the Govt. will provide the improved seeds from national seed stocks to
rehabilitee the agricultural production of foods grains in the country

Goals of Seed Technology:

The major goal of seed technology is to increase agricultural production through the spread of
good quality seeds of high yielding varieties. It aims at the following:
1. Rapid multiplication: Increase in agricultural production through quickest possible spread of
new varieties developed by the plant breeders. The time taken to make available the desired
quantities of seeds of improved varieties to farmers should be considered as a measure of
efficiency and adequacy in the development of seed technology in the country.
2. Timely supply: The improved seeds of new varieties must be made available well in time,
so that the planting schedule of farmer is not disturbed, and they are able to use good seed for
planting purposes.
3. Assured high quality of seeds: This is necessary to obtain the expected dividends from the
use of seeds of improved varieties. 4. Reasonable price: 3. The cost of high-quality seed should
be within reach of the average farmer.
Differences between scientifically produced seed and the grain (used as seed)
Sr no Seed (Scientifically produced) Grain (used as seed)

1 It is the result of well-planned seed programme It is the part of commercial

produce saved for sowing or
planting purposes
2 It is the result of sound scientific knowledge, No such knowledge or effort
organized effort, investment on processing, storage is require
and marketing facilities.
3 The pedigree of the seed is ensured. It can be related Its varietal purity is unknown
to the initial breeder’s seed
4 During production, effort is made to rogue out off- No such effort is made.
types, diseased plants, objectionable weeds and Hence, the purity and health
other crop plants at appropriate stages of crop status may be inferior
 growth which ensures satisfactory seed purity and
health.
5 The seed is scientifically processed, treated and The grain used as seed may
packed and labeled with proper lot identity. be manually cleaned. In
some cases, prior to sowing it
may also be treated. This is
not labeled
6 The seed is tested for planting quality namely, Routine seed testing is not
germination, purity, admixture of weed seeds and done
other crop seeds, seed health and seed moisture
content.
7 The seed quality is usually supervised by an agency There is no quality control
not related with production (seed certification
agency)
8 The seed has to essentially meet the “quality No such standards apply
standards”. The quality is therefore well known. The here. The quality is non-
labels, certification tags on the seed containers descript and not known
serves as quality marks.
 Lecture 2 :-Deterioration causes of crop varieties and their control;
Variety: Is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either
sexually or asexually retains these characters.

The main aim of seed production is to produce genetically pure and good quality seed. But
why/how the genetic purity of a variety is lost or deteriorated during seed multiplication. The
several factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production as listed by
kadam (1942) are:

1. Developmental Variation

2. Mechanical Mixtures

3. Mutations

4. Natural Crossing

5. Genetic drift

6. Minor Genetic Variation

7. Selective influence of Diseases

8. Techniques of the Breeder

9. Breakdown of male sterility

10. Improper / defective seed certification System

1. Developmental Variation: When a seed crop is grown in difficult environmental conditions

such as different soil and fertility conditions, under saline or alkaline conditions or under different
photo-periods or different elevations or different stress conditions for several
consecutive generations the developmental variations may arise as differential growth response.
To avoid or minimize such developmental variations the variety should always be grown in
adaptable area or in the area for which it has been released. If due to some reasons (for lack of
isolation or to avoid soil born diseases) it is grown in nonadaptableareas it should be restricted to
one or two seasons and the basic seed i.e. nucleus and breeder seed should be multiplied in
adaptable areas.

2. Mechanical Mixtures: This is the major source of contamination of the variety during seed
production. Mechanical mixtures may take place right from sowing to harvesting and processing
in different ways such as;

a. Contamination through field – self sown seed or volunteer plants

b. Seed drill – if same seed drill is used for sowing 2 or 3 varieties

c. Carrying 2 different varieties adjacent to each other.

 d. Growing 2 different varieties adjacent to each other.

e. Threshing floor

f. Combine or threshers

g. Bags or seed bins

h. During seed processing

To avoid this sort of mechanical contamination it would be necessary to rogue the seed fields at
different stages of crop growth and to take utmost during seed production, harvesting, threshing,
processing etc.

3. Mutations: It is not of much importance as the occurrence of spontaneous mutations is

very low i.e. 10-7. If any visible mutations are observed they should be removed by
rouging. In case of vegetatively propagated crops periodic increase of true to type stock
would eliminate the mutants.
Natural Crossing: It is an important source of contamination in sexually propagated crops due to
introgression of genes from unrelated stocks/genotypes. The extent of contamination depends upon the amount
of natural cross-fertilization, which is due to natural crossing with undesirable types, offtypes, and diseased
plants. On the other hand natural crossing is main source of contamination in cross-fertilized or often cross-
fertilized crops. The extent of genetic contamination in seed fields is due to natural crossing depends on
breeding system of the species, isolation distance, varietal mass and pollinating agent. To overcome the
problem of natural crossing isolation distance has to be maintained. Increase in isolation distance decreases
the extent of contamination. The extent of contamination depends on the direction of the wind flow, number of
insects presents and their activity
4. Genetic drift: When seed is multiplied in large areas only small quantities of seed is taken
and preserved for the next years sowing. Because of such sub-sampling all the genotypes
will not be represented in the next generation and leads to change in genetic composition.
This is called as genetic drift.
5. Minor Genetic variation: It is not of much importance, however some minor genetic
changes may occur during production cycles due to difference in environment. Due to these
changes the yields may be affected. To avoid such minor genetic variations periodictesting
of the varieties must be done from breeder’s seed and nucleus seed in self- pollinated crops
Minor genetic variation is a common feature in often cross-pollinated species; therefore
care should be taken during maintenance of nucleus and breeder seed.
6. Selective influence of Disease: Proper plant protection measures much be taken against
major pests and diseases other wise the plant as well as the seeds get infected.
a. In case of foliar diseases the size of the seed gets affected due to poor supply of
carbohydrates from infected photosynthetic tissue.

b. In case of seed and soil borne diseases like downy mildew and ergot of Jowar, smut of
bajra and bunt of wheat, it is dangerous to use seeds for commercial purpose once the crop
gets infected.
c. New crop varieties may often become susceptible to new races of diseases are out of
seed production programms. Eg. Surekha and Phalguna became susceptible to gall midge
biotype 3.
7. Techniques of the Breeder : Instability may occur in a variety due to genetic
irregulaeities if it is not properly assessed at the time of release. Premature release of a variety,
which has been breed for particular disease, leads to the production of resistant and susceptible
plants which may be an important cause of deterioration. When sonalika and kalyansona wheat
varieties were released in India for commercial cultivation the genetic variability in both the
varieties was still in flowing stage and several secondary selections were made by the breeders.

8. Breakdown of male sterility: Generally in hybrid seed production if there is any

breakdown of male sterility in may lead to a mixture of F1 hybrids and selfers. 10. Improper
Seed Certification : It is not a factor that deteriorates the crops varieties, but is there is any
lacuna in any of the above factors and if it has not been checked it may lead to deterioration of
crop varieties.
Maintenance of Genetic Purity during seed Production
Horne (1953) had suggested the following methods for maintenance of genetic purity;
1. Use of approved seed in seed multiplication
2. Inspection of seed fields prior to planting
3. Field inspection and approval of the Crop at critical stages for verification of genetic
purity, detection of mixtures, weeds and seed borne diseases.
4. Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots
5. Growing of samples with authentic stocks or Grow-out test Various steps suggested by
Hartman and Kestar (1968) for maintaining genetic purity are as follows;
1. Providing isolation to prevent cross fertilization or mechanical mixtures
2. Rouging of seed fields prior to planting
3. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity
4. Grow in adapted areas only to avoid genetic shifts in the variety
5. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and quality
6. Adopting generation system
Safe guards for maintenance of genetic purity
The important safe guards for maintaining genetic purity during seed production are;
1. Control of seed source
2. Preceding crop requirement
3. Isolation
4. Rouging of seed fields
5. Seed certification
6. Grow out test
1. Control of Seed Source : The seed used should be of appropriate class from the
approved source for raising a seed crop. There are four classes of seed from breeder seed,
which are given and defined by Association of Official Seed Certification agency
(AOSCA).
a. Nucleus Seed: It is handful of seed maintained by concerned breeder for further
multiplication. The nucleus seed will have all the characters that he breeder has placed in
it and it is of highest genetic purity. The quantity of nucleus seed is in kilograms.
b. Breeder Seed : It is produced by the concerned breeder or sponsoring institute or and
which is used for producing foundation seed. It is of 100% genetic purity. The label/tag
 issued for B/s is golden yellow in color. The quality of breeder seed is assured by the
monitoring team constituted by the govt.
c. Foundation Seed: It is produced from breeder seed and maintained with specific
genetic identity and purity. It is produced on govt. farms or by private seed producers. The
quality of foundation seed is certified by certification agency. It has genetic purity of above
98%. The certification tag or label issued for F/s is white in color.
2. Preceding Crop requirement : This has been fixed to avoid contamination through
volunteer plants and also the soil borne diseases.
3. Isolation : Isolation is required to avoid natural crossing with other undesirable types,
off types in the fields and mechanical mixtures at the time of sowing, threshing, processing
and contamination due to seed borne diseases from nearby fields. Protection
from these sources of contamination is necessary for maintaining genetic purity and
good quality of seed.
4. Rouging of Seed Fields: The existence of off type plants is another source of genetic
contamination. Off type plants differing in their characteristics from that of
the seed crop are called as off types. Removal of off types is referred to as roughing. The
main sources of off types are
a. Segregation of plants for certain characters or mutations
b. Volunteer plants from previous crops or
c. Accidentally planted seeds of other variety
d. Diseased plants Off type plants should be rouged out from the seed plots before they
shed pollen and pollination occurs. To accomplish this regular supervision of trained
personnel is required.

5. Seed Certification: Genetic purity in seed productions maintained through a system

of seed certification. The main objective of seed certification is to make available seeds of
good quality to farmers. To achieve this qualified and trained personnel from SCA carry
out field inspections at appropriate stages of crop growth. They also make seed inspection
by drawing samples from seed lots after processing. The SCA verifies for both filed and
seed standards and the seed lot must confirm to get approval as certified seed.
6. Grow-out Test : varieties that are grown for seed production should be periodically
tested for genetic purity by conducting GOT to make sure that they are being maintained
in true form. GOT test is compulsory for hybrids produced by manual emasculation and
pollination and for testing the purity of parental lines used in hybrid seed production.
 Lecture 3:- Seed Quality – Classes of Seed
Objective: Multiplication of quality seed under vigilant supervision of breeder of seed
certification agency to distribute quality seed of notified varieties for sowing purpose.

Seed of notified varieties are multiplied in four tier system by the involvement of ICAR
Institutes / State Agricultural Universities, State / National Seed Corporation and Seed
Certification Agencies.

1. Nucleus seed: Nucleus seed: This is cent per cent genetic pure seed with physical purity
produced under the direct supervision of the concerned plant breeder.

2. Breeder’s seed: This is the progeny of the nucleus seed multiplied in large area under
the supervision of plant breeder and monitored by a committee. It provides cent per
cent physical and genetic pure seed for production of foundation class. Golden yellow
coloured certificate is issued for this category by the producting agency.
Foundation seed: Progeny of breeder’s seed in handled by recognized seed producing
agencies in public and private sector under the supervision of Seed Certification
Agency in such a way that its quality is maintained according to the prescribed
standard. Seed Certification agency issues a white colour certification for foundation
class seed. Foundation seed is purchased by Seed Corporation from seed growers.
Foundation seed can again be multiplied by Seed Corporation in the events of its
shortage with similar seed certification standard.

3. Certified seed: Progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers under the
supervision of Seed Certification Agency by maintaining the seed quality as per minimum seed
certification standards. Seed Certification Agency issues a bleucolour (Shade ISI No. 104,
azure blue) certificate.
4. Nucleus seed: is the handful of original seed obtained from selected individual plants of a
particular variety for maintenance and purification by the originating breeder. It is further
multiplied and maintained under the supervision of qualified plant breeder to provide breeder
seed. This forms the basis for all further seed production. It has the highest genetic purity and
physical purity.

Seed Quality
Thompson (1979) defined seed quality as a multiple concept comprising several components
and their relative importance in different circumstances and laid much emphasis on
1. Analytical purity / physical purity
2. Species purity / Genetic purity
3. Freedom from weeds
4. Germination percentage
5. Seed vigour and health
6. Seed Moisture content
7. Seed size, weight and specific gravity Seed quality characters: A good seed should have
the following quality characters.
1. Improved variety: It should be superior to the existing variety i.e. the yield should be
higher by 20-25% than the existing variety or it should have some desirable attributes like
disease resistance, drought resistance, salt tolerance etc., with good yield potential.
2. Genetic Purity: The seed should be true to type. The seed should possess all the genetic
qualities / characters, which the breeder has placed in the variety, genetic purity has direct
effect on the yields. If there is nay deterioration, there would be proportionate decrease in
the yield or performance.
3. Physical Purity: Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of the seed
lots. A seed lot is composed of pure seed, inert mater, broken seeds, undersized
seeds, soil and dust particles weed seeds, OCS etc.Higher the content of pure seed better
would be the seed quality. Pure seed together with germination gives the planting value of
the seed lot.

4. Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed when planted
under normal sowing conditions to give rise to a normal seedling. Seed vigour refers to the
sum total of all seed attributes that give effective plant stand in the field. Higher germination
percentage and vigour gives adequate plant population and uniform growth, which have
profound effect on, yield and determine the planting value of the seed.

5. Freedom from weeds and other crop seeds: This is an extension of physical purity
described earlier. There are certain weed species, which are very harmful to the crop and
once established they are difficult to eradicate. An absolute freedom from seed of such
species is highly desirable and is one of the important criteria for determining the planning
quality of seeds.

6. Seed health: Seed health refers to the presence or absence of disease organisms or insect
pests on the seed. The quality of a seed lot depends on its health, hence the seed should be
free from seed borne disease and insect pests.

7. Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the most important factor in determining the seed
germination and viability during storage. At high seed moisture content there is high
incidence of pest attack and at moisture content above 16% seed get heated and the viability
is lost. Hence the seed should be stored at safe moisture levels of 11-13%

8. Seed size, weight and specific gravity: Seed size, weight and specific gravity has been
found to have positive correlation with seed germination and vigour in many crops.
Therefore the seed should be bold with high specific gravity.

8. Seed Colour: The colour of the seed often reflects the condition during seed maturation.
The farmers from ancient times have regarded good normal shine as invariable quality
guides. The colour and shine deteriorates only when the weather conditions are adverse
during maturation or when insects infest the crop or when it is handled badly. The seed lots
having high genetic purity, high germination and with a minimum amount of inert matter,
weed seeds and other crop seeds and are free from diseases is said to be of high quality and
 if it is lacking of these it is said to be of low quality.

Maintenance of Nucleus seed and Breeder seed in self and cross pollinated crops
Nucleus Seed: is the handful of original seed obtained from selected individual plants of
a particular variety for maintenance and purification by the originating breeder. It is
further multiplied and maintained under the supervision of qualified pant breeder to
provide breeder seed. This forms the basis for all further seed production. It has the highest
genetic purity and physical purity.

Maintenance of nucleus can be divided into 2 groups

1. Maintenance of newly released varieties
2. Maintenance of established varieties

Maintenance of nucleus seed of pre-released or newly released varieties: Harrington 1952

has outlined the procedure for multiplication of nucleus seed which is given below;

1. Sampling of a variety to obtain nucleus seed: In any crop not more than 15 new varieties should
be sampled in any research station. Select approximately 200 plants from one of the yield trials.
Discard poor diseased and inferior plants. The selected plants should be harvested 4 to 5 days
before harvest to avoid shattering. All the 200 plants should be tied individually and wrapped in a
cloth bag and stored till the yield results are obtained. The bundles of high yielding varieties are
taken for further examination and the inferior varieties are discarded.

2. Table examination of samples: The bundles are threshed separately and the seed should be
examined in piles on the purity work board. Piles with undesirable characters (diseased, offtypes
etc.) should be discarded. The remaining pure seed of individual plants is sown in a variety
purification nursery called as nucleus seed.

3. Location and seeding of nucleus seed: Select clean fertile and in the experimental station in
which the same crop was not grown in previous one season. The land should be free from volunteer
plants and it should be properly isolated. The 200 or less progenies should be sown in 200 double
rows in 4 series of 50 double rows in each plot. Sufficient spacing should be there between and
within the rows to facilitate examination of each row during the crop growth.

4. Inspection of nucleus double row plots and removal of offtypes: the double row plots should be
critically examined from the seedling stage until maturity. If any plot differ distinctly from that of
the nucleus seed variety it should be removed before flowing stage. After flowering and during
maturity plots should be examined critically for other characters like flower colour, ear head shape,
seed colour etc. and the offtypes should be removed before harvest. When a plant is removed after
flowering all the plants or plots within 3 meters should be removed as they may contaminate the
surrounding plants.

5. Harvesting and threshing: The remaining plots (between 180-200) should be harvested
individually and tied into a bundle. The individual plots are threshed cleaned and dried separately.
The seed of each plot should be placed on the purity work board in piles and examined for
uniformity of seed characters. If any pile appears to be of off type or diseased it should be
discarded. All the remaining plot seed should be mixed together into one lot treated with fungicide
and insecticide bagged, labeled and stored as breeder stock seed for next year.
Maintenance of breeder seed of inbred lines: for increasing B/s the breeder stock seed obtained
from nucleus seed is planted in an isolated field. During increase of B/s adequate attention must
be paid to

1. Land requirement

2. Isolation

3. Roughing

4. Field inspection

5. Harvesting and drying

6. Sorting of the ears. Care should be taken on the above points so as to produce breeder seed of
maximum genetic purity
 Lecture 4:- Seed Certification
Objectives: Upon completion of this exercise the student should know about

1. The procedure for seed certification

2. Differentiate between truthfully labeled seed and certified seed

3. The history of seed certification

4. Should know the procedure to conduct field inspection in important crops Seed
certification is a legally sanctioned system for the quality control of seed during seed
multiplication and production. As per Indian Seed Act seed certification is voluntary and
it is not compulsory. The seed that is sold in the market is of two types certified seed or
truthfully labeled seed. The seed, which is being certified by seed certification agency, is
called as certified seed. The certification agency is a separate organization meant for
certifying the quality of the seed and it has nothing to do with seed production. The seed
certification agency maintains certain strict standards before issuing the certification tag
or label. Where as truthfully labeled seed is one which is being produced and marketed by
the producing company by maintaining the labeling standards. The farmer or theuser of
the seed does not know the pedigree of the truthfully labeled seed and he has to relay on
the seed producing company. Where as the certified seed has to maintain both field andseed
standards and if the seed lot meets both the field and seed standards then only the
certification tag or label is issued.

History of seed certification

Exactly where and how the concept of seed certification was originated is not clear. But
the credit of seed certification goes to Swedish people. In 20th century the newly
developed varieties lost their identity due to genetic contamination and mechanical
mixtures. To avoid this, Agronomist and breeders started visiting the fields of progressive
farmers and educated them to avoid mechanical mixtures and keep the seed genetically
pure. This process slowly led to field inspection. The farmers and the scientists thought
that field inspection could be useful in maintaining genetic purity of crop varieties. But
other problems started like to what extent the mechanical mixtures or genetic
contamination should be permitted etc. To overcome these problems representatives from
USA and Canada met in Chicago Illinois in 1919 and organised theInternational Crop
Improvement Association (ICIA). The ICIA, which later in 1969 changed its name to
Association of Official Seed Certification Agency (AOSCA), laid the beginning of
modern day seed certification. Procedure for seed certification: Seed certification is
voluntary and that too for the kind and variety notified by the governmentof India. It can
be completed in six broad phases.

1. Receipt and scrutiny of the application.

2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements.

 3. Filed inspection should be conducted to see that fields are up to the prescribed field
standard.

4. Post harvest inspection, including processing and packing.

5. Seed sampling and testing to confirm that the seeds are up to the prescribed seed
standards.

6. Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing.

1. Receipt and scrutiny of the application: All those persons who are interested in seed
certification should submit an application in Form No 1 to the concerned seed certification
officer with the prescribed fees of Rs 25/-. The fee is for one season for a single variety
and for an area up to 25 acres (10 ha.) If the area is more than 25 acres orif more than one
variety is planted separate applications should be made for each variety. If the area is less
than 25 acres under one variety but if the fields are scattered and separated by morethan 50
meters separate applications should be made. On receiving the applications the seed
certification agency verifies for the following conditions:

1. Eligibility of the variety: Only those varieties that are notified by the central govt. are
eligible for certification.
2. Establishing the seed source: The seed producer should submit the tag, invoice, and a
copy of Form No2.)

3. There should not be any difficulty in reaching the field for carrying out timely field
inspection.

4. Whether the required isolation and land requirement is followed or not.

5. Whether the processing plant facility is available to the applicant.

6. Whether the applicant has paid the requisite registration fee or not. If all the six
conditions are fulfilled then the seed producer has to pay the field inspection fees as given
below:

Various certification Charges

1. Cost of the form No 1 :Rs 2.00

2. Registration fee (per unit) : Rs 25.00

3. Inspection fee (per ha.)

a. Self-pollinated Crops :Rs 125.00

b. Cross Pollinated Crops :Rs 175.00

c. Other than Cotton hybrids/parents :Rs 175.00

d. Cotton Hybrids :Rs 800.00

e. Vegetable Crops :Rs 150.00

4. Grow Out Test (per sample) : Rs 150.00

5. Seed Testing

a. Routine tests :Rs 30.00 per sample

b. Health tests :Rs 5.00 per sample

c. Revalidation Charges (sample) :Rs 30.00

6. Revalidation fees per quintal and part thereof :Rs 10.00

7. Reprocessing/ Re grading fee :Rs 5.00 (per quintal of part thereof)

8. Cost of Application form for registration / :Rs 5.00 renewal of processing plant
9. Processing / Ginning Plant
a. Registration fee :Rs 1000.00

b. Renewal fee :Rs 500.00

10. Repackaging charges per quintal :Rs 10.00

11. Cost of seed certification tags per 1000 nos :Rs 60.00

12. cost of cotton seed tags (with hologram) per 1000 :Rs 80.00

13. Appeal fee per case: Rs. 100.00

2. Verification of seed source, class and other requirements. The seed should be from
authentic source and from appropriate class and should be in accordance with Indian
Minimum Seed Certification Standards.

3. Inspection of Seed Fields. The certified seed producers should grow and harvest the
crop as per the guidelines issued by the seed certification agency. They must carefully and
faithfully carry out the roguing and other operations as per the directive of the certification
agency. The certification staff conducts field inspections at appropriate stages of crop
growth to ensure that minimum standards of isolation, preceding crop requirement,
roguing and other special operations are maintained at all times. Theinspection of seed
crop is done at different stages of crop growth such as at the time of sowing (when new
crop is introduced), vegetative stage or preflowering stage, floweringstage, post flowering
or preharvest stages and at the time of harvest. The contaminants tobe observed during
field inspections are offtypes, pollen shedders, shedding tassels, inseperable other crop
plants, objectionable weed plants and diseased plants. The field inspections are designated
to ensure that the crop is up to the prescribed field standards. All the seed fields, which do
not meet the required field standards, are eventually rejected.
Method of taking field counts

The method of taking field counts involves following steps:

1. Determine the number of field counts. For all crops a minimum of five counts are to
be taken for an area up to two hectares, and an additional count is to be taken for each
additional two hectares or part thereof as given below.
Area of the field in Minimum number of
hectares counts to be taken

Up to 2 5

2-4 6

4-6 7

6-8 8

8-10 9

In any inspection, if the first set of counts show that the seed crop does not confirm
to the prescribed standards for any factor, a second set of counts should be taken for
that factor, if the percentage of first set of count for that factor is not more than twice
the maxmimum permissible level. Two sets of counts are called as double counts. In
hybrid seed production plots the number of counts must be taken separately for both
the parents.
2. Number of plants to be observed for completing one count. The number of plants
to be observed for completing a single count varies from crop to crop. The number of
plants/heads to be observed for completing a single count is given below.

Crop Number of plants/heads per count

Wide spaced crops:

Bhendi, brinjal, Bulb crops, Chillies,Cole 100 plants

crops, Cotton, Cucurbits, Groundnut,
Maize, Potato, Redgram, Tomato, root
crops, etc.

Medium spaced crops: Beans, cowpea, 500 plants

gram, leaf crops, moong, urad, mustard,
peas, sesame, sunnhemp, etc.

Thickly sown crops: Berseem, jute, lucern, 1000 plants

mesta, soybean Bajra, paddy, wheat,
1000 heads
sorghum, etc
The required number of field inspections specified in the seed certification standards
should be conducted. The purpose of these filed inspections is to properly guide and advise
the seed producer, but at the same time to do the necessary
inspections so that the ultimate buyer can be assured that the seed crop has met all the
necessarystandards.

3. Taking of Filed Counts: The procedure for taking filed counts differs for different
crops. 4. Rejection of seed fields: All the seed fields, which do not confirm to the required
standards for any of the factors should be rejected. The rejection letter shouldbe
immediately communicated to the seed grower stating the reasons for the rejection. As far
as possible the seed growers should be convinced for rejecting the seed fields by showing
the contaminants.

5. Post Harvest Inspection: The personnel from the seed certification agency should
inspect the fields during harvesting or post harvesting, so that there are no mechanical
mixtures and the seed is not handled badly during threshing or afterwards. Then the seed
is sent to seed processing plant with a threshing certificate. The personnel from the seed
certification agency will be inspecting the seed processing plant to avoid mechanical
mixtures and damage caused to the seed during processing.

6. Seed Sampling and Testing: The representative from seed certification agency draws
a representative sample from the seed lot at the time of processing or after processing and
sends the sample to official seed testing laboratory for evaluation. In the seed testing
laboratory the samples will be evaluated for seed standards such as pure seed, inert matter,
other crop seed, weed seeds, germination percentage and moisture percentage etc.

7. Grant of certificate, tagging and sealing. After receiving a satisfactory report from the
seed testing laboratory, tagging and sealing of bags will be done under the supervision of
seed certification agency. Under special circumstances, advance tags will also be issued
to the extent of 75 per cent of the seed lot. Tags and seals should be in accordancewith
general seed certification requirements. Affixing of tags and seals on the containers
completes the process of certification of seeds.

8. Control Plot testing. The seed certification agency should arrange for a postseason
grow-out test for all hybrids as prescribed in the standards. Randomly samples should be
drawn from certified seed lots and sent to grow-out test to check the efficiency and
accuracy of the work done.

9. Validity period. The seed is initially valid for a period of nine months from the date of
testing the samples. If the seed is not sold within the stipulated period, it can berevalidated
for a period of six months if the seed lot meets the required seed standards. The seed can
be revalidated as long as it meets the prescribed seed standards and foreach revalidation
the validity period will be extended for six months.
10. Revocation of certificate. If the certification agency is satisfied that the certificate
granted by it has been obtained by misrepresentation of essential facts, or the holder of
the certificate has failed to comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate has
been issued, can revoke the certificate. The certificate can be revoked only after giving a
show cause notice to the holder of the certificate.

11. Appeal against seed certification agency: If any certified seed grower is not satisfied
by the decision taken by the seed certification agency (in rejecting the seed plot), he can
make an appeal to the appellate authority specified by the state government. The appeal
should be made within 30 days from receiving the rejection letter. The appeal should be
made in written along with a copy of the rejection letter and a treasury fee of Rs 100/-
(Rupees one hundred only). The application should be submitted personally or it should
be sent through registered post. The decision of the appellate authority will be final and
it is binding on the seed certification agency and the seed grower. The appellate authority
for Andhra Pradesh is Additional Director of Agriculture (inputs).
 LECTURE 5
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN IMPORTANT CEREALS
SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE

Maize is common millet of India with wider industrial and household utility. It
is used a feed, food and raw material in soft drink industry. Botanically it is known as
Zea mays and belongs to the family poaceae.

Floral biology

Botanical name : Zea mays

Chromosome number : 2n=20

Botanical Family : Poaceae

Inflorescence : Panicle cob, as the crop is monoceious in nature

Type of flowers : Female : Cob (axillary inflorescence in the middle

portion of plants)
Male : Tassel (terminal inflorescence)

Husk : Enlarged leaf sheaths from each node, forming a

protective covering around the inflorescence.

Pollination : Cross pollination

Special character : Protandry

Flowering pattern : Top to bottom (Tassel) Bottom to top (Cob)

Anthesis : Pollen shedding begins 1 to 3 days before the silk

emerge from the cob.

Fertilization : Within 12 to 18 hrs after silk emergence

The entire silk is receptive. Silk will be pinkish and
sticky at the beginning (receptive) after
fertilization it will be chocolate / brown colour.
No. of pollen in tassel : 2,50,00,000

Pollen viability : 12-18h

Silk receptive : 8-10 days

Male flower anthesis : 6.00 am to 8.00 a.m

Duration of flowering : 2-14 days

Tassel Cob

Husk Silk

Seed
Types and Methods of seed production in maize
In maize, open pollinated varieties, synthetics, composites and hybrids are
available.
a. Open pollinated varieties
Raise the varieties under isolation of 400 m in foundation seed stage and 200 m
in certified seed stage and allow the plants to openly pollinate among themselves
and set seed.
b. Synthetics
In cross pollinated species, a variety obtained by in mating in all possible
combinations, a number of lines (>5) that combine well with each other. COBC 1
(Baby corn).
c. Composite varieties
These are produced by open pollination among a number of outstanding strains
usually not selected for combining ability with each other e.g. K1, Jawahar,
Vikram, Sona, Amber, CO 1 and Kisan.
d. Inbreds
It is relatively true breeding strain resulting from repeated selfing (5 times.)

Varietal seed production technique

Open pollination under isolation is the common method of varietal seed

production.

Stages of seed multiplication

In maize seed (varieties composites and synthetics) is multiplied adopting

three generation system, as breeder seed, foundation seed and certified seed as
the crop is highly cross pollinated crop , where the chances for genetic contamination
is high.

Popular varieties

In Tamil Nadu, CO1, K1, COH3, COH4, are the popular varieties for grain
purpose, while African tall is a fodder maize.COBC1 is a variety identified for salad
purpose.

Season

The best season for production is June - July, November- December and
January – February and the flowering should not coincide either with rain or high
RH and the maturation should coincide with dry weather. The temperature of 37°C is
favourable for better seed setting.

Land requirement

The land required for open pollinated variety, composites and synthetics should
be fertile and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will adversely affect
the quality and the seed set will be poor. The previous crop should not be the same
crop to avoid the occurrence of volunteer plants and if to be the same crop it has to
be the same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for certification.
The field should not have any volunteer plants.
Isolation distance and Modification of isolation distance
Composite, Synthetics and OPV = (FS:CS 400 : 200 m)
Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying isolation distance provided
5.0% or more of the plants in the seed parent do not have receptive silks when more
than 0.50% of plants in the adjacent field (s) within the isolation distance are
shedding pollen.

Distances less than 200 meters may be modified by planting border rows of
male parent, if the kernel colour and the texture of the contaminant are the same
as that of seed parent. The number of border rows shall be determined by the size of
the field and isolation distance from the contaminant.

Selection of Seed

For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material,
while for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material. The
seed used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill. The required seed
rate will be 20kg /ha or 8kg/ acre.

Pre sowing seed treatment

The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination.
Seeds are soaked in 2% KH2PO4 for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06
and are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9% .This management
could be used both for dryland agriculture as well as gardenland.

Seeds are also treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shoofly
infection. Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos @4 ml /kg is alsorecommended against
the attack by shootfly.

Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed
borne pathogens and soil borne pathogen.

Seeds are also treated with azospirillum @50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric
N. Any one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better
productivity.

Seeds are also treated with polycoat @ 3g/kg of seed diluted in 5ml of water
to invigourate the seed towards better marketability and production. Pink coloured
polycoat performed better than other colour polymers. On adoption of sequence of
treatment physiological should be followed with physical seed treatment.

Sowing

The seed are sown at a spacing of 45 x 10 cm or 60 x 20 cm at a depth of 2-

4 cm based on the specific features of the variety. Nursery production will not be
suited to this crop. In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or
under beds and channels. The seedlings are thinned and gap filled should be done 7-
8 days after sowing.

Plant spacing Row spacing

Seed rate
Varieties : 20 kg /ha

Nutrient application

At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare

Fertilizers(varieties) 150:75:75
✓ Basal 40:75:40 NPK kg/ha
✓ 1st top 20 DAS 50:0 :0 kg/ha
✓ 2nd top 40 DAS 60:0:35 kg/ha.

Micronutrients
2% DAP is sprayed at 50% flowering stage to enhance uniform flowering and
increased seed set
If Zn deficiency is found apply 20 kg of zinc sulphate / ha.
If Fe deficiency is found apply 12.5 kg /ha micronutrient mixture

✓ The crop is mostly affected by micronutrient deficiencies by N,P,Mg,Mn,Zn,Fe

and K. Apply 12.5kg of micro nutrients in furrows and the mixture in the soil.

Weeding

Application of atrazine @ 500g per ha as pre-emergence herbicide control the

growth of weeds upto 20-25 days.(If pulses is used as intercrop do not use atrazine)
One hand weeding at 17-18 days after sowing keep the field free of weeds.Weeding
after boot leaf stage is not economical and shade will also minimize the weed flora
. On organic production, 2 hand weeding at seedling stage and other at boot leaf
formation will keep the field weed free.

Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated once in 10-15days for enhanced seed set and
formation of bolder grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation
stage, vegetative stage , flowering, milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is
withheld in these stages seed set will be poor and seed size will be reduced.
Pest and disease management

Shoot fly Monocrotophos 0.03%

Stem borer Rogar 0.3% / Carbaryl 50 WP 1kg.per heactre on 20th day
Lesion nematodes Carbofuran 3 G@30kg./ha.in seed holes at the time
of sowing.
Downy mildew Mancozeb @ 1kg/ha.
Leaf spot Mancozeb or captan @ 1kg/ha

Cob borer Apply carbaryl 10% dust @ 25kg/ha. At milky stage repeat it
15 days thereafter.(50 lts. Spray fluid per ha)

Roguing

It is specific to seed crop and is done from seedling stage to harvesting stage
based on the phenotypic characters. Off types can be identified through stem
colour,plant structure, number of leaves ,auricles, nodal colour, tassel colour,sheath
colour ,grain colour etc. The field standard for seed crop is as follows

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of two inspections shall be made at flowering and another during

flowering.

Field Standards

General: Maize field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Contaminants Minimum distance(meters)

Foundation Certified
stage stage
Fields of other varieties 400 200
Fields of same variety not confirming to varietal 400 200
purity requirements for certification and teosinte
 In maize hybrid alone increasing the border row and minimising the isolation
is permitted

Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Factor Maximum
permitted (%)

FS CS

Off types plants that have shed are or shedding pollen at anyone 1.0 1.0
of the inspections during flowering when 5%or more of the plants
in the seed field have receptive silks .

Preharvest sanitation spray

Spraying of endosulphan @ 0.07% and bavistin@10g /lit 10 days prior to

harvest prevent the seed weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae) infestation at storage.

Seed maturation

• 14-20 DAA milky stages (starch in fluid stage)

• 35 DAA : Soft dough stage

• 45 DAA : Glazad dough stage

• 55 DAA : Ripe dough stage

Symptom of Physiological maturation

• Cob sheath turn straw yellow colour

• The funicular degeneration

• Formation of dunken layer

• Moisture content of seed 35%

 Matured cob Dunken layer

Harvesting

The crop attains physiological maturity 30-35 days after 50% flowering and
the seed moisture at this stage will be around 25-30%. The crop is harvested as
cob harvesting when the sheath of cob dries and attains straw yellow color. The crop
is harvested as once over harvest for seed purpose.

Dehusking

After harvest manually the sheath are removed, which is known as dehusking.
Cob sorting

Based on the kernel arrangements on the shank as irregular discoloured,

diseased and ill filling the Cobs are sorted out and cobs with characteristic kernel
colour and shank colour and regular row arrangements are selected for seedpurpose.
The kernel discolouration should not 10% for certification.

Zenia and metazenia

The discolouration in cobs may be due to disease infection or genetic

contamination. The effect of foreign pollen on kernel colour is known as Zenia,
metazenia effect which causes genetic contamination in the seed lot. Zenia is the
effect of foreign pollen of same generation and metazenia is the effect of foreign
pollen in next generation.
Shelling

The cobs are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction of
seeds the moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.On large
scale production cob shellers are used, but care should be given to avoid mechanical
damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality and storability.

Drying

The seeds are dried to 8 to10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting
mechanical driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing

Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove
the undersized immature and chaffy seeds .The middle screen size should be 18/64”
round perforated sieves. The size can vary depending on the variety from 14/64 to
20/64 inch round perforated sieves.

Seed treatment

The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these
pests the seeds are given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed with
carbaryl @200mg/kg of seed as slurry treatment. Bifenthrin @5mg /kg of seed or
diflubenzuran @ 200 ppm per kg of seed or imidachlopride @ 3 ml per kg of seed is
also recommended for better seeds storage .

Seed packing

Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and
polylined gunny bag for long term storage.

Storage

The treated seed can be stored up to 12 months provided the seeds are not
infected with storage pests. Seed can be stored up to 3 years if the seeds are packed
in moisture containers and are stored at low temperature .The godown should be
kept clean as the possibility of secondary infestation with Trifolium (red
flour weevil ) is much in these crop. The major problem in storage is incidence of
grain weevil which will powder the seed material in a short period.

Seed yield: 3 to 4.0 tones

Seed standard

The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both
for certification and labeling.

A. Seed ears inspected after harvest shall not contains in excess of 1.0% of offtype
ears including the ears with off-coloured kernels.

B. Shelling

Shelling of the seed ears is to be done after obtaining approval from the
Certification Agency

Factor Standards for each class

FOUNDATION CERTIFIED
Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inertmatter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seed None None
Other distinguishable varieties based on 10/kg (by 20/kg (by
kernel colour and texture (max) number) number)
Germination ( Minimum) 90% 90%
Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%
For vapour proof container (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest
infestation, when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the
seeds are imposed with midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double
the volume of 10-4 M solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/lit of
water) for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (8-9%).
 HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE

Crossing technique : Manual emasculation by detasseling

Detasseling : Removal of male inflorescence from the

monoecious crop

Time for detasseling : The time taken for shedding of pollen from the
tassel in 1-2 days after emergence. Hence the
tassel should be removed before the shedding of
pollen.

Detasseling
Detasseling is the removal of tassel from female parent. Detasseling is done
when the tassel emerged out of the boot leaf, but before anthesis have shed pollen.
Anthers take 2-4 days to dehisce after complete emergence. Only in few cases, the
anthers start dehisce before its complete emergence. In such case detasseling should
be done earlier. Detasseling is done every day from the emergence of tassel upto 14
days.

Method
➢ Hold the stem below the boot leaf in left hand and
the base of the basal in right hand and pull it out
in a single pull.

➢ Grasp entire tassel so that all the pollen parts are

fully removed.

➢ Do not break or remove leaves as removal will

reduce yields and will result in lower quality of
seed.

Precautions to be adopted during detasseling

➢ No part should be left on the plant as it causes contamination.
➢ It should be uniform process done daily in the morning in a particular direction.
➢ Donot break the top leaves as the field may be reduced due to the earning of
source material to accumulate in sink [seed ] as removal of 1 leaf course 1.5%

loss 2 leaves 5.9% loss and 3 leaves 14% loss in yield.

➢ Detassel only after the entire tassel has come out and immature detasseling may
lead to reduced yield and contamination.

➢ Mark the male rows with marker to avoid mistake in detasseling

➢ Look out for shedders [shedding tassel] in female rows as the may cause
contamination.

➢ After pulling out the tassel drop it there itself and bury in soil. Otherwise late
emerging pollen from detasseled tassel may cause contamination.

➢ Do not carry the tassel through the field as any fall of pollen may lead to
contamination.

➢ Donot practice, improper, immature and incomplete detasseling.

➢ Improper detasseling: A portion of the tassel is remaining in the plant while
detasseling.

➢ Immature detasseling: Carrying out detasseling work when the tassel is

within the leaves.

➢ Incomplete detasseling: The tassel is remaining in lower or unseen or

unaccounted in within the whole of leaves.

➢ There should not be any shedding tassel.

➢ Shedding tassel: Either full or part of tassel remain in female line after
detasseling and shedding pollen which may contaminate the genetic purity of the

crop.
System of Hybrid seed production

➢ Detasseling ( Manual creation of male sterility )

Types of hybrids
Single cross hybrid
It is a cross between 2 inbreds. A x B. A genotype will be detasseled and
crossed with B genotypes.

✓ COH 1- UMI 29 x UMI 51

✓ COH 2- UMI 810 x UMI 90
✓ CoH(M) 5-UMI 285 X UMI 61

Double cross

✓ It is a cross between two single crosses.

✓ It is a cross between 2 hybrids (A x B) x (C x D) (A x B) single cross hybrid

will be produced by detasseling A and by crossing with B (C x D) hybrid will

be produced by detasseling C and crossing with D.

✓ Then (A x B) will be detasseled and crossed with (C x D) hybrid.

 Example

Ganga 2 : (CM 109 x CM 110) x (CM 202 x CM 111)

Ganga 101 : (CM 103 x CM 104) x (CM 201 x CM 206)

COH3 : ( UMI 101 x UMI 130 ) x (UMI 90 x UMI 285 )

Three way cross

✓ It is a cross between a single cross and an inbred.

✓ It is first generation resulting from the crossing of on approved inbred line

and a certified open pollinated variety A x variety)

✓ A will be detasseled and allowed for crossing in the variety.
Example Ganga -5 (CM 202 x CM 111) x CM 500.
COH (M) 4 : (UMI 90 x UMI 285) x UMI 112

Double top crosses : The first generation resulting from the controlled
crossing of a certified single cross and a certified
open pollinated variety.
: (A x B) x variety
: (Ax B) will be detasseled and crossed with a variety

Seed production technology

Season - November- December, Mid July, Jan. Feb and Sep. Oct

Isolation distance
Foundation seed (m) Certified seed (m)
1. Inbreds 400 -
2. Single cross hybrid 400 -
Field standards for isolation (modification based on situation)
For (foundation single crosses and hybrid of certified class)

Foundation Certified stage

stage

• Same kernal color 400 200

• Different kernal colour 600 300

• Field of single cross / inbreds not 400 200

confirming to varietal purity

• Single cross with same male parent 5 5

confirming to varietal purity

• Single cross with other male parent 400 200

not confirming to varietal purity

❖ Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying isolation distance provided
5.0% or more of the plants in the seed parent do not have receptive silk when
more than 0.20% of the plants in the adjacent field within theprescribed
isolation distance are having shedding pollen.
❖ In hybrid seed production (certified seed stage) alone the isolation distance (less
than 200 meter) can be modified by increasing the border rows of male parent,
if the kernal colour and texture of the contaminant are the same as that of the
seed parent.

The number of border rows to be planted all around the seed field to modify
isolation distance less than 200 m shell also be determined by the size of the field
and its distance from the contaminant as shown below.
 Area in ha. Isolation distance Border rows
(m)

< 4 ha 200 1

< 4 ha 150 5

< 4 ha 100 9

< 4 ha 50 13

10-12 ha 180 1

10-12 ha 130 5

10-12 ha 80 9

10-12 ha 30 13

> 16 ha 165 1

> 16 ha 115 5

> 16 ha 65 9

> 16 ha 15 13

Seed production stages and production of parental lines / hybrids

Stage of seed Single Double Three way Double top Top

cross cross cross cross cross

Breeder seed A, B A, B, C, D A, B, C A, B, A, variety

variety

Foundation A, B (AxB) (AxB), C (AxB) A, variety

seed (CxD) variety

Certified seed AXB (AxB) x (AxB) x (AxB) x Ax variety

(CxD) variety variety
Spacing
Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows
Hybrids : 60x 25 cm

Seed rate : Female : 7 -10 kg ha-1

: Male : 3 -4 kg ha-1

Spacing : Female : 60 x 20 to 75 x 30 depending on the

area.

Male :45 x 30 cm

Planting ratio
Single cross 4:2
Double cross 6:2
3 way cross 6:2
Border rows a. Inbreds & single cross - 4 rows
b. Others - 3 rows

Fertilizer

NPK kg / ha : 200 : 100 : 100

Basal : 100 : 100 : 50

1st Top : 50 : 0 : 0 (20th days -vegetative phase)

2nd Top : 50 : 0 : 50 (Boot leaf stage at 45 days)

Foliar : DAP 2% at 50% flowering

In Zn deficient soil : ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1

Roguing
Should be done periodically based on position of cob, colour of silk,
arrangements of seeds in cob, leaves etc. Shedding tassels are to be removed in
roguing . It refers to the tassels in female parents rows, shedding pollen or that has
shed pollen in hybrid maize plots. During field inspection a tassel whose main spike
or any side branch or both have shed pollen or shedding pollen in more than 5 cm
of branch length is counted as a shedding tassel during inspection the shedding
tassels are taken into count for acceptance or rejection of production plot.

Field standard (%)

FS CS
Off types 0.2 0.5
Shedding tassel 0.5 1.0 (when receptive silk
is 5% or more)

Inseparable other crop : Nil (both stage)

Objectionable weed : Nil (both stage)

Designated diseases : Nil (both stage)

Field standards –specific

Specific factors Certified stage

Off types shedding pollen when 5 % or more of seed 0 .50 %
parent in receptive silk
Seed parent shedding pollen when 5 % of the seed 1.0 %
parent is having receptive silk
Total of pollen shedding tassel including tassel that 2 .0 %
had shed pollen for all 3 inspections conducted during
flowering on different dates
Off types in seed parent at final inspection 0 .5 %

Number of inspection : Four

(Seed certification officers) : One : Before flowering

: Three : During flowering

Harvest

✓ Harvest when the moisture content falls to 20-25%

✓ Harvest male first and remove from the field and then harvest female
Threshing
a. Dehusking - The husks are removed manually.
b. Cob sorting - Remove ill filled, diseased cobs and cobs having
kernel colour variation.
Zenia
The direct/visible effects of pollen on endosperm and related tissues in the
formation of a seed colour. e.g. seed colour. In maize, the gene present in sperm
cell contributes in the expression of colour of hybrid seeds.
Matazenia
Is the effect of pollen on the maternal tissues of fruit.
Shelling
Cob sorting should be the first operation it is a post harvest, evaluation for genetic
purity. The sheath is removed and check for kernel colour, shank colour, diseased
cobs, kernel arrangement. The cobs are shelled either mechanically or manually at
15-18% moisture content. Improper shelling leads to48% damage to kenel Growth
of storage fungal Pericarp damage. Crack on pericarp can be identified by FeCl3 or Tz
test. Shelling is done mechanically using cob sheller and manually by rubbing with
stones.
Drying
Seeds are dried to 12% moisture content.
Grading
Grade the seeds using 18/64" (7.28 mm) sieve.
Seed treatment
Slurry treat the seeds with 8% moisture content either with captan or thiram
75% W.P. @ 70 g/100 kg with 0.5 litre of water. Treated seeds can be stored for 1
year in cloth bag.
Others: As in varietal seed production

Seed yield : 2.5 - 3.6 t/ha

Seed standard inbred, varieties and hybrids

Hybrids

Parameters Inbreds FS CS

1. Physical purity (%) (min) 98 98 98

2. Inert matter (%) (max) 2 2 2
3. Other crop seed (max) 5 /kg 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
4. ODV seeds (max) 5/kg 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
5 Germination % (min) 80 80 90
6. Moisture content (%) (max)
a. Moisture pervious 12 12 12
b. Moisture vapour proof 8 8 8

Production of Synthetic cultivars

Breeding of cereal and other agronomic crops has contributed significantly to
the growth of agribusiness worldwide. In normally self fertilized crops, new variability
may be created by hybridisation, followed by the selection of desired cultivars in
which desirable characteristics from two or more parents are combined. The type of
hybrid cultivar obtained will depend upon the genetic background of the chosen
parents as well on the method of selection used. A similar situation arises when new
variability is artificially induced through mutations.
In pure-line theory of classic plant breeding, a pure line is defined as all the
descendants of single homozygous individual by continued self-fertilization, resulting
in a homogeneous cultivar. Hybridization, however, results in significant
heterogenity. The multiplication of such heterogenous progeny in bulk to select
homozygous individuals would be gigantic task. Most modern hybrid cultivars are,
therefore, selected at an early stage (F2) as subsequent lines and probably released
at the F8 and F12 generations. These are obviously not as homogeneousas a pure
line.
 Cultivars can also be selected by producing multilines. Whereas normal line
selection seeks to produce a new cultivar on the basis of one line or a few lines
that are very similar, multiline cultivars are essentially different from each other in
their characteristics, such as resistance to pests and diseases or environmental
stresses. Thus, by incorporating different sources of resistance, the newly
synthesized cultivar is buffered against changes brought about by virulent
pathognes. These cultivars are however, not very stable compared to those
produced by the conventional methods of selection. A change in the prevalence of
a virulent pathogen may eliminate certain lines from the cultivar. It is, therefore,
necessary to return the cultivar to the plant breeder for its reconstitution. This may
be advantageous, because it enables plant breeders to substitute new sources of
resistance in the material.
Alternatively, the plant breeder can create a composite cross by bulking the
F2 generations of several crosses. The composite is allowed to develop for several
generations during which natural selection may occur. If the composite is grown at
more than one location, a locally adapted cultivar may be developed in time. The
composite constitutes a gene pool from which the plant breeder can select a
cultivar with desirable characteristics for further multiplication.
An alternative to the composite is the synthetic or artificial method of plant
breeding in which a number of lines are put together by the plant breeder in
predetermined proportions. A synthetic line generally has a limited life, because the
proportions of the constituent lines are likely to change over number of
generations. The plant breeder must plan for seed production of limited generation
basis. This system can be extended by using mixtures of cultivars claimed to be
advantageous in some species over a single cultivar, especially if different resistant
genes are present in each cultivar. This method adds to the cost of mixing, which
can be reduced by growing a seed crop for one or two generations after mixing
before using it for crop production.
A hybrid cultivar results from a controlled cross between a male and female
parent, the seed being harvested from female parent only and used for crop
production.
 In self fertilized crop species, it is easy to produce hybrid cultivars if male
sterile lines are available that can be used as female parents. There are certain
substsnces that act as a gametocides, destroying the pollen of desired female parent,
or as inhibitors that prevent pollen produced by the female parent from effecting
fertilization. The advantage of the synthetic hybrid cultivar lies in heterosis. Special
expensive measures are required to produce seed that is harvested from the female
parent only. The resultant heterosis therefore must have a profitable effect to
compensate for the cost of production of synthetic hybrid cultivars in the self
pollinating crop species.
In the cross pollinated crop species, plant breeders look for parent plants that
have good combining ability. These plants, when allowed to multiply together,
produce a desirable combination of characteristics. Cross fertilization results in
greater heterozygosity in these plants than in the self fertilized plants and therefore
less homogeneity. Each generation of an open pollinated cultivar is thus a mixture
of hybrids. The open pollinated cultivars are generally grown for a limited number
of generations and returned to the plant breeder’s maintenance material after each
cycle of seed production to produce commercial quantities of seeds.
Putting together a large number of parent plants and allowing random
pollination to occur can create composites. A composite in a cross fertilized species
is generally the product of the first generation of such random pollination.
Production of synthetic cultivars begins with a limited number of specific
parents, which are permitted to interpollinate. The number of generations of
multiplication is strictly limited so as to recreate the synthetic/artificial cultivar at the
end of each multiplication cycle. As with the self fertilized species, synthetic hybrid
cultivars of cross fertilized species are created by controlling pollination to ensure
that seed is produced from a desired crossing. This can be achieved by the following
methods.
1) By emasculating the female parent, as is done in monoecious plants like maize,
by removing the male flowers before the release of pollens.
2) By using male sterility in the female line, so as to avoid the physical removal of
male flowers.
3) By using self incompatibility. In this system, the seed crop is harvested as a whole,
since all plants are contributing and receiving pollen. The self incompatibility,
however, is not always complete, and there may be production of some inbred plants.
With the excessive production of such plants, the advantage of heterosis in the
subsequent crop is diminished.
The advantage of the synthetic hybrid cultivar in cross pollinated species is not
restricted only to heterosis. Most hybrids are based upon inbred lines. Normally,cross
fertilized plants require inbreeding for several generations to reduce heterozygosity
and to include desirable genes in synthetic cultivars. A controlled cross between two
such inbreds produces heterosis and desirable combination of genes in the form of a
synthetic cultivar.
The major disadvantage of the production of synthetic cultivars is the higher
cost of plant breeding and seed production, requiring considerable time consuming
work to produce desirable inbreds, which alone can be used to synthesize new
artificial hybrids. The final seed crop is not fully productive when male sterility or
emasculation is used, because only the female parent is harvested for seed.
Therefore various other hybrids have been produced. The hybrid resulting from
the cross of two inbred lines is a single cross, whereas the F1 resulting from the cross
of two single cross hybrids as parents is known as a double cross. In a three way
cross, an inbred is mated with an f1 hybrid. A top cross is the F1 resulting from a
cross between an inbred or a single cross and an open pollinated cultivar. All of the
forms of hybrid cultivars require a particular cycle of seed production to produce the
seed used in crop production.
 SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN PADDY VARIETIES

Phenology
Botanical Name : Oryza sativa
Chromosome number [2n] : 24
Family : Poaceae
Inflorescence : Panicle
Pollination : Self-Pollination
Panicle Emergence : 4 –5 days after boot leaf
emergence
Flower Opening Pattern : Tip of primary & secondary
branches and proceeds
downward
Duration of Flowering : 6-8 days
Time of Anthesis : 7.00 –10.00 A.M
Speciality with flowering : Flower remain open for 10
minutes and afterwards it
closes.
Anther dehiscence : Either before or after flower
opening [independent of
spikelet opening]
Temperature favorable for flowering : 24 -280C
Favourable RH for flowering : 70-80%
Difference between day and
Night temperature : 8-100c
Stigma receptivity : 3 days
Pollen viability : 10 minutes

Varietal seed production

Stages of seed production
In paddy depending on the demand 3 or 4 or 5 stages of seed
multiplications are permitted under seed certification programme as follows.
➢ Breeder seed - foundation seed - certified seed
➢ Breeder seed - foundation seed stage 1- foundation seed stage 2 –
certified seed
➢ Breeder seed - foundation seed stage 1- foundation seed stage 2 -
certified seed 1- certified seed 2

Land requirement
The land should be free of volunteer plants (crop of previous season occur
in this season) and the same crop or the other varieties of the same crop should
not have been grown for the previous season, if it is the same crop it (previous)
should be the same variety that has been certified. This selection is highly
important for maintenance of genetic purity. They should have adequate irrigation
and drainage facilities and the problem soils are not suitable for seed production.

Isolation
The crop should have 3meters of isolation at all sides of the seed
production plot for maintenance of genetic purity.

Selection of seed
Seed should be from an authenticated source (SAU, NSC, State
Department).For production of certified seed, foundation seed (FS) should be used
as source seed which should be purchased with bill and tag (white for FS seed)

Seasons practiced at Tamil Nadu

In Tamil Nadu the availability of water in cannals, depends on the
monsoon. Based on this in different districts, different sowing seasons areadapted
as follows:
Month of sowing Seasons Duration of varieties
December - January Navarai Below 120 days
April – May Sornavari Below 120 days
April – May Early kar Below 120 days
May – June Kar Below 120 days

June – July Kuruvai Below 120 days

July - August Early samba 130 -135 days

August Samba 130-135 & above 150 days
Late samba / thaladi /
September – October 130 - 135 days
pishanam
November – October Late thaladi 115 -120 days
November - October Late pishanam 130 -135 days

Selection of season
Season should be selected based on duration of the variety and the water
availability.

VARIETIES SEASON DURATION POPULAR

VARIETIES
Shout duration November- December Below 120 days TKM9 ,CO 36,
varieties (Karthikai –Margazhi) ADT 36
Medium duration November 130-135 days Bhavani ,CO43,
varieties (Iyyppasi- Karthikai)
Long duration August More than 135 White Ponni,
varieties (Adi-Avani) days
Upland rice July –August ---on All durations but MDU1,PKM1
receipt variety specific Co 43,IR 20
of showers .TKM9 and
IR 50 should be sown
Before 15th of July (dire
seeding)
Rainfed rice June-July and Septemb Specific to ADT 38 ADT39
– location (Medium Duration
October Varieties)

Seed Rate
It varies with varieties and type of cultivation.

Variety / type of cultivation Seed rate

LOW LAND CULTIVATION (transplanting)

Short duration varieties 60 kg /ha
Medium duration varieties 40kg /ha
Long duration varieties 30kg/ha

For low land cultivation by broadcasting 80-100 kg/ha

For rainfed rice 75-100 kg/ha

Seed Management Technique

Dormancy
Paddy exhibits dormancy which varies for duration of 0-30/45days
depending on the variety. This could be broken by either soaking in KNO3 0.5 %
for 16 hr or soaking in 0.1N HNO3 for 16 hrs. However the duration and
concentration vary with varieties (e.g.) ADT36 exhibit 20-30 days of dormancy
period from days to physiological maturity period which could be broken by
soaking the seeds in 0.5%KNO3 for 16 hrs. Practically the intervening duration
between the harvesting, and threshing, and further drying will remove the
dormancy.

Seed Upgradation Technique (Egg Floatation Technique)

Either before processing or after storage or due to improper processing
Paddy seed may have less vigorous seed such as immature, ill filled and insect
damaged seed which may adversely affect the planting value of the seed.
Removal of this seed will favour better establishment and higher production
potential. These seed may be removed by adaptation of a simple water floatation
technique based on specific gravity using salt water as a dissecting solution for
separation of good quality seed from low quality seed, and egg is used as an
indicator for specification of specific gravity measurement of 1.03 (120g of salt in
1000ml of water)

Methodology
A bucket of potable water has to be taken and in that water o fresh egg
which sinks to the bottom has to be taken. To the potable water with egg outside
slowly the common salt was added to a level at which the egg floats at top
exposing 2.5 cm of its shell outside (check the egg floatation now and then on
addition of salt to the solution). The egg is removed and the paddy seed are
dropped into the solution which separates as sinker and floater .the sinkers are
good seeds while the floaters are less vigorous and dead seeds. The floaters are
removed and used as feed and sinkers are used for further multiplication.

Caution
➢ Egg is only for measurement of specific gravity and has no work to do
with separation.
➢ If the density of water is more, more portion of egg will float if less egg
will be inside the solution.
➢ If the density of water is more loss of quality seed may occur ,lesser
density the separation will not be perfect

Sprouting of seeds (pre germination)

Paddy seeds are sown at nursery in pre germinated condition for better
establishment for supply of oxygen at waterlogged condition. Seeds are soaked in
big tough for 24 h in gunny bags tied loosely for easy transmission of water and
for ensuring soaking of each and every seed. Seeds are then tied tightly and
incubated in dark for 12h (overnight). White protrusion of radices by the seed
exposed to outside expresses the pre germination of seeds and these seeds are
sown in nursery by broadcasting.
Hardening and other seed management techniques
➢ In case of implementation of fortification treatment, seed could be soaked
in equal volume of water to ensure that none of the solution is left
unimbibied by the seed
➢ For dry land and upland paddy, seed hardening with KCl (1%) andpelleting
with Azospirillum (600g /ha) could be adopted (e.g.) MDU 1, Paramagudi1.
➢ Seed colour variation occurs due to bacterial infection at later stages of
maturation. Seed coloring with polycoat @3g kg-1of seed could improve the
initial quality and marketability of such discolored seed.
➢ Polymer coating of Seed also will help to identify the brand name of seed
and to identify the varietal variation among the cultivars by even the
illiterate labours.

Nursery Management
For raising one hectare of paddy, 20 cent (800m2) nursery is needed. The
area should be prepared by floating the area one or two days before ploughing
and allowed the water to soak in. The soil should be kept at shallow sub
emergence. Before ploughing the water should be allowed to a depth of 2.5cm
.Then the land is ploughed and brought to a puddling condition. The optimum size
of the nursery bed will be 2.5 meters broad and with channels of 30cmwidth
in between. In paddy, on raising more varieties in a same place separate
irrigation channels are to be prepared for each variety to avoid the admixture
of seeds and to maintain the genetic purity.

Nutrient Management
Before the last puddling apply 40kg of DAP and if not readily available apply
straight fertilizers@16 kg of urea and 120kg of super phosphate.
Basal application is required (DAP) if the seedlings are to be pulled out at
20 to 25 days after sowing. If the seedling are to be pulled out after 25 days
application of DAP is done 10 days prior to pulling out of the seedling.
 Basal application of phosphorus to the nursery enables the seedling to store
phosphorus and utilize it even in later stages of growth and application of DAP to
the nursery is highly economical.

Sowing
A thin film of water should be maintained in the nursery, and the sprouted
seeds of paddy should be sown uniformly on the seed bed.

Water Management
➢ Drain the water 18 to 24 hours after sowing and if there are pockets where
water is stagnating, drain it into the channel as germination will beaffected
in the places where the water is being stagnated
➢ Allow the water to saturate the soil from the third to fifth day
➢ From the fifth day onwards increase the quantity of water to a depth of
1.5 cm depending on the height of the seedling
➢ Afterwards, maintain the water level to a depth of 2.5 cm

Weed Management
Apply any one of the pre emergence herbicides viz. butachlor 2l per
ha,thiobencarb@2l/ ha, pendimithalin @ 2.5l/ha on 8th day after sowing to
control weeds in the low land nursery. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to
disappear. Avoid drainage of water. This will control germinating weeds.

Pest Management (NURSERY)

INSECTS /DISEASE CONTROL MEASURES

Army worm Spray Cholophyriphos 20EC 80ml or endosulphan

35 EC80ml during the evening
Thrips Phosphamidon85 WSC 25 ml(or)Monocrotophos 36
WSC 40ml (or) Endopsulfan 35 EC 80 Ml

Green leaf hopper As above or maintain 2.5 cm of water in the nursery and
broadcastanyone of the following
Carbofuran3g3.5kg or Phorate 10G1.0kg or Quinalphos 5g
2.0kg
Case worm Mix kerosene in standing water and remove the cases and
destroy and spray Monocrotophos 36 WSC 40ml (or)
Quinalphos 25 EC 80 ml

White tip nematode Sun drying of seeds for two days at 6h interval
Rice root nematode Carbofuran3g at 3.5kg / 20cents
Diseases
Blast Spray with insecticide Copper oxy chloride100g or
Mancozeb 80 g
Brown spot Carbendazim 40 g
Tungro disease Aplly carbofuran 3g at the rate of 3.5 kg ten days after
sowing or spray two rounds of Monocrotophos 36 WSC
40ml or Phosphamidon 85 WSC 25 ml

Age of transplanting
The age of transplanting vary with varieties as follows
DURATION OF VARIETIES AGE OF TRANSPLANTING
Short duration varieties 18-22days
Medium duration varieties 25-30days
Long duration varieties 35-40days

Pulling out of seedling

➢ Pull out the seedling at appropriate time
➢ Do not remove the adhering soil with a hard surface
➢ Tie the seedling in convenient size for easy handling
➢ Do not allow the seedling to dry

Main field preparation

➢ Puddle the soil well
➢ Apply 12.5tonnes of FYM or compost per ha
➢ Incorporate green manure into the field by in situ ploughing
➢ Dig the corners and prepare the bunds well with plastering for effective
stagnation of water
➢ Apply the phosphorus and potasic fertilizers at last ploughing for effective
availability of nutrients to plants
➢ Keep a thin film of water at the time of transplanting and raise the water
level to 2.5 cm on the next day

Fertilizer Requirement

CROP DURATION FERTILIZER REQUIRMENT ( Kg / ha )

 Nitrogen ( N ) Phosphorus (P ) Potash ( K)
Short duration 120 38 38
Long and medium duration 150 50 50
Bio-fertilizer Azolla @ 1t/ha 3-5 days after weeding

Transplanting
➢ Dip the root in phosphamidon 0.02 % against rice root nematode 20
minutes prior to planting
➢ Plant the seedling at optimum spacing and optimum depth
➢ Transplant the seedling at 4-5 leaf stage

Details on transplanting

Specifications Duration of cultivars

Short Medium Long
No. of seedling per hill 2-3 2 2
Depth of planting (cm) 3 3 3
Spacing ( cm) 20 x10 20 x15 20 x20
No. of hills/m2 50 33 25
Breeder Adopt double row planting with a spacing of 15 x 10 cm
seed multiplication for easy roughing

- Adjust the sowing in such a way that harvesting does not coincide with rain

Weed Management
Pre emergence herbicide

Use butachlor 2.5l/ha or thiobencarb 2.5l/ha fluchloralin2l/ha or

pendimethalin3l/ha as pre emergence on third day and is to be followed by hand
weeding on 30-35days. On the failure of pre emergence application, hand weed
at 15 days and spray 24Dsodium salt with a high volume sprayer 3 weeks after
transplanting when the weds are in3-4 leaf stage

Gap Filling
It is to be taken up between 7-10days after transplanting

Pest and disease management

Insects Control measures

Stem borer Fenthion100EC @ 500ml

Thrips Phosphamidon85 WSC @ 300ml

Brown plant hopper MonocrotophosWSC @ 500ml
Leaf folder Endosulfan 35EC @ 60ml
Stemborer (white ear 2 %) Quinalphos 25EC @ 1000ml

Mealy bug Phosphamidon85 WSC @ 300ml

Earhead bug Quinalphos 25EC @1000ml

Rice root nematode Carbofuran3g 16.25kgin standing water

Diseases

Blast Carbendazim @ 250g/ha

Brown plant hopper Mancozeb @ 1000g/ha

Sheath rot Carbendazim @ 250g/ha

 Sheath blight Difolatan @ 200
Bacterial leaf blight Streptomycine
Sulphate+Tetracycline@300g+Copper
Oxychloride @ 1250g/Ha

Grain discolouration Mancozeb@1000g/ha

Water Maintenance of Paddy

➢ 5cm of water should be stand in the field. Normally once ion 2 days for
loamy soils and once in 3 days for clay soils.
➢ Excess water leads to yellowing of plant. So drain the water
➢ The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation, booting,
heading and flowering

Top Dressing
Apply 25% of N and k as basal and remaining 75 % in 3 split doses at active
tillering, panicle initiation, and at heading stage in equal proportion of 1:1.

Foliar Spray
➢ Spray FeSO4 0.5% to prevent yellowing of plants in calcarious soils.
➢ Spray DAP 2% to enhance seed set in paddy cultivars (BEST).
➢ Spray GA3 three times at panicle initiation stage for complete exertion
of panicle (hybrids).
➢ Spray panchakavya 1% for organic seed production to enhance seed set.
➢ Spray 0.5 % zinc sulphate thrice during crop growth on 20th 30th and
40th day of planting for short duration varieties or 30th 40th and 50th day
for medium and long duration varieties in case of zinc deficient soils.

Rouging
➢ Is important to maintain for maintenance of genetic purity.
 ➢ Remove all off types (deviant of the variety) and rouges (variant of the
variety).
➢ Remove when suspected is the thumb rule of roughing.
➢ Rouging should be done from the sowing up to harvest and remove the
as and when it come across.

Physiological maturity
✓ Seeds attain maturity with the visual symptom of turning of ear heads

to golden yellow color and when the ear heads exhibit drooping
symptomsi.e 28 days after 50% flowering in short and 31 days in medium
and 35 in long duration.
✓ When 80% of the plants are exhibiting the symptom the crop is ready

for harvest
✓ The moisture content of the seed will be 18-20-%.

Pre-harvest Sanitation Spray

Ten days prior to harvesting spray endosulphan 30EC 70ml / ha against
storage pests. Spraying of 10 % prosopis leaf extract is recommended against
grain discolouration.

Harvesting
➢ Lodged plants should not be selected for seed purpose.
➢ Withhold irrigation one week before harvest.
➢ Delayed harvest may lead to heavy shattering
➢ Bundled plants should be stacked as ear heads facing outside to avoid
heat damage.
➢ Threshed produce should be clean and free of admixture in cracks and
crevices.
➢ Birds scaring are also practiced in places of requirement.
Threshing
➢ Thresh the seed by beating the plants on a hard surface ,but take care
that the seeds are not mechanically damaged.
 ➢ In tractor and machine threshing avoid mechanical damage by proper
adjustment of speed/machine setting.
➢ Thresh at proper moisture content to avoid crushing / cracking (16-17 per
cent).
➢ Clean the floor, equipment, containers to avoid genetic and physical
mixture.

Winnowing and Drying

Threshed produce are cleaned and winnowed to remove the dirt and other
unwanted physical material. Winnowing should be done in a cleaned surface. The
seeds are dried in a threshing floor with adequate stirring which is known as
tempering. The seeds are dried to 13 % moisture for better storage .On drying
in a threshing avoid drying between 12 noon to 2pm to avoid the ill effects of ultra
violet rays of noon sun. Through not for bulk for prolonged storage this practice
should be adopted. Seeds are also can be dried in mechanical driers in places of
high humidity like areas of sea shore.

Grading
The bulk seeds are normally processed through seed cleaner cum
grader and the seeds of middle sieve are selected for seed purpose.

Size of seed Sieve size

Long slender (Ponni, whitePonni) = 1/16 x 3/4 " (1.3mm x 19 mm)
Slender - IR 50 = 1/15 x 3/4" "
Medium slender (IR 20, CO 43) = 1/14 x 3/4" (1.5 mm x 19 mm)
Short bold (ADT 36, 37,38,39,
TKM 9,Ponmani) = 1/13 x 3/4" (1.8 mm x 19 mm)

Seed Treatment
Normally paddy seeds are not treated with chemicals owing to their
economic utility. But for long term storage, treat it with captan or thiram or
bavistin @ 2-4g / kg of seed, Halogen mixture treatment (Chlorine basedhalogen
mixture @3 g /kg of seed) is a eco-friendly treatment. As a prophylactic
measure seed can be fumigated with celphos @ 3-6g/m3. But the moisture content
of the seed should not be above 10-12% which may interfere with the seed quality
in terms of germination.

Seed Yield
The yield of crop varies from 3000 to 7000 kg /ha depending on genotypes,
location, season management practices and pest infestation.

Storage
Paddy is a good storer. Generally paddy seeds store well up to 12-36
months depending on the genotypes but heavy infestation of storage pests reduce
the storability of seed even to a month or two. For prolonged storage HDPE and
polylined gunny bags are used, while for normal storage jute canvas bags are
used. However the bags should not be stirred for more than 8 bags height to avoid
pressure on seeds of lost bag which may cause damage to the seed. Polythene
bags of 700 gauge is not highly preferable for paddy as the sharp edge may pierce
the bag and convert moisture vapor proof container as moisture pervious
container.

Mid storage Correction

Seeds from storage are given with mid storage correction when the seed
standard reduce to 5-10% lesser than recommended. The seeds are soaked in
double the volume of disodium phosphate solution (3.60g dissolved in 100l of
water) for 16h and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (12-13
percent).

Seed Certification
Land Requirement
The previous crop should not be the same crop and if to be the same crop
it has to be the same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for
certification. The field should not have any volunteer plants.
Number of Inspections
A minimum of two inspections is needed, one at the time of flowering
and another at the time of or before harvest.

Field Standards
General: Paddy field should be isolated from contaminants as follows
Contaminants Minimum distance(meters)
Foundation stage Certified stage
Fields of other varieties 3 3
Fields of same variety not 3 3
confirming to varietal purity
requirements for certification

Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Factor Maximum permitted (%)
Off types 0.050 0.20
Objectionable weed plants* 0.010 0.020
*Objectionable weeds are Wild rice (Oryza sativa L.var.fatua Prain
(Syn.O.sativa L.f. spontanea Rosch.)

Seed Standard
Factor Standards for each class
FOUNDATIO CERTIFIED
Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Huskless seed (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Total weed seed (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Objectionable weed seed (maximum ) 2/kg 2/kg
Seeds infected with paddy bunt 0.10% (By 0.50% (By number)
(Neovossia horrida (Tak.) ( maximum) number)
Germination ( Minimum) 80% 80%
Moisture (maximum) 13.0% 13.0%
For vapour proof containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.05%

Paddy Bunt
 HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN PADDY

Breeding technique for commercial

hybrid seed production : Cytoplasmic geneic male
sterility system
Stages of seed production for : Breeder seed – foundation seed
seed certification certified

Seed Multiplication work at different Stages

Breeder Seed stage : A (AxB), B, R lines are raised
separately under isolation.
Foundation Seed stage : A (AxB) and R lines raised
separately under isolation.

Certified seed stage : A and R line are crossed under

isolation to get hybrid.

Systems of hybrid seed production

❖ Three line method or CGMS system (popular)
❖ Two line method or environmental genetic male sterility
(EGMS) system that involve PGMS (photosensitive genetic
male sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive male sterility
system was developed in China and low temperature hilly
areas of Tamil Nadu

Popular hybrids
CORH1 : (IR 62829A x IR 10198- 66–2R)
CORH2 : IR 58025A x C 20R
CORH3 : TNAU CMS 2A X CB 87 R (110-115 days)
ADTRH1 : IR 58025A x IR 66R
Genes involved in EGMS
❖ One or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes (cytoplasm
involved)

Advantages of EGMS system

❖ Maintainer lines are not involved
❖ Choice of parents are more.
❖ No negative effect on sterile cytoplasm
Genes for fertility restoration in CGMS system : Rf1 and Rf2

COMMERCIAL SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE

Land requirement : similar to variety

Isolation
Space isolation : Foundation seed stage : 20
Certified seed stage : 100 m
Time isolation : 20 days either earlier or later for other
varieties compared with MS line.
Barrier isolation : • 30m of wood lot / tall crops
• plastic sheets of 2m height
Season
Kharif (May- June sowing)
Rabi (December- January sowing)
Rabi is more suitable than kharif.

Favourable climatic conditions during flowering for higher seed set.

✓ Daily mean temperature 24 - 30oC
✓ Relative Humidity 70 - 80 %
✓ The difference between day and night temperature should be 8-10oC.
✓ Sufficient sunshine and moderate wind velocity of 2-3 m / second.
 ✓ Free from continuous rain for above 10 days during peak flowering
season.
Seed set and seed yield will be affected if temperature is below 20oC
and above 35oC during the time of flowering. In Tamil Nadu, ideal time for
sowing during kharif is 2nd fortnight of May and during rabi 2nd fortnight of
December.

✓ CORH 1 -. 110-115 days (May-June, Dec - Jan)

✓ CORH 2 - 120-125 days (Rabi)
✓ ADTRH 1 - 110-115 days (kharif)

Seeds
Seed selection: Purchase from authenticated source with tag and Bill
For Foundation stage - (A & B lines)
For Certified stage - (A & R lines)

Seed rate : Female : 20 kg /ha

: Male : 10 kg /ha

Nursery Management
✓ Keep irrigation channels separately for the parental line
✓ For Dec-Jan sowing take up staggered sowing for male twice or thrice
with the interval of 10-15 days (3,10,15daysfor effective seed setting)
✓ Keep the nursery area free of weeds.
✓ Apply DAP @ 2 kg / cent as basal to get vigorous seedlings.
✓ For April-May sowing sow the male 5 and 10 days after female line
✓ Even split application of fertilizer N is favourable for production of
vigorous seedlings.
Main field Transplanting
Spacing
 Between A line - (15 x 15cm)
Between A and R line - (20 x15cm)
Between R line - (30 x 15cm)

Age of transplanting
A line : 25 days
R line : 14,18,20 days

Fertilizer
Hybrids : 150:60:60
N & K applied in 3 splits
(1) during basal (2) active tillering (3) Panicle initiation.

Staggered sowing of parents for synchronization

As the seed set on CMS line depends on cross pollination it is most
important to synchronize the heading date of the male and female parents,
especially for the hybrid combinations having parents with quite different
growth duration.
In addition, in order to extend the pollen supply time, the male parent
is usually seeded twice or thrice at an interval of 4-5 days.
The following 3 methods can be used to determine the differences in
seedlings date for synchronization between male and female parents.
1. Growth Duration Difference (GDD) method
2. Leaf Number Difference (LND ) method
3. Effective Accumulated Temperature (EAT) method
Among these 3 methods though the LND method is more reliable one,
the GDD method is mostly followed since it is rather simple and easy to adopt.
In GDD method by checking the previous data on the difference in duration
from seedling to heading between male and female parents, the proper seeding
date of both parents in current season can be determined. This method is
suitable in seasons or regions where the temperature fluctuation is small.
Staggered seeding of R line for synchronization.
1. Single seeding of R line
2. Two seeding of R line
3. 3 seeding of R line.

Row ratio: 8:2 or 10:2

Factors influencing row ratio
1. Plant height of the pollinator
2. Growth and vigour of the pollinator
3. Size of the panicle and amount of residual pollen
4. Duration and angle of floret opening in CMS lines
5. Stigma exertion of CMS line.

Layout for transplanting

 To facilitate out crossing, the rows of male and female in the seed
production plot should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction
expected at flowering time of the parents.
Practically a row ratio of 8:2 (A x R) is currently adopted for hybrid seed
production and the transplanting sequence for 8:2 row ratio is as follows:

Transplanting of the 'R' line

Transplant the seedlings of ' R' line in paired rows of 30 cm apart.
In case of 2 staggered seedlings of R line, the first and second sown R
line seedlings may be planted in two separate rows at 15 cm spacing or the 1st
sown seedlings may be planted in both the rows with 30 cm spacing and 2nd
sown seedlings may be planted in the middle of two seedlings in both rows.
Whereas in three staggered seedlings of R line all the seedlings may be pulled
out separately, mixed together thoroughly by spreading one over the other
and planted in the two paired rows @ 2-3 seedlings per hill with 15 cm spacing
within the rows. It is more convenient, easy and labour saving method incase
of large scale seed production. By proper synchronization, higher seed set and
yield have been recorded in 3 staggered seedlings of R line. Leave a 145 cm
or 110 cm wide block between paired rows of R line seedlings for transplanting
8 rows blocks of A line seedlings.

Row ratio, row direction, spacing and planting pattern for hybrid rice
seed production.
R R A A A A A A A A R R
• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •

• • x x x x x x x x • •
 • • x x x x x x x x • •

R R A A A A A A A A R R

Female: Male ratio = 8:2 wind direction :

Transplanting of the 'A' line

Transplant the ' A' line seedlings in blocks of 8 rows in between the
paired rows of ' R' line seedlings. Transplant with one or two seedlings per hill
with inter and intra row spacing of 15 x 15 cm in 145 cm wide block or 10x 15
cm in 110 cm wide block according to the fertility of field. Leave a 20 cm
spacing between the ' A' line rows and the nearest ' R' line rows.

Prediction of heading date

The method, which is widely used and found to be effective, is by
examining the development of young panicles. Based on the morphological
features, the young panicles are classified into 8 development stages. The
synchronization in flowering can be predicted by using such criteria. Inpractice,
about 30 days before heading, the male and female parents in the
seed production field are sampled and their young panicles within the main
clumps and tillers are carefully observed with a magnifying lens every three
days. Usually female and male parent will take 27 and 32 days respectively
from panicle initiation to heading in 8 stages.

Method of observing panicle initiation

• Select the main tiller (the longest one) and cut at the base
where stem and root join.
• Make a longitudinal slit from the base upto the top of the tiller
• Open the slit just above the nodal portion
• Observe the developing panicle with the help of a magnifying
lens.

Adjustment of flowering date

If it is found during the first 3 stages of panicle differentiation that
synchronization of flowering will not be attained, the earlier developingparent
should be applied with quick releasing nitrogen fertilizer (2% urea spray) or
apply 35 kg /ha of urea with knapsack sprayer at 500 lit /ha and the later
developing parent should be sprayed with 2% solution of DAP. By this measure
a difference of 4 to 5 days may be adjusted.
If it is found during the later stages of panicle differentiation that
synchronization of flowering will not be attained a difference of 3-4 days may
be adjusted by drainage or irrigation because the R lines are more sensitive
to water than CMS lines. For instance, if R line is found to be earlier, draining
water from the field will delay the panicle
development. On the other hand if R line is
found to be late, higher standing water
would facilitate rapid panicle development.
If the difference in flowering period
between the two parents reaches 10 days
or more it is necessary to remove the
panicles from early developing parent and
apply nitrogen fertilizer subsequently, thus making it late emerging tillers or
unproductive tillers bear panicles and subsequently achieve synchronization
of flowering.
Further during the flowering stage if the blooming time is found not
to be synchronized (usually the R line flowers earlier than CMS line)
adjustments can be made in blooming time by improving the microclimate in
the field through drainage, removing dew drops from the CMS plants and
spraying cold water to the R lines.

Application of Gibberellin (GA3)

GA3 plays an important role in rice hybrid seed production. It can adjust
physiological and biochemical metabolism of rice plant especially stimulating
the elongation of young cells. About 25-30%. spikelets of a panicle are inside
the flag leaf sheath in most of the indica CMS lines than that of the Japonica
CMS lines. GA3 has a definite role in exertion of panicle. In general, it is
recommended that 50 g /ha with knapsack sprayer in two split doses, i.e. spray
on 15-20% earhead emergence and 2nd spray in the next day for enhanced
seed set.
GA3 will not dissolve in water and hence it should be dissolved in 75-
90% alcohol (1g in 20-25 ml of alcohol) and make the required solution.
Spraying should be done at 8 to 10 a.m. and 4-6 p.m.

Advantages of GA3 application

• Enhances panicle and stigma exertion
• Adjust plant height of seed and pollen parents
• Speed up the growth of later tillers and increases the effective tillers
• Sets uniform panicle ear.
• Flag leaf angle is increased
• Increases 1000 grain weight
• Reduces unfilled grains
• Remarkably enhances seed setting and seed yield
Supplementary pollination
Natural outcrossing was recorded less than 10% by Ramlingam et al.
(1994). However, this depends upon the wind direction and its velocity.
Shaking the R line panicles by rope pulling at panicle level or rod driving
during anthesis can make their anthers dehisce and spread the pollenwidely
and evenly thus the outcrossing rate could be increased. It is more effective
especially on calm or breezy days.
Generally, supplementary pollination is carried out at 30 minutes
interval for 5 times daily both morning and evening during peak anthesis (10-
12 am and 2-4 p.m.) until no pollen remains on the R line. It is not needed
when the wind is greater than moderate breeze.

Foliar spray
Foliar spray of 2% DAP increases yield and qualities of seed
✓ Short duration: Ist Spray on 60 DAS
II nd " 80 "
✓ Medium duration: Ist Spray on 80 DAS
II nd " 100 "

Roguing
 Remove the undesirable plants either in A or R line rows that differ from
plants that are true to type. The pollen shedders and off types are removed.
The undesirable plants come from many sources. They may be volunteer
plants from the previous cropping.
The most important stages for roguing are at maximum tillering, at
flowering and just before harvesting.

Roguing in hybrids
In A line remove pollen shedders. In A line only 40-50% of seed set is
possible. If > 60-70% seed is noticed and the panicle is drooping it would be
R line (or) other varieties.

Plants to be removed A line B line R line

Diseased plants All All All

Parental lines R line & B line A line & B line R line & A line

Early flowering plant All All All

Rogues / off types : Based on variation in phenotypic

Characters

Harvesting, threshing & drying

✓ Turning of 90% green seeds to straw yellow colour is the stage of
physiological maturity
✓ Moisture content will be 17-20%.
✓ Male parent should be harvested first .
 ✓ Care should be taken to avoid admixture of male line with female line
while harvesting.
✓ The female parent should be threshed at 16-17% moisture content
separately in a well cleaned threshing floor.
✓ The threshed seed should be winnowed and dried to reduce the seed
moisture content to 12%
✓ The seed should not be dried under direct sun between 12 to 3.00
p.m. during hot sunny days.

Seed treatment
Seeds are treated with thiram / captan @ 4 g/kg. or with 5 gm
halogen mixture. The halogen mixture is prepared by mixing CaOCl2 +CaCO3
for 1 week in air tight container.

Storage
✓ Fort short term storage use gunny bag or cloth bag.
✓ For long term storage use polythene bag of > 700 gauge and dry the
seeds to 8% moisture content.
✓ When compared with varieties, the hybrids and parental lines A & B
lines are poor in storability.
✓ The order of the storage potential is R > F1 > B > A.

Others - As in variety

Seed Yield
Hybrid yield (F1) : 800-1200 kg ha-1

General Tips
➢ Nursery period, spacing, seed rate, fertilizer dose and days to maturation
vary with short, medium and long duration varieties.
➢ Grain of paddy could be (visual) graded as long slender, short, medium
bold based on shape but could not be separated on mechanical grading
minding.
➢ Textures variation though not permanent exists in paddy seeds.
➢ Seeds of paddy have carbohydrate as the main storage reserve in the
form of amylase and amylopectin which differentiates the japonica and
indica varieties.
➢ SPLIT HUSK: Problem of split husk occur in hybrid rice seed production
where the lemma and palia are not closed properly at tip portion.
Occurrence is claimed to nutrient deficiency synchronization defects and
genetic factors, as it
➢ Occurs more in female line than male line. Split husk reduces the
germination due to heavier load of fungal colonies. Seed multiplication ratio
1:152
➢ Seed renewal period : three times
 SEED PRODUCTION IN SORGHUM

Sorghum is common millet of India with wider utility. It is used a feed, food
and raw material for agri based industry. Botanically it is known as Sorghum bicolor
L. and belongs to the family poaceae. It is an often cross pollinated crop, insects
and wind are the pollinating agents.

Floral biology

Sorghum is an often cross-pollinated

crop. The extent of out crossing is 6-45% and
depends on nature of earhead. In loosepanicles
the cross-pollination is more and lessin compact
panicle. Spikelets occur in pairs on the lateral
branches of the panicle. One issessile while the
other spikelet is pedicelled. Sessile is bisexual
and pedicelled spikelet ismale or sterile. Sessile
spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate
spikeletand each spikelet has two florets. Flower
opening starts after 2 to 4 days of emergence
of panicle from the boot leaf. Flowering starts
from the tip of the panicle and proceeds
downwards (basipetal). Flowering completes in
7 days. The pollen is viable for 10 to 20minutes
under field conditions. Fertile pollen will be
lemon yellow in colour. Older pollen grains will
normally turn to orange. Receptivity of stigma
starts two days before opening and remains for
several days ( 5 days). Flower opening and
anthesis will be from 2.00 am to
8.00 am.
 VARIETAL SEED PRODUCTION

Open pollination under isolation and selfing by bagging are the common methods
of varietal seed production.

Stages of seed multiplication

In sorghum seed is multiplied adopting three generation system, as breeder seed,

foundation seed and certified seed as the crop is often cross pollinated crop where the
chances for genetic contamination is high.

Popular varieties

In Tamil Nadu , CO 25 CO26, CO 27 ,K5, K7, CO 19, CO 21, K9, BSR 1, CO

26, K4, K8, CO 25, APK 1, K 10, Paiyur 1 and 2 are the popular varieties for grain
purpose ,while CO 20 and CO 28 is a fodder sorghum

Season

The best season for production is November- December and the floweringshould
not coincide either with rain or high RH as it will wash out the pollen and the maturation
should coincide with dry weather. The temperature of 37oC is favourablefor better
seed setting.

Land requirement

The land should be fertile and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will
adversely affect the quality and the seed set will be poor. The previous crop shouldnot
be the same crop to avoid the occurrence of volunteer plants and if to be the samecrop
it has to be the same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for
certification. The field should not have any volunteer plants.

Field Standards for isolation

Sorghum field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Contaminants Minimum distance(m)

FS CS

Fields of other varieties of grain and dual 200 100

purpose sorghum
Fields of same variety not confirming to varietal purity 200 100
requirements for certification

Johnson grass (Sorghum halapense) 400 400

Forage sorghum with high tillering and grassy panicle 400 400

In sorghum differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance is not
permitted

Seed and sowing

➢ For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material,
while for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material. The
seed used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill.

➢ The required seed rate will be 12kg /ha or 4-5kg/ acre.

➢ The seed are sown at a spacing of 45 x15 cm at a depth of 2-4cm as the plant
has adventitious root system.

➢ In some places seeds are also raised in nursery and transplanted to the main
field.

➢ In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds and
channels.

➢ In some places seeds are also raised in nursery and transplanted to the main
field at 27-30 days intervals.

➢ Rainfed - Direct sown 15.0 kg., Irrigated - Direct sown 10.0 kg / ha and
transplanted 7.5 kg/ha

Presowing seed treatment

The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination.

➢ Seeds are soaked in 2% KH2PO4 for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06
and are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9% .This management
could be used both for dry land agriculture as well as garden land.
 ➢ As an ecofriendly treatrment seeds are also fortified or hardened with 1% prosopis
and pungam leaf extract for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are
dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9%.

➢ Seeds are also treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shoofly
infection. Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos @4 ml /kg is also recommended
against the attack by shoot fly.

➢ Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed borne
pathogens and soil borne pathogen.

➢ Seeds are also treated with azospirillum @50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric N.
Any one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better
productivity.

➢ On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological should be followed with

physical seed treatment.

➢ Seed treatment with 10% prosopis leaf extract reduces the black mould attack,
which can even be given as foliar spray at the time of maturation.

Nutrient application

➢ At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare.

➢ The fertilizer requirement of seed crop is 150:50:50 kg of NPK, in which

100:50:50 kg / ha of NPK is applied as basal, while 25kg of N is applied after

first weeding and the remaining 25 kg of N is applied after boot leaf stage.

➢ The seed crop is also sprayed with 2% DAP at primordial initiation stage and

twice thereafter at 10 days interval.

➢ In calcarious soil and in problem soils FeSo4 0.5 % is sprayed thrice at 10days

interval from primordial initiation stage.

Weeding

➢ Application of atrazine @ 10ml per litre as pre-emergence herbicide control the

growth of weeds upto 20-25 days.
 ➢ One hand weeding at the time of primordial initiation keep the field free of
weeds. Weeding after boot leaf stage is not economical.

➢ On organic production, 2 hand weeding at seedling stage and other at boot leaf
formation will keep the field weed free

➢ At 15-20 days after sowing furadon granules are placed at leaf whorls to avoid
shootfly infection.

Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated once in a week for enhanced seed set andformation
of bolder grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative
stage, milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in these stages seed set
will be poor and seed size will be reduced.

Pest and disease management

Common pests Management techniques

Shootfly Monocrotophos 0.03%

Stemborer Rogar 0.3%

Gall midge Endosulphan 0.07%

Earhead bugs Endosulphan 0.07%

Black mould and sugary disease Endosulphan 0.07% + Bavistin @10g /lit.

Kernal smut and head smut Endosulphan 0.07% + Bavistin @10g /lit.

Kernal smut and head smut are known as designated diseases of sorghum.

Roguing

It is specific to seed crop and is done from seedling stage to harvesting stage
based on the phenotypic characters. Off types can be identified through stem colour,
plant structure, number of leaves, auricles, nodal colour, grain colour etc. The field
standard for seed crop is as follows
Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Factor Maximum permitted

(%)

FS CS

Off types at any one inspection and after flowering 0.050 0.020

Heads infected by kernel smut or grain smut 0.050 0.020

(Sphacelotheca sorghi(Link) Clinton) and Head smut

(Sphacelotheca reiliana (kuhn)Clinton) at final inspection

Seed fields can however be certified if diseased earheads are removed and burnt
and the fields show on reinspection not more than maximum permissible level. Only one
such re-inspection is permitted. Seed fields should be thoroughly roughed to remove
plants infected by sugary disease (Sphacelotheca sorghi (Link) Clinton)/ergot (Claviceps
spp.) so that the prescribed standards are met at seed stage. However, the seed fields
shall not be rejected on account of the apresence of sugary/ ergot infected heads.

Smut Ergot
Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, offtypes
and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true
nature of plant and other relevant factors

Preharvest sanitation spray

Spraying of endosulphan @ 0.07% and bavistin@10g /lit 10 days prior to

harvest prevent the seed weevil infestation at storage.

Harvesting

➢ The crop attains physiological maturity 40-45 days after 50% flowering and the
seed moisture at this stage will be around 25-30%.

➢ This stage can be easily be identified by the formation of dunken layer at the
place of attachment to the ear head.

➢ The earheads are harvested commercially when 80 % of the earheads are

physiologically matured, where the moisture content will be around 20 %.

➢ The crop is harvested as once over harvest as uniformity will be maintained with
earheads on maturity.

Threshing

The earheads are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction
of seeds. The moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.

On large scale production LCT threshers are used, but care should be given to avoid
mechanical damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality and storability.
Drying

The seeds are dried to 8-10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting
mechanical driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing

➢ Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove the
undersized immature and chaffy seeds
➢ The middle screen size should be 9/64” round perforated sieves. The size can
vary depending on the type of seed

➢ For fodder sorghum 8/64”sieve is used

Seed treatment

The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these pests
the seeds are given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed with carbaryl
@200mg/kg of seed as slurry treatment. Bifenthrin @5mg /kg of seed is also
recommended for fodder sorghum.

Seed packing

Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and polylined
gunny bag for long term storage.
Storage

✓ The treated seed can be stored up to 12 months provided the seeds are not
infected with storage pests.

✓ Seed can be stored up to 3 years if the seeds are packed in moisture containers
and are stored at low temperature .

✓ The godown should be kept clean as the possibility of secondary infestation with
Trifolium (red flour weevil ) is much in these crop.

Seed yield : 3000-4000kg/ha

Seed standard

The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both for
certification and labeling.

Seed Standard

Factor Standards for each class

Foundation Certified

Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%

Inertmatter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%

Other crop seed (maximum) (by number) 5/kg 10/kg

Total weed seed (maximum) (by number) 5/kg 10/kg

Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg

Ergot, sclerotia, seed entirely or partially modified 0.020% 0.040%

sclerotia, broken or ergotted seed (maximum)

Germination ( Minimum) 75% 75%

Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%

For vapour proof container (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest
infestation, when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the
seeds are imposed with midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double
the volume of 10-4 M solution of disodium hydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/lit ofwater)
for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (8- 9%).
 HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN SORGHUM

Breeding technique for Commercial production

Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)

Seeds produced in different stages

Nucleus seed stage : Maintenance of basic source by seed

to row progenies.

Breeder Stage : A (AxB), B and R line are multiplied

Foundation Stage : A (AxB) and R line are multiplied

Breeder and foundation

seed stage : Multiplication of male sterile line or
maintenance of A and B line

Certified seed stage : A x R – F1 hybrid produced.

Certified seed stage : Production of hybrid seed

Stages of Seed Production

Breeder seed ---> A x B - B - R

Foundation seed ---> AxB- B- R

Certified seed ---> AxR

Popular hybrids of their parents: The first hybrid (CSH 1) was released in 1964.
In 1969, the Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project was established. Now
there are more than 30 hybrids. Some popular are

CSH1 CK 60 A x IS 84
CSH5 2077A x CS3541
CSH 9 MS 296 A x CS 3541
COH2 2219A x IS3541(Kovilpatti Tall)
COH3 2077A x CO21
COH4 296A x TNS30
CSH 13 R 296 A x RS 29
CSH 14 AKMS 14A x AKR 150
CSH 16 27 A x C 43
CSH 15 (R) 104 A x R 585
CSH 17 AKMS 14A x RS 673

Stages of seed multiplication : Breeder seed – foundation seed –

certified seed.
Foundation seed production : A and B line are raised in 4:2
ratio with 4 rows of B line as border
row and allowed for cross pollination.
The seeds from A line will be collected
as A line seeds (multiplied).
Certified seed production : Hybrid seed production

Commercial in Hybrid seed production techniques

Isolation distance
FS CS
Normal 200 100
On presence of Johnson grass 400 400
On presence of forage sorghum 400 200
Hybrids 300 200
 Johnson grass Forage sorghum

Seeds and sowing

Seed rate : A line : 8 kg ha-1

R line : 4 kg ha-1

Spacing : A line : 45 x 30cm

R line : 45 x solid row spacing.

Planting ratio : Foundation seed stage: 4:2 (A: B)

Certified seed stage : 5.2 (A:R)

Border rows : 4 rows of male (either B or R line)

to, supply adequate pollen.

Live markers : • Live plants used for identification of

male line live markers are used.
• It should have distinguishable
 morphological characters.
• Live markers can be sunflower, daincha etc.

Manures and Fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 t / ha
NPK : 100:50:50 kg ha-1
Basal : 50:50:5 kg ha-1
Top dressing : 25kg N after last ploughing
25kg N after boot leaf stage (45 days)

Synchronization technique

1. Staggered sowing: Sowing of male parent and female parents are adjusted in such
a way that both parents come to flowering at the same time.

✓ CSH-5, MS 2077 A must be sown 10-15 days earlier to the male CS 3541,

✓ CSH 6, the female parent MS 2219 A can be sown simultaneously with CS 3541

✓ CSH 9, the female parent MS 296 A must be sown 7-10 days earlier than male CS
3541 in November- December season.

2. Spraying growth retardent MH 500 ppm at 45 DAS, delays flowering in advancing

parent. MH wont dissolve in water and hence dissolve it in NaOH and then mix
with water.

3. Urea spraying 1% to the lagging parent.

4. Withhold one irrigation to the advancing parent.

5. Spraying CCC 300 ppm will delay flowering.

Roguing: Do it in both
parents.

Off types
In female line remove : off types, wild types, pollen shedders,
rogues, partials, volunteer plants, diseased
plants, R line, mosaic plants, late / Early
flowering plant
In male line remove : Rogues, A line, Diseased plants, Late /
early flowering plants, Wild types

Types of contamination

Presence of B line in A line called as pollen shedders

Presence of A line in Bline called as off type

Presence of R line in B line called as rogue

Presence of B line in B line called as rogue

Presence of B line in Rline called as rogue

Presence of B line in R line called as rogue

Pollen shedders and off type cause physical contamination, whereas, rogue
cause physical and genetical contamination.

Pollen shedders

Presence of B line plants in A line are called pollen shedders.

Partials
 In certain A line plants, a part of the earhead-shed pollen due to the removal
of sterility due to parental impurity (or) developmental variation or temperature.

Field Standards

Isolation distance
FS CS
Offtypes (max) Varieties 0.05 0.10

Hybrids 0.05 0.10

Pollen shedders (max) 0.05 0.10

Designated diseased plants 0.05 0.10

(max) (Ergot and smut)

Designated disease
1. Kernel smut
2. Head smut
3. Sugary disease of sorghum
❖ It is specific to hybrid
❖ Occur due to low seed set
❖ Spray rogor 0.03% (or)
❖ Endosulfan 0.07%

Method of harvesting

Male and female lines should be harvested separately. The male rows are
harvested first and transported to separate threshing floor. Like that female rows are
harvested and threshed separately.

Threshing
 ✓ At the time of threshing the seed moisture content should be reduced around
15-18%. Threshing can be done by beating the earheads with bamboo sticks.

✓ While using the mechanical threshers, care should be taken to avoid

mechanical damage.

Drying

Seed should be dried to 12% for short term storage and 8% for long term
storage.

Processing

The sorghum seeds can be processed in OSAW cleaner cum grader using
9/64" round perforated metal sieve.

Seed treatment and storage

✓ The seeds are treated with captan or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seed and pack it in
cloth bag at 12% moisture content for short term storage and 8% moisture
content in 700 gauge poly ethylene bag for long term storage (or)

✓ The seeds can also be treated with halogen mixture @ 3 g/kg of seeds. The
halogen mixture is prepared by mixing CaOCl2 and CaCO3 +Albizzia amara at
the rate of 5:4:1 and this mixture is kept in an air tight plastic container for
1 week. After one week the mixture is used for seed treatment.

✓ The treated seeds can be stored upto 12 months under open storage and
upto 18 months in moisture vapour proof containers, provided it is not infested
by the storage insects.

Seed yield : 3000 kg ha-1

Seed standards
Foundation Certified seed
seed
Physical purity (%) 98 98
Inert matter (%) 2 2
Other crop seed 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
Weed seed 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Other distinguishable variety 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Ergot disease by number 0.020% 0.040%
Moisture content
Moisture pervious container 12 12
Moisture vapour proof container 8 8

Others – as in varieties
 SEED PRODUCTION IN PEARL MILLET

Bajra is common minor millet of India with wider industrial and household
utility. It is used a feed, food and raw material in soft drink industry. Botanically it
is known as Pennisetum typhoides L. and belongs to the family poaceae.

Floral biology

It is a highly cross-pollinated crop. The pollinating agent is wind. The flowers

are protogynous. The spike emerges about 10 weeks after sowing, The styles begin
to protrude 2-3 days later first at the top of the inflorescence and proceeds. They
take two days to complete the entire spike. Exerted stigma remains receptive for 12-
24 hours. Anthers usually emerge after the styles are dry. The anther emergence
starts from middle of the spike and proceeds upwards and downwards. Anthesis
occurs throughout the day and night with the peak between 8.00 p.m. to
2.00 a.m.

Protogynus

Stigma Anther

Popular variety : co7, co 8

Synthetics : If more than 5 parental lines are combined ,which are having general

combining ability e.g. CO 7, ICMS 7703

Composite: 3-5 inbreds with no general combining ability are mixed and

multiplied. WCC 75.(ICRISAT).

Land requirement

Seed field offered for certification should not have been grown with bajra in
the previous season. However if it was grown, the field should be irrigated 3 weeks
before sowing to destroy the germinating seeds.

Field Standards for isolation

Bajra field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Contaminants Minimum distance(m)

Foundation Certified
stage stage

Fields of other varieties 400 200

Fields of same variety not confirming to 200 100

varietal purity requirements for certification

In bajra differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance is not
permitted

Selection of Seed

✓ For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material
while for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material
.

✓ The seed used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill.

✓ The required seed rate will be 18kg /ha or 3-4kg/ acre.

Presowing seed treatment

✓ The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination.

✓ Seeds are soaked in 2% KH2PO4 or 0.5% brassinolide for 16h with a seed
to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are dried back to their original moisture
 content of 8-9% .This management could be used both for dryland agriculture
as well as garden land.

✓ As an ecofriendly treatment seeds are also fortified or hardened with 1%

prosopis and pungam leaf extract for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06
and are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9%

✓ Seeds are treated with metalaxyl @6g/kg of seed to prevent the infestation by
downy mildew.

✓ Seeds are also treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shoofly
infection. Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos @4 ml /kg is alsorecommended
against the attack by shoofly.

✓ Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed
borne pathogens and soil borne pathogen.

✓ Seeds are also treated with azospirillum @50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric
N. Any one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for
better productivity.

✓ On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological should be followed with

physical seed treatment.

Sowing

✓ The seed are sown at a spacing of 45 x 20 cm at a depth of 2-4cm as the

plant has adventitious root system.

✓ In some places seeds are also raised in nursery and transplanted to the main
field at an age of 20 -25 days.

✓ In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds
and channels.

✓ The seedlings are thinned or transplanted at 20-25 days after sowing and
gapfilling should be done 10-15 days after sowing.
Nutrient application

✓ At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare. The fertilizer
requirement of seed crop is 100:50:50 kg of NPK, in which 50:50:50 kg /ha of
NPK is applied as basal, while 50kg of N is applied after 30-35 days after sowing
at tillering phase .

✓ The seed crop is also sprayed with 2% DAP at primordial initiation stage and
twice thereafter at 10 days interval to enhance uniform flowering and
increased seed set.

Weeding

Application of atrazine @ 10ml per litre as pre-emergence herbicide controls

the growth of weeds upto 20-25 days. One hand weeding at the time of primordial
initiation keep the field free of weeds. Weeding after boot leaf stage is not economical
and shade will also minimize the weed flora. On organic production, 2 hand weeding
at seedling stage and other at boot leaf formation will keep the field weed free.

Irrigation

✓ The crop should be irrigated once in a week for enhanced seed set and
formation of bolder grains .

✓ The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative

stage ,milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in thesestages
seed set will be poor and seed size will be reduced.

Pest and disease management

Common pests Management techniques

Shootfly Monocrotophos 0.03%

Stemborer Rogar 0.3%

Downy mildew Metalaxil @ 500gor ridonil MZ WP 2@2kg/ha

Mancozeb@ 1kg/ha.
 Earhead bugs Endosulphan 0.07%

Black mould Endosulphan 0.07% + Bavistin @10g /lit.

Green ear /Smut/Ergot Spray carbendazim @500g/ac in 2stages 10 and 50

flowering

Rust Spray with wettable sulphur @2.5g/ha on initiation

symptom and 10 days thereafter..

Green ear Smut Ergot

Roguing

It is specific to seed crop and is done from seedling stage to harvesting stage
based on the phenotypic characters. Off types can be identified through stemcolour,
plant structure, number of leaves, auricles, nodal colour, grain colour etc. The field
standard for seed crop is as follows

Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Factor Maximum permitted

(%)

FS CS
Off types at any one inspection and after flowering 0.050 0.10

Plants infected by downy mildew/ green ear disease 0.050 0.10

any one inspection

Ergot earheads at final inspection ** 0.020 0.040

Earheads infected with grain smut at final inspection 0.050 0.100

** Even if the infection is within the limit seeds are graded with brine
solution to become eligible for certification.

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering preferably within 30 days after
planting in order to verify isolation, volunteer plants, off types, downy mildew
incidence and other relevant factors.

2. The second inspection shall be made during 50% flowering to check isolation, off
types, downy mildew incidence /green ear and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting and in order
to determine the incidence of downy mildew /green ear disease, ergot, grain smut
and to verify true nature of plant and other relevant factors

Pre harvest sanitation spray

Spraying of endosulphan @ 0.07% and bavistin@10g /lit 10 days prior to

harvest prevent the seed weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) infestation at storage.

Harvesting

The crop attains physiological maturity 30-35 days after 50% flowering and
the seed moisture at this stage will be around 25-30%. This stage can be easily be
identified by the formation of dunken layer at the place of attachment to the ear
head. The ear heads are harvested when 80 % of the ear heads are physiologically
matured, where the moisture content will be around 20 %.The crop is commercially
harvested as once over harvest but harvesting of ear heads as 2or 3 picking will
preserve the seed quality as matured seeds are not over exposed to the changes in
environmental conditions.

Special techniques

Selection of first formed 5-6 tillers for seed purpose ensures seeds quality. Ear
heads also exhibit positional polymorphism where seeds of middle are better in seed
quality. This type of selection will be useful in long term storage of seeds

Threshing

The ear heads are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction
of seeds. The moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.On
large scale production LCT threshers are used, but care should be given to avoid
mechanical damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality andstorability.

Drying

The seeds are dried to 8 to10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting
mechanical driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing

Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove
the undersized immature and chaffy seeds .The middle screen size should be 4/64”
round perforated sieves. The size can vary depending on the variety. (For WCC 75
5/64”sieve is used).
Seed yield: 3500- 4000 kg/ha

Seed treatment

The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these
pests the seeds are given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed with
carbaryl @200mg/kg of seed as slurry treatment. Bifenthrin @5mg /kg of seed is also
recommended for better seeds storage

Seed packing

Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and
polylined gunny bag for long term storage.

Storage

The treated seed can be stored up to 12 months provided the seeds are not
infected with storage pests. Seed can be stored up to 3 years if the seeds are packed
in moisture containers and are stored at low temperature .The godown should be
kept clean as the possibility of secondary infestation with Trifolium (red flour weevil
) is much in these crop. The major problem in storage is incidence of grain weevil
which will powder the seed material in a short period.

Seed standard

The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both
for certification and labeling.

Seed Standard

Factor Standards for each class

FOUNDATION CERTIFIED

Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%

Inert matter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%

Other crop seed (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg

Weed seed 10/kg 20/kg

Ergot, sclerotia, seed entirely or partially 0.020% 0.040%

modified as sclerotia, broken or ergotted (by number) (by number)
seed (maximum)

Germination ( Minimum) 75% 75%

Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%

For vapour proof container (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest
infestation, when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the
seeds are imposed with midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double
the volume of 10-4 M solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/lit of
water) for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (8-9%).

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Breeding Technique for hybrid

seed production : Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility
system (CGMS)

History of bajra hybrid

Seed production : The first report on CGMS line was

made by Burton and his co workers at
Tifton Georgia USA. The line is
Tift 23A.
Popular hybrid

Hybrid Female Male

KM 1 MS 5141 A J 104
KM 2 MS 5141 A K 560 -D-230
X4 MS 5141 A PT 1921
X5 PB 111A PT 1921
X6 732 A PT 3095
X7 111A PT 1890
H B1 Tift 23A(USA) BIL -3B
HB 3 Tift 23A(USA) J 104
HB 5 Tift 23A(USA) K 559
UCH 11 732 A PT 3075 (TNAU)
COH(cu) 8 732 A PT 4450

Commercial Hybrid Seed Production

Isolation : Foundation seed : 1000 m

Certified seed : 200 m

Season : Irrigated : March – April, June - July

January – February
Rainfed : October – November

Seed rate : A line : 6 kg ha-1

B line : 2 kg ha-1

Main field preparation : Ridges and furrows

Planting ratio : Foundation Seed : 4:2

Certified Seed : 6:2
Pusa 23 - 8 : 2

Border rows : Foundation Seed : 8 (B line)

Certified Seed : 4 (R line)
Spacing : A line : 45 x 20 cm
B line : 45 x solid row.
Nursery : Seedling can also be raised in raised bed
nursery and can transplanted
to the main field at 20-25 days of aging.
Manures & Fertilizers

Nursery : 750 kg / 7.5 cents for transplanting in one ha.

Mainfield : Compost : 12.t ton/ha NPK 100:50:50 kg ha-1

Basal : 50:50:50 kg ha-1
Top : 50:0:0 kg ha-1 (At tillering phase

Foliar spray : DAP 1% at peak flowering to enhance flowering

and seed set.

Steps for synchronization of flowering

❖ Withholding irrigation
❖ Application DAP 1%
❖ Staggered sowing
❖ Jerking
Jerking

It is done 20-25 days after transplanting or 30-40 days after direct sowing.
The early formed earheads of the first tillers are pulled out or removed which will
result in uniform flowering of all the tillers.

Specialty with bajra in synchronization

The synchronization problem is less in bajra due to

❖ Tillering habit
❖ Supply of continuous pollen
❖ Lesser pollen weight
❖ Flight capacity of pollen
❖ Pollen viability & stigma receptivity are longer.
Roguing : Done in both lines

• A line : seek for offtypes pollen shedder and

partials
• R line : Seek for early flowering plants,
rouges and diseased plants.

Character of offtypes : Variation in leaf colour, leaf waviness,

grain colour earhead, shape, size, etc.

No. of field inspection : Three

• Seedling stage
• Tillering stage
• Grain formation stage.

Field standards

Standards Maximum permitted (%)

FS CS
Offtypes 0.05 0.10
Pollen shedders 0.05 0.10
Downy mildew diseased plants 0.05 0.10
Earheads affected by ergot 0.02 0.04

Harvesting Technique : • Due to tillering habit, harvest the

panicle / earhead in 2 picking (to
avoid delayed harvest)
• Select 5-7 tillers for seed purpose.

Processing : • Grade with 4/64” round perforated

metal sieve as middle screen
• Use OSAW cleaner cum grader
Seed Treatment : Thiram / Bavistin @3g kg-1 seed
Seed storage : • Cloth bag for short term storage
(12 months)
• 700 gauge polyethylene bag – long
term storage (> 24 months)

Mid storage correction : HDH with Na2PO4 10-4m for 4h.

Seed standards

Standards Permitted (%)

FS CS
Physical purity (Maximum) 98 98
Inert matter (Maximum) 2 2
Other crop seed (Maximum) 10 / kg 10 / kg
Weed seed (Maximum) 10 / kg 10 / kg
Ergot effected seeds (Maximum) by 0.020 % 0.040%
number
Germination 75 75
Moisture content - Moisture pervious 12 12
Moisture impervious 5 5

Seed yield : 3200 - 3250 kg / ha

 LECTURE 6
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION IN PULSES
Seed Production of Red gram / Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)

Nucleus seed production

Nucleus seed is a genetically pure seed lot of a particular variety, which is maintained by the originating
plant breeder or the institute. It matches well in all the morphological parameters listed in the variety release
document. In each cycle of regeneration, the population is monitored for these traits. In general, the available
quantities of this valuable nucleus seed are limited and are used to produce breeder seed. To produce nucleus
seed, the pure seed stock available with the breeder is grown under recommended agronomy and about 100
representative plants are bagged before flowering to obtain selfed seed. Each plant is harvested separately. In
the subsequent season single plant progenies (2 rows/selection) are grown along with bulk seed in every fifth
plot as a check plot for field assessment of progenies for various morphological traits. Any progeny showing
significant deviation for any trait is rejected and its plants uprooted. About 20 plants from the uniform progenies,
flowering along with the original seed lot, are selfed and harvested separately. This seed is assessed for its
physical appearance (size, shape, color) and the seed from similar looking plants from a single progeny are
bulked. Rigid criteria always need to be adopted while selecting the progenies because this seed lot will be
used to produce the breeder’s seed for future use. According to Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards
(Tunwar and Singh 1988) the following two classes and sources of bulk seed production have been recognized.
Breeder Seed: Breeder Seed is the seed directly controlled by the originating or sponsoring plant breeder of the
breeding program or institute. This seed production activity is supervised by a qualified plant breeder and the
seed lot becomes the source for the initial and recurring increases of Foundation Seed. The Breeder Seed label
shall be of a Golden Yellow color No.356 (IS: 5-1978).
Certified Seed: Certified Seed is produced under the supervision of SSCA, notified under section 8 of the
Seed Act 1966. The Certified Seed falls into two categories viz., Foundation and Certified Seed and each
class shall conform to the standards.
Certified Foundation Seed: This seed is the progeny of Breeder Seed or produced from Foundation Seed
Stage-I, which can be clearly traced to the Breeder Seed. For these two categories of Foundation, ie, Foundation
seed Stage-I directly produced from Breeder Seed and Foundation Seed, and the Stage-II Seed produced
from Foundation Seed Stage-I, the Minimum Seed Certification Standards are the same. The tag for Foundation
Seed is white in color. The seed production of Foundation Seed Stage-I and II must be supervised by SSCA.
Certified Seed: This is the progeny of Foundation Seed, and its production is so handled that it maintains the
specific genetic identity and purity as per the prescribed standards fixed for the crop. Certified Seed may also
be progeny of Certified Seed, provided the reproduction does not exceed three generations beyond Foundation
Seed Stage-I. The color of the tag for the Certified Seed is blue (Shade ISI No. 104 AZURE BLUE).
Breeder seed production
Breeder seed is produced with high quality control standards under the direct supervision of the
breeder or institute who developed the variety. The planting material for breeder seed production is obtained from
the nucleus seed lot. The breeder seed crop is grown in isolation with the recommended package of
practices. Periodic inspection of the field, both before and after flowering, is essential, and all the off-type
plants should be removed as soon as they are identified. Adequate measures should be taken to avoid
mechanical mixtures during harvesting, threshing, cleaning, and packing. The Breeder Seed indents of the
private companies for notified varieties/hybrids should be sent to the Seed Association of India, (SAI) New
Delhi. The SAI, after consolidating crop/variety-wise Breeder Seed indents, will send the list to the Joint
Secretary (Seeds), Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India. The indents can also be
sent directly to the Joint Secretary (Seeds). The Government of India will forward the indent to ICAR, who will
arrange for production and supply of breeder seed. Finally, the Joint Secretary (Seeds) will communicate the
allotments to different organizations. The ICAR then, through the crop coordinator, will allocate the breeder
seed production programs to its various ICAR centers and agricultural universities, which produce and deliver
the breeder seed to NSC.
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production of pigeon pea shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition the soil
should be light, well drained and with a neutral PH.
Isolation requirements
Red gram is partially self and cross pollinated. Although anthers burst before flowers open, there is
considerable cross-fertilization by bees and other insects. Natural crossing to the extent of sixty five percent has
also been recorded. Therefore, for maintaining variety purity an isolation of 200 m. for foundation seedclass
and 100 m. for certified seed class is necessary from fields of other varieties and of the same variety not
confirming to varietal purity requirements of certification.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The seed
rate required is 12-15 kg/ha and the spacing adopted is 60 x 25 cm to 75 x 30 cm. Other cultural practices are
similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary prophylactic measures should be taken so as to raise a good
crop.
Roguing
Rogue the off type plants and diseased plants affected by wilt, leaf spot and stem canker, yellow
mosaic virus and sterility virus from seed field from time to time, as required.
Number of field inspections
A minimum two and maximum four field inspections are standardized for certification of different seed
production programmes. For red gram, a minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before
flowering and second inspection during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types
and diseased plants etc.
F/s C/s
Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %
Harvesting and threshing
The crop is harvested soon after the seed is mature. Harvesting is normally done with sickle and the
crop is left in the field to dry for about one week. Threshing is done by beating the plants with sticks. After
threshing and cleaning the seed should be dried to 8 to 10 percent moisture before storage. Necessary
precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during these operations.
Seed yield
The average seed yield varies from 20 to 25 quintals per hectare.
 REDGRAM HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

Seed Production of GMS-based Hybrids

The yield levels of pigeonpea over the past few decades have remained low and unchanged at about
600–700 kg ha-1. With the aim of achieving a quantum jump in the yield of pigeonpea, its phenomenon of
natural crosspollination has been used to exploit the hybrid vigor. Initially, a genetic male-sterility (GMS)
system was used to breed high yielding hybrids and in 1991, the world’s first pigeonpea hybrid ICPH 8 was
developed at ICRISAT and released by ICAR. Subsequently, five more GMS-based hybrids were released by
ICAR. All these hybrids recorded over 25–40% yield advantage in farmers’ fields but due to large scale seed
production difficulties, these hybrids could never cover large area to make any impact on national pigeonpea
productivity. The seed production procedures of producing GMS-based hybrids and parents are summarized
below:
Nucleus seed production of parents
Female parent: Since in the GMS sources, a single recessive gene controls the male-sterility, it has to be
maintained in a heterozygote (Msms) form only. To achieve this, the male-fertile heterozygote plants are
crossed, either by hand pollination or through pollinating insects, with the male-sterile (msms) segregants
appearing in the same population. In the subsequent generation, this testcross seed lot will segregate in a
proportion of 1 male: 1 female. This process is repeated generation after generation to maintain the GMS
lines. For large-scale seed multiplication of GMS line, the backcross seeds, harvested from the male-sterile
plants, are grown in isolation. At flowering, a young floral bud from each plant is manually opened and its
anthers checked for their morphology and the presence (male-fertile) or absence (male-sterile) of pollen
grains. These two types of plants are identified with different colored tags. At maturity, the seeds obtained
through crosspollination of male-sterile plants are harvested. The seed harvested from the fertile segregants is
rejected.
Male parent: The male parent in this hybrid breeding system is multiplied in a separate isolation. The
population should be intensively rogued for the off-types. Growing single plant progenies and selecting uniform
progenies will enhance its genetic purity.
Certified seed production of hybrids
For producing large quantities of seeds of the selected hybrid combinations, the seeds harvested
from the male-sterile segregants in the maintenance block (as described above) are sown along with the
required pollen parent. Tests at ICRISAT have indicated that good pod set on the male-sterile plants was
obtained when one pollinator (male-parent) row was sown after every six male-sterile (female-parent) rows.
Since in the female rows, both male-fertile (Msms) and male-sterile (msms) plants would appear in equal
proportion, the fertile segregants from the female rows are rogued out as soon as possible. This operation is very
critical and time-bound. The first bud that appears on each plant needs to be examined manually andmale-
fertile plants should be removed based on anther color and size (fertile anthers being orange and robust) before
their flowers open and insect transfer their pollen to the male-sterile plants. Since this operation is verycritical,
it should be carried out every day and be continued till all the fertile plants from the female rows areremoved.
Then a final checking should always be done to ensure the quality. In the large-scale seed production endeavors,
timely roguing is generally not feasible, mainly because it is a labor-intensive job and requires precision in
the identification of male-fertile and male-sterile plants. Besides this, the roguing needs to be completed in
about one week. At maturity, the cross-pollinatedhybrid seed is harvested from the male-sterile plants. In the
hybrid seed production block, the planting of 1 male: 4 female ratio is not a rule and this proportion may be
altered depending on the presence of pollinating vectors at the seed production site, planting time, and the
phenology of parents.
Seed Production of CMS-based Hybrids
Seed production of experimental hybrids
For identification of high-yielding hybrid combinations in pigeonpea, each year a large number of
experimental hybrids need to be produced and evaluated. Seeds of such experimental hybrids are best
produced by hand pollinating the male-sterile plants. Under normal conditions, a trained person can pollinate
about 300 floral buds in a day. A pod-set of 30–40% can be expected and the resultant hybrid seed is
sufficient for testing in a small-scale replicated station trial.
Nucleus seed production of parental lines

A-Line: The nucleus seed of the parental lines of the hybrids should be produced with the highest standards
of genetic purity. For multiplying nucleus seed, both A- and B-lines should be grown in adjacent plots, preferably
inside an insect-proof cage. Each and every plant of A and B-lines be examined for various genetic purity
parameters and off-types be rogued. The pair wise (single plants of A- and B-lines) crossing should be
continued until the desired number of pods is produced. The seed from each A- and B-plant be harvested
separately and examined for seed purity. The crossed seed of different plants be bulked only after the breeder is
satisfied about purity of the plants involved in hybridization. In case, the breeder is assured about the purity and
uniformity of A- and B-lines, the pollen from several plants of B-lines can be bulked and used for pollinationthe
number of plants in A-line.

B-line and R-line: The maintainer (B) and restorer (R) lines are male fertile in nature and thus can produce
quality selfed seed provided the plants maintain their genetic purity. For nucleus seed production of B- and R-
lines, about 100 plants should be harvested from the central portion of the breeders seed production plot and
their progenies should be grown in the subsequent generation. After the assessment of their purity aspects,
the selected progenies are bulked to serve as nucleus seed.

Breeder seed production of parental lines

A-line: For the production of breeder’s seed of A-line, a field with appropriate isolation distance is selected
and A- and B-lines are grown with recommended agronomic package. A ratio of 4 A-lines: 1 B-line has been
found effective in producing seed of A-line In the shortduration CMS line, the mature pods on male-sterile and
fertile plants be harvested by pod picking or by cutting the top-bearing portion of the plants. The perennial
nature of species will force the plants to re-grow and produce a second fresh of flowers and pods.

B-line and R-line: The source seed for breeder seed production is nucleus seed. These male fertile lines can
be multiplied in separate isolations. It is also important to multiply seed in large quantities so that the
foundation seed production is feasible. In addition, the B-line seed can also be harvested from the A-line seed
production isolation (see above paragraph).

Foundation seed production of parental lines

The source seed for the production of foundation seed is breeder seed supplied by the breeder of the
respective line. The package of practices followed in producing breeder seed is also followed in producing the
foundation seed of the parental lines. Always sufficient care should be taken to rogue the off-types as and
when they are identified in any seed production plot. Seeds of both A- and B-lines are planted at the same
time in the ratio of 1 male (B-line) to 4 female (A-line) rows. Soon after flowering the pod set on male-sterile
plants will be observed as a consequence of natural outcrossing. However, if for some reason the pod load on
the male-sterile plants is not full and the pollinator plants have also podded, then de-podding ofmale rows will
help in the emergence of second flush of flowers. In the short-duration group, more than one harvest of the
crossed pods is possible. The pods should be harvested when their color turns from green to grey. It is
advisable that threshing of pods should commence after three days of sun drying. The seed thus harvested be
again dried in sun and packed after treating with Malathion powder @ 1 g kg-1 seed. From the same seed
production block ‘B’- line seed can also be harvested. In case a large quantity of ‘B’-line seed is required, it
may be grown in isolation. In a similar way, the seed of R-line can be produced in isolation.
Certified hybrid (A × R) seed production
In a three-line hybrid seed production system, the hybrid seed produced by crossing A-line with R-
line, is commonly called certified seed production, and is grown in larger scale. In certain cases, the certified seed
may also be produced at community level. For the production of certified seed of hybrids, the A-line and its pollen
parents (R-line) are grown in 4:1 ratio in an isolated block. Some additional rows of pollen parent can also be
sown on each side of the plot. This will enhance pollen availability.

A standard field layout plan of a hybrid seed production plot in isolation

 The pollinating insects actively visit the male and female flowers in a random way and in the process
collect pollen and carry out hybridization. The ratio of 4 A-lines: 1 R-line cannot be recommended for all the
environments and depending on the insect activity, this ratio could be increased or decreased. If the hybrid
parents are of short maturity group, then multiple harvests in the hybrid production block are possible. The
seed from the pollinator rows can be used in subsequent generations also. In case the demand for R-line
seed is high, then it should be multiplied in an isolation block.
Hybrids : ICPH – 8; PPH – 4, COH – 1, COH – 2,: AKPH – 2022, AKPH – 4101
To produce hybrid seed in bulk, male sterile lines are planted in the ratio of six male sterile rows
(Female): one pollinator row (Male). The hybrid seed plot is surrounded by four pollinator rows to provide
sufficient pollen load. In genetic male sterility (GMS) system 50% plants appears male fertile in the female
(MS) rows. Therefore, these fertile sibs needs to be uprooted immediately as the first bud appear on the plant.
The male sterile sibs those remain are to be tagged in the female rows. Periodic picking of immature pods
from the pollinator rows may prolong their flowering time. It is possible to produce several hybrids in one
isolation block using a common male parent and several male sterile, if their flowering can be synchronized.
Appropriate isolation distance of 200 m between two seed blocks should be maintained to avoid contamination.
Production of Green gram (Vigna radiata) and Black gram(Vigna
mungo)
Nucleus seed production
⚫ Basic seed should be sown in a minimum area of 200 sqm. Field should be uniform in terms of
topography, moisture availability and fertility. The sowing should be done timely. The spacing should
be proper, particularly plant to plant (10 cm) within the row which should be maintained either through
dibbling or thick sowing followed by thinning.
⚫ Select 500-1000 plants before flowering confirming to the varietal characters. The number of plants to be
selected will depend upon the seed production ability of individual plants to be selected and
requirement of breeder seed. The selected plants should be tagged.
⚫ The selected tagged plants should be harvested separately. Seeds of individual plants should be
examined and in case any plant produce is not confirming to the seed characters of the variety, such
seed lots (produce of individual plants) should be rejected.
⚫ Seeds should be properly dried, treated and then stored.
⚫ In the next cropping season, the individual plant progenies should be sown in well prepared and
homogenous field. Row to row spacing should be wider than what is recommended for the crop. Here
the main objective of spaced planting is to help maintaining genetic purity, rather than having higher
productivity per unit area.
⚫ Row length may vary from one to three meters, depending upon the quantity of produce of individual
plant.
⚫ All agronomic practices, weeding, irrigation, etc., recommended for the crop should be followed and
due care should be taken in order to increase the seed to seed ratio.
⚫ Individual plant progenies should be regularly visited by the breeder, right from germination till harvesting.
⚫ Any plant progeny deviating from the characters of the original variety and/or sister progeny or showing
disease incidence in the field, should be completely removed. Even, if a single plant in the progeny is
noticed to be off type or diseased, instead of removing (roguing) such plant, the entire progeny should
be removed.
⚫ From the remaining progenies. 500-1000 plants should be tagged for next year planting of single plant
progenies.
⚫ Individual plant should be harvested separately, as during the previous season and necessary steps
should be followed for the next year planting as well.
⚫ After harvesting these 500-1000 plants, the individual plant progenies should be harvested separately.
⚫ The seed lot of individual progenies should be examined with reference to size, shape, colour, etc., of
the seed. Any progeny showing mixture or deviating from the seed characters of the original variety or
sister progenies should be rejected.
⚫ Remaining progenies left after rejection both at pre and post-harvest stages, should be bulked. This
bulk produce of selected progenies (say bulk produce of 400 progenies out of 500 plants) is known as
nucleus seed.
 ⚫ This nucleus seed is used for production of breeder seed. Since this is a very precious seed, special
care should be taken for its storage.
Breeder seed production
⚫ The agency for breeder seed production is required to have the nucleus seed of the variety from the
concerned breeder/institute, along with a list of characteristic features of the variety.
⚫ The nucleus seed is planted in a disease free, well prepared and homogeneous plot having an isolation
distance prescribed for respective crop. The planting should be done as per sowing time prescribed for
each zone and indicated in the text.
⚫ Planting is done with the required seed rate leaving 1 m space after each bed for easy monitoring of
the field. The plot should be managed as per the recommended package of practices.
⚫ The breeder should visit the plot at regular intervals to rogue out off-type plants before flowering.
⚫ Harvesting should be done at the proper maturity. Precautionary measures should be taken at the
time of harvesting and threshing to avoid mechanical mixtures. The simultaneous threshing of the two
varieties should not be done.
⚫ The seeds should be dried to 10% moisture level before storage, if required
⚫ Grow out test should be carried out after taking samples from different lots to confirm the purity of the
seed.
⚫ The seed should be treated with insecticide to protect it from the store pests and be packed in
properly labeled gunny bags.
Foundation and Certified Seed Production of Varieties
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition the soil should be
light, well drained and with a neutral PH.
Isolation requirements
Green gram and Black gram are highly self-pollinated. Natural cross pollination to the extent of 0 to
5% has been recorded. Therefore, for maintaining variety purity an isolation of 10 m. for foundation seed class
and 5 m. for certified seed class is necessary from fields of other varieties and of the same variety not
confirming to varietal purity requirements of certification.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The seed
rate required is 15-20 kg/ha for kharif and 20-25 kg/ha for summer and the spacing adopted is 30 x 10 cm.
Other cultural practices are similar for raising a commercial crop. Necessary prophylactic measures should
be taken so as to raise a good crop.
Roguing
Rogue the off type plants and diseased plants affected by leaf spot and stem canker, yellow mosaic
virus and sterility virus from seed field from time to time, as required. Roguing should be done once before
flowering and once after flowering based upon varietal morphological characters.
Number a field inspections
A minimum two field inspections are standardized for certification of different seed production
programmes. For green gram and black gram, a minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one
before flowering and second inspection during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off
types and diseased plants etc.
F/s C/s
Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %
Harvesting and threshing
The crop is harvested soon after the seed is mature. Threshing is done by beating the plants with
sticks. After threshing and cleaning the seed should be dried to 8 to 10 percent moisture before storage.
Necessary precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during these operations.
Seed yield
The average seed yield varies from 10 to 15 quintals per hectare.
 Seed Production of Lentil (Lens culinaris)

Land Requirements

Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants.

Isolation requirements

The crop is generally self-pollinated. The dehiscence of anthers takes place in the bud itself some
time before the opening of flower, the next morning. Isolation distance of 10 m for foundation seed and 5 m for
certified seed from other lentil fields and of same variety fields not confirming to varietal purity.

Brief cultural practices

Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The most
suitable time for sowing lentil is middle of October. The seed rate required is 25 to 30 kg/ha for small seeded
varieties and 35 to 40 kg/ha for large seeded varieties and the spacing adopted is 25-30 x 1-2 cm. Other
cultural practices are similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary prophylactic measures should be
taken so as to raise a good crop.

Roguing

Rogue out the off type plants, diseased plants affected by blight and weed plants, particularly lathyrus
spp. and Vicia spp. should be rouged out from the seed field from time to time as required

Number of field inspections

A minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before flowering and second inspection
during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types and diseased plants etc.

F/s C/s

Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %

Harvesting and threshing

The crop is harvested soon after the seed is mature when the plants become yellow. Threshing is
done by beating the plants with sticks. After threshing and cleaning the seed should be dried to 8 to 10
percent moisture before storage. Necessary precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during
these operations.

Seed yield : The average seed yield varies from 20 to 25 quintals per hectare.

Seed Production of Lathyrus (khesari or chickling vetch)

Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.) commonly Known as grass pea belongs to family leguminosae is a
rich source of protein to the poor people and provides good quality fodder for animals. Though it is rich in
proteins but it is not safe if consumed in excess quantity for a longer time. Lathyrus seed contain free amino
acid i.e Beta – N-oxalyl-L-alpha beta diaminopropionic acid (BOAA) which is a neurotoxin causing disease
‘paralysis’ in human beings when consumed as the staple food for a long time.
Foundation and Certified Seed Production of Varieties
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition, the land should be
well drained because lathyrus is very much sensitive to excess water. It may be cultivated on all types of soils
except acidic soils.
Isolation requirements
Lathyrus is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 10 m for foundation seed and 5m for certified seed
from other lathyrus fields and of same variety fields not conforming to varietal purity.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The most
suitable time for sowing lathyrus is October to mid November.The seed rate required is 40 to 60 kg/ha and the
spacing adopted is 30 x 10 cm. Other cultural practices are similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary
prophylactic measures should be taken so as to raise a good crop.
Roguing
Rogue out the off type plants, diseased plants affected by blight and weed plants, from time to time
as required.
Number of field inspections
A minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before flowering and second inspection
during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types and diseased plants etc.
F/s C/s

Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %

Harvesting and threshing

After attaining physiological maturity, harvesting should be done. Threshing is done after sufficient
drying in the sunlight manually or by multi crop thresher. After threshing and cleaning the seed should be dried
to 8 to 10 percent moisture before storage. Necessary precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical
mixtures during these operations.
Seed yield : The average seed yield varies from 10 to 20 quintals per hectare.
Seed Production of Rajmash / French bean / Common bean (Vigna unguculata)

Rajmash (Phaseolus vulgaris L.; Family: Fabaceae) also known as Kidney bean / French bean.
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition, the land should be well
drained. It may be cultivated on all types of soils except acidic soils.
Isolation requirements
Rajmash is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 10 m for foundation seed and 5 m for certified
seed from other Rajmash fields and of same variety fields not conforming to varietal purity.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The most
suitable time for sowing Rajmash is October to mid November. The seed rate required is 40 to 60 kg/ha and
the spacing adopted is 30 x 10 cm. Other cultural practices are similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary
prophylactic measures should be taken so as to raise a good crop.
Roguing
Rogue the off type plants, diseased plants affected by blight and weed plants from time to time as
required
Number of field inspections
A minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before flowering and second inspection
during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types and diseased plants etc.
F/s C/s
Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %
Harvesting and threshing
After attaining the physical maturity, harvesting should be done. Threshing is done after sufficient
drying in the sunlight manually or by multi crop thresher. After threshing and cleaning the seed should be
dried to 8 to 10 percent moisture before storage. Necessary precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical
mixtures during these operations.
Seed yield: The average seed yield varies from 16 to 20 quintals per hectare.
 SEED PRODUCTION OF PEA (Pisum sativum L.)

Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition, the land should be well
drained because pea is very much sensitive to excess water. It may be cultivated on all types of soils.
However, loamy soil with good water retention capacity is best for pea cultivation.
Isolation requirements
Pea is largely a self-pollinated crop with little natural crossing. Isolation distance of 10 m for foundation
seed and 5 m for certified seed from other pea fields and of same variety fields not conforming to varietal purity.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The most
suitable time for sowing pea is October to mid November in the plains, October to mid November, February to
march in the hills.The seed rate required is 60 to 75 kg/ha and the spacing adopted is 45-60 x 5 cm. Other
cultural practices are similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary prophylactic measures should be
taken so as to raise a good crop.
Roguing
Rogue the off type plants, diseased plants affected by pea mosaic, foot rot and blight and weed
plants should be rouged out from the seed field from time to time as required.
Number of field inspections
A minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before flowering and second inspection
during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types and diseased plants etc.
F/s C/s
Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %
Harvesting and threshing
Harvesting may be done when ninety per cent of the pods turn brown. The plants may be uprooted ,
stacked in small heaps and allowed to dry in the field for a week or so. The thresing may be done by
stationery threshers, or by beating the pods with sticks. After threshing the seeds should be dried to nine
percent moisture before storage.
Seed yield : The average seed yield varies from 20 to 25 quintals per hectare.
 Seed Production of Bengal Gram (Cicer arietinum)

Bengal gram Varieties: Jyothi, Annagiri, ICCC37, ICCV2, JG11,

Nucleus seed production
⚫ Basic seed is required to be grown in a minimum area of 200 m 2 area for base population for selecting true
to type single plants. The field should be uniform in terms of topography, moisture availability and
fertility. The desired inter and intra row spacing at 40 cm and 10 cm respectively should be maintained.
⚫ Select 500 to 1000 true-to-type plants before flowering. The selected plants should be tagged and
observed throughout the growth period and any plant showing variation should be rejected and uprooted.
⚫ The selected tagged plants should be harvested separately.
⚫ The seeds of individual plants should be table examined and if the seed of any plant does not confirm to
the seed characters of the variety, it should be rejected.
⚫ Seed should be properly dried, treated with insecticide before storage.
⚫ In the next cropping season, the individual plant progenies should be grown in rows having inter and intra
row spacing of 40 and 10 cm respectively in a well prepared homogeneous and disease free field having
no water logging and salinity problems.
⚫ An isolation distance of 5 m and leaving 1l/2 m space after each bed for a regular visit by the breeder and
the monitoring team is desired for maintaining varietal purity.
⚫ The recommended package of practices for cultivation of chickpea should be followed for getting higher
seed to seed ratio.
⚫ The individual plant progenies should be regularly visited and observed by concerned breeder right from
germination to different growth stages. Any plant progeny deviating from the characters of the original
variety or showing disease incidence in the field should be completely removed. Even if single plant in
the progeny is noticed to be off type or diseased, the entire plant progeny should be removed rather than
roguing the single plant.
⚫ The true to type single plant progenies should be harvested and threshed separately. Due care should
be taken at the time of harvesting and threshing to avoid any kind of physical mixture of progenies.
⚫ The seed lot of individual progeny should be examined for seed size, shape and colour etc, Any progeny
showing deviation from the varietal seed characteristics should be rejected.
⚫ The seeds of true to type progenies left after rejection both at pre and post harvest stages should be
bulked to be designated as nucleus seed.
⚫ The seeds should be dried to 10% moisture level and stored after treating with insecticide to avoid
losses during storage.
⚫ A grow out test can be carried out in the green house, if available or in the field to confirm the genetic
purity of the seed lot. Observations should be recorded at vegetative, reproductive and maturity stages
which would help in identifying the genetic purity of the seed lot.
Breeder seed production
⚫ The agency for breeder seed production is required to have the nucleus seed of the variety from the
concerned breeder/institute along with a list of characteristic features of the variety.
⚫ The nucleus seed is planted in a disease free, well prepared and homogeneous plot having an isolation
distance of 5 m from other chickpea field. The planting should be done as per sowing time prescribed for
each zone.
⚫ Planting is done with the required seed rate of 50 kg (small seeds), 75 kg (medium seed) and 100 kg
(bold seed) per ha leaving l m space after each bed for easy monitoring of the field. The plot should be
managed as per the recommended package of practices.
⚫ The breeder should visit the plot at regular intervals to rogue out off-type plants before flowering.
⚫ Harvesting should be done at proper maturity. Precautionary measures should be taken at the time of
harvesting and threshing to avoid mechanical mixtures. The simultaneous threshing of the two varieties
should not be done.
⚫ The seeds should be dried to 10% moisture level before storage, if required.
⚫ Grow out test should be carried out as per the standard procedure, after taking samples from different lots
to confirm the purity of the seed.
⚫ The seed should be treated with insecticide to protect from the stored pests and should be packed in
properly labelled gunny bags.
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production shall be free of volunteer plants. In addition the soil should be
light, well drained and with a neutral PH.
Isolation requirements
Bengal gram is a highly self-pollinated crop. Natural cross pollination to the extent of less than 5%
has been recorded. Therefore, for maintaining variety purity an isolation of 10 m. for foundation seed class and
5 m. for certified seed class is necessary from fields of other varieties and of the same variety not confirming
to varietal purity requirements of certification.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain appropriate class of seed from the source approved by seed certification agency. The seed
rate required is 50 kg/ha (small seed), 75 kg/ha (medium seed), 100 kg/ha (bold seed), 120kg/ha (kabuli) and the
spacing adopted is 30 x 10 cm. The planting time is second fortnight of October to first week of November. Other
cultural practices are similar to raising a commercial crop. Necessary prophylactic measures should be
taken so as to raise a good crop.
Roguing:
Rogue the off type plants and diseased plants affected by wilt, root rot leaf spot and stem canker,
yellow mosaic virus and sterility virus from seed field from time to time, as required. Roguing should be done
once before flowering and once after flowering based upon varietal morphological characters
 Number a field inspections:
A minimum of two field inspections are standardized for certification of different seed production
programmes. For Bengal gram a minimum of two field inspections are required i.e. first one before flowering and
second inspection during flowering and fruiting to determine isolation, volunteer plants, off types and diseased
plants etc.
F/s C/s
Off types (%) 0.1 % 0.2 %
Harvesting and threshing
The crop is harvested soon after the seed is mature. Threshing is done by beating the plants with sticks.
After threshing and cleaning the seed should be dried to 8 to 10 percent moisture before storage. Necessary
precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during these operations.
Seed yield : The average seed yield varies from 10 to 15 quintals per hectare.
Important varieties and hybrids that have been released along with their char-acters, date of release and station
from where it is
 SEED PRODUCTION IN COTTON VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS

Cotton botanically as Gossypium sp. is a fibre yielding crop. It is known as the

queen of fiber crops. It serves as a cash crop to the farmer as the lint serves as the
raw material for the textile industry .The seed is used both for multiplicationand
as animal feed.The success of commercial crop depends on the quality of the basic
seed.

Floral biology

Simple, solitary, terminal, extra axillary, petals yellow to cream in colour,

hermaphrodite, bracteoles called as epicalyx, three in number, free and deeply
serrated and persistent at the base of the flower. Nectary gland is present on each
bracteole. Calyx five, united, cup shaped corolla five, polypetalous, a purple spot is
present on the inner side of the claw of the petal (petal spot) in some species.
Androecium forming a staminal column (monadelphous) bearing numerous anthers.
Ovary superior penta carpellary, style slender, passes through staminal column with
three to five lobed stigma, ovules many in axile placentation.
 There is much variation in case of flower opening. Asiatic cotton opens between
8 and 10. a.m. American cotton opens much earlier. Temperature affects the flower
opening. After flower opening the cream yellow colour of corolla turns pink within a
day and later changes to red. The receptivity of the stigma is 8 to 10 a.m.

Cotton is an often cross-pollinated crop where the extend of cross-pollination

is > 60%. In cotton 4 different species are in popular usage, viz. G. arboreum (eg.
K 10) G. herbaceum (e.g. Uppam) G. hirsutum (e.g. MCU varieties) and G.
barbadense (e.g. Suvin and Suguna).

Method of Seed Production

Varieties: Under isolation, by open pollination, the varieties are multiplied. For
nucleus seed production, selfing of flowers is done with cotton (lint) dipped in clay
or red earth.

Hybrids: In cotton both inter and intraspecific hybrids are available.

Interspecific Hybrid :

Varalakshmi : Lakshmi x SB298 E (G. hirsutum x G. barbadense)

DCH 32 / Jayalakshmi : DS 28 x SB 425 (G. hirsutum x G. barbadense)

TCHB213 : TCH 1218 x TCB 209

Intraspecific hybrid : Suguna, Savitha (T7 x M12)

Tool employed for hybrid

 The hybrid seed production in cotton is achieved through emasculation and
dusting technique, which is the physical removal of male organ (staminal column)
from the female parent.

1. Emasculation and dusting

At the time of flower initiation in female line, the flowers that are going to open
next day are selected and the petals are removed between 3-6 pm. With the help of
nail or needle, the total staminal (pollen + anther + anther tube) column are
removed. Then the flowers are covered with a definite colour cover for easy
identification of the emasculated flowers. In the morning between 9 am -12 noon,
which is the anthesis time, the flowers of selected male parent are plugged and
dusted on the stigma of the emasculated flower on opening the cover. It is again
covered with different coloured cover to avoid pollination with other pollen and to
identify the emasculated and dusted flower from the rest. The pollen from a single
flower is enough to dust 4-5 female flowers. The pollen receptivity of the stigma is
for 46 hours.

For easy identification of selfed boll from emasculated and dusted boll the bract
can be removed while emasculating owing to the little contribution of bract to seed
set and seed yield.
Particulars of varieties/hybrids

Varieties Parentage Season Irrigated / Seed yield

Rainfed (kg/ha)
Varieties
MCU 5 Multiple cross Aug- January Irrigated 1850
MCU7 X ray irradiation of x Jan- Feb. to Irrigated (Rice 1330
L 1143 EE May - fallows)
June(summer)
MCU 11 MCU 5 x Egyptian Aug - Irrigated 2200
hirsutum hybrid September
derivative
LRA 5166 Laxmi x Reba B.50 x Sep-October to Rainfed 725
AC 122 Jan - February
K10 K9 x 11876 hybrid Sep-October to Rainfed 726
derivative Jan - February
K11 (0794-1-DX 11876) x Oct- March Rainfed 1100
(0794-D x 11450)
Multiple Hybrid
derivative
SVPR 1 MCU 7 x AC 129/2 February - July Summer - 15-16 Qtl. Of
Irrigated kapas /ha
Hybrids
Suvin Hyrbid derivativefrom Aug - February Irrigated 1020
the cross Sujatha x
St.Vincent
Jalyalaxmi Interspecific hybird of Aug-February Irrigated 2880
DS 28 G. hirsutum x
SB 425 (VF) G.
barbadense
TCHB 213 Interspecific hybird of Aug-February Irrigated 2215
TCH 1218 G. hirsutum
x TCB 209 G.
barbadense
Savitha T7 x M 12 (Intra Aug-February Irrigated 1800
hirsutum hybrid)
HB 224 It is an interspecific Aug-February Irrigated 2000
hybrid involving
G. hirsutum x
G. barbadense
Steps in hybridizing technique

✓ Emasculate and dust as far as possible buds appearing during the first six weeks
of reproduction phase to ensure good setting and development of bolls.

✓ Restrict your emasculation each day evening from 3 pm to 6 pm and pollination

in morning between 9-12 noon to ensure highest purity of hybrid seeds.
Emasculation should be complete and perfect.

✓ Choose optimum size of bud and avoid young or too old buds for emasculation.

✓ Cover the male buds with paper bags, previous evening for their use next day.

✓ Emasculated buds may be covered preferably with butter papers.

✓ Do not forget to tie a thread to the pedicel of the bud immediately after pollination.

✓ Close your crossing programme after 9th week (from commencement of crossing)
and remove all buds and flowers appearing subsequently to facilitate the
development of crossed bolls.

✓ Nip the top and side shoots to stop further vertical and horizontal growth.

✓ Light irritations should be given as and when required. Excessive or scanty or

inadequate irrigations should be avoided especially during crossing and boll
development period.

✓ Continue irrigation till last picking of the crossed bolls. Frequency of irrigation
depends on weather factors like rainfall, temperature and wind velocity.

✓ Pick up the ripe and completely opened bolls along with threads and collect in
baskets for second sorting. Bolls without threads may be bulk harvested as female
seed cotton.

✓ Crossed bolls collected in baskets may be sorted out for second time to verify that
they are crossed bolls. Then collect the crossed seed cotton and store in gunny
bags carefully marked as crossed bolls.

✓ Rain touch cotton or hard locks be picked and kept separately to avoid poor
germination of hybrid seeds.
✓ Store the crossed seed cotton in a cool dry place till it is handed over to processing
unit.

Use of Genetic male sterility

Hybrids are also produced by employing genetic male sterility system in cotton,
where the female parent will segregate into 50:50 ratio of male sterile and male
fertile plants. The male fertile plants are removed and the male sterile plants are
crossed with concerned male line.

E.g. Suguna: Gregg x K 3400

Land requirement

The field should be fertile and formed into ridges and furrows. Black cotton
soils are highly preferable than other soils. Land should be free from volunteer plants
and designated diseases especially the wilt disease.

Season

Winter crop : Aug - Sep

Summer crop : Feb - March

Seeds and Sowing

Seeds should be obtained from an authenticated source with tag and bill.

Pre-sowing management

The seeds can be hardened with 1% prosopis and pungam leaf extract for
rainfed/summer sowing to resist water stress problem.Use of delinted seed is better
than fuzzy seed to avoid diseased and injured seed.

Seed rate

Varieties : 15 kg/ha (fuzzy seed) 7.5 kg/ha (delinted seed)

Hybrids : 3.75 kg/ha (Jayalakshmi), 1 kg (TCHB 213)

Male : 2 kg /ha and Female 4 kg /ha.

Seed treatment

Treat the seeds with azospirillum at 3 packets (600 g/ha) and 2 kg of

azospirillum / ha mixed with 25 kg of FYM and 25 kg of soil and applied on the seed
line. This saves 25 % nitrogen besides increasing yield.

Spacing – Varieties Hybrids

1. Long duration :90 x 30 cm ♀ : 120 x 60 cm

2. Short duration :60 x 30 cm ♂ : 90 x 60 cm

Hybrids - Planting ratio

8:2 but here it is block system where flowers of 2 parts of male is sufficient
to dust 8 parts of female parent.

Isolation (m)

Foundation seed Certified seed

Varieties 50 30

Hybrids 50 30

Manures and fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 tons/ha

Total : 100:50:25 NPK kg/ha

Basal : 50:50:25 NPK kg/ha

Top dressing : 25:0:0 NPK kg/ha

(40-45 days after sowing)

25:0:0 NPK kg/ha (70-75 days after sowing)

Foliar spray

Spray DAP 2% (for female parents, spray on 60,70,80 and 90th days after
sowing. (Soak 5 kg of DAP in 25 liters of water over night and supernatant liquid
should be taken and mixed with 475 liters of water for spraying 1 hectare).

Micronutrient application
 Mix 12.5 kg of micronutrient mixture formulated by the Department of
Agriculture Tamil Nadu with enough sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg for one
hectare.

NAA application

Spray 40 ppm of NAA (40 mg of NAA dissolved in 1 liter of water) at 40 / 45th

day using high volume spray liquid in 1125 liter /ha. Repeat the same dose after 15
days of first spray.

Topping

Topping arrests terminal growth by nipping the terminal 10-12th node for
controlling excessive vegetative growth.

Rouging

The crop should be rouged for off types, selfed plants, from vegetative phase
to harvest phase depending on plant stature, leaf size, leaf colour, hairiness, stem
colour, flower colour, petal spot, pollen colour, number of sympodia, boll size, boll
shape, pittedness etc. to maintain genetic purity.

Field standards

Maximum permitted (%)

Foundation seed Certified seed

Varieties Hybrids Varieties Hybrids

Off types 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5

Irrigation management

Once in 10 days. Critical periods are boll formation to boll maturation stages.

Specific problems

Boll shedding will occur either due to extreme dry climate or lesser
frequency of irrigation or physiological disorder.

By spraying 40 ppm of NAA and cycocel at 20ppm, this can be minimized.

Harvesting
✓ The seed attains physiological maturation 45 days after anthesis.

✓ The initiations of hair line cracks on the dried bolls are the physical symptoms
of physiological maturation.

✓ At that time, the moisture content will be 30-35%.

✓ The bolls are harvested as pickings in cotton.

✓ Due to continuous flowering habit once over harvest is not practiced.

✓ As and when the bolls burst with hairline cracks the bolls are collected and
dried.

✓ Normally five to seven pickings can be practiced in a crop.

✓ But early 4-5 pickings are recommended for seed purpose.

✓ Harvest in the morning hours upto 10 to 11 a.m. only when there is moisture
so that dry leaves and bracts do not stick to the kapas and lower the market
value.

✓ Pick kapas from well burst bolls only.

✓ Remove only the kapas from the bolls and leave the bracts on the plants.
 ✓ As kapas is picked, sort out good puffy ones and keep separately.

✓ Keep stained, discoloured and insect attacked kapas separately.

Kapas sorting

Kapas is sorted manually to pick good quality seeds. Hard locks are to be
removed (Kapas without proper bursting and lint is light yellow in colour), since these
kapas mostly result in poor quality seeds, due to boll worm or other insect attack.

Skewed bolls or ill filled or nonviable seeds are formed if stigmatic lobes are
not pollinated.

Ginning and certification

✓ Gin the crossed kapas in separate gins erected in authorized seed processing
units or farm gins under the close supervision of the authorities concerned to
ensure purity and avoid seed damage.

✓ Sieve the seed in two types of mesh to remove small, shrivelled seeds, broken
seeds and clean perfectly from any dirt or dust.

✓ After ginning, the seeds should be dried well and cleaned by hand picking.
After cleaning, certification agency will take sample for testing germination and
genetic purity test. Minimum germination 65% and genetic purity 90% should
be maintained.

✓ Certified seeds would be bagged in one kg bag, sealed and details regarding
its origin, germination, physical purity per cent and genetical purity percent,
besides season of production are passed on to sale agencies or respective
producers for commercial sale.

✓ Uncertified seeds would be procured by the concerned Department or Agency

at the market rate for the ordinary cotton seeds for further multiplication.
This step is essential to avoid unauthorised sale of substandard uncertified
seed.

Processing
 The ginned seeds (or) the fuzzy seeds are graded by hand picking and by
pressing on wire-mesh sieves to remove the under sized seeds and dust.

Acid delinting

✓ Fuzzy seeds will clog with one another. So for easy handling the seeds are
delinted using H2SO4 @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes.

✓ After acid treatment, the seed should be washed thoroughly for 3 to 4 times
with fresh water.

✓ From the floaters, mature seeds without any visible damage can be picked
and added to the sinkers.

Acid delinting machine

Procedure
 Weighed quantity of fuzzy seeds is taken in a plastic container and required
quantity of the acid is added. Stir well with wooden rod till a shiny black colour
appears (Tar like) wash with more of water (5-6 times) and shade dry the seed to
reduce the moisture content to 12% before further handling.

Processing of delinted seed

The free flowing delinted seeds can be graded using 10/64" round perforated
metal sieve, which is recommended as standard sieve in OSAW cleaner cum grader
for cotton.

The seed can also be graded by specific gravity method by using floatation
technique using water. The seeds will separate into floaters and sinkers. Thesinkers
are good seeds. From floaters, reddish (immature) and damaged (seed with insect
hole) are removed. The brownish seeds which are good seeds are handpicked
and used for sowing.

Seed standards

Characters Foundation Certified seed

seed

Physical purity % (min) 98 98

Inert Matter % (max) 2.0 2.0

Other crop seeds (max) 5 kg-1 10 kg-1

Weed seeds (max) 5 kg-1 10 kg-1

Genetic purity (%) 100 100

Germination (min) % ( variety) 65 65

Germination (min) % ( hybrid) 75 75

Moisture content (max) %

a. Moisture pervious 10 10

b. Moisture vapour proof 6 6

Seed storage
 The seeds can be stored upto 8-9 months in moisture pervious container and
upto 12-15 months in moisture vapour proof containers.

The seed treatment with thiram @ 2.5 kg-1 or chlorine based halogen mixture
@ 3g kg-1 will protect the seed from storage fungi Aspergillus spp and preserve the
storability.

Mid storage correction

✓ The fuzzy and delinted seeds can be soaked in double the volume of 10-4 molar
solution of Na2HPO4 for 2 and 1 hr respectively ( 3.59 g / 100 l of water.)

✓ Then the seeds are shade and sun dried to bring back to the moisture content
of 10-12%. The mid storage correction improves the planting value of old
seeds.

✓ Dead seeds may be removed by soaking acid delinted cotton seeds in

monolayer for 3 h and drying back to original moisture content.

✓ The seeds when put into potable water will separate into sinkers and floaters.
Dead seeds become buoyant and float.
 LECTURE 7
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED
PRODUCTION IN OIL SEEDS
GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea)

Groundnut (Arachishypogaea) is one of the important oilseed crops belonging to the family Fabaceae. The
optimum season for seed production is December – January for the irrigated crop and June – July for the
rainfed crop. The maturation and harvesting period should not coincide with the rainy season. If it coincides
with the rains in-situ germination of the pods, will take place.
Nucleus seed production
⚫ To start a nucleus seed production of a cultivar, single plantsfrom the base population (seed maintained
by the breeder or from nucleus seed/breeder’s seed) are a prerequisite.
⚫ The genetically pure individual plants selected and harvested separately will form the base population
for nucleus seed. Base population size will mostly depend on the amount of nucleus seed required.
⚫ The multiplication ratio in groundnut variesfrom 1:5 to 1:10. Single plantsshould be harvested separately.
A mature representative pod from each plant after proper drying should be shelled and the pod and seed
characteristics should be studied.
⚫ If the pods or seed of any plant are at variance with the diagnostic characters for the variety, the plant
should be immediately rejected.
⚫ Seed from the plants passing this screening should be used for nucleus seed production by progeny
row method.
⚫ The seed of the selected plants from the base population confirming to the cultivar are to be space
planted in single plant progeny rows of three metres each.
⚫ The nucleus seed plot of a cultivar is to be critically observed by the breeder. The observations are to be
made at different critical stages of the crop growth. Each and every plant in a row should be examined.
⚫ If anyone row or plant is found to be deviant at any stage for any character the whole line should be
uprooted and removed from the field.
⚫ Individual plants from the progeny are to be selected for the next cycle of nucleus seed. .
⚫ Individual progeny rows are harvested, dried and threshed separately and table examined for pod and
seed characteristics. The pods of true-to-type progenies are bulked as nucleus seed.
Breeder seed production
The seed obtained by multiplication of nucleus seed under the supervision of a competent breeder is
known as the breeder seed. Because of the low multiplication ratio, two stages of breeder’s seed are permissible
in groundnut. The nucleus seed is multiplied to obtain breeder’s seed stage I which in turn is multiplied to
obtain breeder’s seed stage II.
The source of seed for the breeder seed production should be the nucleus seed. If breeder’s seed
stage I has to be used for producing breeder’s seed stage II, it has to be ensured that the former is duly
monitored and meets all the purity standards for breeder seed.
Grow Out Tests: Grow out test should be conducted as per the standard procedure to check the genetic
purity of seed.
Production Practices: The package of practices for breeder seed production remains same as in case of
nucleus seed production.
Selection of seed plot: The plot selected for seed crop must have the following characteristics.
 ⚫ It would be ideal if the previous crop was not groundnut. If at all it has to be used then the cultivar grown
in the previous season has to be planned in the present season also.
⚫ The seed plot should be free from weed and any other crop plants.
⚫ The seed plot should be free from soil-borne diseases and insect pests.
⚫ In areas where bacterial wilt disease is prevalent groundnut seed crop should not follow a previous
groundnut crop or a Solanaceous crop such as tomato, potato or brinjal.
⚫ Well drained plots with sandy loam soil rich in humus content should be preferred.
⚫ Dibbling method of sowing should be strictly followed.
⚫ If breeder seed production is taken in the kharif season, facilities for protective irrigation is essential.

⚫ The seed plot must have an isolation of 3 m on all sides from any other groundnut plot.
Suitable areas and seasons: The groundnut crop is much sensitive to seasonal variations. Hence, the
nucleus seed/ breeder seed production should be carried out in the season for which a cultivar has been
recommended for release. However, the compulsion of meeting the breeder seed production targets make it
often necessary to produce breeder seed of a variety in kharif, rabi or summer season, irrespective of the
season for which the variety has been recommended. As such, it is necessary that the characters of varieties
relevant to the seed certification requirements should be appropriately defined for kharif, rabi and summer
seasons. The productivity of the seed produced in the rabi or the summer seasons is generally higher and the
quality is also superior than that produced in the kharif season. But the viability of the seed produced in the
rabi and the summer seasons is lost very fast unless stored in a cold storage. However, if the seed is dried at
a temperature below 40 °C and stored following the simple technology developed by the NRCG, the viability of
rabi/ summer seed can be retained adequately till the time of sowing for next rabi or summer seasons.
Roguing of seed plots: The presence of off-type plants or rogues i.e., plants differing in their characteristics
from those of the cultivar being grown is a potent source of genetic contamination. Roguing should be done at
regular intervals: i) at about 30 days after emergence when most of the morphological characteristics of the
cultivars have been expressed, ii) at the time of flowering when flower characters have been expressed, and iii)
ten days before harvest when most of the foliar disease resistance characteristics become obvious.
Precautions during harvesting and processing: The pod characteristics should be meticulously examined
at harvest. The plants with pods strictly conforming to the pod characteristics of the variety should be bulked
for breeder’s seed stock.
Foundation and Certified Seed Production of Varieties
Land Requirements

The land selected should not be cultivated with groundnut in the previous season. In addition the field
should be well drained and the soil preferably sandy loam, rich in humus content.
Isolation requirements
Groundnut is a self pollinated crop with 0 – 5% of cross pollination. The crop should be raised in
isolation and seeds should be produced by self pollination. The isolation distance maintained between the
varieties is 3 metres for both certified and foundation seed production.
Brief cultural practices

Obtain nucleus/breeder’s/foundation seed from a source approved by a seed certification agency.

Before planting make sure that seed is treated with mercurial fungicides. Seed rate is 45 kg/acre (110 kg/ ha)
for spreading type and 50 kg/acre (120 kg/ha) for bunch type. Spacing for spreading varieties 45 to 60 cm row
to row and plant to plant is 10 to 15 cm, where as for bunchy varieties 30 cm row to row and 10 to 15 cm from
plant to plant.
Roguing : Roguing should be done from vegetative phase upto harvest. Off-types are removed based on the
colour, growth pattern, flowering etc. Maximum percentage of offtypes permitted at final inspection is 0.10%
for Foundation seed production and 0.20% for Certified seed production.
Field inspection : A minimum of two inspections will be done, one at flowering and second at pod maturity
stage (15 days prior to harvesting) by the Seed Certification Officer.

Field standards

Foundation seed Certified seed

Isolation distance 3m 3m
Off-types 0.10% 0.20%

Harvesting : When the crop matures, the older leaves will dry and fall off, top leaves will start yellowing and
the inner side of the pod will turn black and the seeds inside will move freely. Soil moisture level is very critical
during harvesting. The bunchy varieties are harvested by hand whereas the spreading varieties by digging,
ploughing or with the help of a bladeharrow. Groundnut should be harvested in bright sunshine.
 Seed Production of Soybean (Glycine max)

Nucleus seed production

Base population: In soybean, a minimum of 500 plants should be selected for planting progeny rows. The
plants should be selected uniformly from the entire population of breeder or nucleus seed plot or AVT II seed
grown in one acre (0.4 hectare). The actual number of plants to be selected will depend upon seed multiplication
ratio and targeted quantity of breeder seed. The source of base population for pre-released varieties may be
plots of Advanced Varietal Trial II.
Selection from base population: The selection of plants from base population should be on the basis of
morphological identity to the original characteristics of the variety. The selected plants should be true-to-type
of the variety.
Harvesting/threshing of single plants: The plants are harvested at the time of maturity and dried for two
days in the field. Thereafter they are tied in bundles of 50-100 plants and allowed to shade dry for 4-5 days.
Individual plants are threshed manually to avoid mechanical damage to the seed. The seed is kept in paper
packets and dried to 9% moisture before storage.
Table examination of seed: Individual plant seeds are examined for seed colour, hilum colour, seed size
and seed shape. The seed of any plant not conforming to the standard is rejected. Hilum colour in soybean is
subject to occasional variation, therefore any variation from the original variety should be specially looked for
and discarded. The seeds with poor appearance and showing symptoms of seed borne diseases should also
be discarded. Properly labelled seed packets are kept in cloth/ gunny/polythene bags and stored at 25°C and
50-60% RH.
Nucleus seed stage I
The nucleus seed plot should be well drained, clean and fertile. It should be free from volunteer
plants. The single plants should be sown in single rows of 3 to 5 meter length. The distance between rows
should be 45-60 cm.
Planting season: The normal planting season for soybean is kharif. The plot should be sown during the
optimum period recommended for respective locations. Soybean is a photosensitive and short day crop.
Delayed sowing results in poor growth and early flowering in determinate varieties.
Observation of progeny rows: The progeny rows are continually examined for various characters throughout
the growing season. The rows with off type plants are rogued. If off type is detected after flowering, adjoining
rows are also removed. The purified single plant progenies are harvested separately.
Harvesting and threshing: The crop should be harvested when the seed moisture is 17-18% without any
delay to avoid shattering and prevent seed deterioration. It should be threshed manually at 13-15% seed
moisture to minimize mechanical injury to seed during threshing. The seed of each progeny is table examined
for seed characters and undesirable types should be rejected. The cleaned seed, of selected rows should be
bulked to make it nucleus seed stock. The seed should be dried to moisture of 8-9% before storage.
Nucleus seed stage II
The bulk of individual plant progenies in soybean are often designated as G0. When the demand of
breeder seed is limited, this seed can be used directly for growing breeder seed. In case large quantities of
breeder seed are required, this seed should be used to grow nucleus seed stage II. The seed is sown in plots
of 5 meters width with a tract of 1 metre. The seed rate is kept at 80% of recommended rate for commercial
crop. The crop is grown with standard package of practices. The plot is regularly examined throughout
growing season. The rest of the practices are same as in nucleus seed stage I.
SOYBEAN
Breeder seed production
Seed source: The seed source for breeder seed is nucleus seed. It could be nucleus seed stage I i.e. bulk of
single plant progenies or nucleus seed stage II. In exceptional circumstances, breeder seed stage I can be
used to produce breeder seed stage II provided the genetic purity is maintained.
Isolation: Soybean being a highly self pollinated crop with outcrossing of less than 1 % and therefore the
minimum isolation distance required is 3 m for avoiding physical mixtures.
Roguing: The breeder seed plot should be monitored minutely throughout the crop season specifically at
flowering stage, pod filling and maturity stages. The roguing should be carried out under the supervision of
plant breeder and rogued plants should be removed from the field.
Harvesting and processing: The soybean crop reaches maturity when the pods have lost their green colour
and attain the mature pod color characteristic of the variety and seed has become hard. The crop should be
promptly harvested at this stage to avoid shattering and field deterioration. The soybean seed is highly prone
to mechanical damage during harvesting if the seed moisture is below 13 per cent. Therefore, desiccation
should be avoided for the seed crop. After a few days when seed moisture reaches 13-15%, the crop should
be threshed either by tractor treading or by multicrop thresher at 300-400 rpm. For direct combining, the seed
damage should be around 14%, the combine should be set carefully to avoid seed damage. The processing
should be carried out at seed moisture of 12-13 per cent. An air screen cleaner is the most effective for
soybean seed. The recommended sieve size for processing is 8.0 mm round for top screen and 4.0 mm
oblong for bottom screen.
Grow out test: Seed must confirm to the strict standards of genetic purity and subjected to grow out test as
per the standard procedure. For ensuring genetic purity, the minimum population required for grow out test
should be followed. The plants should be observed for various characters throughout the growing season. The
off type plants are tagged and their number is recorded.
Foundation and Certified Seed Production of Varieties
Land Requirements
The land selected should not be cultivated with soyabean in the previous season. In addition the field
should be well drained and should be free of volunteer plants.
Isolation requirements
The dehiscence of anthers takes place in the bud itself before opening of the flower and hence,
normally self pollination takes place. Cross pollination by insects is usually less than one percent. The crop
should be raised in isolation and seeds should be produced by self pollination. The isolation distance maintained
between the varieties of soyabean is 3 meters for both certified and foundation seed production.
Brief cultural practices
Obtain nucleus/breeder’s/foundation seed from a source approved by a seed certification agency.
First fortnight of July is the most appropriate time for sowing soybean. Seed rate is 65 to 70 kg/ ha. Spacing
adopted is 45 to 60 cm row to row and plant to plant is 4 to 5 cm.
Roguing : Start roguing plants affected by yellow mosaic virus and soybean mosaic virus as soon as they
appear, so as to check further spread upto first two to three weeks. Continue removal of plants affected by
soybean mosaic till harvest. At flowering stage remove off-type plants on the basis of plant characteristics and
flower colour. Final roguing should be done at maturity stage, to rogue out offtypes on the basis of pod
characters.
Field inspection : A minimum of two inspections will be done, one at flowering and second at maturity stage
by the Seed Certification Officer.

Field standards

Foundation seed Certified seed

Isolation distance 3m 3m
Off-types 0.10% 0.50%

Harvesting: Time of harvest and method of threshing is most important for maintaining seed quality. Crop
harvested in the second week of October retained higher germination than crop harvested in the second week
of December. Therefore, to retain higher seed germination, harvest the crop as soon as it is ready for harvest
when moisture content is around 13 to 14 per cent. Harvesting may be done by hand or the crop can be
directly combined.
Seed yield: The average seed yield ranges from 20 to 25 quintals per hectare.
 Seed Production of Rape seed (Brassica napus) and Mustard
(Brassica nigra)

Yellow sarson (Brassica campestris var. yellow sarson), brown sarson (Brassica campestris var.
brown sarson), toria (Brassica campestris var. toria) belong to Rape: while Rai (B. juncea), Benarasi rai
(B.Nigra) and pahadi rai (B.Juncea var rugosa) belong to mustard and cultivated for edible oilseed.
Nucleus and breeder seed production of open pollinated varieties
The procedure of nucleus/breeder seed production variesfrom crop to crop according to their breeding
behavior. The field should be selected where no Brassica species had been grown for last three years, unless
the crop was raised for nucleus seed production of the same variety. Field should be properly isolated from the
other field of any Brassica species.
An isolation distance of 200 m is recommended for production of nucleus and breeder seed of self-
incompatible (cross pollinated) crops, including B. rapa var. toria; B. rapa var. brown sarson and E. sativa
(taramira) and self compatible (self pollinated) crops, including B. juncea (Indian mustard), B. rapa var yellow
sarson and B. carinata (Karan rai). Approximately 500 true-to type plants are selected from the basic bulk or
multiplication plot for nucleus seed production of self pollinated crops while 2500 or more plants are selected
in cross pollinated crops to prevent the narrowing of genetic base of these crops. Five border rows of the same
variety (true to type) should be planted around the plot. Selected plants are harvested and threshed separately.
The seed lot from each selected plant should be examined critically for seed characters like shape, colour
etc. Off type seed lots (or plants) are discarded and only the true to type lots (plants) are maintained separately
for raising nucleus seed plot. Sowing for nucleus seed plot is done from the selected individual nucleus plants
in plant to progeny rows. Each progeny row is examined critically at different growth stages for diagnostic
characteristics. If any progeny row shows any variation the entire progeny row should be uprooted before
flowering. In case off-types are found after flowering, the surrounding rows should also be uprooted to avoid
contamination. Single plants (about 500 in self pollinated and about 2500 in cross pollinated crops) are
harvested and their seed is kept separately for raising the next cycle of nucleus progeny rows next year.
Remaining seed of progenies should be bulked to be used for production of breeder seed.
Roguing: The removal of off type plantsshould be carried out at 3 stages. First, the off-type plantsdistinguishable
on the basis of morphological characteristics should be removed before flowering. Second, the off-type plants,
which are identified at flowering, should be removed before pod-formation. Third, the off-type plants should be
removed on the basis of siliqua and seed characteristics and also on the basis of maturity duration. Disease
infected plants should also be removed. The field should be kept free from all kinds of weeds particularly from
Argemone mexicana (Satyanashi) which should be uprooted altogether before it flowers.
Nucleus and breeder seed production of parental lines
Hybrids developed in rapeseed-mustard are based upon Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility system.
Parental lines are multiplied in different plots. The seed parent (A line) is maintained by growing the rows of A
and B lines in a specific ratio. Normally, 3:1 ratio of seed parent (A line) and maintainer (B line) are followed.
The maintainer rows (B line) are harvested first. Later on, the remaining rows of seed (A line) parent are
harvested and bulked. Strict roguing is advised during flowering to rogue out the fertile plants from seed
parent. The seed production of B and R line is similar to any other varietal seed production. The commercial
F1 hybrid seed is produced by growing seed parent (A line) and restorer (R line) in 3: 1 ratio as followed in
case of maintenance of seed parent. The rows of restorer parent (R lines) are harvested first and bulked
followed by harvesting of seed parent. The seed from the seed parent is processed and packed as hybrid
seed. Honeybees play an important role in enhancing the transfer of pollen, hence 3-4-honeybee boxes/ha
may be kept to ensure proper pollination and good seed set.

Harvesting and threshing: Border row plants of 1 m area from all sides of the plot should first be harvested
separately. The seed plots should be harvested at the stage when 70-80% plants turn yellow. The harvested
crop is staked and dried before threshing. Staking of crop is important to obtain good lusture of seed. Threshing
may be done either manually or by thresher. Essential precautions should be taken to avoid mechanical
mixture during threshing.

Seed processing and packaging: After threshing, the seed should be dried either in sunshine or in mechanical
seed drier to bring the seed moisture down to 8%. The temperature of air in seed drier should not exceed
400C. A random sample from the dried seed is taken and analysed for quality characters and oil content before
the grading.

Seed testing: After processing, a sample of seed is taken to seed testing laboratory for the examination in
respect of seed standards. The seed purity, germination percentage and moisture content in seed is thoroughly
checked in seed testing laboratory Breeder seed is considered of high quality because it is used for further
seed multiplication chain.

Storage: Seed should be dried to bring the moisture content upto 8% before storage. Seed should be stored
preferably at less than 200C and at less than 30% Relative Humidity (RH). The godown should be properly
fumigated to avoid storage pests.

Foundation and Certified Seed Production of Varieties

Land Requirements: The land selected should not be cultivated with Rape seed and mustard in the previous
season. In addition the field should be well drained and should be free of volunteer plants.

Isolation requirements: Rape seed and mustard is partially self and cross pollinated crop. The extent of
natural cross pollination variesfrom 30 % to 35 % according to insect activity. For foundation seed 400 m and
for certified seed 200 m is recommended from fields of other varieties of same species and fields of the same
variety not confirming to varietal purity.

Brief cultural practices: Obtain nucleus/breeder’s/foundation seed from a source approved by a seed
certification agency. First fortnight of October to mid November is the most appropiate time for sowing . Seed
rate is 5 to 8 kg/ ha. Spacing adopted is 45 cm row to row and plant to plant is 10-15 cm.

Roguing: All the off type plants, easily distinguishable plant characteristics, and other species plants must
be removed before flowering to ensure pure seed production. Remaining offtypes, if any, distinguishable on
the basis of siliqua characteristics should be removed before maturity. Argemone mexicana is the most
objectionable weed in Rape and mustard seed production. The weed should be removed altogether as required.

Field inspection: A minimum of three inspections will be done, one at the stage of 6-7 pairs of leaves on
plants, second at flowering and third at maturity stage prior to harvesting by the Seed Certification Officer.
Field standards

Foundation seed Certified seed

Isolation distance 400 200 m
Off-types 0.10% 0.20%

Harvesting: It is important to harvest the crop after plants start turning light yellow. At this stage most of thesiliqua
turns light yellow and the seed inside the siliqua will be light brown. Before storage, dry the seeds toreduce moisture
content to eight percent.
Seed yield: The average seed yield varies from 15 to 20 quintals per hectare.
 SEED PRODUCTION IN SUNFLOWER
Sunflower is a common oilseed of India with wider utility. It is used as a source
of edible oil, and as raw material for agri -based industry. Botanically it is known as
Helianthus annus and belongs to the family asteraceae. It is a cross pollinated crop,
insects (honey bees) are the pollinating agents. The crop has got two types of flowers
viz. ray and disc florets. Seeds set in disc florets which are bisexual but exhibit self
incompatibility due to protoandrous nature of the flower.

Botany of flower

Inflorescence is a head, consisting of pistillate or sterile ray florets at the

periphery and central hermaphrodite, disc florets. The involucre is bract. Thepappus
is calyx or calyx is modified into two papus scales. The five petals areunited to
form corolla tube. Stamens are free and attached to the base of corolla. Five anthers
unite to farm anther tube and style is inside the anther tube andstigma bilobed.

Anthesis and pollination

The disc florets are protandrous. Flower opening starts from outer whorl and
proceeds towards centre of head. The head bloom within 5-10 days. The pollen grains
are viable for 12 hours. Anthesis take place at 5-8 a.m. Self incompatibility operates
leading to cross pollination.
Varietal seed production technique

Open pollination under isolation is the common method of varietal seed

production.

Varieties

CO 1, CO 2, Morden, K1, K 2, EC 68414, EC 68415

Stages of seed multiplication

 In sunflower seed is multiplied adopting three generation system, as breeder seed
,foundation seed and certified seed as the crop is often cross pollinated crop where the
chances for genetic contamination is high.

Varietal renovation method (Pustovit model)

❖ In open pollinated variety, selection of superior plants are made based on the
quality characters viz., plant yield, 100 seed weight and oil content.
❖ The selected plants are harvested separately
❖ Then they are raised in rows individually
❖ Seeds from promising plants are collected and this form the super-elite seeds

Causes for ill filled seed

a) Pollination

It is a cross pollinated crop, normally the insect activity is less. For increasing
the insect activity bee hives should be kept in the seed production plot inadequate
quantities. The insect activity depends on the pollution and insecticides application.
If insect activity is less that leads to poor seed setting and formation ofill filled seeds.

b) Development of axillary flowers

Normally the axillary flowering takes place during the summer because of the
high intensity of light. So these type of axillary buds receive the nutrients and
assimilate whereas the main head does not get the required quantity of assimilates
for seed set there by ill fillings occurs.

d) Self incompatibility

Presence of self incompatibility in sunflower also leads to poor seed set and ill
filled seeds.

Technology for increased seed set

a. Pollination behavior: Sunflower is a cross-pollinated crop. Two types of flowers

are available. They are ray and disc flowers. Ray flowers are unisexual while disc
flowers are bisexual.
b. Pollinating agent : Honey bees

Popular varieties

In Tamil Nadu, Morden, COI,CO2,CO3, K1, K2 , CO4 are the popular varieties for
commercial purpose .

Season

April to May is highly suitable for irrigated seed crop. The flowering should not
coincide either with rain or high RH as it will wash out the pollen and the maturation
should coincide with dry weather.

Land requirement

The land should be fertile and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will
adversely affect the quality and the seed set will be poor. The previous crop shouldnot
be the same crop to avoid the occurrence of volunteer plants and if to be the samecrop
it has to be the same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for
certification. The field should not have any volunteer plants.

Field Standards (Isolation)

General: 1. Sunflower field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Contaminants Minimum distance(meters)

Foundation Certified stage

stage

Fields of other varieties and the same 400 200

variety not confirming to varietal purity
requirements for certification and wild
sunflower

In sunflower differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance is not
permitted

Seed and sowing

✓ For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material
,while for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material
 ✓ The seed used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill.

✓ The required seed rate will be 8-10kg /ha or 3-4kg/ acre. (Morden 80kg/ha)

✓ The seeds are sown at a spacing of 30 x10 cm for the variety morden and at a
spacing of 60x20 cm for other varieties and are dibbled at a depth of 2-4cm.

✓ In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds and
channels.

Presowing seed treatment

✓ The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination

✓ Fresh seeds of sunflower exhibit physiological dormancy which could be brokenby

soaking the seeds in 300ppm ethrel for 8h or 0.5% KNO3 for 16h. Moist hydration
of seed with water for 24h followed by dry dressing with thiram @2g kg-1 of seed
improved the productivity of the seed.

✓ Seeds are soaked in 2% ZnSO4 for 12h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and
are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9% .This managementcould
be used both for dryland agriculture as well as gardenland.

✓ As an ecofriendly treatrment seeds are also fortified or hardened with 1% moringa

leaf extract for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are dried back to
their original moisture content of 8-9%.

✓ Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed borne
pathogens and soil borne pathogen. Seeds are also treated with azospirillum
@50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric N.

✓ Any one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better

productivity. On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological should be
followed with physical seed treatment.

Nutrient application

At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare. The fertilizer
requirement of seed crop is 80:40:40 kg of NPK, in which 40kg of N and full dose of
P and K is applied as basal, while 40kg of N is applied at the time of earthing up i.e.
40-45 days after crop growth..The seed crop is also sprayed with 2% DAP or
20ppm NAA at 30and 60 days after sowing. In case of deficient soils the crop is
sprayed with 0.5% Borax at button formation stage.

Micronutrients deficiency

Zn and Fe composition is very important for the proper seed set in sunflower
Zn is responsible for the production of IAA. Fe deficiency leads to sterility of the
pollen.

Weeding

Apply of fluchloralin@ 2l/ha as pre-emergence herbicide to control the growth of

weeds up to 20-25 days. One hand weeding is done at the time of button stage to
keep the field free of weeds. Weeding after head formation stage is not economical. On
organic production, 2 hand weeding at seedling stage and other at boot leaf formation
will keep the field weed free.

Supplementary pollination

✓ Due to lack of honey bees, seed setting will be poor. Hence critical or additional
pollination is given to the crop for effective seed setting by

✓ Rubbing the heads of two neighbouring plants with each other.

✓ It is done during mid flowering stage (i.e 58-60 days of planting for long
duration varieties and 45-48 days for short duration varieties) at alternate
days between 7-11 a.m for 2 weeks.

✓ Hand pollination: The heads are rubbed with palm or muslin cloth so that
pollination can be enahnced.

✓ In hybrids, the palm is first gently rubbed on the male parent flowers and then
on the female line to transfer the pollen.
 ✓ Keeping of bee hives 5 ha-1

Foliar application

At head opening stage 2 % D.A.P and 20 ppm N.A.A. sprayed 2 times on 30th
and 60th day after sowing for effective seed setting.

Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated once in a week for enhanced seed set andformation
of bolder grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative
stage, milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in these stages seed set
will be poor and seed size will be reduced.

Pest and Disease management

Common pests and diseases Management techniques

Cut worm Chlorpyriphos (20EC) @ 3.75 l/ha

White fly Imidacloprid @ 0.1ml/lit

Thrips Phosphomidon 0.03%

Tobacco caterpillar Endosulphan 0.07% or NSKE 5%
(Spodoptera litura) or Fenitrothion 0.05%

Capitulum borer Endosulphan 0.07% or Helicoverpa NPV @ 250

(Helicoverpa armigera) LE/ha.

Alternaria blight and leaf spot Mancozeb 0.3%

Rust Zineb 0.2%

Downy mildew Metalaxyl 25WP

Head rot Copperoxychloride@0.4% or mancozeb 0.3%

combined with endosulfan (0.05%)

Roguing

Plants rogued from their vegetative phase to harvesting, based on plant,

height, head size, branching habit, number of heads and colour of seeds.

Field standards

Factor Maximum permitted (%)

FS CS
Off types at and after flowering 0.10 0.20
Objectionable weed None None
Plants affected by downy mildew 0.050 0.50
Plants infested with orabanche None None

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, offtypes
and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true
nature of plant and other relevant factors

Bird scaring

At the time of maturation birds will create problem due to their feeding habit.
Hence, from the time of milky stage of the seed proper protection should be given
against birds as it will lead to reduction in seed yield upto 80 per cent.

Harvesting
Change of thalamus colour from green to yellow is the visual symptom of
physiological maturation. Heads are harvested as once over harvest.

Threshing
 The earheads are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction
of seeds The moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.On
large scale production sunflower threshers are used, but care should be given to avoid
mechanical damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality and storability.

Drying

The seeds are dried to 8=10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting
mechanical driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing

Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove the
undersized immature and chaffy seeds .The middle screen size should be 9/64” round
perforated sieves. The size can vary depending on the type of seed. In sunflower the
graded seeds also can be upgraded through specific gravity separator for improvement
in seed quality characters. Even the quality of seed lots having 5-10% lesser germination
than MSCS level can be upgraded through simple specific gravity separation

Seed treatment

The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these pests
the seeds are given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed.

Seed packing

Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and
polylined gunny bag for long term storage.

Storage

The treated seed can be stored up to 10 months provided the seeds are not
infected with storage pests. Seed can be stored up to 2 years if the seeds are packed
in moisture containers and are stored at low temperature .The godown should be kept
clean as the possibility of secondary infestation with Trifolium (red flour weevil ) is much
in these crop.

Seed standard
 The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both for
certification and labeling.

Seed Standard

Factor Standards for each class

FOUNDATION CERTIFIED
Physical purity (min.) % 98 98
Inert matter (max.) % 2 2
Other crop seed (max.) % None None
Germination (min.) % 70 70
Huskless seed (max.) (By number) 2.0% 2.0%
Total weed seeds (max.) 5/kg 10/kg
Objectionable weed seed None None
Seed infested with Orabanche (max.) None None
Moisture content (%)
a. Previous container (max.) 9.0 9.0
b. Vapour proof container (max.) 7.0 7.0

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest
infestation, when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the
seeds are imposed with midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double
the volume of 10-4 M solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/litof water)
for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (8- 9%).
 Hybrid seed production in sunflower

✓ Hybrids are produced by employing cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

✓ The male sterile female and male parents are raised in BSH 3, 1:6, KBSH 1,
1:4 ratio under 400 m isolation.

✓ Seeds are produced by transferring the pollen of male parent to the female
parent with the help of honeybees reared at 5 hives / ha.

Hybrids

BSH -1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 274

KBSH 1 = " x 6 DI

MSFH 1 = MHS 71 x MHR 48

MSFH 8

MSFH -17

TCSH 1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 272

Season : June - July, October - November

Isolation distance

Foundation seed Certified seed

Hybrids 600 m 400 m

Seeds and sowing

Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows

Seed rate : Female 12 kg /ha and Male 4 kg/ha.

Spacing

60 x 30 cm (hybrids)

Planting ratio : 8:1 or 4:1

Border row : two

Manures and fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 t/ha

NPK : 60:45:45 kg /ha

Supplementary pollination

1. As in varieties

In hybrids, the palm is first gently rubbed on the male parent flowers and then
on the female line to transfer the pollen.

2. Keeping of bee hives 5 ha-1.

Roguing

Plants are rogued based on plant height, head size and colour of seeds
during pre-flowering stage upto harvest.

Field standards

Foundation seeds Certified seeds

Off types 0.1 % 0.2%

Harvesting

The change of head colour from green to lemon yellow is the indication of
physiological maturity. The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in
female.

Drying, processing and others – as in varieties

Seed standards

The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and
sale as certified/ truthfully labelled seeds

Parameter FS CS

Physical purity (min) % 98 98

Inert matter (max) % 2 2

Germination (min)% 60 60

Moisture content (max)%

(a) Open storage 8 8

(b) Moisture vapour proof 5 5

Storage
 SEED PRODUCTION IN SUNFLOWER
Sunflower is a common oilseed of India with wider utility. It is used as a source
of edible oil, and as raw material for agri -based industry. Botanically it is known as
Helianthus annus and belongs to the family asteraceae. It is a cross pollinated crop,
insects (honey bees) are the pollinating agents. The crop has got two types of flowers
viz. ray and disc florets. Seeds set in disc florets which are bisexual but exhibit self
incompatibility due to protoandrous nature of the flower.

Botany of flower

Inflorescence is a head, consisting of pistillate or sterile ray florets at the

periphery and central hermaphrodite, disc florets. The involucre is bract. Thepappus
is calyx or calyx is modified into two papus scales. The five petals areunited to
form corolla tube. Stamens are free and attached to the base of corolla. Five anthers
unite to farm anther tube and style is inside the anther tube andstigma bilobed.

Anthesis and pollination

The disc florets are protandrous. Flower opening starts from outer whorl and
proceeds towards centre of head. The head bloom within 5-10 days. The pollen grains
are viable for 12 hours. Anthesis take place at 5-8 a.m. Self incompatibility operates
leading to cross pollination.
Varietal seed production technique

Open pollination under isolation is the common method of varietal seed

production.

Varieties

CO 1, CO 2, Morden, K1, K 2, EC 68414, EC 68415

Stages of seed multiplication

 In sunflower seed is multiplied adopting three generation system, as breeder seed
,foundation seed and certified seed as the crop is often cross pollinated crop where the
chances for genetic contamination is high.

Varietal renovation method (Pustovit model)

❖ In open pollinated variety, selection of superior plants are made based on the
quality characters viz., plant yield, 100 seed weight and oil content.
❖ The selected plants are harvested separately
❖ Then they are raised in rows individually
❖ Seeds from promising plants are collected and this form the super-elite seeds

Causes for ill filled seed

a) Pollination

It is a cross pollinated crop, normally the insect activity is less. For increasing
the insect activity bee hives should be kept in the seed production plot inadequate
quantities. The insect activity depends on the pollution and insecticides application.
If insect activity is less that leads to poor seed setting and formation ofill filled seeds.

b) Development of axillary flowers

Normally the axillary flowering takes place during the summer because of the
high intensity of light. So these type of axillary buds receive the nutrients and
assimilate whereas the main head does not get the required quantity of assimilates
for seed set there by ill fillings occurs.

d) Self incompatibility

Presence of self incompatibility in sunflower also leads to poor seed set and ill
filled seeds.

Technology for increased seed set

a. Pollination behavior: Sunflower is a cross-pollinated crop. Two types of flowers

are available. They are ray and disc flowers. Ray flowers are unisexual while disc
flowers are bisexual.
b. Pollinating agent : Honey bees

Popular varieties

In Tamil Nadu, Morden, COI,CO2,CO3, K1, K2 , CO4 are the popular varieties for
commercial purpose .

Season

April to May is highly suitable for irrigated seed crop. The flowering should not
coincide either with rain or high RH as it will wash out the pollen and the maturation
should coincide with dry weather.

Land requirement

The land should be fertile and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will
adversely affect the quality and the seed set will be poor. The previous crop shouldnot
be the same crop to avoid the occurrence of volunteer plants and if to be the samecrop
it has to be the same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for
certification. The field should not have any volunteer plants.

Field Standards (Isolation)

General: 1. Sunflower field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Contaminants Minimum distance(meters)

Foundation Certified stage

stage

Fields of other varieties and the same 400 200

variety not confirming to varietal purity
requirements for certification and wild
sunflower

In sunflower differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance is not
permitted

Seed and sowing

✓ For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material
,while for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material
 ✓ The seed used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill.

✓ The required seed rate will be 8-10kg /ha or 3-4kg/ acre. (Morden 80kg/ha)

✓ The seeds are sown at a spacing of 30 x10 cm for the variety morden and at a
spacing of 60x20 cm for other varieties and are dibbled at a depth of 2-4cm.

✓ In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds and
channels.

Presowing seed treatment

✓ The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination

✓ Fresh seeds of sunflower exhibit physiological dormancy which could be brokenby

soaking the seeds in 300ppm ethrel for 8h or 0.5% KNO3 for 16h. Moist hydration
of seed with water for 24h followed by dry dressing with thiram @2g kg-1 of seed
improved the productivity of the seed.

✓ Seeds are soaked in 2% ZnSO4 for 12h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and
are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9% .This managementcould
be used both for dryland agriculture as well as gardenland.

✓ As an ecofriendly treatrment seeds are also fortified or hardened with 1% moringa

leaf extract for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are dried back to
their original moisture content of 8-9%.

✓ Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed borne
pathogens and soil borne pathogen. Seeds are also treated with azospirillum
@50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric N.

✓ Any one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better

productivity. On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological should be
followed with physical seed treatment.

Nutrient application

At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare. The fertilizer
requirement of seed crop is 80:40:40 kg of NPK, in which 40kg of N and full dose of
P and K is applied as basal, while 40kg of N is applied at the time of earthing up i.e.
40-45 days after crop growth..The seed crop is also sprayed with 2% DAP or
20ppm NAA at 30and 60 days after sowing. In case of deficient soils the crop is
sprayed with 0.5% Borax at button formation stage.

Micronutrients deficiency

Zn and Fe composition is very important for the proper seed set in sunflower
Zn is responsible for the production of IAA. Fe deficiency leads to sterility of the
pollen.

Weeding

Apply of fluchloralin@ 2l/ha as pre-emergence herbicide to control the growth of

weeds up to 20-25 days. One hand weeding is done at the time of button stage to
keep the field free of weeds. Weeding after head formation stage is not economical. On
organic production, 2 hand weeding at seedling stage and other at boot leaf formation
will keep the field weed free.

Supplementary pollination

✓ Due to lack of honey bees, seed setting will be poor. Hence critical or additional
pollination is given to the crop for effective seed setting by

✓ Rubbing the heads of two neighbouring plants with each other.

✓ It is done during mid flowering stage (i.e 58-60 days of planting for long
duration varieties and 45-48 days for short duration varieties) at alternate
days between 7-11 a.m for 2 weeks.

✓ Hand pollination: The heads are rubbed with palm or muslin cloth so that
pollination can be enahnced.

✓ In hybrids, the palm is first gently rubbed on the male parent flowers and then
on the female line to transfer the pollen.
 ✓ Keeping of bee hives 5 ha-1

Foliar application

At head opening stage 2 % D.A.P and 20 ppm N.A.A. sprayed 2 times on 30th
and 60th day after sowing for effective seed setting.

Irrigation

The crop should be irrigated once in a week for enhanced seed set andformation
of bolder grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative
stage, milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in these stages seed set
will be poor and seed size will be reduced.

Pest and Disease management

Common pests and diseases Management techniques

Cut worm Chlorpyriphos (20EC) @ 3.75 l/ha

White fly Imidacloprid @ 0.1ml/lit

Thrips Phosphomidon 0.03%

Tobacco caterpillar Endosulphan 0.07% or NSKE 5%
(Spodoptera litura) or Fenitrothion 0.05%

Capitulum borer Endosulphan 0.07% or Helicoverpa NPV @ 250

(Helicoverpa armigera) LE/ha.

Alternaria blight and leaf spot Mancozeb 0.3%

Rust Zineb 0.2%

Downy mildew Metalaxyl 25WP

Head rot Copperoxychloride@0.4% or mancozeb 0.3%

combined with endosulfan (0.05%)

Roguing

Plants rogued from their vegetative phase to harvesting, based on plant,

height, head size, branching habit, number of heads and colour of seeds.

Field standards

Factor Maximum permitted (%)

FS CS
Off types at and after flowering 0.10 0.20
Objectionable weed None None
Plants affected by downy mildew 0.050 0.50
Plants infested with orabanche None None

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, offtypes
and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true
nature of plant and other relevant factors

Bird scaring

At the time of maturation birds will create problem due to their feeding habit.
Hence, from the time of milky stage of the seed proper protection should be given
against birds as it will lead to reduction in seed yield upto 80 per cent.

Harvesting
Change of thalamus colour from green to yellow is the visual symptom of
physiological maturation. Heads are harvested as once over harvest.

Threshing
 The earheads are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction
of seeds The moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.On
large scale production sunflower threshers are used, but care should be given to avoid
mechanical damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality and storability.

Drying

The seeds are dried to 8=10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting
mechanical driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing

Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove the
undersized immature and chaffy seeds .The middle screen size should be 9/64” round
perforated sieves. The size can vary depending on the type of seed. In sunflower the
graded seeds also can be upgraded through specific gravity separator for improvement
in seed quality characters. Even the quality of seed lots having 5-10% lesser germination
than MSCS level can be upgraded through simple specific gravity separation

Seed treatment

The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these pests
the seeds are given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed.

Seed packing

Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and
polylined gunny bag for long term storage.

Storage

The treated seed can be stored up to 10 months provided the seeds are not
infected with storage pests. Seed can be stored up to 2 years if the seeds are packed
in moisture containers and are stored at low temperature .The godown should be kept
clean as the possibility of secondary infestation with Trifolium (red flour weevil ) is much
in these crop.

Seed standard
 The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both for
certification and labeling.

Seed Standard

Factor Standards for each class

FOUNDATION CERTIFIED
Physical purity (min.) % 98 98
Inert matter (max.) % 2 2
Other crop seed (max.) % None None
Germination (min.) % 70 70
Huskless seed (max.) (By number) 2.0% 2.0%
Total weed seeds (max.) 5/kg 10/kg
Objectionable weed seed None None
Seed infested with Orabanche (max.) None None
Moisture content (%)
a. Previous container (max.) 9.0 9.0
b. Vapour proof container (max.) 7.0 7.0

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest
infestation, when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the
seeds are imposed with midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double
the volume of 10-4 M solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/litof water)
for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to original moisture content (8- 9%).
 Hybrid seed production in sunflower

✓ Hybrids are produced by employing cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

✓ The male sterile female and male parents are raised in BSH 3, 1:6, KBSH 1,
1:4 ratio under 400 m isolation.

✓ Seeds are produced by transferring the pollen of male parent to the female
parent with the help of honeybees reared at 5 hives / ha.

Hybrids

BSH -1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 274

KBSH 1 = " x 6 DI

MSFH 1 = MHS 71 x MHR 48

MSFH 8

MSFH -17

TCSH 1 = CMS 234 A x RHA 272

Season : June - July, October - November

Isolation distance

Foundation seed Certified seed

Hybrids 600 m 400 m

Seeds and sowing

Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows

Seed rate : Female 12 kg /ha and Male 4 kg/ha.

Spacing

60 x 30 cm (hybrids)

Planting ratio : 8:1 or 4:1

Border row : two

Manures and fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 t/ha

NPK : 60:45:45 kg /ha

Supplementary pollination

1. As in varieties

In hybrids, the palm is first gently rubbed on the male parent flowers and then
on the female line to transfer the pollen.

2. Keeping of bee hives 5 ha-1.

Roguing

Plants are rogued based on plant height, head size and colour of seeds
during pre-flowering stage upto harvest.

Field standards

Foundation seeds Certified seeds

Off types 0.1 % 0.2%

Harvesting

The change of head colour from green to lemon yellow is the indication of
physiological maturity. The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in
female.

Drying, processing and others – as in varieties

Seed standards

The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and
sale as certified/ truthfully labelled seeds

Parameter FS CS

Physical purity (min) % 98 98

Inert matter (max) % 2 2

Germination (min)% 60 60

Moisture content (max)%

(a) Open storage 8 8

(b) Moisture vapour proof 5 5

Storage
 SEED PRODUCTION IN VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS OF CASTOR

Castor and its speciality

➢ Castor is a cross pollinated crop, protogynous and wind pollinated.

Inflorescences are borne terminally on the main and lateral branches.

➢ The main stem ends in raceme, which is the first or primary raceme. After
the first raceme appears, 2 or 3 branches arise at the nodes immediately
below it.

➢ Each of these branches terminates in racemes after 4 or more nodes have

formed which are known as secondary racemes.

➢ Branches arise from the nodes just beneath secondary racemes, ultimately
terminating in tertiary racemes. This sequence of development
(indeterminate growth habit) continues.

➢ The racemes of castor are monoecious with the pistillate flowers on the
upper 30-50% and staminate flowers on the lower part of theinflorescence.

➢ The proportion of pistillate and staminate flowers among the racemes varies
a great deal both within and among genotypes. It is influenced by the
environment of the plant, genotypes and nutrition.

➢ Female tendency is the highest in winter, while male tendencypredominates

in summer and rainy seasons.

➢ Also, the femaleness in young plants with high levels of nutrition is stronger
than in old plants with low levels of nutrition.
Castor raceme

Pistillate flower

Staminate flower

Pistillate mechanism

In addition to monoecism a sub form of dioecism exists in castor, which has

led to the identification of 3 different pistillate mechanisms.

1. N type or conventional mechanism

✓ It is governed by a recessive sex switching gene. This can be maintained by

sibmating. The progeny from seed produced on pistillate plants segregates in
1: 1 ratio of pistillate and monoecious plants. In the production of F1 hybrid
seed using the N pistillate line, the producer is required to rogue out normal
 monoecious plants before anthesis to obtain 100% production of pistillate
plants in the female rows. This has proved difficult to do for 3 reasons.

✓ Uneven emergence

✓ Variation in time of flowering and

✓ Higher percentage of monoecious plants than expected 50 percent.

2. S type or non conventional mechanism

It is derived from reversals, which start out as female and then revert to
normal monoecism any time after the first raceme. Use of this pistillate line is beset
with the problems of lack of stability of the expression of pistillate character as large
number of revertants as well as monoecious plants was observed in the population.
Eg. VP 1. This problem was successfully overcome with the exploitation of the NES
system.

3. NES system

This line is normally pistillate under moderate temperature but produces

interspersed staminate flowers under high temperature. In crossing fields (hybrid
seed production plot) usually one or two roguing of the female line are sufficient to
ensure that all flowering plants are pistillate to remove off types that appear.

E.g. The original population of VP 1 was thoroughly screened under high

temperature to eliminate the monoecious plants as well as early revertants.

The seed setting in the selected totally pistillated lines is facilitated by the
production of interspersed male flowers under the influence of environment sensitive
genes.

India is the largest producer of castor in the world. In India, Gujarat is the
leading state followed by Andhra Pradesh.

Varieties

SA 1, SA 2, TMV 4, 5, 6, CO 1, Aruna, Bhagya and Sowbaghya

Speciality with Hybrids in castor

✓ The development of N type pistillate line, N 145-4 has led to the exploitation
of hybrid vigour in USA in 1950.

✓ A 100% pistillate line TSP 10 R (Texas S- pistillate 10) was released in 1962
in USA.

✓ Another stable pistillate line (NES 1) based on environmentally sensitive

staminate flower character in combination with recessive sex switching gene
released at Davis, California in 1964, is now used.

✓ In India, Gujarat first started hybrid seed production in mid sixties.

✓ First hybrid in India was released in 1968 in Gujarat as GCH3 (Gujarat castor
hybrid) using TSP 10 R x JI 15.

✓ Indigenous pistillate line VP 1 was developed at Vijapur and using thisGAUCH

was released in 1973. But it is susceptible to wilt and root rot diseases.

✓ Hence another hybrid GCH 2 was released in 1985.

✓ Another hybrid GCH 4 was released in 1986 and is in cultivation.

Hybrids Female Male

GCH 3 TSP 10 R JI 15

GAUCH 1 VP 1 V 19

GCH 2 VP 1 JI 35

GCH 4 VP 1 48-1

TMVCH 1 LRES 17 TMV 5

Land requirement

Well drained fertile soil should be selected. The crop cannot tolerate alkalinity
and salinity. It performs well with medium to deep sandy loam and heavy loam
soils are highly suited for seed production.

Isolation distance

Foundation seed Certified seed

Varieties and Hybrids 600 m 300 m

Season

Rabi / Winter - Hybrid seed production. Summer and kharif provide ideal male
promoting environment for undertaking seed production of the variety, male and
female parents of hybrids. Kharif and summer encourages good expression of less
productive plant which could be easily eliminated through timely roguing.

Female parents when raised in male promoting environment produce

environmentally sensitive staminate flowers, which are very essential for self-
production of the female parents.

Seed and sowing

Seed rate : 10 kg / ha (varieties)

2 kg / ha male and 5 kg/ ha female for hybrids.

Spacing

Varieties : 90 x 20 to 90 x 60 cm

Hybrids : 90 x 40 to 90 x 60 cm

Planting ratio

3:1 or 4 - 6:1

Fertilizer : Basal 40:60: 40 NPK / ha

Top: 1st 20 kg N/ha (40-50 DAS) , 20 kg N/ha. (After 1st picking)

Bloom: Presence of white waxy coating which protects from chilling and jassid
attack.

4 types of bloom:

✓ No bloom

✓ Single bloom - Bloom only on stem

✓ Double bloom- On stem, petioles, and lower sides of leaves

✓ Triple bloom - On all parts.

Stages of inspection

✓ 10 days prior to flowering -Stem colour, inter-node length.

✓ During flowering - No. of nodes upto primary raceme

✓ Before 1st picking (Spike and capsule character, reversion to monoecious in

second order raceme)

✓ After 1st picking - Reversion to monoecious or flower initiation in third order

raceme.

Irrigation

Critical stages are primordial initiation and flowering stage in differential

segmental order branches. Moisture stress in sensitive crop growth stages may lead
to production of more male flowers in monoecious varieties.

Harvesting

Castor produces 4 or 5 sequential order spikes, which can be harvested in 3-

4 pickings starting from 90-120 days at 25-30 days interval.
 Premature harvesting leads to reduced seed weight, oil content and
germination. If shattering is not a problem in a variety, harvesting can be delayed
until all capsules are fully dried.

Grading

The seeds are size graded using round perforated metal sieve of 8/64".

Field standards

Foundation seeds Certified seeds

Off types (Varieties) 0.1 0.2%

Off types (Hybrids) 0.5 1.0%

Seed storage

Seed treatment with Thiram @ 2 g / kg

Storability in Pervious container - 1 year

Storability in Moisture vapour proof container -2

Seed standards

The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and
sale as certified/ truthfully labelled seeds.

Parameter Foundation seed Certified seed

Physical purity (min) % 98 98

Inert matter (max) % 2 2

Other crop seed &Weed Seed (max) - -

Other distinguishable variety seeds 5 / kg 10/kg

Germination (min)% 70 70

Moisture content (max)%

(a) Open storage 8 8

(b) Moisture vapour proof storage 5 5

Questions
1. Cross-pollination in castor is due to protogynous nature. (True/false)
2. The racemes of castor are diecious. (True/False)
3. is the first castor hybrid released in India
a. CH1 b. GCH2
c. GCH 3 d. CH2
4. The raceme of castor is monoecious (True/false)
5. Isolation distance for certified seed production in castor is
a. 600 m b. 300 m
c. 200 m d. 400 m
6. Minimum germination percentage for castor certified seed is
a. 85% b. 90%
c. 70% d. 60%
7. Pistillate mechanism which start out as female and then revert to
normal monoecism any time after the first raceme is .
a. NES Type b. S Type
c. N Type d. None
8. In which system the line is normally pistillate under moderate
temperature but produces interspersed staminate flowers under high
temperature. a. N
Type b. S Type
c. NES Type d. None
9. is the largest producer of castor in the world.
a. Indonesia b. China
c. Nepal d. India
10. Critical stage of irrigation in castor is primordial initiation and
flowering stage
 LECTURE 7
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED Seed Production of FODDER
CROPS (Trifolium alexandrinum), Lucerne(Medicago sativa) and
Oats (Avena sativa)
BERSEEM

Nucleus seed production

The base population for the production of nucleus seed should be raised from the seed maintained by
the breeder. It should be around 5000 plants. The seed is planted in a well - maintained field where the
Lucerne has not been grown for the last two years.
Approximately 800-1000 individual plants should be selected preferably from the source population.
Individual plants representing the true characters of the variety are selected. These selected plants are
individually harvested, threshed, labeled and stored in separate bags.
The physical examination of the seed is an important aspect. In this process the seed of individual
plant should be examined in piles on the table for uniformity in colour, shape, size, etc. Any plant showing
obviousvariation for seed character should be discarded strictly.
Nucleus seed stage I
⚫ True to type progenies should be sown in nucleus seed plot. Progeny of individual plant should be
sown in a double row plot. The spacing between rows and plants should be uniform to avoid differential
expression of the characters.
⚫ The appropriate recommended agronomic practices should be followed for raising a successful crop.
⚫ During the crop growth period from the seedling stage until maturity, the nucleus seed plots should be
critically examined particularly for the characters mentioned above. The off-type progenies should be
removed preferably before flowering.
⚫ All the selected rows should be harvested and threshed individually and kept in separate paper bags.
⚫ The seed obtained from single plant/raceme progenies should be examined on table for seed characters.
The off types should be discarded out rightly. All the seeds from finally selected progenies should be
bulked together to make the nucleus seed stock. This bulk seed should be treated with proper
fungicide(s) and insecticide(s) before bagging.
⚫ The nucleus seed, thus, obtained should be dried to a optimum moisture content, packed in proper
containers / fresh cloth bags and stored properly. The seed should be dried to 7-8 per cent moisture
and packed in moisture proof polythene bag (approximately 700 gauge), to prolong the storage life.
The nucleus seed should be stored in isolation from other seeds.
Nucleus seed stage - II

If the quantity of breeder seed required is more, then this bulked seed can be used for growing
nucleus seed stage – II under isolation and the required amount of nucleus seed stock can be produced. It is
desirable to conduct the grow out test in respect of nucleus seed also.
Breeder seed production

Various precautions required for production of breeder seed are given below:
⚫ The nucleus seed should be used for breeder seed production. The plot should not have been grown
with Lucerne in the last three years.
⚫ An isolation of 400 m should be maintained.
⚫ Seed rate of 5 kg/ha should be used. The agronomic management is similar to that of nucleus seed
production.
⚫ The crop should be examined critically throughout the crop season. Three critical stages in Lucerne for
inspection are: at vegetative stage after second cut, at 50 percent flowering stage, and at maturity
stage. The seed crop must be rogued carefully at pre-flowering, flowering and maturity stages. All the
off-types, other crop plants and dodder (Cuscuta reflexa L.) plants must be removed as and when
noticed.
⚫ The monitoring by a duly constituted team should be carried out at final stage of crop growth. The team
includes a member each from the National Seed Corporation, Seed Certification Agency, Crop breeder
concerned and Nodal scientist of the breeder seed production unit.
Safeguards for the genetic purity

⚫ Control of seed source:

(a) appropriate source and class, and
(1000b) originating/ sponsoring breeder/ institution,
⚫ Preceding crop should be other than the same crop (Lucerne) to avoid contamination and soil borne
problems.
⚫ Proper isolation during the crop growth period and processing stages must be considered.

⚫ The existence of off-type plants, i.e., plants differing in their characteristics from those of the seed
variety, is the potent source of contamination.
⚫ The seed crop can be harvested when 80 per cent pods have dried. The crop after harvesting should be
left in field for 5 to 6 days. The harvesting and collection of crop should be done early in the morning
when the dew drops are still on the plants whose presence prevents shredding of pods. Threshing of the
pods should be done when the seeds are fully dry. After threshing and cleaning, the seeds should be
further dried to 8-10 per cent moisture content before storage.
⚫ The grow-out test should be conducted to determine genetic purity of the seed lot.
⚫ The breeder seed should be packed in 4 kg cloth bags, sealed and labeled with golden colour tags
containing the required information.
 LUCERNE

Nucleus seed production

The base population for the production of nucleus seed should be raised from the seed maintained by
the breeder. It should have about 5000 plants. The seed is planted in a well - maintained field which did not
have the Lucerne crop in the last two years.
Approximately 800-1000 individual plants should be selected preferably from the middle part of the
source population. Individual plants representing the true characters of the variety are selected. These selected
plants are individually harvested, threshed, labeled and stored in separate bags.

The physical examination of the seed is an important aspect. In this process the seed of individual
plant should be examined in piles on the table for uniformity in colour, shape, size, etc. Any plant showing
obvious variation for seed character should be discarded out rightly.
Nucleus seed stage I
⚫ True to type progenies should be sown in nucleus seed plot. Progeny of individual plant should be
sown in a double rowplot. The spacing between rows and plants should be uniform to avoid differential
expression of the characters.
⚫ The appropriate recommended agronomic practices should be followed for raising a successful crop.
⚫ During the crop growth period from the seedling stage until maturity, the nucleus seed plots should
be critically examined particularly for the characters mentioned above. The off-type progenies should
be removed preferably before flowering.
⚫ All the selected rows should be harvested and threshed individually and kept in separate paper bags.

⚫ The seed obtained from single plant/raceme progenies should be examined on table for seed
characters. The off types should be discarded out rightly. All the seeds from finally selected progenies
should be bulked together to make the nucleus seed stock. This bulk seed should be treated with
proper fungicide(s) and insecticide(s) before bagging.
⚫ The nucleus seed, thus, obtained should be dried to a suitable moisture content, packed in proper
containers fresh cloth bags and stored properly. The seed should be dried to 7-8 per cent moisture
content and packed in moisture proof polythene bag (approximately 700 gauge), to prolong the
storage life. The nucleus seed should be stored in isolation from the other seeds.
Nucleus seed stage - II

If the quantity of breeder seed required is more, then this bulked seed can be used for growing
nucleus seed stage – II under isolation and the required amount of nucleus seed stock can be produced. It is
desirable to conduct the grow out test in respect of nucleus seed also.
Breeder seed production
Various precautions required for production of breeder seed are given below:
⚫ The nucleus seed should be used for breeder seed production. The plot should not have Lucerne crop
in the previous three years at least.
⚫ An isolation of 400 m should be maintained.
 ⚫ Seed rate of 5 kg/ha should be used. The agronomic management is similar to that of nucleus seed
production.
⚫ The crop should be examined critically throughout the crop season. Three critical stages in Lucerne
for inspection are: at vegetative stage after second cut, at 50 percent flowering stage, and at maturity
stage. The seed crop must be rogued carefully at pre-flowering, at flowering and maturity stages. All
the off-types, other crop plants and dodder (Cuscuta reflexa L.) plants must be removed as and when
noticed.
⚫ The monitoring by a duly constituted team should be carried out at final stage of crop growth. The
team includes a member each from the National Seed Corporation, Seed Certification Agency, Crop
breeder concerned and Nodal scientist of the breeder seed production unit.
Safeguards for the genetic purity

⚫ Control of seed source :

(a) appropriate source and class, and
(b) originating/ sponsoring breeder/ institution,
⚫ Preceding crop should be other than the same crop (Lucerne) to avoid contamination and soil borne
problems.
⚫ Proper isolation during the crop growth period and processing stages must be considered.
⚫ The existence of off-type plants, i.e., plants differing in their characteristics from those of the seed
variety, is the potent source of contamination.
⚫ The seed crop can be harvested when 80 per cent pods have dried. The crop after harvesting should
be left in field for 5 to 6 days. The harvesting and collection of crop should be done early in the
morning when the dew drops are still on the plants whose presence prevents shredding of pods.
Threshing of the pods should be done when the seeds are fully dry. After threshing and cleaning, the
seeds should be further dried to 8-10 per cent moisture content before storage.
⚫ The grow-out test should be conducted to determine genetic purity of the seed lot.
⚫ The breeder seed should be packed in 4 kg cloth bags, sealed and labeled with golden colour tags
containing the required information
 OATS

Nucleus seed production

It can be carried out in two stages as nucleus seed stage I and nucleus seed stage-II
Nucleus seed stage I
Base population for selection of single ear /plant: The base population for nucleus seed production is
taken from the seed maintained by the originating breeder. The seeds should be grown in a well - maintained
plot in replications. Alternatively, selections can be made from the material of AVT -II trial stage in case of new
variety. General uniformity should be observed among the replications.
Selection from the base population: About 500 single plants should be selected from the central area of the
seed plot. From each of these single plant, the primary panicle
Table examination of seeds: The seeds of each plant should be examined in piles on the table for uniformity
in seed colour, shape, size, etc. Any plant showing variation on in seed characteristics, diseased or otherwise
unacceptable, should be discarded.
Sowing of nucleus seed plots: The seeds are now ready for sowing in a variety purification nursery called
nucleus seed plot. These 500 progenies should be sown in a block of 500 double row plots in 10 series of 50
double row plots each. Sowing should be done preferably by hand or a single row machine seeder. The field
identified for nucleus seed production, should not have the same crop in previous two seasons. One irrigation,
followed by ploughing is necessary before sowing. Progeny row size of 4m should be maintained with row to
row of 50 cm and seed to seed as 5-10 cm.
Observations on progeny rows: Throughout the crop growth, the nucleus seed plots should be examined
critically. The examinations must be done particularly at tillering stage, ear emergence, anthesis, early dough
stage and maturity. Even if a single plant in a row appears to be different, the entire row should be rejected and
uprooted to ensure genetic purity.
Precautions during harvesting, threshing: The panicle rows which are true to the type of the original
material for all characteristics should be individually harvested, labelled and threshed. The seed, thus obtained,
need to be kept in separate paper bags.
Table examination of ear / plant progeny seeds: The seed from each nucleus plant progeny row should be
placed in a pile on the Table. The individual piles should be examined for uniformity of seed characteristics
and any pile which appears to be off-type, should be discarded. All the remaining piles of seed should be
mixed together in one lot. This seed lot should be treated with appropriate fungicide(s) and insecticide(s),
bagged, labelled and stored as nucleus seed or NSS-I material if NSS-II stage is to be followed.
Nucleusseed stage-II: Wherever the demand for breeder seed requirement is more than 25- 30 quintal, it is
necessary to follow NSS-II stage. The seed harvested from each panicle row of NSS-I is collected and
threshed separately for advancing them to NSS-II stage. The seeds are examined for colour, shape and size.
The seeds from each panicle of NSS-I stage is then sown separately in a plot of 4 or 6 rows depending up on
the demand of seed. Such plots are called as “ear / row progeny plot (ERP)”. These plots are once again
subjected to critical examination as done in NSS-I stage, to discard the off-types. The second cycle of
nucleus seed multiplication provides yet another opportunity to eliminate any off type in the ear to row
progeny which might have escaped detection during NSS-I stage. Wherever the number of off types is more
than two, the entire ERP must be rejected. These selected plots are harvested and threshed separately and
the seeds are once again examined for seed colour, shape, size and uniformity, The ERP plots that possess
uniform grain and are true to the type are bulked to form the NSS-II stage from which the breeder seed is to be
produced.
Breeder seed production
Seed source: The nucleus seed should be used for breeder seed production. In subsequent years, a
continuation breeder’s stock may be maintained by the plant breeder from the Breeder’s seed multiplication
plot. Each year, this continuation breeder’s stock is sown from the bulk seed of the preceding year’s breeder’s
stock and handled in the same manner.
Season/planting time, isolation: Season/planting time is same as for nucleus seed production. An isolation
of 3 m must be maintained.
Seed rate and agronomic management: About 75-100 kg seed is sufficient for sowing one hectare of land.
Other agronomic practices are similar to production of nucleus seed.
Stages of field inspection / roguing: The crop should be properly and critically observed during the crop
growth. The first inspection should be done at the vegetative stage when the crop is 30-40 days old. During
these inspections, the off-types should be removed completely. Roguing of seed production plots is done to
remove the off-type plants that arise due to segregation of residual heterozygosity, out-crossing with other
varieties, admixture or mutations, etc. A minimum of three roguings must be done. First roguing should be
done just before flowering stage. At this stage, off-type plants, smutted plants and early heading plants
should be removed. Subsequent roguing should be done just after flowering is completed and the panicles
start to turn colour. At this stage, tall plants and late plants can be identified. Roguing at the stage of panicle
acquiring colour, identifies the plants which are off-types at reproductive stage.
Inspection by monitoring team: The monitoring by a duly constituted team is carried out only once in a
season. The team includes member from the National Seed Corporation, State Seed Certification Agency,
crop breeder and Nodal scientist of the Breeder Seed Production Unit.
Precautions during harvesting and processing: The harvesting should be done as soon as the crop
matures. Any delay in harvesting may result in deterioration of seed quality due to rains or strong winds as
prevalent in some parts of northern India during April. The crop can be harvested manually and threshed with
the help of a stationary thresher. If the area is large enough, combine can be used for this purpose. Extra care
should be taken to avoid any mechanical admixture at this stage by thoroughly cleaning the equipments,
threshing floor, etc. The seed should be sun dried, if the moisture content is more than 10 per cent.
Grow out test: The grow out test is conducted as per the standard procedure. Properly drawn breeder seed
samples from different seed lots produced in the previous season should be sown in replicated plots in 6 m
row with a plant to plant distance or 2 cm and row to row distance of 25 cm. Observations should be recorded
during the whole growing season and deviationsfrom the control sample be recorded properly.
Packaging, labeling and storage: Breeder seed should be supplied in duly stitched sealed containers. The
seed bags should be filled to an exact weight. Polycoated hessian bags of 99x48.5 cm size of 30 kg capacity
are safe to use. The bag should be labelled with breeder seed tag containing required information.
 Seed Production of Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Nucleus seed production

Nucleus seed refers to the seed produced by the breeder who developed the particular variety or by
any other breeder located at the institution where the variety was developed, which is directly used for
multiplication as breeder seed.
1. Selection of basic seed
To start a nucleus seed programme of a variety, seed of base source (seed maintained by the
breeder) is a pre-requisite. The selection of the base consists of following stages:
⚫ Single clump true to the type and healthy in all respects should be selected at the tillering phase. At
least 100 such clumps selected randomly from the population should be considered to maintain genetic
purity, uniformity and distinguishability of the variety. Each clump should be marked, numbered and
harvested separately.
⚫ For newly released varieties, the source crop may be from coordinated trials and for already released
varieties, it may be from breeder seed plot or nucleus seed plot.
⚫ The selected clumps should be observed for all the characters of the variety during tillering, grand
growth and maturity phase.
⚫ These marked clumps are to be used for planting the nucleus seed plot in the next season.
2. Raising of nursery
In case the seed obtained from the base generation is limited, the methods with high bud Multiplication
ratio can be followed. The best method will be Spaced Transplanting method (STP). For STP, single buds
should be selected from the base population and planted in a nursery. The seedlings so obtained can be
transplanted in field at 6-7 weeks of age. The planting distance should be maintained at 90 cm x 90 cm from
seedling to seedling for obtaining higher number of tillers per seedling. The crop obtained from the STP
method should then be used as the base source for the nucleus seed.
3. Season of planting
Normally, 8-10 month old crop is considered best for seed purpose. Thus, the planting season for
nucleus nursery should be 8-10 months before the breeder seed crop is planted.
The proposed months are:
⚫ February: When breeder seed crop is to be planted in Autumn season
⚫ April: When breeder seed crop is to be planted in spring season
4. Land requirement
⚫ The field selected for nucleus seed crop should not have sugarcane in the previous season.
⚫ The field should be free from the sugarcane residues of any kind and drainage from other sugarcane
fields.
⚫ It should have an isolation of at least 20 m from any other sugarcane crop.
5. Crop management
⚫ Planting distance: The cane obtained from each clump should be planted in different paired rows with
a distance of 30 cm between rows of the pair and 120 cm between two pairs (120-30-120 cm).
⚫ Seed rate: The prescribed seed rate for nucleus seed crop is 12 buds per metre i.e. four 3-bud setts
per metre.
⚫ Lay out: Here, row length is kept at 3 m with a path of 2 m between two strips.
6. Field inspection
The nucleus seed plot should be grown under strict supervision of the breeder concerned. The off-
types, diseased and pest-infested canesshould be removed at all the growth phases. The paired rows originating
from the off-type clump should be discarded at whatever stage the differentiating character appears. The
proposed crop stages at which breeder along with pathologist and entomologist should thoroughly examine
each and every row at tillering stage, grand growth stage and harvesting.
7. Harvesting and post harvest operations
The 8-10 month old crop is considered best for seed purpose. Thus, when the breeder seed production
plot is ready for planting, the nucleus seed crop should be harvested. The time of harvesting should be so
synchronized that there is not much gap between harvesting and planting. There should not be a gap of more
than 10 days in any case between these two operations. The harvested canes should be screened for presence
of any disease or pest and if any such incidence is seen, the infected canes should be discarded. In case,
there is a need to transport the seed canes to long distances, the canes can be cut into equal size pieces and
packed in gunny bags with thorough insulation of clean paddy straw or blistered poly-sheets, to avoid bud
damage inside the bag. The size and quantity in each bag should be fixed on the basis of the conditions of
packing. It is better to cap the cut ends of the cane by wax to avoid moisture loss before packing in the bags.
The bags for long distance transportation should be properly sealed and labelled giving details of the variety,
field number, date of harvest, etc.
Breeder seed production
1. Source of seed: To start the breeder seed programme of a newly released variety, the source of seed will
be the nucleus seed plot and for an already cultivated variety, the source may be either the nucleus seed plot
or the breeder seed plot of the previous season. In both the cases, only healthy canes should be selected for
planting the crop.
It is a recommended practice to apply Moist Hot Air Treatment (MHAT) to the canes, which are to be
used for planting breeder seed plot, irrespective of their source of origin. MHAT at 54°C and 99% relative
humidity for 2.5 hours controls the majority of seed borne diseases without adversely affecting the germination.
2. Season of planting: Time of planting should be so adopted that the seed crop is harvested at 10 months
both in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
3. Land requirement: Land requirements for breeder seed production is the same as that for nucleus seed
production except that the isolation distance of 10 m from any other sugarcane crop is maintained.
4. Crop management
a) Planting distance: Breeder seed crop is planted at 90 cm row spacing at optimum depth.
b) Seed rate: The prescribed seed rate is 12 buds per metre i.e. four 3-bud setts per metre.
c) Lay out: Here, row length is kept at 10 m with a path of 3 m between two strips.
d) Pre-planting irrigation and weed management: These requirements are the same as that for nucleus
seed crop. Here, chemical methods of weed control can also be adopted. The most commonly adopted
method is spraying Atrazine as pre emergence spray at the rate of 2.0 kg a.i./ha followed by 2,4-D 1.0 kg a.i./
ha 60 days after planting and a hoeing at 90 days after planting.
e) Roguing and cleaning: A minimum of three inspections shall be made in the breeder seed plot. Roguing
of diseased plants, off type plants, or plants of other varieties should be done to maintain the genetic purity of
the crop. Removal of lower dried leaves in September helps in reducing the insect pest population and
provides passage for free movement of air, thereby reducing the risk of lodging during the maturity phase. The
prescribed stages for field inspection are:
Stage I: To be carried out after 45-60 days of planting in order to verify isolation and detect volunteer plants,
designated diseases and pests and other relevant factors.
Stage II: To be carried out after 120-130 days of planting to verify off-types, designated diseases and pests,
etc.
Stage III: To be carried out 15 days prior to harvesting to verify the cane formation, offtypes based on cane
characteristics, and to rogue out diseased clumps,
5. Harvesting and post harvest operations
These operations are the same as in the case of nucleus seed. All the canes to be used as breeder
seed should qualify the prescribed quality standards.
6. Quality requirements for breeder seed
The following minimum requirements should be satisfied:
a) There should not be any off type plant in the field.
b) There should not be any red rot, smut, wilt and leaf scald infected cane or clump in the field.
c) The number of top-borer infested canes should not exceed 5%. However, efforts should be made to
minimize the number of infested canes in the field.
d) Under field conditions, not more than 0.5% buds should be affected with stalk borer.
e) All other insect pests such as borer, scale insect, mealy bug, etc. should be checked at a level below
5% in field condition.
f) It is of utmost importance that all the infested canes are sorted out or treated suitably after harvesting
so that the final breeder seed does not contain any such diseases and insect pests. It is specially
required when seed from one area is to be sent to other area where the designated pest has not been
recorded.
g) The seed cane shall be taken from plant crop only, which is taken on soil without any specific problem
such as acute salinity, alkalinity, etc.
h) Each node of seed cane should have only one sound bud. The number of nodes without sound bud
shall not exceed 5% (by number) of the total number of buds per seed cane.
i) The crop should not have more than 5-10% lodged canes.
j) Seed canes should not have nodal roots. In water-logged areas, relaxation may be given up to a
maximum of 5%. .
k) Moisture in seed cane should not be less than 65% on wet weight basis.
a. Germinability of buds should not less than 85%.
l) Physical purity of the seed should be 98%.
m) Genetic purity of seed should be 100%.
Grow Out Tests
To perform GOT in sugarcane varieties, the following procedure can be followed
⚫ Randomly pick out 50 canes from the seed lot.
⚫ Mark each cane and number them serially.
⚫ Observe each cane thoroughly for the prescribed cane characteristics and identify the off-types, if any.
⚫ Plant these single canes as 3-bud setts in 1 m long rows keeping row-to-row distance at 90 cm.
⚫ Observe each row till maturity and identify the morphological characteristics, yield potential and allother
parameters to ascertain the quality of seed as well as level of mixtures in the original seed lot
 LECTURE 8
FOUNDATION AND CERTIFIED SEED PRODUCTION VEGETABLES

TOMATO (Lycopersicum esculentus)

Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops grown extensively in the
tropical and subtropical belts of the world. It is grown mainly fresh market and to a
little extent for processing. Increased attention is now being bestowed to breeding
and production of tomato. Production of tomato can further be increasedif improved
cultural practices are combined with good quality seeds. The quality seed production
techniques in tomato comprises of the following steps.

Botany

Tomato is a typical day neutral plant. It requires temperature of 15-20° C for

fruit setting. Tomato is self pollinated crop. Self fertilization is favoured by the
position of receptive stigma within the cone anthers and the normal pendant position
of the flower.

Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

Stages of seed production

Breeder seed - Foundation Seed I - Foundation Seed II - Certified Seed

Varieties :

Indeterminate varieties

Pusa Ruby, Solan Gola, Yaswant (A-2), Sioux, Marglobe, Naveen, Ptom-9301,
Shalimar- 1, Shalimar-2. Angurlata, Solan Bajr, Solan Sagun, Arka Vikas. Arita
Saurbh.

Determinate varieties

Roma (EC-13513), Rupali, MTH-15, Ptom-18, VL-1, VL-2, HS 101, HS 102,

HS 110, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Sheetal, Floradade, Arka Meghli, Co.1, Co.2, Co.3
(Marutham), PKM.1, Py1,

Hybrids

COTH-1, Pant Hybrid-2, Pant Hybrid-10, Kt-4. Pusa Hybrid-l-4, Arka Shreshta,
Arka Vardan, Arka Abhijit, Navell 1 &2 (Sandoz), Rupali, Sonali, MTH 6

Season : May - June and November - December

Land requirement

Selection of suitable land for tomato seed production is important where the
previous crop should not be the same variety to avoid the contamination due to the
volunteer plants.

Isolation requirement

For Seed production of tomato, varieties require minimum of 50 M for

foundation seed and 25 M for certified seed. For hybrid seed production, it requires
minimum of 200 M for foundation (parental line increase) and 100 M for certified
hybrid seeds.

Seed rate

For i) Varieties - 300- 400 g/ha ii) For F1 hybrid - Male parent 25 g/ha; Female
parent 100 g/ha.
Nursery

Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5 cm gap

and covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient to transplant
one acre. Apply 2 kg of DAP 10days before pulling out of seedling.

Transplanting

Transplanting should be done with the seedlings are 20-25 days old,
preferably at evening time. Spacing is 60 x 45 cm (90 x 60 cm for female parent
and 60 x 45 cm for male parent of hybrids).

Manuring

After thorough preparation of a field to fine tilth, apply 25 tons of FYM per
ha. Apply 100 : 100: 100 Kg of NPK/ha of which, 50% of the N is applied as

Roguing

The roguing should be done based on the plant characters (determinate /

indeterminate), leaf, branching and spreading characters and also based on fruit
size, shape and color. The plants affected by early blight, leaf spot and mosaic (TMV)
diseases should be removed from the seed production field.

Planting ratio

For hybrid seed production, the female and male parents are normally
planted in the ratio of 12:1 or 12:2.

Pest and disease management

The major pests attacking tomato crop are leaf eating caterpillars and fruit
borers, which can be controlled by spraying. The major diseases in tomato are early
blight and mosaic virus. The early blight rot can be controlled by sprayingBenlate
or Dithane M-45.

Harvesting seed extraction and processing

The fruits are harvested after full maturity of the fruit when turn in to red color
fruits from first and last one or two harvests should not be used for seed extraction.
Stages of maturation: Mature green, Breaker, Turning, Pink, Red, Dark red / over
ripe

The fruits from in between 6-7 harvest should be used for seed extraction. The
seed viability is depends on the method on which the seeds were extracted andhence,
it is more important to choose proper methods of seed extraction. Before seed
extraction, the fruits are to be graded for true to type and selection of medium to
large size fruits for getting higher recovery of quality seeds.

The acid method of seed extraction is the best method for tomato seed
extraction. In this method, the fruits are to be crushed into pulp and taken in a plastic
containers (or) cement tank. And then add 30 ml of commercial Hydrochloric acid
per kg of pulp, stir well and allow it for ½ hour. In between this duration the pulp
may be stirred well for one or two times. This facilitates the separation of seed and
pulp. After ½ hour, the seeds will settle down at the bottom and then the floating
fraction is to be removed. The collected seeds should be washed with water for three
or four times.

✓ While following acid method we must use only plastic or stainless steel
containers or cement tank.

✓ Care must be taken to avoid the usage of iron or zinc containers, which will
affect the viability potential of the seeds and as well damage to the containers
due to chemical reaction with acid.

✓ For large scale seed extraction we can use the tomato seed extractor
developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.

✓ The seeds extracted by this machine may again be treated with commercial
Hydrochloric acid @ 2-3 ml/kg seed with equal volume of water for 3-5
minutes with constant stirring. And then seed should be washed with water
for to four times.
 ✓ It is easy to dry the seeds extracted by acid method and also remove the
fungus growth over the seed coat, thus seeds possess golden yellow colour
and high vigour.

✓ The seed extracted by fermentation method posses poor vigour and off
colour due to fungal activity.

Comparison of different seed extraction methods

Fermentation Acid Alkali

Method Mix fruit pulp with HCl @10ml / Washing soda @

water - 24 - 48 h 900mg/4 l of
Kg of pulp - 20-30
water- equal
minutes
volume – overnight
soak

Salient • Low cost. • Cost is more. • Recovery 0.7 to

features 0.8
• Unskilled • Skilled labour
labour. per cent
• Lesser Time
• More Time • Luster of the
• High seed
taken seeds will be
recovery (0.8
lost.
• Low Seed to 1 %)
recovery (0.5 • Improper washing
• Bright colour
to 0.6 % leads to
market value
injury to
• Dull seed higher.
seeds
colour.
• Seed borne
• Seed..borne.. pathogen –
pathogens removed
• Improper
washing leads to
injury to seeds
Fermentation method

Manual Crushing Fermentation

Washing Extracted seed

Acid seed extraction

Mechanical Crushing Extracted seed

Acid treatment Washing of seeds

Drying and grading
Seeds are to be dried in the shade. It should never be dried in hot sun. the
safe moisture content of the seed for grading is 8 to 9 per cent. Seeds can be graded
using 6/64’’ round perforated sieve.
Storage
The seeds dried to safe moisture content after treating either with captan or
thiram @ 2 g/kg can be stored for 15 months in moisture vapour pervious containers,
while it can be stored in moisture vapour proof containers for 30 months.
Hybrid seed production:

In tomato the hybrid seed production is normally done by 'Emasculation and

Hand Pollination'. However use of chemical hybridizing agents (MH-1000 ppm) or
CMS lines are also practiced

Emasculation and dusting

1. Emasculation is done before the anthers are mature and the stigma has
become receptive to minimize accidental self pollination.

Selection of flower

2. Thus emasculation is generally done in the evening, between 4 PM and 6 PM

one day before the anthers are expected to dehisce or mature and the
stigma is likely to become fully receptive.

3. Emasculate the bud by hand with the help of needle and forceps. Remove
the calyx, corolla and staminal column or anthers, leaving gynoecium
i.e., stigma and style intact in the flower.

Removal of anther cone Removal of corolla

4. Emasculated flowers should be covered immediately with red coloured paper

cover to protect against contamination from foreign pollen and also for easy
identification of emasculated bud during dusting.
5. Remove the red paper cover of the emasculated bud and dust the pollen
gently over the stigmatic surface using cotton or camel brush, etc.,

Emasculated flower Dusting of pollen

6. After dusting, the emasculated flowers are again covered with white or other
coloured paper cover for two to three days.

7. Pollen collected from one male flower can be used for dusting 5 to 7
emasculated flowers.

Pollen collection

Male flower Collected flower

Drying of flower Collection of pollen I

 Collection of pollen II Pollen for hybrid crosses

Seed Yield : 100 -120 Kg/ha

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, offtypes
and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true
nature of plant and other relevant factors

Specific requirements

Factors Foundation Certified

Off types - variety 0.1 % 0.2%

Hybrid 0.01% 0.05%

Plants affected by seed borne diseases 0.1 % 0.5%

Seed standard (variety and hybrid)

Factors Foundation Certified

Pure seed (mini) 98% 98%

Inert matter (maxi) 2% 2%

Other crop seeds (maxi) 5/kg 5/kg 10/kg

Weed seeds (maxi) None None

Germination (mini) 70% 70%

Moisture (maxi) 8% 8%

For VP container 6% 6%
 BRINJAL (Solanum melongena)

Brinjal is one of the most important vegetable crops grown extensively in the
tropical and subtropical belts of the world. It is grown mainly fresh market and to a
little extent for processing. Increased attention is now being bestowed to breeding
and production of Brinjal. Production of brinjal can further be increased if improved
cultural practices are combined with good quality seeds. The quality seed production
techniques of brinjal comprises of the following steps.

Botany

Brinjal is often cross pollinated crop. Brinjal flower opens mainly in morning.
A few flower open at 16 hr. Anther dehiscence occurs 15-20 minutes after flowers
have opened. The period of receptivity ranges from a day prior to flower opening to
4 days after opening. Brinjal produces 4 types of flowers with different style length.
(Long style, short style, medium style and pseudo short style). For seed production
and better yield, the long and medium style is desirable. To increase the production
of long and medium style application of more nitrogen or spraying of growth
regulators during pre-flowering and flowering stages may be followed.
Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

Stages of seed production

Breeder seed → Foundation Seed → Foundation Seed II → Certified Seed.

Varieties

Co.1, Co.2. MDU.1, PKM.1, KKM.1, PLR. 1. AU1, Pusa purple long, Arka
nidhi, Pant smart, Arka neelkanth, Arka shrish.

Hybrids

CoBH1,Arka Navneet (IIHR 22-1 x supreme), Pusa H-5, Pusa H-6, MHB 10,
MHB 39 (Mahyco), Azad Hybrid.

Season

The brinjal seed production can be taken up in the following 2 seasons.

May-June and December- January.

Land requirement : The land should be free of volunteer plants.

Isolation
 For varieties, 200 M or 100 M of isolation distance is required for foundation
and certified seed, respectively. For hybrid seed production minimum of 200 M
isolation distance should be maintained.

Seed rate

Varieties - 400 - 500 g/ha

Hybrids - 200 g/ha (Female) - 50 g/ha (Male)

Nursery

Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5 cm gap and
covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient to transplant one
acre. Apply 2 kg of OAP 10days before pulling out of seedling.

Transplanting

Seedlings are transplanted when they are 30-35 days old (12-15 cm height)
preferably in the evening time. Spacing of 75 x 60 cm (non spreading) and 90 x 60
cm (spreading) varieties, 90 x 60 cm for female parent and 60 x 45 cm for male
parent of hybrids.

Manuring

The field should be thoroughly ploughed for fine filth and apply 25 tons of
FYM/ha. The other fertilizer requirement for brinjal variety and hybrid are same as
followed for tomato seed production.

Roguing

The roguing should be done based on the plant characters, leaf, branching
and spreading characters and also based on fruit size, shape and color. The plants
affected by Phomopsis blight, leaf spot and little leaf virus disease should be
removed from the seed production field.

Pest and disease management

The pests like fruit borer, shoot borer, beetles, aphids, mealy bug and jassids
can be controlled by spraying Nuvacron or Methyl parathion. The red spidermite can
be controlled by spraying in Kelthane. The important diseases are
damping off and little leaf which can be controlled by spraying fungicide and
systemic insecticides, respectively. Powdery mildew, leaf spot and anthracnose
diseases can be controlled by spraying Benlate.

Hybrid seed production

The planting ratio of female and male parents adopted for hybrid seed
production is normally 5:1 or 6:1.For production of hybrid seeds, crossing
programme is done using emasculation and dusting methods as followed in tomato.

Harvesting and processing

Harvesting is done when fruits are fully ripe (when the fruits turn into yellow
colour) i.e., 405 days after flowering. The harvested fruits are to be graded for
true to type and off type and fruit borer infested fruits are discarded. The graded
fruits are cut in 2-3 pieces or whole fruits will be put in a cement tank with water
and crushed manually and then allow it for fermentation for 1-2 days. Then the
floating pulp portions are to be removed, the seeds settled at the bottom should
be collected and washed with water and then the seeds with equal volume of water
is treated with commercial Hydrochloric acid @ 3-5 ml/kg of seed. The mixture is
kept for 10-15 minutes with frequent stirring. Then the treated seeds are to be
washed with water for 3-4 times. Afterwards seeds are dried under shade for 2-3
days over a tarpaulin and followed by sun drying for 1-2 days to reduce the seed
moisture content to 8 per cent. Then the seeds are cleaned and graded with BSS 12
sieve. The processed seeds are treated with fungicides or Halogen mixture @ 5g/kg
of seed.
Storage
The seeds dried to safe moisture content after treating either with captan or
thiram @ 2 g/kg can be stored for 15 months in moisture vapour pervious containers,
while it can be stored in moisture vapour proof containers for 30 months.

Seed Yield : 100-200 Kg/ha

Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, off types
and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true
nature of plant and other relevant factors

Specific standards

Factors Foundation Certified

Off types – Variety 0.1% 0.25

Hybrid 0.1% 0.05%
Designated diseased plant 0.1% 0.5%
 The designated diseases in brinjal are Phomopsis blight caused by Phomopsis
vexans and little leaf caused by Datura virus -2.

Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)

Factors Foundation & Certified

Pure seed 98%

Inert matter 2%

Other crop seed None

Weed seed None
Germination 70%

Moisture content 8%

For VP Container 6%
Genetic purity - tomato & brinjal hybrids is 90%

Questions
1. Tomato is self-pollinated crop. (True/False)
2. The isolation distance for tomato certified hybrid seed production is
.
a. 50m b. 100m
c. 200m d. 400m
3. For F1 hybrid seed production the male and female parent seed rate is
.
a. 5 and100 g/ha b. 100 and 200 g/ha
c. 50 and 25 g/ha d. 100 g each
4. For acid seed extraction of tomato the quantity of HCl required is
.
a. 50 ml/kg of pulp b. 10 ml/kg of pulp
c. 100 ml/kg of pulp d. 5 ml/kg of pulp
5. Tomato seeds can be graded using round perforated sieve.
a. 6/64’’ b. 10/64’’
 c. 12/64’’ d. 15/64’’
6. In tomato the hybrid seed production is normally done by .
a. Cytoplasmic Male Sterility b. Genic male sterility
c. Emasculation and Hand Pollination d. Detasseling
7. In tomato is used as chemical hybridizing agents.
a. Gibberelic acid b. Colchisin
c. Etheral d. Malic hydraside
8. Minimum germination percentage for tomato is .
a. 90% b. 50%
c. 70% d. 90%
9. Brinjal is self pollinated crop. (True/False)
10. In Brinjal for seed production and better yield flower is
suitable.
a. Long style b. pseudo short style
c. short style d. medium style
11. The planting ratio of female and male parents adopted for hybrid seed
production is normally
a. 5:1 b. 8:1
c. 12:1 d. 10:1
12. is the designated diseases in brinjal
a. Root rot b. Little leaf
c. Leaf spot d. None
13. Genetic purity of brinjal hybrid is
a. 90% b. 60%
c. 75% d.50%
14. Pure seed percentage of brinjal is
a. 68% b. 98%
c. 90% d. 50%
15. Designated disease allowed during certified seed production is
a. 1% b. 0.2%
c. 0.05% d. 0.5%
 BHENDI (Abelmoschus esculentus)

Botany: Anthesis is between 9 and 10 hr and is preceded by maximum anther

dehiscence between 8 and 9 hr. The stigma remains receptive on the day of anthesis.
Bhendi is an often cross pollinated crop. Cross pollination to an extent of 12 per cent
is due to protogynous.

Method of seed production : Seed to seed

Stages of seed production : Breeder seed → Foundation seed → Certified

seed.

Varieties : Co.1, MDU.1, Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, Pusa A-4, Pusa Sawani

Hybrids:CO2,CO 3, Mahyco hybrid, Shoba

Season : June-July, September- October and February- March

Land requirement : Select field on which bhendi crop was not grown in the previous
season, unless the crop was of the same variety and certified. Field shouldbe free
from wild bhendi (Abelmoschus sp.)
Isolation requirement: Seed field must be isolated from other varieties at least by
400 M for foundation and hybrid seed production and 200 M for certified seed
production.

Seed rate : Varieties : 8-10 kg/ha

Hybrids : 4 kg/ha (Female); 1 kg/ha (Male)

Manuring: Apply 12.5 tons of FYM/ha before ploughing. Apply 150:75:75 kg

NPK/ha, of which 50% of the N should be applied as top dressing in two split doses
at flowering and 10 days later.

Planting ratio: For hybrid seed production, female and male parents are normally
planted in the ratio of 4:1.

Roguing: Minimum of three inspections for varieties and 4 inspections for hybrids,
one at vegetative, two at flowering and one at fruit maturity stages. The rouging
should be based on the plant characters, hairiness, fruit character like fruit colour,
number of ridges, fruit length etc., and the off type and mosaic attacked plants
should be removed from the seed field. Wild bhendi if present should be removed
before flowering.

Pest and disease management: The major pest attacking bhendi are jassids,
aphids and white fly, which can be controlled by spraying Rogar or Dimecron or
Endosulphon. The pod borer and red spider mites can be controlled by spraying
Endosulphon and Kelthane, respectively. The diseases such as yellow vein mosaic
and powdery mildew can be controlled by spraying systemic insecticides and
Karathane, respectively.

Hybrid seed production: In bhendi, since the flowers are large in size, hand
emasculation and pollination is the best suitable method for seed production. The
emasculation and dusting can be done as per the methods outlined in tomato. The
male and female parents are raised in blocks at the ratio of 9:1 (Female: Male).

Harvesting: Fruits should be harvested when they have dried (30-35 days after
crossing). The pods which expose hairline crack and turn to brown colour on drying
alone are cut using sickle manually.
Threshing:

The pods are dried and threshed using pliable sticks. Separated seeds are
winnowed to remove plant debris and dried over a tarpaulin to 10% moisture
content. Dried seeds are subject to water floatation in which, good seeds sink while
poor seeds float. The floaters are removed, while sinkers are dried under shade
followed by sun drying. Then the seed are cleaned, dried and treated with Captan/
Thiram.

Processing: Seeds are to be processed with BSS 7 wiremesh sieve.

Seed Yield: 1000-1200 Kg/ha

Specific standards:

Factors Foundation Certified

Off types 0.1% 0.2%

Objectionable weed None None

Disease affected plants 0.1% 0.5%

Objectionable weed: wild Abelmoschus sp.

A.moschatus A. manihot

Designated diseases: Yellow Vein Clearing Mosaic (Hybiscus virus-1)

Seed standards

Factors Foundation Certified

Pure seed 99% 99%

Inert matter 1% 1%

Other crop seed None 5/kg

Total weed seed None None

Objectionable weed None None

Other Distinguishable 10/kg 20/kg

Varieties (ODV)

Germination 65% 65%

Moisture 10% 10%

For VP Container 8% 8%

Questions
1. Chilli is an often Cross pollinated vegetable. (True/False)

2. The flower of chilli is

a. Protandry b. Terminal
c. Axillary d. Protogyny
3. arrests flower drop in chilli.
a. NAA b. GA3
c. MH d. Ethrel
4. Off type allowed during certified seed production in chilli is

a. 0.5% b. 0.02%
c. 0.2% d. 2%
5. Isolation requirement for foundation and certified seed production

in chilli is
a. 400 & 200 M b. 100 & 200 M
c. 600 & 200 M d. 600 & 400 M
6. Bhendi is an often cross pollinated crop. (True/False)
7. Cross pollination in bhendi is due to protogynous.

8. Isolation requirement for foundation and certified seed production

in Abelmoschus esculentus is
a. 600 & 100 M b. 200 & 100 M
c. 300 & 200 M d. 400 & 200 M
9. Planting ratio for hybrid seed production in Abelmoschus esculentus is

a. 8:1 b. 4:1
c. 12:1 d. 10:1
10. Seeds of bhendi is processed with wiremess sieve.
a. BSS 10 b. BSS 3
c. BSS 7 d. BSS 15
11. Objectionable weed in bhendi is

a. Manihot esculentus b. A.moschatus

c. Coleus forskohlli d. None
12. Designated diseases of bhendi is yellow vein mosaic.

13. Other Distinguishable Varieties (ODV) allowed in bhendi is

a. 5/kg b. 20/kg
c. 10/kg d. 40 %
 ONION (Allium cepa)

Onion is one of the most important

commercial vegetable crops in India.
Maharastra, Gujarat, Uttra Pradesh, Orissa
and Andhra Pradesh are the major onion
growing states. The total annual area is
estimated to be about 3 lakhs hectare and
production is about 35.37 lakh tonnes. It is
grown mainly in rabi season. Three crops viz.,
Kharif, late Kharif and rabi are taken in Nasik
division of Maharashtra whereas
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Harayana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu take up two crops that is Kharif and rabi. Kharif onion is a recent
introduction in Northern, Eastern and Central India.

Botany

Onion is the biennial crop and takes two full seasons to produce seeds. In the
first year bulbs are formed and in the second year stalks develop and seed are
produced. It is a long-day plant. The day length influences bulb onion, but has little
effect on induction of seeding. It appears to be day-neutral for seed production. It
requires cool conditions during early development of the bulb cropand again prior
to and during early growth of seed stalk. Varieties bolt readily at 10 to 15 degree C.
In the early stages of growth, a good supply of moisture is requiredand temperatures
should be fairly cool. During bulbing, harvesting and curing of seed, fairly high
temperatures and low humidity is desirable. Seed production is widely adapted to
temperate and sub-tropical regions.
Stages of seed production : BS – FS - CS

Varieties

A. RED
1. Punjab Selection PAU, Ludhiana
2. Pusa Ratna NBPGR, New Delhi
3. Pusa Red IARI, New Delhi
4. Pusa Madhavi IARI, New Delhi
5. N-2-4-1 MPAU, Rahuri
6. Arka Niketan IIHR, Bangalore
7. Arka Kalyan IIHR, Bangalore
8. Agrifound Dark Red NHRDF, Nasik
9. Agrifound Light Red NHRDF, Nasik
B. WHITE
1. N-257-9-1 MPAU, Rahuri
2. Pusa White Round IARI, New Delhi
3. Pusa White Flat IARI, New Delhi
4. Punjab-48 PAU, Ludhiana
C. Aggregatum Onion
1. CO 5 TNAU, CBE

• Bellary Red, Rampur local, and Kalyanpur,

Season

The optimum sowing season is middle of June to Middle of July in the plains.

Isolation Requirements

Onion is largely cross-pollinated crop with up to 93 per cent natural crossing

but some self-pollination does occur. It is chiefly pollinated by honey-bees. For pure
seed production, the seed fields must be isolated from fields of other varieties of
onion and fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements
for certification atleast by 1000 metres for foundation seed production and 500
metres for certified seed production.

Method of Seed Production

There are two methods of seed production

1. Seed to seed method: In this method, the first season bulb crop is left to over-
winter in the field so as to produce seed in the following season.
2. Bulb to seed method: The bulbs produced in the previous season are lifted,
selected, stored and replanted to produce seed in the second year.
Mostly the bulb to seed method is used for seed production because of the following
advantages over the seed to seed method.
a) It permits selections of "true-to-type" and healthy bulbs for seed production.
b) Seed yields are comparatively very high. The seed to seed method, however,
can be practiced for varieties having a poor keeping quality.
Bulb to seed method
A. Bulb Production stage

a) Climatic requirement
Though it is possible to produce bulbs in different climatic conditions, mild
climate is reported to be very good. For better bulb production a temperature of
15.5 to 210C and about 70% relative humidity required.

b) Land requirement
Fields in which onion was grown should be selected unless it was of the same
variety and was certified. The onion can be grown on various types but it grows
best in soils which are able to retain moisture for longer time. Heavy soils do not
permit proper bulb development and many times bulbs are misshapen. 6-8 pH
range are considered better for onion.

c) Isolation requirement
Onion is highly cross pollinated crop with upto 93% natural crossing. It is mostly
pollinated by honeybees. For pure seed production the seed fields must be isolated
from field of other varieties of onion of the dame colour at least by 1000
 meters for foundation seed and 500 m for certified seed. The isolation distance
between colour particularly white and red colour must be much more which needs
to be decided.

d) Seed rate
8-10 Kg per hectare

e) Sowing and transplanting time

Season Sowing Transplanting

Kharif June-July July-August
Rabi Oct-Nov Dec-Jan

In kharif 6-7 weeks old seedling and in rabi 8-9 weeks seedlings should be
transplanted. Over aged nursery should not be planted otherwise premature
bolting may be there.

f) Manures and fertilizers

FYM 50 tonnes
CAN 400Kg
Or
Urea 200kg
Super phosphate 300 Kg
Muriate of Potash 100 Kg
Nitrogen should be applied as basal and top dressing in two splits. Top
dressing may not be delayed otherwise thick necks may be a problem.

g) Spacing
15 x 10 cm. More spacing between plants results in thick necked plants.

h) Irrigation
Irrigation should be given at fortnightly interval or weekly interval as the case
may be. Field should not be left dry for long otherwise splitting problem is more.
i) Weeding
2-3 weedings and hoeings are done. Stomp @ 3.51 / ha may be applied 3 days
after transplanting to manage the weeds economically. One weeding by hand is,
however, necessary.

j) Plant protection
Malathion @ 0.1% along with tritone against thrips. 4-5 spraying may be
necessary. Indofil M45 @ 0.25% along with tritone against purple blotch and
stemphylium blight, 5-6 sprayings may be done.

k) Roguing
Remove off type plants on difference in colour of leaves or plant type.
Remove resprouted plants or premature bolters.

l) Harvesting
Harvesting the crops one week after 50% of tops falling and keep in windrow
upto 3-5 days for field curing. After that bulbs are cured in shade to remove fields
heat before keeping in store. In kharif bulbs are ready for harvesting within 90-100
days after transplanting while tops are still erect. Bulbs are allowed for field curing
upto 3-5 days then again cured were in shade or in field depending upon the
temperature for 12-15 days. Tops are cut leaving 2.5 cm neck.
B. Seed Production Stage

a) Selection of bulb
True to type bulbs are selected based on colour, size and shape kept in
ventilated storage in rabi crop and in kharif crop bulbs are planted after curing for
15 days. 4-6 cm size bulbs are selected for getting good crop.

b) Climate
Conditioning of plants / bulbs is necessary for seed stalks formation.
Temperature of 4.50c to 140C are favourable for this conditioning. Longer this
prevails, more stalks each plant will produce and more flowers will be in each
umbel. Low humidity gives good seed development. While plants are in
flowering clear bright sunny days are necessary for good insect activity.

c) Bulb rate
25 quintal / ha

d) Spacing
45 x 30 cm

e) Fertilizer and manures

200 kg urea / ha.50% as basal and rest as top dressing
300 Kg super phosphate (single) / ha
100 Kg muriate of potash / ha
f) Irrigation
Irrigation at an interval of 15 days in winter and 7-10 days in summer is necessary
for proper seed development. Fields should not be kept saturated for long as this
facilities development of diseases.

g) Rouging
Remove plants based on foliage, colour inflorescence and flower characters.

h) Plant protection
1) Spray Indofil M45 @ 0.25% against purple blotch and stemphylium blight.
2) Endosulfan @ 0.20% against thrips and head borer.

i) Harvesting and curing

When capsules become brown and seeds inside become black the umbels are then
cured and dried.
j) Threshing and cleaning
Threshing is done manually. Pre-cleaning is done by brushing machine and
scalper. Cleaning and grading are done by Air screen cleaner by using 1/14x1/2
as grading screen and then upgrading is done by gravity separators.

k) Drying and Packing

 Seeds are dried upto 6-8% moisture depending upon packaging requirements. If
seeds are required to be packed in Aluminium foil and other moisture proof
containers, seed are dried upto 6% otherwise upto 8%.

l) Seed yield
5-7 q / ha

Certification Standards
I. Field Standards
A. General requirements
1. Isolation
Onion seed fields shall be isolated from the contaminants shown in column 1
of the Table below by the distance specified in columns 2,3,4 and 5 of the said
Table:
Contaminants Minimum distance (meters)
Mother bulb Seed Production stage
production stage
Foundation Certified Foundation Certified
2 3 4 5
Fields of other varieties 5 5 1000 500
Fields of the same 5 5 1000 500
variety not conforming
to varietal purity
requirement for
certification

B. Specific requirements
Factors Maximum permitted
Foundation Certified
* Bulbs not conforming to the 0.10% (by 0.20% (by
varietal characteristics number) number)
* Off types 0.10% 0.20%
 *

* Maximum permitted at second inspection at mother bulb production stage.

** Maximum permitted at and after flowering at seed production stage.

II. Seed Standards

Factors Standards for each class

Foundation Certified
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert Matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) 5 / Kg 10 / Kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5 / Kg 10 / Kg
Germination (minimum) 70% 70%
Moisture (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%
For vapour-proof containers 6.0% 6.0%
(maximum)

Problems and Prospects of certification in onion seed production

Following are the problems and remedial measures in certification of onion
seed:
a. Unawareness about the notified varieties by the farmers
Many improved and notified varieties have not been demonstrated fully with
the farmers as such farmers still prefer old varieties. The extension agencies in the
state may therefore take up demonstration so as to allow farmers to know about
the new improved varieties.

b. Unawareness about the advantage of certified seed over truthful seed

In cereals and some other seeds the seed production and distribution
programme are properly organized. Farmers have been demonstrated with the
advantage of using certified seed. In vegetables particularly in small seed such
demonstrations or extension education programmes have not been carried out.
Farmers thus are not aware about the benefits of using certified seed in onion.
Extension agencies should arrange state level demonstrations on use of certified seed
in onion to make the farmer fully aware of advantages of the certified seed.

c. No maintenance breeding for improved varieties

Since varieties when developed by the Universities / institutes do not pass
through maintenance breeding later, the varieties do not behave in different
characters in the same way as these were at the time of development. Theapplication
of certification standards particularly for genetics purity therefore becomes
impossible. The Universities / Institutes should continue maintenance breeding of
their varieties for maintaining distinctiveness, uniformity and stability.

d. Most of the parameters of the varieties are influenced by agro climatic

conditions
In onion there are many characters like colour, shape, bolting, neck thickness
or doubles which are affected adversely by agro climatic conditions like soil,
temperature, rainfall, cultural practices etc. Practical application of certification
standards required to be seen at the time of certification where staff cannot have
proper judgment. The staff should, therefore, know the details of characters and how
and to what extent, they are influenced by adverse weather conditions. Based on that
the staff should assess the situation and apply their mind in certifying a crop.

e. Staff with certification agencies are neither adequate nor they have
proper knowledge about the crop.
Onion is highly cross-pollinated crop and it requires through inspection or
check at different stages. If one stage is left it becomes difficult to meet the
requirements. For example if inspection is not managed at the time of bulb selection,
Similarly if isolation is not checked at the time of bolting it becomes a frutile exercise
later as roughing has no meaning at the time of flowering. This is possible only when
sufficient staff having good knowledge about onion is provided.
f. Unawareness of farmers about pre harvest and post harvest practices of
onion seed production.
The extension agencies as also staff certification agencies are supposed to
properly guide for production and post harvest practices for certified seed production
initially. Certification staffs presently do not guide. Presently since staff themselves
are not aware about pre harvest practices as also post harvest practices,
programmes many times fail as such farmers hesitate in going for certified seed
production. It is, therefore, necessary for certification staff to guide the farmers
initially.

g. Inadequate infrastructural facilities for storage of bulbs, cleaning,

grading and drying
Bulbs of rabi onion are required to be stored in ventilated godowns which are
not available. Seed requires is must which is mostly not available. Similarly for
enabling the seed producers to pack the seed in moisture proof containers for long
term storage, seeds are required to be dried to 6% moisture where dehumidified
driers are required. Such facilities are lacking at any places.

h. Certification standards are not realistic

Presently standards which have been fixed are not realistic. The standards
need to be fixed based on the type of material being developed by the institutes. The
effects of agro climatic conditions on different parameters need to be considered.
Isolation distances are not adequate particularly between white and redvarieties.

i. Non availability of adequate quality breeder / foundation seed of avariety

Even if everyone is ready for taking up certified seed production, adequate
quality breeder seed foundation seed with the concerned institute is not available.
Because of this problem in fact many good varieties in onion have been lost before
going to farmers. The seed production programme, therefore, should be properly
planned right from production of breeder seed to certified seed so as to make
available quality seed in adequate quantities for improving production and quality.
j. Low price of seed available in the market
Many times onion seed price in the market are very low compared to quality
seed / certified seed. This is mainly because farmers collect seed from premature
bolters / takes up in situ method where though quality is poor quality is inabundance,
Govt. should, therefore give some.
 SEED PRODUCTION OF CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES

Land Requirements: There are no land requirements as to previous crop, but the
land should be free of volunteer plants. Generally the soil should be well drained and
aerated.

Isolation Requirements: Most of the cucurbits are monoecious in character and a

few are dioecious. A number of hermaphrodite and andromonoecious cultivars
are also available in some crops. Pollination is largely done by insects. For pure seed
production and isolation distance all around seed field is necessary to separate it
from fields of other varieties, fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal
purity requirements for certification, from wild cucurbit species, and to separate
musk melon from long melon and vice versa, and pumpkin from summer and winter
squashes and vice versa as follows

Class Minimum distance (meters)

Foundation 1000

Certified 500

Flower structure in cucurbits

GENETIC PURITY AND SEED HEALTH STANDARDS FOR CUCURBITS

Factors Minimum permitted level(%)

FS CS

Open pollinated variety

Off-type 0.10 0.2

Objectional weed plant None None

Hybrids
Off-type in seed parent
0.01 0.05
Off-type in pollen parent
None 0.05

Pollen shedders in seed parent - 0.10

Seed borne diseases ***

Muskmelon * 0.1 0.20

Summer squash ** 0.1 0.5

Cucumber mosaic virus ,** Cucumber mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus
SEED CERTIFICATION STANDARDS IN INDIA FOR CUCURBITS

Factors
Minimum permitted level (%)

Foundation seed Certified seed

Pure seed (minimum) 98 95

Inert matter (maximum) 2 5

other crop seed (maximum) None None

Weed seed (maximum) None None

Other objectional varieties (only for

5/kg 10/kg
hybrids)

Germination (minimum) 60 60

Moisture for ordinary pack 7.0 7.0

(maximum)

Moisture for vapour proof pack 6.0 6.0

(maximum)

Seed production details in Cucurbitaceous vegetables

Particulars Bittergourd Snakegourd Ribbedgourd Ashgourd /

Pumpkin
Isolation Foundation seed 1000 m and certified seed 500 m
Season June - July and Feb – March
Varieties CO1, MDU1, CO1, CO2, CO1, CO2, CO1, CO2
Coimbatore PKM1, MDU1 PKM 1
long green &
long white
Seed rate / ha 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 / 1.0
female flower Spraying of Ethrel 200 - 250 ppm at two true leaf stage and
increased by after a week of 1st spray
Spacing (cm) Take pits of size 45x45x45 cm at 2.5x2.0 m distance
Fertilizers / 6:12:6 12:24:12 9:15:9 6:12:6
(NPK g/pit)
Physiological Change of fruit colour in any Complete Change of fruit
maturity part or 1/3 of fruit tip to drying of colour to
yellow to red fruits orange brown
in pumpkin and
ashy coating
and metallic
sound in
ashgourd
Processing Hand picking Hand picking BSS 4 wire 16/64 round
mesh sieve perforated
sieve
Fruit to seed 30 15-16 13-14 1.0-1.3
recovery (%)
Seed yield 120-150 220-250 200-250 120-150
(kg/ha)

Techniques of Hybrid Seed Production in cucurbits

i. Hand emasculation and hand pollination

This technique is frequently used for melon seed production. In this species,
andromonoecious lines are common and they must be emasculated and hand
pollinated if used as the female parent for producing hybrid seed. This method has
also been used for some watermelon and cucumber hybrids. This technique is
applicable for limited scale production, since lot of trained labour are required in
pinching, pollen collection and hand pollination.

ii. Hand emasculation and pollination by insect

The male flowers from female lines are pinched off day before of anthesis
regularly, which honeybees and other insects (voluntary) uses as a pollinating agents.
The male and female are grown in alternate rows. The fruit set on female lines are
of hybrid and harvested for seed extraction. The planting ratio varieswithin the
crops e.g. summer squash 3:1 and 4:1 in muskmelon and cucumber but depend upon
the population of bees in plot. This technique is also used in bottle gourd, pumpkin,
muskmelon, cucumber, summer squash and bitter gourd forhybrid seed production.

iii. Use of genetic male sterility system

Genetic male sterility system has been utilized for commercial hybrid
production in muskmelon. The genetic male sterility in muskmelon is controlled by
single recessive gene (msms). For hybrid seen production, the male sterile line is
used as female parent. Since genetic male sterile line is maintained in heterozygous
forms, 50% fertile plants are to be removed at flowering. The other 50% having non-
dehiscent empty anther are retained in female rows. The female and male are grown
in 4:1 ratio. However, to maintain the good plant population in female rowsit is
suggested that seed parent should be sown with double seed rate. It is also advised
that female line seedling should be raised in polythene bags and transplanted at
flower appearance in order to avoid the fertile plants in female rows. The
pollination is done by honey bees and 1 to 2 medium sizes hives aregood enough to
ensure the good pollination and fruit set at female row.

The male sterile line is maintained in heterozygous form by crossing with

maintainer line under adequate isolation distance or under cover.

iv. Use of gynoecious sex form

The gynoecious sex form has been commercially exploited in hybrid seed
production of cucumber. For hybrid seed production female and male rows are
planted in 4:1 ratio. The female (seed parent) bear only female flowers andpollination
in done by insect (honeybee). To ensure the good fruit and seed recovery, the
sufficient population of honeybee 1 to 1½ colony of medium size has to be kept at
the boundary of seed production plot to boost the amount of crossing. The parental
lines i.e. male parent maintained by selfing (mixed pollination) and rouge out
undesirable plants before contamination take place. The female lines i.e. gynoecious
lines maintained by inducing the staminate flower through the sprays ofsilver nitrate
200 ppm at two to four true leaf stage and then selfing is carried out. It was observed
that 10-11 male flowers appear per 100 nodes.

The performance of gynoecious lines is unstable under high temperature and

long photo period conditions because of their thermo-specific responses for
gynoecious stability. That is why the gynoecious cucumber did not receive much
attention in the tropical countries. However, few true breeding tropical gynoecious
lines in cucumber and muskmelon have been developed at IARI. As a result of
development of true breeding line, muskmelon hybrid Pusa Rasraj was developed.
These homozygous gynoecious lines are maintained by using GA3, 1500ppm or silver
nitrate 200-300 ppm or sodium thio sulphate 400 ppm to induce staminate flowers
at two and four true leaf stage. Homozygous lines are planted in strict field isolation.
The gynoecious lines are crossed with monoecious male parent to produceF1 hybrid.

v. Hybrid seed production through chemical sex expression

The hybrid seed can also be produce in cucurbits by the application of

chemicals for attaining the sex of cucurbits. Specific chemicals are known to induce
femaleness and maleness as desired. The spraying of ethrel (2-choloro-ethyl-
phosphonic acid) 200-300 ppm at two and four true leaf stage and another at
flowering is useful for inducing the pistilate flower successively in first few nodes on
the female in bottle gourd, pumpkin and squash for F1 seed production. The row of
male parent is grown side by the side of female and natural cross pollination is
allowed. In the absence of insect, hand pollination is possible when two sexes are
separate. Four to five fruit set at initial nodes are sufficient for hybrid seed. The
complete suppression of male flowers in squash can be achieved by applying ethrel
at higher concentration (400-500 ppm) twice.

The other chemicals like GA3, (10-25 ppm) in cucumber, MH-(100 ppm),
ethephon (600 ppm) in squash induces female flowers.
 Seed Drying

The process of elimination of moisture from the seed is called drying. Seed
drying should reduce the seed moisture content to safe moisture limits to maintain
its viability and vigour during storage, which may otherwise deteriorate quickly owing
to mold growth, heating and enhanced microbial activity. Seed drying also permits
early harvesting, long term storage of seeds, more efficient use of land and
manpower, the use of plant stalks as green fodder and production of high quality
seed.

Depending upon the climate and method of harvesting adopted the threshed
seed may or may not be dry enough for safe storage. Under less favorableconditions,
threshed seed needs further drying.

Stage of moisture elimination

The moisture from the seed is eliminated in 2 stages

1. Surface moisture of the seed that initially removed by the drying air.

2. The removal of the moisture in the surface cause an imbalance in the moisture
potential in the surface of the seed and the inner portion of the seed which leads
to the migration of moisture from the inner organ to the surface.

The migration of moisture to the surface is slower than the evaporation and a
moisture gradient is developed in the kernal.

Elimination of moisture from the seed depends upon the relative humidity
and temperature of the environment surrounding the seed. When RH of the
atmosphere is less than the seed, moisture is eliminated from the seed. While drying,
care should be taken to minimize /prevent oxidation and decomposition and
volatilization. In this process there will be loss of dry weight of seed which is widened
when the processes take place at high temperature. Hence, high moisture seeds
should be dried at low temperature.
Equilibrium moisture content

A seed is in equilibrium with the environment when the rate of moisture loss
from the seed to the surrounding atmosphere is equal to the rate of moisture
gained by the seed from the atmosphere.

Drying temperature

Greater the seed moisture content lesser should be the drying temperature
and vice versa.

10% MC and below 110 o

F (43.3o C)

10-18 % MC 100 o
F (42.2 o C)

18-30 % MC 90 o
F (32.2 o
F)

The rate of drying depends on

• Initial seed moisture content

• Size of the bin and capacity

• Depth of spread of seed

• The rate of air blow

• Atmosphere air temperature and relative humidity

• Static pressure

• Drying temperature

Methods of drying

I. Physical drying (or) natural drying (or) traditional sun drying

II. Mechanical (or) artificial drying

a) Drying with forced natural air

b) Drying with forced artificially heated air

c) Drying with desiccants

d) Drying with infrared rays

I. Physical drying / Natural drying / Traditional Sun drying

This is the common conventional method in which drying of the harvested crop
is carried out in the field or threshing floor by the radiant energy of the sun. This
does not involve any expenditure. To achieve uniform drying, the seed should be
spread in thin layer. High moisture content seed with a moisture content of more
than 17% should be dried first under shade / light to reduce the moisture content
less than 17% and then dried under heavy sun i.e. noon drying. Sun dried seeds
should not be allowed to remain open in the floor during night, since seed willabsorb
moisture from air. 2-4 days are needed to reduce the moisture content to 10-12%.
Direct sunlight also can adversely affect seed germinability owing to high temperature
and ultraviolet radiation, especially if the moisture content of the seed is high.

Advantages

1. Easy and cheap

2. Does not require any expenditure or fuel.

Disadvantages

1. The rate of drying is slow

2. Loss due to attack by insects, birds and animals

3. Large floor area is required

4. Involves extra labour for collecting and exposing during the day

5. Sun drying cause sun checks or hot spots due to variation in temperature from
time to time. This checks or spots induce high amount of breakage while processing

6. mechanical admixtures are possible

7. Dust, dirt and other foreign materials get admixed

8. High weather risks and damage by heavy wind and rains

II. Mechanical drying or artificial drying

Forced air drying

 In forced air drying, natural air or air supplemented with heat is blown through
a layer of seed until drying is completed.

Generally ordinary seed godowns are provided with two types of ventilators for
free movement of air circulation. In modern godowns, provisions are to be made
for forcible circulation of air with the help of an electronic blower. The outside air
which is comparatively dry is circulated in the godown and thereby the seed get dried
up in this process. This is possible only in dry months.

Two types of driers are used: batch and continuous flow driers.

a) Batch dryers

In batch drier, relatively dry air is blown through a layer of seed until the
seed is dried completely, after which it is removed and replaced by another batch of
seed. The method is simple and well suited to small quantities of seed, allows easy
cleaning and is recommended for farm drying.

In horizontal drier, the seed is contained in a box or chamber with aperforated

floor through which the air is blown. Air ducts can be installed in a barn floor and the
seed to be dried piled over them.

In a modified sack drier, seed contained in a woven sack is placed on a grid

through which air is blown. A cylindrical storage bin with raised perforated floor
arranged to blow air underneath the floor can also be used.

A vertical batch drier consists of two concentric perforated cylinders. The space
between the two cylinders is filled with seed and air is blown into the inner cylinder
from where it passes outward the seed. The size of the batch determines the drying
rate.

In horizontal batch drier, the seed at the bottom dries first, with the dry zone
extending gradually upward. The drying of the uppermost seed may be delayed
unduly if the seed layer is too thick or the airflow is inadequate. The seed layer should
not exceed a depth of 3m and for high moisture forage seed, it should be reduced to
1m or less. If the seed is dried in a storage bin, a layer of undried seed can be added
on top of the dried batch and drying continued, but only if the seed is already fairly
dry and air is not too hot. Seed loss also can be avoided by drying in
two stages. After the first batch has partially dried, the emerging air is passed through
a second batch held in another chamber, repeating the process with secondbatch and
so on.

The air blown through a batch must not be too hot, because the seed at the
bottom may be overheated by direct exposure to the entering hot air. It is often not
necessary to heat the air at all, and heating to less than 10o C above the ambient
temperature can be very effective, but on a hot humid day in the tropics even a few
degrees above ambient temperature can harm the seeds. Dehumidifiers may need to
be used under these circumstances.

An appropriate drying rate is very important. Too rapid drying may harm the
seed because of the high drying temperature or a quick loss of water from the
seed. Slow drying may mean maintaining a high moisture seed at a higher
temperature for a prolonged time, resulting in deterioration of seed.

2) Continuous flow dryers

In this type of drier, the seed moves horizontally or vertically through a stream
of hot air and then into a cooling chamber. These driers are howeverdifficult
to clean when there is a change of cultivar. These driers can use air temperature
higher than those of batch dries, because the seed is heated for a much shorter time.

i) L.S.U. dryers (Louisiana State University dryers)

This is a continuous column heated air drier largely used for paddy. The paddy
seeds are fed from the top with the help of gravity force in zig zag manner and heated
air is blown from the bottom usually at right angles to the direction of seed motion.
The falling seeds get dried up by the heated air and this process is repeated till to
get a reduction of moisture content to the expected level.

ii) Non mixing column dryer

These dryers consist of a tall vertical column through which paddy flows by
gravity. No provision is made for agitating the paddy as it flows and hence there is
no attempt to drive the paddy from a straight path. Paddy descends gradually
between two parallel screens and heated air is forced through the screens.
Advantages over bin dryers

1. Short drying period

2. Less damages or spoilage during wet weather

3. Drying is more uniform.

Advantages of mechanical drying

1. Quick method, timely and uniform drying is possible

2. Makes early harvest possible

3. It reduces the chances of losses due to over ripening and shattering of seed

4. Losses due to rodents and birds are prevented.

5. Less damage during processing operation.

6. Permits long time storage by preventing sun checks and other damages.

Disadvantages

1. Initial cost of drying the equipment is high

2. Fuel is expensive

3. It produces possible fire hazards

4. Considerable supervision is necessary.

Storage structures for Seed drying

Building requirements for a seed drying system depend upon the size of
operation, the number of different seeds to be dried, the level of mechanization
desired and future expansion. Different types and forms of storage structures can
be built for handling seeds to be dried with forced air. These may be made of steel,
wood, plywood or concrete and they may be cylindrical or rectangular in shape.

Regardless of the type of structure, all storage bins used for forced air drying in
storage of seeds must have the following features.
 1. Small grain seeds in bulk exert large pressures against the sidewalls. The
side pressures are converted to a vertical load on the foundation, which
should be strong enough to hold the seed lots.

2. The roof and walls of bins must be airtight for drying to proceed
satisfactorily.

3. The openings for filling and removal of seed should be large and convenient
to use. A full size entrance door is desirable.

4. A hand space about 1 m should be provided for easy inspection of seed.

Cleaning and spraying operations should be convenient. For fumigation, the
structures should be airtight, with a provision for temporary sealing ofall
openings.

5. The structure should be able to dry and store more than one kind of seed.

6. The dryingair should be uniformly distributed through all portions of the

seed lot for efficient drying.

7. Theflow of air leaving the seed should proceed rapidly so that back
pressures do not hinder the flow of drying into the seed.

Air-Distribution Systems

Agrawal described three types of air-distribution systems used for seed drying.

a) The main and lateral duct system b) a single central perforated duct and c) the
perforated false floor system.

Multiple bin storage structures for drying can be built so that they are arranged
to enable the drying of several seed lots simultaneously using the same drying fans.
Alternatively, different seed lots can be dried successively with sliding air gates
controlling the flow of air to the respective bins. A multiple bin arrangement is
particularly useful to dry more than one kind of seedsimultaneously.

Heated air drying system

Heated air driers consist of (a) a heater unit where fuel is burned and (b) a
fan to force the heated air through a canvas connecting duct into the air distribution
system of the drying bin. Safety features such as automatic thermostatic high limit
temperature control, which cuts off the burner flame if the air temperature exceeds
a certain safe maximum and flame failure control, which automatically cuts off fuel
flow to the burner if the flame goes out are provided. A thermostat can also
automatically maintain the air temperature at a desired setting. In many driers, such
thermostats are provided as a standard feature.
Two main types of driers are available, which differ in the manner heat is
supplied to the air. Direct fired and indirect fired. In a direct fired drier, the fuel is
burned and the hot combustion gases are thrown directly into the air distribution
system. Although the heat is used very efficiently, there is possibility of blowing soot,
unburned fuel and objectionable fumes into the seed. The burner, therefore, needs
to be adjusted properly to burn the fuel completely. With certain fuels, there is also
a danger of blowing small sparks into the seed.
In indirect fired driers, the hot combustion gases pass into a chamber. The
drying air circulates around this chamber and picks up heat as in a hot air furnace.
The drying air thus does not include combustion gases, sparks, soot or fumes. These
driers are less efficient in the use of heat, but are safer than direct fired types.
The driers are designed to burn various types of fuels (eg. liquid propane or
butane, natural gas, fuel oil and coal. Both liquid propane and natural gas burn readily
with minimum soot and are the best fuels for direct driers and kerosene oilis better
for indirect fired driers.
Two important aspects that must be considered while calculating the
requirements of a suitable to crop drier are the required air flow volume and the heat
capacity (BTU/hr) for drying seeds at the specified desired rate. The fan requirements
can be computed by knowing the total air flow at the static pressureof the seed at
a given drying depth and heater requirement are estimated by calculating the amount
of water to be removed from the seed per hour. Based on these calculations, a
suitable crop drier can be selected to provide a minimum required airflow volume(bin
capacity x air flow rate) and heat capacity in BTU/hr.
Agrawal categorized types of heated driers as layer-in -bin, batch-in-bin, batch and
continuous driers and described their functions.
Stirring devices keep the seed in a loose fill condition, allowing easy airflow
through the bottom layers. Such mechanisms alleviate the problems of uneven drying
(or over drying) by breaking up pockets of fires and trash and blending the seed by
constant mixing.
Large differences in the degree of drying between the top and bottom layers
of seed have been noticed during drying by heated air. It is therefore, advisable to
dry seed at shallow depths to minimize these differences and avoid overheating of
the bottom layer. Agrawal recommended maximum seed depths and temperatures
for batch drying of seeds of different crop species in bins.

Crop seed Maximum depth (cm) Recommended maximum

temperature (0C)
Shelled corn 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)
Wheat 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)
Barely 50.8 (20 in) 40.4 (105 o
F)
Oats 91.4 (36 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)
Rice 45.7 (18 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)
Soyabean 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)
Peanuts 152.4 (60 in) 32.2 (90 o
F)
Grain Sorghum 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o
F)

Heated air drying requires higher rates of airflow, because water is evaporated
faster and more air is needed to carry it away. The higher air flow rate also ensures
more uniform drying of the top and bottom layers of the seed, completing the drying
much faster at the recommended temperatures.
The general procedure for bin drying of seeds with heated air consists of
charging seed into the bin to the recommended depth. The drier is operated at the
recommended temperature of the seed using either manual or thermostatic controls
to set the desired temperature. After drying is completed, blowing of the air
through the seed is continued for sometime without heat to bring the seed to an
ambient temperature.
Some variations of batch drying with heated air include wagon drying, bag
drying and box drying. In wagon drying, the seed is loaded directly onto a wagon
especially constructed for drying. The wagon is then drawn to the drier unit and
connected with a canvas distribution duct. Forcing the air up through the perforations
in the wagon floor dries the seed. After drying, the wagon is disconnected from the
canvas duct and the seed is cooled with a fan towed to the storage bins. Wagon
drying provides continuous drying, vwrsatality, easy cleaning and low initial cost.
Bag drying is another suitable variation to handle several varieties of smaller
quantities of seed simultaneously. Seed received in jute bags is exposed to airflow
with minimum static pressure, because the drying bed is only one sack deep.
Typical design criteria provide 25 - 40m3 of air/min/m3 seed at a static pressure of
3cm less. The construction is simple and inexpensive.
A box drier is modified bag drier well adopted to dry smaller quantities of basic
or foundation seed. With box driers, it is possible to maintain the identity of small
seed lots despite handling. The boxes can be constructed of locally available
materials, which are fitted with perforated metal or woven wire bottoms.

Tempering

Seed is usually dried in stages with heated air each stage consisting of a pass
through the drier. Between passes the seed is stored in bins for an equilibrium period
known as tempering period. This period of tempering shortens the total drying time.
During drying, surface moisture is removed and internal moisture moves towards the
surface are slower than evaporation, and a moisture gradient develops in the kernel.
The outside becomes drier than the inside and evaporation rate decreased. During
tempering moisture concentration equalizes in the kernel and then evaporation of
surface moisture is nearly as rapid as at the start of drying.
 SEED TREATMENT

Maintaining the quality of seed is dependent on many environmental

factors, some of which are moisture, temperature, humirlity, and storage
conditions. Even though these factors are properly accounted for, seed quality
may still be reduced by certain seedborne diseases or destroyed by insects and
other pests. Research has shown that treating seed with one or more pesticides
is the most economical and efficient way to protect seed from these pests and
improve seed quality. Since pesticides are poisonous, extra care and safety
precautions must be taken when applying them and in handling seed after it
has been treated.

Definition of treated seed

The term "treated" means "to give an application of a pesticide or
subject seed to a process designed to reduce, control or repel disease
organisms, insects, or other pests which attack the seed or seedlings.”

Types of Seed Treatment

A. Pre sowing seed treatments

It is the treatments given to the seeds before sowing to improve the

germination and vigour potential and as well as to maintain the health of the
seed.

Pre sowing seed treatments includes the following

I. Chemical treatments to improve germination and vigour potential.

II. Insecticidal and fungicidal treatment.

III. Special treatments

I. Chemical treatments to improve germination and vigour potential

Soaking / treating the seeds with nutrients vitamins and micronutrients

etc.

Paddy: Seeds can be soaked in 1 % KCl solution for 12 hours to improve the
germination and vigour potential.
Sorghum: Seeds could be soaked in NaCl2 (1 %) or KH2PO4 (1%) for 12 hours
for improving the germination and vigour potential.

Pulses : Seeds can be soaked in ZnSO4, MgSO4 and MnSO4 100 ppm solution
for 4 hours to improve the germination and vigour potential.

II. Insecticidal and Fungicidal treatments

Seed health: It is an important attribute of quality seed. Though a seed lot

that meets high standards of germination, vigour and purity if it is
contaminated with seed borne pathogens and insect pests, may be useless to
farmers because it may result in severe yield loss or even crop loss in an entire
area.

Benefits of the insecticidal and fungicidal treatments:

1. Prevents the spread of plant diseases

2. It protects the seed from seed rot and seedling blights.

3. It improves the seed germination

4. It provides protection from storage insects.

5. It controls the soil insects.

Seed may be affected by viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes and

insects. Seed pests and diseases of which the seed is a victim (e.g., grain
weevils, Tricoderma spp., and storage pathogens such as Aspergillus flavus)
should be distinguished from seed-borne diseases of which the seed is the
vehicle of pest and pathogen dissemination (e.g., bunt of cereals, Tilletia spp.)

Seed Treatment Fungicides

Fungicides are applied to seed prior to planting to provide effective

protection against many seed and soil-borne plant pathogens. Chemical
(fungicide) treatment guards against the various seed rots and seedling blights
that occur during storage or after planting. It is not usually a "cure- all" and
will not provide disease protection throughout the growing season after the
plants become self-sufficient. (An exception to this would be the control of
loose smut by seed disinfection).
Fungicidal seed treatment may be divided into three categories,
depending on the nature and purpose of the treatment. These categories are:
(1) seed disinfection, (2) seed disinfestation, and (3) seed protection. A
given fungicide may serve in one or more of these categories.
Seed disinfection - Disinfection is the elimination of a pathogen which
has penetrated into living cells of the seed, infected it and become established-
for example, loose smut of barley and wheat.
Seed disinfestations - Disinfestation is the control of spores and other
forms of pathogenic organisms found on the surface of the seed.
Seed protection - Seed protection is chemical treatment to protect the
seed and young seedling from pathogenic organisms in the soil.
Seed treatment materials are usually applied to seed in one of four
forms: dust; slurry (a mixture of wettable powder in water); liquids; and
planter-box formulations.
Based on composition, seed treatment fungicides may be organic or
inorganic, metallic or non-metallic, and, until recently, mercurial or non-
mercurial. Before the cancellation of the 'volatile mercurials, fungicides for
treating seed were generally classified as volatile and non-volatile. Vlith the
elimination of the volatile mercurials, most fungicides now approved for use
on seed are classified as non-volatile. When using this type material, complete
coverage of the seed is necessary to obtain effective control.
Some of the systemics, a fairly new class of pesticides, may now be used
as seed treatment materials. The desirability of having materials that would
move inside the seed or plant and control the pest has long been recognized.
Such materials are called "systemic." When used according to the
manufacturer's recommendation (see label), a systemic moves through the
host plant and controls or retards the growth of certain fungi and insects
without affecting the host's metabolic system.

Seed Treatment Insecticides

Insecticides are often applied to seed to control or reduce insectdamage
to seed during storage and, to a lesser degree, to prevent damage from such
insects as wireworms and seed corn maggots in the soil.
Combinations
Since some pesticides are selective in their control of pests, many times
two or more compounds are combined in the treater tank, or an extra tank
may be used, to give the spectrum of control needed.
The manufacturers of pesticides are now making combinations available
to seed processors, but should a processor blend two or more pesticides, the
compatibility of the materials must be determined, since somecombinations of
materials may seriously reduce seed germination. Also,when applying two or
more pesticides, even at different times, the sequence of application may be
very important. Whether a single pesticide or a combination is to be applied to
the seed, read the label and follow the manufacturer's directions carefully.

Formulation of fungicides /insecticides

 Fungicides / insecticides are available in the form of dusts, wettable
powders and liquids.

1. Dusts : It is usually applied @ 200-250 gms / quintal of seed. Main dis-

advantage is dusty condition will prevail during the seed treatment and
after handling.

2. Slurry : This type of fungicide is applied to the seed along with soap like
water suspension which can be mixed with seed by using special slurry
treater.

3. Liquids : The use of liquid solution is known as the "quick wet ' method.
Here a volatile fungicide is applied to the seed and it throughly mixed with
them.

e.g. Chemicals like panogen, mercuran, etc. can be applied by this

method.

Safety

There is a general tendency to use chemicals that are safe for user and
environment. Very toxic substances, such a organic mercurials (Ceresan and
others) and very persistant fungicides, such as Hexachlorobenzene ((HCB), are
being replaced by new chemicals, In the past, these chemicals have caused
severe cases of poisoning, some resulting in death. Most if not all occurred
because treated seed was used for human consumption or livestock feeding
instead of for planting. Even with the new, less toxic chemicals, the following
safety precautions must be taken.

- Treated seed must be clearly labelled and under no circumstances

be used for feed or food.

- Seed treatment should be carried out in a well-aerated area. Contact

with chemicals through breathing of dusts and skin contact must be
avoided. Protective clothing should be worn.

- As with all pesticides, empty containers should be properly disposed

of and never reused in a household or on the farm.
III. Special treatments

i) Seed hardening treatment

Seeds can be hardened for 2 purposes I) Drought tolerance ii) Cold

tolerance

The treatments are imposed to the seeds mainly to tolerate initial

drought and cold. Cold tolerance treatment is given to germinated seeds, such
treatments are given only to temperate crop and tree seeds.

The most important factors to be considered while seed hardening are

❖ Seed : solution ratio (1:1)

❖ The duration of soaking

❖ Method of drying.

The effectiveness of the treatment depends upon the conduct of seed

hardening process. The solution amount never be higher than the amount of
the seeds. All solution added should be imbibed by the seeds. There should
not be any leftover solution as it causes leaching effect. Once the seeds imbibe
water, the germination process takes place. At the end of soaking period the
seeds should be dried back to its original moisture content. These seeds when
sown the germination will be completed earlier whereas in non hardened seeds
the process germination takes a longer period.

Chemicals used : CaCl2, KCl, KH2PO4,

ii) Seed fortification

Main aim is to supply nutrients to seeds. The main objective is to achieve

the high vigour to overcome unfavourable soil reactions. eg.) seed fortification
with MnSO4 @ 0.5 to 1 %. will improve oxidation - reduction potential of seeds,
which ultimately leads to higher germination.

iii) Moist sand conditioning

 It is a need based treatment the concentration can be increased upto 2-
4 %. Amount of solution should be 1:1 ratio or slightly excess amount of water
can be used. Protinaceous seeds should not be soaked in water (e.g) soybean,
etc. for these seeds, mix the seeds with moist sand @ 5 to 10%MC. It
should be kept for specified period of time. The method is known as moist sand
hydration.

iv) Seed pelleting

Here the nutrients are coated on the seeds. This technique is very much
adopted in forest tree seeds.

Importance

❖ Normally in small seeds this technique is adopted .

❖ By pelleting we can increase the size of sees and we can make it free
flowing one.

❖ Through this we can able to reduce the seed rate.

❖ It is also important for aerial sowing (gum arabica) in tree seeds.

Materials used : Nutrients , adhesive, filler material.

Inert materials: Lime, CaCO3, Chalk powder.

Plant products : Neem, Notchi, Arappu, Arappu (Albizia amara) is found good
contains a susbstance saponin (growth promoter) which is similar to GA in
action.

v) Seed infusion

Infusion of nutrients and growth promoting substances with organic

solvents like acetone and dichlormethane.

The organic solvents, slowly increase the chemicals in to the seed. In

this method there is no need for drying the seed materials to bring back the
original moisture content of seed. The organic chemicals are evaporative in
nature, after infusion is over, just we have to keep the seeds as such for 5 to
10 minutes in dry condition the organic solvents will evaporate during this time
and we can perform sowing. Seed infusion can also be used forbreaking the
seed dormancy.

vi) Osmotic priming

It is a very expensive but it is a required process, particularly for large

seeded legumes like peas, beans etc., They have high protein content and
large embryo and are susceptible to soaking injury. High protein seeds are
hygroscrpic and hydrophilic.

Osmotic priming is nothing but making the seeds to imbibe water very
slowly. Osmotic solutions used are (PEG) (poly ethylene glyster). Maintol is
highly toxic. PEG is inert and will increase very slowly the water in to seeds.
By preconditioning through osmotic priming, the seeds are invigouratedwhich
results in uniform, early and higher field emergence and higher seedling
vigour.

vii) Fluid drilling

This is a technology evolved for mechanical sowing of seeds particularly

the germinated seeds. The seeds are coated with a jelly material
called guar gel. It is to have a buffer action to avoid damage of the germinated
seeds during sowing.

viii) Separation of viable seeds

It is a new concept particularly for groundnut. This is a good method to

get desired seed germination and plant population. Incase of groundnut the
actual population requirement is 30 plants / m2. Actual seed multiplication rate
in groundnut is 1:8 . There are about 30-40% of dead seeds and of such dead
seeds are eliminated, and then we will be able to maintain the required plant
population in the field. This is the base for evolving this technology.

This can be done in 2 ways

1. Manual separation based on radicle emergence (groundnut)

2. IDS (Incubation - Drying and Separation) method.

B. Pre storage treatments

Prestorage treatments of harvest-fresh seed are primarily aimed

towards protection against deteriorate senescence during storage. Seed
storage which is again threatened by insect and pathogen attack, can also be
taken care of by prescribed prestorage seed treatments.
i. Halogenation
ii. Antioxidant treatment
iii.Seed sanitation

C. Mid storage treatments

Seeds in storage accumulate damage to cell membranes during

senescence. Mid storage seed treatments are capable of reducing the age
induced damages and restoring the seed vigour to a certain extent besides,
the seed viability and productivity of stored seeds are also improved.
i) Hydration – Dehydration

It is the process of soaking the low and medium vigour seeds in water
with or without added chemicals usually for short durations to raise the seed
moisture content to 25 – 30% and drying back the seeds to safe limits for
dry storage.

The hydration – dehydration treatments

1. Should be given only to stored seeds.

2. Is effective in low and medium vigour non- leguminous seeds,

3. The moisture equilibration and moist sand conditioning treatments in which

moisture is taken up by the seed in a slow and progressive manner, are
recommended for relatively high- vigour seeds and seeds of pulses and
leguminous vegetable crops

6. Direct soaking of leguminous seeds should be avoided.

7. Would not make a seed germinable, which has already lost viability.

Types of H-D treatments

The wet treatments include soaking-drying, dipping-drying, spraying-

drying, stepwise hydration-drying, moisture equilibration-drying, moisture
equilibration soaking-drying, moist and conditioning-drying, etc. The choice
of the treatment depends upon the characteristics of seed and initial vigour
status of the seeds.

Soaking – Drying (S-D)

Stored seed is soaked in water or solution of chemicals sufficient to

cover it and kept at room temperature for 2-6 hour depending on thematerial
with occasional stirring. The soaked seed is taken out and after surface drying
in the shade for some time, dried back to the original moisturecontent Dilute
solution of chemicals such as sodium or potassium phosphate (di and
mono basic), sodium chloride, p-hydroxy
benzoic acid, p-amino benzoic acid, oxalic acid, potassium lodide,
etc can also be used at 10-4 to 10-3 M concentrations. Fungicidal and insecticidal
formulations can also be incorporated in the soak water.

Dipping – Drying (D-D)

Seeds are dipped in water or solutions of the aforesaid chemicals for

only 2-5 minutes and the wet seed is taken out immediately and keptcovered
for 2 – 6 hours depending on the material, for absorption of surface water
followed by drying back in S-D. This treatment is effective in most highand
high-medium vigour seeds of rice, wheat, jute, summer and winter vegetables

Spraying – Drying

Seeds are spread in a thin layer and then an amount of water

(approximately 1/5 to ¼ of the seed weight) is sprayed on to it in two equal
installments (turning over the seed layer after the first spray) and then kept
covered by a polythene sheet for 2-4 hours before drying back. Thistreatment
is similar to D-D in its efficacy and suitability.

Moisture equilibration – drying (ME – D)

Here, the seeds are placed in thin layers on trays kept on a raised
platform in a closed moisture saturated chamber lined internally with moist
blotters giving nearly 100% RH at room temperature. After 24-48 hours,
depending on the material and ambient temperature, the seed is dried back
in the usual way. For soaking injury prone seeds this treatment, which gives
a slow and progressive rise in moisture content, is very effective. ME-D,
however, difficult to practice on a large scale and is not advocated for low
vigour non leguminous seeds because of possible aging effect of the treatment
especially when given for prolonged periods.

Moist sand conditioning – drying (MSC-D)

 This treatment is similar to the moisture equilibration treatment but
easier to practice. For slow and progressive moisture uptake, the seed is
thoroughly mixed with pre-moistened sand, using 3 times the amount of air
dry sand than seed. Moisture content of sand is adjusted to 5-10 by adding
the requisite amount of water or solution of chemicals to previously washed
and dried fine grain building grade sand. The addition of water should be so
adjusted as to get the required hydration effect without initiating the
germination process. After mixing the dry seed with the premoistened sand,
the mixture is kept at room temperature for 16 – 36 hours depending on the
material and sand moisture content. The seed absorbs moisture from sand and
after incubation the hydrated seed is separated from sand by sieving anddried
back to the original weight.

Mode of Action The main purpose of hydration is to raise the seed

moisture content to 25 –30% (wet weight basis) before drying back to safe
limits for dry storage. The hydration - dehydration treatment may improve the
vigour by controlling free radical reactions and consequent peroxidative
damage to lipoprotein cell membranes.

SEED TREATING EQUIPMENT

Commercial seed treaters are designed to apply accurately measured
quantities of pesticides to a given weight of seed. Basically, there are three
types of commercial seed treaters on the market: dust treaters, slurrytreaters,
and direct treaters-the Panogen and Mist-O-Matic treaters are examples of
direct treaters.

1. Dust Treater (Gustafson XL Dry Powder Seed Treater)

Controlling the Flow of Seed:
The amount of seed which flows into the weigh pan (which is just
beneath the feed hopper on top of the treater) is controlled by opening or
closing the gates of the feed hopper by means of the hand wheel on the side
of the hopper. The scale on the hopper shows how far the gates are open (in
inches). Gates should be open to whatever number of inches it takes to keep
the weigh pan filled to the required number of pounds per dump as it tilts in
either direction. The number of pounds per
dump is adjusted by correctly setting the counterweight up or down on the
counterweight arm.
Powder Application:
To be sure that the correct amount of powder is being applied to the
seed flow, a preliminary test must be made in which a given number of
pounds of seed (such as 100 lbs) is run through the feeder.

During this run, the measuring cup provided with the feeder should be
used to catch the powder as it comes off the vibrator. After the given amount
of seed has run through, the powder should be weighed in order to determine
how much is being applied to that amount of seed. The vibrator speed can then
be adjusted accordingly. Then a second or more tests should be run until
proper setting of the vibrator speed is determined for correct coverage.

Approximate Setting

Powder Scale Oz. Produced/100

No. Dumps Syntron Setting
Opening lbs.

25 1/2
60 2
25 3/4
60 5
25 3/4
70 6
25 3/4
80 7
25 1
60 10
Number 4 on counterweight arm gives five pounds per dump.

2. Slurry Seed Treater

 The slurry treatment principle involves suspension of wettable powder
treatment material in water. The treatment material applied as a slurry is
accurately metered through a simple mechanism composed of a slurry cup and
seed dump pan. The cup introduces a given amount of slurry with each dump
of seed into a mixing chamber where they are blended.

While operation of the slurry treater is relatively simple, the various

operation procedures must be thoroughly understood.

1. The metering principle is the same in direct, ready-mix or fully

automatic treaters-i.e., the introduction of a fixed amount of slurry to
a given weight of seed.

2. To obtain a given dump weight, slurry treaters are equipped with a seed
gate that controls seed flow to the dump pan. With the proper seed gate
setting, a constant dump weight for a given can be obtained.

3. The amount of treatment material applied is adjusted by the slurry

concentration and the size of the slurry cup or bucket. As the dump pan
fills, a point is reached where it over-balances the counter weight and
dumps into the mixing chamber. This brings the alternate weighing pan
in position to receive the inflow of seed and activates a mechanism to
add a cup of slurry to the mixing chamber. Thus, one cup of slurry is
added with each dump of seed.
 4. The mixing chamber is fitted with an auger type agitator that mixes and
moves seed to the bagging end of the chamber. The speed of the auger
is important, because at slow speeds more uniform distribution is
obtained.

Slurry tanks have 15 to 35 gallon capacities, depending upon the size of the
treater. They are equipped with agitators that mix the slurry in the tank and
keep it suspended during operation. It is important that the powder be
thoroughly suspended in water before treating. If the treater has been idle
for any period of time, sediment in the bottom of the slurry cups must be
cleaned out.

The proper size slurry cup must be used. Most machines now have
cups with ports and rubber plugs for 15 cc, 23 cc, and 46 cc quantities. Some
users prefer to mix the slurry in an auxiliary tank and then transfer to the
slurry chamber as needed.
DIRECT TREATERS
Direct treaters are the most recent development and include the
Panogen and Mist-O-Matic treaters. These two were initially designed to
apply undiluted liquid treatment. Instead of applying 23 cc of material per 10
pounds of wheat, as in slurry treaters, they apply 14 to 21 cc (1/2 to 3/4
ounces) per bushel of "wheat. This small quantity of material is suitable only
with liquid materials which are somewhat volatile and do not require complete,
uniform coverage for effective action.
Later modifications for direct treaters include dual tanks that permit
simultaneous addition of a fungicide and an insecticide, and adaptations for
the application of slurries. The metering device used in both types of direct
treater is similar to that of the slurry treater, since it is attained through
synchronization of a treatment cup and seed dump. Otherwise, the two direct
treaters differ decidedly from the slurry treater and from each other. Both of
these direct treaters have an adjustable dump pan counter weight to adjust
the weight of the seed dump. This is not practical with slurry treaters.

3. Panogen Seed treater

The operation of the Panogen treater is relatively simple. A small
treatment cup, operating from a rocker arm directly off the seed dump pan
and out of a small reservoir, meters one cup of treatment with each dump of
the seed pan. Fungicide flows through a tube to the head of the revolving drum
seed mixing chamber. It flows in with seed from the dumping pan and is
distributed over the seed by
the rubbing action of the seed passing through the revolving drum.
The desired treating rate is obtained by the size of the treatment cup
and by adjusting the seed dump weight. Treatment cup sizes are designated
by treating rate in ounces and not by actual size-e.g., the 3/4 ounce cup
applies 3/4 ounce (22.5 cc) of treatment per bushel with six dumps per bushel.
The actual size of this cup is approximately 3.75cc.
4. Mist-O-Matic Seed Treater:
The "mist-o-matic" treater applies treatment as a mist directly to the seed.
The metering operation of the treatment cups and seed dump is similar to that
of the "Panogen" treater. Cup sizes are designated by the number of cc's they
actually deliver-e.g., 2 ½ , 5, 10, 20 and 40. The treater is equipped with a
large treatment tank, a pump and a return that maintains the level in the small
reservoir from which the treatment cups are fed.

After metering, the treatment material flows to a rapidly revolving,

fluted disc mounted under a seed-spreading cone. The disc breaks droplets of
the treatment solution into a fine mist and sprays it outward to coat seed falling
over the cone through the treating chamber. Just below the seeddump
are two adjustable retarders designed to give a continuous flow ofseed over
the cone between seed dumps. This is important since there is a continuous
misting of material from the revolving disc. The desired treating rate is
obtained through selection of treatment cup size and proper adjustment of the
seed dump weight.
 SEED STORAGE

Maintenance of seed vigour and viability in terms of germination from

harvest until planting is of the utmost importance in any seed production
programme. Care should be taken at every stage of processing and distribution
to maintain the viability and vigour. The harvested seeds of most of the
orthodox crop seeds are usually dried and stored for atleast one season until
the commencement of the next growing season, except those of the
recalcitrant seeds which require high moisture content for safe storage (once
dried the viability will be lost. E.g. – Jack, Citrus, Coffee, Cocoa, Polyalthea,
etc.,). In such recalcitrant seeds senescence starts in the motherplant itself.
The dry weather alters moisture content of the seed, thereby reducing the
viability. Some seeds require an after ripening process as in Pinus and
Fraxinus. In most of the Agricultural crops ageing starts at physiological
maturity, which is irreversible. Hence seeds become practically worthless if
they fail to give adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigorous
plants. Good storage is therefore a basic requirement in seed production.

Purpose of seed storage

Seeds have to be stored, of course, because there is usually a period of

time between harvest and planting. During this period, the seed have to be
kept somewhere. While the time interval between harvest and planting is the
basic reason for storing seed, there are other considerations, especially in the
case of extended storage of seed.

The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical

and physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time
they are planted. It is important to get adequate plant stands in addition to
healthy and vigorous plants.

Seed suppliers are not always able to market all the seed they produce
during the following planting season. In many cases, the unsold seed are
“carried over” in storage for marketing during the second planting season
after harvest. Problems arise in connection with carryover storage of seed
because some kinds, varieties and lots of seed do not carryover very well.

Seeds are also deliberately stored for extended periods so as to

eliminate the need to produce the seed every season. Foundation seed units
and others have found this to be an economical, efficient procedure for seeds
of varieties for which there is limited demand. Some kinds of seeds are stored
for extended periods to improve the percentage and rapidity of germination by
providing enough time for a “natural” release from dormancy.

Regardless of the specific reasons for storage of seed, the purpose

remains the same maintenance of a satisfactory capacity for germination and
emergence. The facilities and procedures used in storage, therefore, have to
be directed towards the accomplishment of this purpose.

STAGES/SEGMENTS OF SEED STORAGE

In the broadest sense the storage period for seed begins with
attainment of physiological maturity and ends with resumption of active growth
of the embryonic axis, i.e., germination.

The entire storage periods can be divided into:

Post maturation/ Period from physiological maturity to harvest

1
Pre harvest segment (seed in field).

Period from harvest to packaging (bulk seed

2 Bulk seed segment
in aeration drying bins, surge bins, etc.).

Period from packaging to distribution (seed

3 Packaged seed segment
in Packages in warehouse).

Period during distributing and

Distribution /Marketing
4 marketing (packaged seed in transit and / or
Segment
retailer’s storehouse).

Period from purchase to planting of seed

5 On-farm segment
(seed in on-farm storage).
 Seeds are considered to be physiologically and morphologically mature
when they reach maximum dry weight. At this stage dry-down or dehydration
of the seed is well underway. Dry-down continues after physiological maturity
until moisture content of the seed and fruit decreases to a level which permits
effective and efficient harvest and threshing. This stage can be termed as
harvest maturity. There is usually an interval of time between physiological
maturity and harvestable maturity, and this interval represents the first
segment of the storage period. Any delay in harvesting the seed after they
reach harvest maturity prolongs the first segment of the storage period – often
to the detriment of seed quality.

The second segment of the storage period extends from harvest to the
beginning of conditioning. Seed in the combine, grain wagon, and bulk storage
or drying bins are in storage and their quality is affected by the samefactors
that affect the quality of seed during the packaged seed segment of the storage
period. The third segment of the storage period beginswith the onset of
conditioning and ends with packaging. The fourth segment of the storage
period is the packaged seed phase which has already been mentioned. The
packaged seed segment is followed by storage during distribution and
marketing, and finally by storage on the farm before and during planting.

The seed quality can be considerably be affected at any of the stages

or segments mentioned above unless sound principles involved in seedstorage
are practiced and the seeds are properly handled.

Types of storage

The types of storage needed can be related to the time of storage

expected. Broadly this can be classified into 4 types.

a) Storage of commercial truthfully labelled and certified seed.

b) Storage of carry over seeds.

c) Storage of foundation seed stocks and enforcement seed samples.

d) Storage of germplasm seeds.

a) Storage of commercial seeds

This storage of commercial seed requires the largest storage needfrom

harvest until planting. The storage period ranges from 8-9 months. Seed must
be dried to 14 per cent moisture content for starchy seed and 11 percent for
oilseeds.

b) Carryover seeds

About 20-25 per cent of stored seed may have to be carried over
through one season to the second planting time. The storage period may range
1-1½ year. Storage of seeds in metal bins with tight fitting lids or in amoisture
proof bag will solve the problems of moisture penetration, provided the seeds
are already dry enough for sealed storage.

c) Foundation stock and enforcement seed sample

It is desirable to store foundation and enforcement seeds for several

years since genetic drift are minimized by reproducing foundation or stock
seeds. Since the quantity of seeds involved is not large, the storage room is
only a small part of the total storage area and in fact, is often a small room
within a large warehouse. Relative humidity and temperature combination has
to be provided for maintaining the viability. A combination of 25 percent
RH at 30oC temperature or less or a RH of about 45 per cent at 20oC or less
will be ideal. The required RH can be achieved by making the room moisture
proof and by using a dehumidifier.

d) Germplasm seed storage

Germplasm seeds are required to be kept for many years, perhaps very
long periods. Basic requirements for such long term storage are the coldest
temperature economically possible and seed moisture is inequilibrium with
20-25 per cent RH. Germplasm storage built up so far have rooms which can
be maintained at 5oC to 10oC and 30 per cent RH. In addition, the stored
samples are dried to perfect moisture level.
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE

a. Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool

b. Effective storage pest control

c. Proper sanitation in seed stores

d. Before placing seeds into storage they should be dried to safe moisture
limits.

e. Storing of high quality seed only i.e., well cleaned treated as well as high
germination and vigour.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEED LONGEVITY IN STORAGE

1. Kind (or) variety of seed

2. Initial seed quality

3. Moisture content

4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage

5. Provenance

6. The activity of organisms associated with seeds in storage.

1. Kind or variety of seed

Seed storability is considerably influenced by the kind or variety of

seeds. Some seeds are short lived. E.g.: Onion, Soybean and Groundnut. As
a general rule starchy seeds can be stored considerably for a longer period
compared to proteinaceous or oily seeds because of their hygroscopic nature.

2. Initial seed quality

Seed lots having plumpy, vigorous undamaged seeds store longer than
that of deteriorated. Even seed lots having good germination at the beginning
of storage period, may deteriorate at a faster rate depending uponthe severity
of weathering damage, mechanical injury or otherwise in the field. The low
quality seeds should invariably be rejected. Even at best storage conditions,
the initial quality of the seed cannot be improved (except for the dormant seed)
but can only be maintained.

3. Moisture content

The most important factor influencing seed viability during storage is

the moisture content and the rate of deterioration increases, as the seed
moisture content increases. The drier the seed the higher will be the storage
life.

Seed moisture content (%) Storage life

11-13 ½ year

10-12 1 year

9-11 2 years

8-10 4 years

It is well known that higher moisture content enhances the biological

activity in the seeds and causes excessive heating, besides promoting mould
and insect activities. The relationship of moisture content of seeds during post
harvest stages furnished below would clearly indicate the role of moisture in
the life of seeds in storage.
Role and importance of moisture content in the life of seeds

Moisture content of developing seed, seeds not

35-80%
mature enough for harvest

Seeds physiologically mature; respiratory rate

high; seed susceptible to field deterioration;
18-40% heating occurs if seed bulked without adequate
ventilation; molds and insects very active; seed
susceptible to mechanical damage in harvesting
and handling.

Seeds store reasonably well for 6 to 18 months in

13-18% open storage in temperate climates; insects can still
be a problemn in susceptible seeds; seed
susceptible to mechanical damage.

Respiratory rate still high; can get heating at

10-13% highest levels; molds and insects can be damaging;
seed resistant to mechanical damage.

Seed sufficiently dry, can be stored for 1 to 3

years open storage in temperate climates; very
8-10% little insect activity; seed very susceptible to
mechanical damage.

4-8% Safe moisture content for sealed storage.

Seeds germinate when they imbibe water to these

0-4%
levels.

Extreme desiccation can be damaging to seed;

33-60% hard seededness develops in some kinds of seed.

The importance of seed moisture content in extending the shelf life of

seeds under ideal storage conditions can be well known and understood from
the Harrington’s thumb rule, that one per cent decrease in seed moisture
content nearly doubles the storage potential of the seed. Again this rule is
applicable only at a moisture range of 5-14 per cent because, moisture content
below 5 per cent the physio chemical reaction may take place and at above 14
per cent fungi and insects become active. Another rule given by Harrington
states that for every 5oC decrease in storage temperature, the seed life will be
doubled. Again this can hold good only in the temperature range of 0-50oC.
There are exceptions in this rule in a few crops like chillies, brinjal and bhendi.
The safe moisture content again depends upon the period of storage, storage
structures, kind and variety of seed and thepackaging materials used. For
cereals under open storage, seed drying upto
10 per cent moisture content appears quite satisfactory. The storage in sealed
containers during upto 4-8% moisture content depending upon the particular
kind of seed may be necessary.

Use of desiccants

Desiccant like silicagel can maintain the moisture content inequilibrium

with the Relative Humidity of 45%. It is kept @ 1kg/10 kg of seeds. When the
silicagel turns to pink colour it should be dried at 1750 in oven and then again
placed in the container.

4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage

Seeds are hygroscopic. They attain rather specific and characteristic

moisture content when subjected to given level of atmospheric humidity at a
particular temperature (equilibrium moisture content). The equilibrium
moisture content for a particular kind of seed at a given relative humidity tends
to increase as temperature decreases and the deterioration starts.

Equilibrium moisture content varies among seed kinds. In general, the

equilibrium moisture content of “oily” seed is lower than that of “starchy” seed
at the same relative humidity and temperature. This phenomenon can be
accounted for by the fact that fats and oils do not mix with water. Thus, in a
seed with 50% oil content, the moisture has to be concentrated in half the
seed, while in a seed containing 10% oil, the moisture is distributed throughout
90% of the seed.
 Thus the maintenance of moisture content of seed during storage is a
function of RH and to a lesser extent of temperature. At equilibrium moisture
content there is no net gain or loss in seed moisture content when seed is
placed in a new environment with RH higher or lower than that of the seed,
the seed will gain or lose moisture till it reaches a new equilibrium moisture
content at this particular new environment.

Dry, cool conditions during storage

The general prescription for seed storage is a dry and cool environment.
At this point, the question naturally arises: How dry and how cool? It is difficult
to answer this question unless three factors are known:
(1) kind(s) of seed to be stored; (2) desired period of storage and (3)
physiological quality of the seed.

Seed of most grain crops, e.g., corn, wheat, sorghum, barley, rye, oats,
rice, will maintain germination for the 8-9 months period from harvest to
planting at moisture content of 12-13% and normal warehouse temperature
except possibly in Southern coastal areas. For maintenance of vigour as well
as germination, moisture content should not exceed 12% (relative humidity
below 60%) and temperature in the warehouse should not exceed 650 F. In
the case of carry-over seed, which means a storage period of 20-21 months,
the moisture content of seed of grain crops should be less than 11% and
temperature should not exceed 650 F. Since the period of carry-over storage
encompasses atleast one summer period, temperatures and humidity control
during the period is most important.

Cotton seed stores about as well as seed of grain crops, and the
conditions mentioned above are applicable.

Soybeans and peanut seed are poor storers. For one year’s storage
(actually 8-9 months), moisture content should be 11 to 12% and the
warehouse temperature should not exceed 650F. Shelled peanuts may have
to be stored in a cold room. Carry-over storage should not be attempted unless
conditioned storage facilities are available: 650F and 50% relative humidity or
better.
 Seed of most forage grass and legume crops will store well for one
year at moisture content of 10-11% at normal warehouse temperatures. When
“carried-over”, moisture content should be about 10% and temperature
should not exceed 65%.

Vegetable seed vary considerably among kinds in their storage

requirements. Generally, however, most kinds will store well for one year at
a moisture content of 9-11% and a temperature that does not exceed 650F.

When a storage period longer than 19-21 months is required,

conditioned storage is essential for all kinds of seed. Most kinds of seed will
maintain quality for 2-3 years when stored at 600F and 50-55% relative
humidity or better. For storage longer than 3 years, conditions should be 500F
and 50% relative humidity or better.

5. Provenance

The seeds harvested in different climates (or) at different times show

differences in viability. Because they would have been subjected to different
pre harvest conditions which will have caused different amounts of
deterioration by the time, the seeds are harvested.

6. The activity of organisms associated with seeds in storage

The bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds may do harm to
seeds in storage. The general limits of temperature and relative humidity for
the multiplication of the various biological agencies infesting stored seeds
are,

Temperature
Relative
Organism
Range for Optimum humidity
multiplication range

Insects 21-42oC 27-37oC 30-95%

Mites 8-31oC 19-31oC 60-100%
Fungi 8-80oC 20-40oC 60-100%
Microbes 8-80 C
o
26-28 C
o
91-100%
 It is also interesting to note that the favourable limits of temperature
and RH for germination are 16-42oC and 95-100 per cent respectively.

Sanitation in storage

There are several other recognized procedures for good seed storage
that most seeds men already know. Seeds should be stored in a seed
warehouse, not a fertilizer, chemicals, herbicide, or feed warehouse. Good
sanitation should be a continuous practice. It will minimize storage insect
infestations. If storage insects are a problem, the judicious use of insecticides
and fumigants, combined with sanitation, will alleviate the problem. The best
procedure is not to place insect infested lots in storage with other lots unless
all the insects have been killed by fumigation or insecticide treatment.

In warehouse with concrete floors, seed bags should be stacked on

wooden pallets to keep them from contact with the floor as considerable
moisture can be transmitted through concrete floors. Seed warehouses should
also be adequately ventilated (unless they are conditioned) and protected
against rodents.

Storage Conditions

Since seed moisture content and ambient relative humidity are in

equilibrium during storage, maintenance of a “safe” moisture content requires
an average level of relative humidity in the storage environment no higher
than that in equilibrium with the “safe” or desired moisture content. This
favorable situation can be achieved in only three ways: (1) location of the
storage facility in a region where relative humidity does not rise – on the
average – above the critical level; (2) maintenance of the relative humidity at
the desired level by packaging seed in moisture vapor proof containers; or
(3) dehumidification of the storage room atmosphere to the desired level. The
desired level of relative humidity for successful storage of seed depends, of
course on the kind of seed, the duration of the storage period, and the
temperature.
SEED PACKAGING IN RELATION TO SEED STORAGE

In reality the seed package is a small storage container. The kind of

container needed is affected by several factors including :

a) The quantity of seed desired in each package

b) The protection desired

c) The cost of the package

d) The value of the seed

e) The storage conditions into which the container is to be placed and

f) The facilities for drying the seeds

Depending upon the cost availability and the period of storage, the
packaging materials are to be selected. Normally cereal seeds are being packed
in cotton, jute and paper bags. Moisture vapour penetrates in these containers
and they offer no protection against high relative humidity. In high humidity
locations with inadequate seed storage facilities, consideration should be given
to methods of packaging which can protect the seed from moisture vapour.
Such moisture vapour proof containers include paperaluminium foil pouches,
polyethylene bags of over 700 gauge thickness, sealed tins and gasketted rigid
plastic containers. The costs of these are high, for the package of cereal seeds.
Polyethylene bags have been regardedas the most attractive, because of their
relatively low cost, compared toother kinds of sealed containers. Rigid plastic
containers and sealed tins offer some possibility for hybrid seeds of cotton and
vegetables, if thequantity needed is not great.

Classification of packing materials or containers

1. Moisture and vapour pervious containers

These containers allow entry of water in the from of vapour and liquid.
These are suited for short term storage. The seeds in these containers will
attain seed equilibrium moisture with the surrounding atmosphere (eg) cloth
bags, gunny bags, paper bags etc.
2. Moisture impervious but vapour pervious containers

These allow entry of water in the form of vapour and not in liquid. The
seeds in the containers can’t be carried over for long period in hot humid
conditions (.g.) polythene bags of <300 gauge thickness and urea bags.
3. Moisture and vapour proof containers

These containers will not allow entry of moisture in the form of liquid
or vapour. These are used for long term storage even in hot humid conditions
if the seeds are sealed at optimum m.c. eg. Polythylene bags of >700 gauge
thickness, aluminium foil pouches, rigid plastics etc.

Certified seeds of cereals, pulses and oil seeds are normally packed
either in gunny bags or cloth bags. However, paper bag, aluminium foil
pouches and polyethylene bags are used for packing flower and vegetable
seeds.

Seed storage in relation to seed deterioration

The Purpose of seed storage has been previously stated, viz., to

preserve or maintain the physiological quality of seed for the period desired
through minimization of the rate of deterioration. Since seed storage is
basically concerned with “control” of deteriorative processes, some knowledge
of these processes is essential for successful seed storage operations.

Deteriorative changes in seed and their consequences

In our consideration of some of the characteristics of deterioration in

seed, another might have been added that deterioration is characterized by
change. Indeed, in our context, deterioration and change – detrimental change
– are almost synonymous. For deterioration is identifiable only in
terms of observable or measurable changes in the response reactions of the
seed. Conversely, detrimental changes, e.g., loss of germination or vigour, are
said to be the result of deterioration.

In the sequence of deteriorative changes postulated in figure 1, it can

be readily seen that during deterioration, the “performance potential” of seed
becomes progressively impaired (reduced) until they lose their capacity to
germinate, at which time “performance potential” is zero. Since loss of the
capacity to germinate is the last practically significant consequence of
deterioration, the design and evaluation of storage conditions only in terms
of “maintenance of germination” is not sufficient. The “lesser consequences”of
deterioration must also be considered because collectively they determine the
“vigour” level of the seed. And, the vigour of seed determines how well they
germinate, emerge, grow, and develop in the farmer’s field.

Longevity of seed is a characteristic of the species or variety

Some kinds of seed are inherently long-lived, others are short-lived,

while others have an “intermediate” life span. Differences in storability extend
even down to the variety level. It has been known, for example, the certain
inbred lines of corn are “poor storers” and that this characteristic is inherited.

Inherent differences in seed longevity are facts, the seeds man must
accept and contend with as best he can. Among the vegetables, onion seed
are notoriously short-lived, radish seed are intermediate in longevity, and
watermelon seed are relatively long-lived. Soybean and peanut seed do not
store well as compared to seed of wheat, corn, cotton, sorghum and rice. In
some cases, seed kinds which have very similar chemical and physical
properties differ substantially in longevity. Tall fescue and annual ryegrass
seed are similar in structure, chemical composition, and yet, ryegrass seed
store better than tall fescue seed.
Possible Sequence of changes in seed during deterioration

Seed selection for extended storability

➢ Store well mature seeds.
➢ Store normal coloured seeds
➢ Seeds should be free from mechanical injury
➢ Seeds should not have met with adverse conditions during maturation
➢ Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content.
➢ Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage.
➢ Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.
High quality seed store better than low quality seed

The storage potential of seed is greatly affected by their quality at the

time they enter storage, or their pre-storage history. The pre storage history
of a seed lot encompasses all the “events” in the “life” of the seeds from the
time functional maturity is reached until they are placed in storage.

Seeds are highest in quality at the time functional maturity is attained.

Since most kinds of seed reach maturity at moisture contents too high for
mechanical harvest, the seeds are subjected to the field environment from
maturation to harvest. The post-maturation pre-harvest period normally
ranges from 1 to 4 weeks for the different kinds of seed. Adverse climatic
conditions can result in rapid and severe deterioration of the seed, and so on.
The degree of deterioration that occurs in seed prior to harvest determines
their quality at harvest and conditions their performance in storage.

In like manner, mechanical, abuse to seed associated with harvesting,

handling and processing operations, and damage caused by inadequate or
improper aeration or drying can have both immediate and residual effects, i.e.,
performance of the seed might be affected at the time of injury or not until
some later time during storage.

In characterizing seed deterioration, we pointed out that the rate of

deterioration of seed in storage varies among seed lots of the same kind and
among individual seeds within a lot. These variations in storability are, of
course, related to the pre-storage history of seed lots. Seed lots with a “good”
pre-storage history (minimal field deterioration, mechanical damage, etc.)
store well, while those with a “bad” pre-storage history store poorly.

STORAGE GODOWNS AND THEIR MAINTENANCE

Seeds undergo deterioration due to aging in storage. This is accelerated

by climatic factors and external biotic factors like insects and pathogen. In
addition to seed borne pathogen and storage insects, seeds are damaged by
birds and rats for their feed. Clean and hygienic godowns protect the seed from
external insects and preserve the seed. Hence care should be taken in
construction of godown. The points to be noted are as follows.

• Seed godown should be in a place where transport facilities are easily

available.

• Seed godowns should not be constructed in areas near seashore. Since

the high RH of atmospheric air accelerate the deterioration of seed.

• Seed godown should not be constructed in low lying water stagnating

areas.

• Seed godown should be constructed in places where atmospheric RH is

low, free circulation of air is possible, sunlight is adequate and elevated
in nature.

• The ventilators should be at bottom for free air circulation.

• Ground moisture should not reach the floor.

• Should be rat proof with wire mesh

• Should not be near industries as smoke is injurious

In maintenance of seed in godown following points are to be considered.

1. Godown should be clean and dry

2. Seed bags should not be stacked directly on floor. Should be stacked on
wooden ballets.

3. The height of the stack should not be more than 6-8 bags.

4. Different seed lot should be kept separately.

5. Godown should be sprayed periodically once in a week or fortnightly

with Malathion 50 EC (1 : 300 Chemical : Water) @ 5 lit. sq. m-1 or
0.25% Nuvan @ 1 lit. 100 m3-1.

6. Altering the chemicals at weekly intervals will give better control.

7. Seed lots can be fumigated with Aluminium phophide @ 3 gm/cu.m in

air tight condition for 7 days. This can be done as propylatic measure
and on minimum infestation by insects.

8. Seed lots should be periodically (once in month) tested for seedquality.

9. Based on seed testing result, seeds can be dried under sun for the
removal of moisture. It reduces insect and pathogen infestation.

10.New seed lots should be kept away from old seed lots to avoid
secondary infestation of insects.

11.Seeds should be treated with combination of fungicide and insecticide

(eg.) Thiram @ 2 g kg-1 + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1.

12.Frequent supervision of each and every lot is must.

13.Seed bag should be restacked once in 3 months for free aeration.

14.Instead of gunny bags low cost interwoven polythene bags should be
used to prolong the life of seed.

15.Pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, rejects should not be stored with

seed.

16.Each lot should be labeled accurately and registers for stocks should
be maintained.

17.Per acre or per hectare packing (small) is preferable for easy handling
and effective supervision.
STORAGE INSECT MANAGEMENT

Maintenance of store house hygiene

1. Cracks and crevices around corners have to be brushed to eliminate

hiding pests. All debris should be removed. Provision of wire meshes to
windows, ventilators, gutters, drains to prevent entry of rats, squirrels,
birds, etc.

2. Reduce the moisture content of seed to prevent insect build up (usually

below 10%). Previously used bags, bins, etc. should be dried in the sun
repeatedly.

3. Elimination of conditions which favour storage pests. Uniformly graded

seeds should be used, broken seeds should be removed before bagging
since they favour pest build up. Stitching of all torn bags, filling bags up to
the brim, no loose packing.

4. Surface treatment of storehouse before storage with malathion dust 4%

@ 25 g/sq m or malathion 50% EC spray @ 10 ml/lit of water and 3 lit of
solution per sq. metre.

5. Good dunnage by arranging wooden planks or bamboo poles or spreading

thick polythene sheets on the floor. Treatment of dunnage materials with
malathion as specified, arrange the bags in criscross pattern with a
maximum of 15 bags and provide adequate space between the roof and the
seed bags.

Prophylatic treatment of seeds

Application of malathion 4 per cent dust 25 g/sq metre or malathion

50 per cent EC 10 ml per litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution for 100
sq.m. The chemicals have to be sprayed on the walls and floors and the
treatment has to be repeated based on the extent of flying and crawling
insects.
Chemicals

Two chemicals are widely used : Phosphine and Methyl Bromide.

Others are dichlorvos, Carbondioxide, Ethylene oxide and HCN.

Phosphine : Available in a solid form (0.6 g pellets, 3 g tablets). The active

ingredient is Aluminium phosphide mixed with Ammonium carbonate and
Paraffin. After exposure to the atmosphere, the pellets decompose and release
the active substance, hydrogen phosphide (PH3), which has the samespecific
weight as air, and is thus evenly distributed in the fumigated material or
chamber. Phosphine is also able to penetrate bags, carton boxes and other
containers.

It must be borne in mind that fumigation particularly repeated

fumigation, may seriously reduce the vigour and viability. This is particularly
true for seeds with a higher moisture content of 14 per cent. Seeds with
moisture content above 14 per cent should be dried, before fumigation.

Samples of seeds have to be drawn at fortnight intervals and the

infestation can be classified as follows based on insects found per kg of sample.

When there is no pest Free

Upto 2 insects Mild

More than 2 insects Severe

The fumigant has to be chosen and the requirement worked out on the
following guidelines :

Aluminium phosphide: Three tablets of 3 g each per ton of seed for cover
fumigation (only selected blocks of bags)

Twenty one tablets of 3g each for 28 cubic metres, for shed fumigation
(entire godown). Period of fumigation - 5 days. The major advantages of
Phostoxin are that it lacks residues and does not affect flavor or germination
and is easy to handle.
Methyl bromide: Above 5.6oC, methyl bromide is in the gas phase and is
available in cylinders similar to those used for cooking gas. Since, it is odorless,
other gases such as chloropicrin are sometimes added to facilitate detection of
leaks. Because methyl bromide is 3.5 times heavier than air, care has to be
taken that it is properly distributed within the goods to be fumigated (fan can
be used). The recommended dosage is 20 g/m3 for 24- 48 hrs.

Special safety measures are required, since methyl bromide is absorbed

through the skin. It tends to accumulate in commodities which are important
whenever repeated fumigation is necessary.

Equipment

Gas-proof plastic sheets with at least 50 cm overlap firmly pressed to

the ground with sand, iron bars, or other weights are frequently used. Gas
escape results in reduced insecticidal effect and is a hazard to users. A cement
floor is necessary to prevent gas escape through soil. Care must be taken that
the fumigation area is properly aerated and fans sometimes help.

If a store’s door and windows can be hermetically sealed, fumigation

of the entire store is possible. Most stores, however, allow gas to escape
through other openings. Silos are usually good fumigation facilities. When large
quantities must be fumigated within a short time, a vaccum fumigation
chamber is appropriate. These chambers are available in sizes between 1 and
50 m3, and sometimes as a plant of upto 6 x 50 m3, equipped with common
fans, pumps and other equipment. The insecticides used aremethyl bromide
or ethylene oxide.

Safety

Face masks with a proper canister should be used, especially duringthe

aeration process. When handling Phostoxin, cotton gloves should be worn.
Gas concentration can be checked with a Halide gas detector for methyl
bromide and with a tube detector (Draeger) for Phostoxin. A warning
sign should be clearly visible to prevent people from inadvertently removing
plastic sheets or entering a building under fumigation.

Rodent Management in Store Houses

Provide of wire mesh to windows, ventilators, drains and leave no gaps

to doors. Use rodent baits with multi dose or anticoagulant rodenticides.
The bait may be prepared as follows:

Cereal flour 450 g

Any edible oil 10 g

Powdered jaggery 15 g

Anticoagulant or rodenticide such as coumarin 25 g

Replace the consumed bait daily. If needed the single dose or acute
poison bait may be prepared as follows :

Food material 97 g

Edible oil 1g

Zinc phosphide 2g

Before providing the poisoned zinc phosphide bait, the plain or non-
poisoned bait are to be provided for two or three days to make the rats accept
the bait.
 SEED MARKETING

A definition of seed marketing

Seed marketing should aim to satisfy the farmer's demand for reliable supply
of a range of improved seed varieties of assured quality at an acceptable price.

➢ To the retailer in the agricultural sector, for example, it is selling seed along
with other inputs to the farmer.
➢ To the farmer it is simply selling what he produces on his farm. However,
whatever the circumstances, a well-defined sequence of events has to take
place to promote the product and to put it in the right place, at the right time
and at the right price for a sale to be made.
➢ Too many people think of marketing solely in terms of the advertising and
selling of goods, whereas in reality marketing starts long before the goods
exist and continues long after they are sold. Therefore, for the marketing
process to be successful: the farmer consumer's needs must be satisfied; the
seed company's objectives must be realized.

MARKETING STRUCTURE

Seed distribution systems

Seed distribution can be carried out by government, public sector agencies, co-
operatives and the private sector or, as is often the case, by a combination of all of
these. Channels for seed marketing may be described as:

Direct
The seed producing organization supplies the farmer directly. Some features
of direct channel distribution are:

➢ the supplier has direct contact with the consumer

➢ a high level of service and customer support can be maintained
➢ direct control is maintained over the quality of the product
 ➢ the upkeep of such a system can be expensive, with high fixed costs if a
sales force is employed
➢ a responsive management structure and well-motivated staff are required
where there are many staff involved in a direct sales organization there can
be an inbuilt inertia to change so the system may lack flexibility.
➢ the revenue necessary to pay for the high fixed costs will only come from
having a wide product range and achieving good market shares or selling
high value products such as horticultural seeds.

Single level

The seed producing organization supplies the farmer through independent

retail outlets. The main features of this system are that:

➢ the seed supplier relies on the retailer for contact with the consumer
➢ retail networks require strong service and support from the supplier
➢ good administrative control must be provided by the sales management
➢ the supplier's distribution system must be well organized and responsive
➢ product quality at the retail level must be monitored for deterioration and
adulteration and a return system should be considered
➢ although the products may be well promoted, the supplier relies on the
retailer to make the final sale.

Multilevel

The seed producing organization supplies a national distributor, wholesalers

or regional distributors who, in turn, supply sub-distributors or the retail outlets.

This system is characterized by:

➢ the supplier having no direct contact with the consumer

➢ products being strongly promoted in order to create demand
➢ supplying seed to the distributors in sufficient time to achieve timely
availability at the retail level
 ➢ management ensuring that there is a good system of monitoring sales and
obtaining feedback from the consumer
➢ the distributor being interested only in the strongest selling lines.

If neither infrastructure nor the economy are well developed, national distributors
may simply not be available and the seed producer will have to supply seed to
regional wholesalers or distributors.

Sources of seed available to farmers

For farmers there are a number of sources available for the purchase of seed.
These are:

Direct sales

The seed producer supplies the farmer directly from central seed stores and
a network of his/her own supply points

Farmer producers

Farmers with seed production contracts are licensed to supply other farmers
within their zone of influence

Cooperatives
Cooperatives act as 'farmer producers' and/or as suppliers of inputs to
members

Farmer dealers

Farmers act as dealers, supplying their neighbours; this can evolve into a
highly developed system

Commission agents

These work directly with the producer or his/her intermediaries, passing on

orders from the farmers
Grain merchants

Traders involved in the seed and grain business who are also licensed seed
producers

Crop buyers

Collectors and crop or commodity traders who provide a point of contact with
farmers and can be used to market seed

Retail store dealers

Town and village dealers who retail a range of agricultural inputs, with the
larger operators possibly having sub-dealers

Industrial processors

Processors interested in specific crops including oilseed crushers and vegetable

canners, who may have an interest in supplying seed as part of a growing contract
or integrated production system

Cold store operators

Potato cold store operators trade potato seed since they deal directly with
the growers and have the appropriate storage

Consumer outlets

Garages, shops and supermarkets (are best suited to display small packets of
seed)

Mail order

Suitable for low volume, high value products such as vegetables and flowers.
 Although government extension outlets are not strictly retail outlets, seed is
sometimes supplied to the farmer through government sponsored agencies and
departments which administer crop or regional development and credit programmes.

ORGANIZATIONAL CHART

1. Product management

Concentrates on developing and implementing marketing policy for a

seed product or range of products

2. Advertising, promotion and public relations

Aims to create product awareness, influence farmers' buying decisions,

(PR) and build up a positive perception of the company

3. Sales order administration and dispatch

Involves receiving and processing orders, allocating stock and

dispatching orders, and maintaining stock records

4. Stock control and quality assurance

Involves managing the inventory for each class of seed, crop and
variety, to ensure maintenance of germination and vigour

5. Distribution and transport

Entails moving the seeds from the point of production to the point of
sale

6. Sales and invoicing

The process of making the actual sale and receiving payment for it, i.e.
the end result of the marketing activity
 7. Management information

Involves collating and interpreting sales information and other

information as a basis for monitoring operations and planning future
activities

8. Customer care

Involves after-sales service, dealing with complaints and maintaining

customer loyalty

THE PROMOTIONAL ACTIVITIES

Resources invested in variety development and seed production will bewasted

if farmers are not persuaded to use the improved varieties. All promotional activities
involve sending messages to the distributors and consumers in order to inform them
about a company's products and help them to make their decision to buy a particular
variety or brand of seed.

➢ Advertisements

Messages sent via the media to inform and influence the farmer

➢ Sales promotions

Specific techniques designed to increase sales of particular seeds

➢ Personal selling

The importance of salesmanship

➢ Publicity and public relations

Generalized communication which is designed to promote the company's

image rather than that of specific seeds
 ➢ Extension

Farmers in developing countries have certain characteristics:

➢ They have low purchasing power coupled with a low rate of return
from farming.
➢ They are generally conservative and therefore are slow to adopt new
products.
➢ They may not be well informed.
➢ They often lack mobility and the means to transport goods.

It should also be recognized that educational and literacy standards will not
always be high in rural communities. The use of visual material will help toovercome
some communication problems. In all forms of communication, companies should
always try to make the subject of seeds interesting and relevant to the consumer.

Advertising

The published print media

This includes newspapers, periodicals, magazines, trade and professional journals.

There may be both advantages and disadvantages when advertising in this manner.

Some advantages of the printed media are that:

➢ good coverage can be obtained and, by using the local press and specialist
papers, accurate targeting can also be achieved
➢ it is relatively cheap and immediate
➢ complex messages can be given in print; these can be read again and again
➢ reply and cut-out coupons with an exchange value can be used to encourage
farmers to request further information and buy the product.
 Some disadvantages of the printed media are:

➢ the text, and therefore the message, may not be well understood due to
language and literacy problems
➢ only limited space may be available
➢ printed text has limited impact and colour does not always reproduce well in
newspapers
➢ a daily paper has a limited life and the advertisements will have to compete
for attention with stories and other information.

As well as placing advertisements, press releases can be given to newspapers

or features written that carry the name of the company and itsproducts.

The broadcast media: This includes television, radio and cinema.

Television

Some advantages of television are:

➢ the impact will be greater as both sound, colour and movement can be used
to convey the message

➢ massive coverage can be achieved and some local targeting may be

possible.

Some disadvantages of television are:

➢ it can be very expensive and is only suitable for simple messages

➢ the exposure time is short and the advertisement may miss the target
audience
➢ TV reception may be poor and if local targeting is not possible the message
will not be relevant to many viewers
➢ there may not be any related interest programmes that will be viewed by the
target audience
 ➢ in many countries farmers cannot afford television, although televisions are
often available in clubs, bars and other public places.

Radio

Some advantages of radio are:

➢ good coverage is achieved; this is not confined to the home as people listen
to the radio everywhere, including when they are working on the farm
➢ it is relatively cheap to broadcast on radio compared to television and
advertisements are easier to prepare
➢ the incidence of local broadcasting, in local languages, is greater than with
television
➢ related interest programmes and farming information spots are usually more
frequent.

Some disadvantages of radio are:

➢ reception may be poor in certain areas

➢ people don't always listen closely and consequently may have poor recall of
the message.

Language problems can be overcome through local broadcasting and there is

always the possibility of involving local personalities to add interest and relevance
to the area. Radio is useful for making announcements, such as the availability of
seed in the area. Another form of broadcasting is the loudspeaker van which can be
used to tour villages or towns to make similar announcements, particularly on a
market day.

Cinema

In rural locations where cinema is the main entertainment a high proportion of

the audience will be involved in farming so this medium could be considered for
advertising. Advertising slides are not expensive to prepare and these can be shown
during the show.
The outdoor media

Outdoor media include posters, signs and advertising on transport, bus

shelters, walls and buildings. These forms of advertising can be used to increase the
visibility of the company and its products. Outdoor advertising may haveconsiderable
and lasting impact at a low cost if it is well situated and if there is not too much
competition for the available space. Exclusive arrangements can alwaysbe made
for the use of space.

In addition to commercial advertising, retailers should be supplied with signs and

crop boards. It is important that good sites are chosen which are highly visible and
strategically placed to ensure maximum exposure.

Packaging design

Packaging is a form of advertising. Clear printing, the use of colour, brand or

company logo and well reproduced photographs or images are all important
components of design.
 Lecture 14 VARIETAL IDENTIFICATION

1. Grow - Out Test

Objective

To determine the genetic purity status of a given seed lot of the notified cultivar
/ hybrid and the extent to which the sample in question conforms to the prescribed
standards.

Field of applicability

Grow-out Test is the official measure for controlling the genetic purity of the
seed lot. It serves as a pre-control as well as a ‘post-control’ test for avoiding genetic
contaminations. According to the official regulations in India, it is pre- requisite for
seed certification of hybrids of certain species such as cotton, castor, musk melon
and brinjal.

The test is required to be conducted for checking the sellers label with
respect to genetic purity status of the seed lot under the provisions of the seeds
Act 1966. In addition grow-out test can also be used as a measure to judge the
efficacy of the certification agency or the inspector.

Sampling
The samples for ‘Grow-out test shall be drawn simultaneously with thesamples
for other seed quality tests in accordance with the prescribed sampling procedures.
Size of submitted sample

The size of submitted samples shall vary according to the species as exemplified in
this Table.
Recommended size of submitted sample for Grow-out Test

for maize, cotton, groundnut, soyabean and

1,000 g species of other genera with seeds of similar
-
size;

For sorghum, wheat, paddy and species of

500 g - other genera with seeds of similar size;

Beta and species of other genera with seeds

250 g - of similar size;

For bajra, jute and species of all other

100 g - genera;

250 tubers / planting Seed potato, sweet potato and other

stakes / roots/ corms - vegetatively propagating crops.

Size of working sample

The working sample for grow out test shall be obtained through subsequent
mixing and dividing of the submitted sample in accordance with the prescribed
procedure for seed sampling.
The minimum population required for taking the observations shall be 400
plants; however, it will also depend on the maximum permissible off-type plants
prescribed for the species under consideration in the Indian Minimum seed
Certification standards
The number of seeds required for raising the crop to obtain the required
number of plants shall depend on the germination percentage of the seed sample and
hence seed rate should be adjusted accordingly.
Number of plants required per sample for grow out test

Maximum Minimum genetic Number of plants

permissible Purity (%) required per
off types (%) sample
0.10 99.9 4,000
0.20 99.8 2,000
0.30 99.7 1,350
0.50 99.5 800
1.00 and above 99.0 and below 400

Procedures

To achieve the accuracy and reproducibility of the grow out test results, the
procedures provided hereunder must be followed:

Location of the grow out test

The grow out test shall be conducted in specified areas recommended for the
cultivar / hybrid or in off-season nurseries.

Standard sample

The standard sample of a cultivar (control) is the official standard against

which all other samples of the seed of the cultivar will be judged.
The standard sample must not differ significantly in any character and be
obtained from the originating plant breeder / breeding institute and be stored under
controlled temperature and humidity conditions so as to use it each year to sow
control plots for cultivars under test. Further quantities of sample must be obtained
from the originating plant breeder as and when required. A comparison must be made
between the two lots of the standard sample before changing from one standard
sample to other.
Method of raising the crop

Standard and recommended agronomic / cultural practices such as field

preparation, size of the plot, row length, distance between the rows, distance
between the plants, irrigation and fertilization, etc., in respect of the specific crop
shall be followed both for the sample in question and its control (standard sample).
The germination percentage of the sample (s) in question and the standard
sample must be determined to adjust the seed rate. The sowing should be done by
dibbling or small plot drill. Seed drill must be carefully checked to ensure its
cleanliness. Subsequent thinnings is not recommended. The samples of the same
cultivars must be sown in succession and the standard samples are sown at suitable
intervals. (one standard sample for every ten sample to be tested).
The size of the plot, row length and spacing shall differ according to the crop.
Recommended specification for the above variables are provided in Table mentioned
below which can suitably be modified if considered essential.

Recommended row length, distances, spacing for some important crops

S. Plant to Space Space
Row
No. Crop plant between between
length
distance rows plots
(m)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. Wheat, barley oats 6 2 25 50
2. Pea, Cowpea 6 10 45 90
3. Chickpea, green gram black
6 10 30 60
gram
4. Maize 10 25 60 90
5. Hybrid cotton 5 10 45 45
6. Paddy:
a) Very early to medium 6 15 20 45
b) Late and very late 6 25 30 60
7. Pearl millet 6 10 60 90
8. Sorghum 6 10 45 60
 The field plots should be grown in two replicates to guard against failure in one
part of the field and to reduce environmental and soil fertility variations.

Methods for taking observations

Grow-out test plots must be examined throughout the growing season with
emphasis on the period from the flowering to ripening. All plants must be examined
keeping in view the distinguishing characters described for the cultivars both in the
test crop as well as the control. While taking the observation, theplants showing
deviations in characters against the control should be tagged and examined carefully
at a later stage to confirm whether they are off-types or not.The number of the
total plants and the off-type plants found should be recorded.

Calculation and interpretation of the results

Percentage of other cultivars, species or aberrants found must be calculated

upto first decimal place. While interpreting the results, tolerances should be applied
by using the reject number for prescribed standards with reference to sample size
as provided in Table.

Reject number for prescribed standards and sample size

Reject numbers for sample size

of
800 400
99.5 (1 in 200) 8 *
99.0 (1 in 100) 16 8
95.0 (5 in 100) 48 24
90.0 (10 in 100) 88 44
85.0 (15 in 100) 128 64

* indicates that the sample size is too small for a valid test.
Reporting of results

❑ The results of the grow-out test shall be reported as percentage of other

species, cultivars or off-type plants.
❑ If the sample is found to be a cultivar other than stated by the sender, the
results shall be reported as such.
❑ If plants of other cultivars are more than 15 per cent, the report shall state
that the sample consists of mixture of different cultivars.
❑ If nothing worthy of special comments is found, the report shall state that
the results of the grow-out test of the sample in question revealed nothing to
indicate that the name of the cultivar or species stated by the sender is
incorrect.

2. Electrophoresis

It is the latest method of cultivar identification based on protein banding and

isoenzyme activity. Here single seeds are defatted and extracted for protein and
esterases. The extracted proteins or esterases are separated by polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis. Based on the banding pattern of protein and esterase's thevarieties
can be differentiated and identified.

Electrophoresis for proteins and enzymes: Seeds, seedlings or mature leaves

etc. of a crop plant have a specific mix of proteins which are not only crop specific
but also variety specific (genotype specific). The electrophoresis in a suitablemedium
separates the mixture of proteins extracted from seeds, seedlings or mature leaves
into distinct bands. Each variety (or genotype) thus has a specific "banding pattern"
on the basis of which admixtures of other varieties, differing in "banding pattern"
could be detected. This is done by comparing the banding patternof analysed sample
with the standard banding pattern of that variety. The electrophoresis is now being
increasingly used for determining the genetic purity of seed samples.

Principle: The term 'electrophoresis' refers to the migration of a charged particle

under the influence of an electric field. The movement of ions takes place in a suitable
medium, such as, polyacrylamide gel, which acts as a molecular sieve and
cut down convection currents and diffusion, so that the separated components remain
as sharp zones with maximum resolution. The separation into distinct bandsis due to,

1. differences in the size of molecules (molecular weight) of various proteins.

Particles with smaller molecular weights migrate faster than those with higher
weights, and

2. differences in charge. The molecules with the higher charge migrate faster than
those with a lower charge.

Since proteins carry a net charge at any pH other than their isoelectric point,
they migrate in an electric field, the rate of which depends on the charge density
(that is, the rate of charge to mass of the molecule). Proteins with higher charge
density will migrate faster, thus resulting in differential rates of movement of proteins
when a mixture of different proteins is subjected to an electric field. By altering the
gel pore size (using polymers at different concentrations) and the charge on the
protein molecule (by changing the pH of the system) a high degreeof resolution can
be achieved for separation of protein molecules in a mixture.
 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

➢ Lecture 15
➢ Detection methods for GMOs/LMOs

➢ Definition
Any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained
through the use of modern biotechnology

❖ Transgenic plants
• Characterized by the insertion of a new gene or sets of genes into their genome
• The new genes translate and new protein expressed
• This gives the plant new characteristic
➢ Transgenic plants – Examples
➢ Bt cotton
Cotton plants resistant to lepidopteran insects
➢ Round-up ready soybean
Soybean resistant to glyphosate
➢ Golden rice
Rice grains with beta-carotene & Vitamin -A

➢ Bt cotton Round-up ready soybean ➢ Golden rice

 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

➢ Detection Methods

➢ General Procedure:
➢ Detection: to determine whether a product is GM or not. For this
purpose, a general screening method can be used. The result is
a positive/negative statement.
➢ Identification: to find out which GM crop or product are present and
whether they are authorized or not in the country.
➢ Quantification: If a crop or its product has been shown to contain GM
varieties, then it become necessary to assess compliance with the
threshold Regulation by the determination of the amount of each
of the GM variety present.
 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

Detection methods

methods methods

➢ DNA based methods:

• Highly sensitive - can detect trace amounts GM- DNA
• Work with most product types - both processed and unprocessed products
• Can test for multiple GM varieties simultaneously
• Takes a number of days to perform - typically 3-5 days
• Requires highly skilled personnel and laboratory analysis
• More expensive than Protein Based Methods
➢ Protein based methods
• Relatively cheap to perform
• Rapid turnaround - 5 to 20 mins for strips; 24 hours for ELISA
• Strips do not require trained personnel
• Limited to one or a small number of varieties per test
• Not appropriate for processed products
• Not appropriate for some GM varieties - in certain crops the GM protein is
only produced in the leaves or stems and not in the actual grain. Protein
tests on the grain are therefore not informative.
• Not very sensitive (~1% of GM protein)
 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

• ELISA • Lateral flow strip

➢ Lateral flow stick

• Collect leaf and extract sample

• Place the strip into the extraction tube
• The sample will travel up the strip
• Allow the strip to develop for 10 minutes
• To retain the strip, cut off and
• Discard bottom section of the strip

Protein based methods

Lateral flow stick

 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

➢ Transgenic contamination in non-GM crops:

The coexistence of genetically modified (GM) crops and non-GM crops is a myth
because the movement of transgenes beyond their intended destinations is a certainty,
and this leads to genetic contamination of organic farms and other systems. It is
unlikely that transgenes can be retracted once they have escaped, thus the damage to
the purity of non-GM seeds is permanent. The dominant GM crops have the potential
to reduce biodiversity further by increasing agricultural intensification. There are also
potential risks to biodiversity arising from gene flow and toxicity to nontarget
organisms from herbicide-resistant (HT) and insect- resistant (Bt) crops. Unless whole
regions are declared GM agriculture free, the development of distinct systems of
agriculture (GM and non-GM) will be impossibleas GM agriculture emerges at the
expense of all other forms of production.
➢ The movement of transgenes follows many different routes:
• By pollon
• By wind or pollinators
• By humans transport crop seeds over huge distances
• By hybridize with non-crop species
• By volunteer plants
• By isolation distance
• By accidental release of unapproved transgenes into commercial seed
• By violations of safety protocols during field trials of GM crops

➢ GM crops and organic seed production:

• Genetically modified (GM) crops cannot be released into the environment and
used as food, feed, medicines or industrial processing before they have passed
through a rigorous and internationally recognized regulatory process designed
to protect human and animal health, and the environment.
• The UK body that oversees standards in organic farming, the United Kingdom
Register of Organic Food Standards (UKROFS), has ruled that genetically
modified (GM) crops have no role to play in organic farming systems. They,
therefore, have concerns about the possibility and
consequences of the mixing of GM crops with organic crops.
• The two main sources of mixing are through pollen and seed. Pollen from GM
crops may pollinate an organic crop. Seed from a GM crop, or plants
established from them, may become mixed with organic crops or their
products.
• Minimizing genetic mixing is an important feature of the production of all high
quality seed samples of plant varieties supplied to farmers.
• Extensive experience has been obtained over many decades in the production
of high purity seed samples. Crop isolation distances, and crop rotational and
management practices are laid down to achieve this. These procedures for the
production of seed of high genetic purity could be used for the productionof
organic crops.
 lOMoARcPSD|301 350 98

• No system for the field production of seed can guarantee absolute genetic
purity of seed samples. Very rarely long distance pollination or seed transfer
is possible, so any criteria for organic crop production will need to recognise
this.
• There has always been the possibility of hybridization and seed mixing
between organic crops and non-organic crops.
• Organic farming systems acknowledge the possibility of spray or fertilizer drift
from non-organic farming systems, and procedures are established to minimize
this.
• In practice, detecting the presence of certain types of GM material in organic
crops, especially quantification, is likely to be difficult.
• Some seed used by organic farmers are currently obtained from abroad.
• Organic farmers and/or GM crop producers will need to ensure that their crops
are isolated from one another by an appropriate distance or barrier to reduce
pollen transfer if the crop flowers. To reduce seed mixing, shared equipment
will need to be cleaned and an appropriate period of time allowed before
organic crops are grown on land previously used for GM crops. Responsibility
for isolation will need to be decided before appropriate measures can be
implemented. The report highlights the need for acceptable levels of the
presence of GM material in organic crops and measures identified to achieve
this.
 Seeds Act and Rules

Introduction

The seed is an important agricultural input and it plays vital role in increasing
production and productivity. There is a need to safeguard the farmers with the supply
of genetically pure and quality seeds. Any new variety produced by the Scientist has
to be multiplied many times to meet the needs of the farmers. Inorder to ensure
the availability of quality seeds, Government of India have enacted Seeds act, 1966
and Seed rules, 1968. The seed (Control) order, 1983 was promulgated under
essential commodities act, 1955 in order to ensure the production, marketing and
equal distribution of the seeds.

Seeds Act, 1966

The object of Seed Act is to regulate the quality of certain notified kind /
varieties of seeds for sale and for matters connected therewith. The seed act passed
by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was designed to create a 'Climate' inwhich the
seeds man could operate effectively and to make good quality seed available to
cultivators. Seeds rule under the act were notified in September 1968 and the act
was implemented entirely in October, 1969. This act extent to thewhole of India
and it has 25 sections.

Seed legislation could broadly be divided into two groups

1. Sanctioning legislation

Sanctioning legislation authorizes formation of Advisory bodies, Seed

Certification Agencies, Seed Testing laboratories, Foundation and Certified Seed
Programmes, Recognition of Seed certification Agencies of Foreign countries
Appellate authorities etc.

2. Regulatory legislation

Regulatory Legislation controls the quality of seeds sold in the market including
suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality. On quality control basis, the Seeds
Act could conveniently be divided into the following:
I. Minimum limit and labeling of the notified kind / varieties of seed

a. Power to notify the kind / variety

b. Labeling provisions

c. Seed testing

d. Seed analyst

e. Seed inspectors

f. Penalty

g. General provisions

II. Seed Certification

III. Restriction of Import and Export of Seeds

I. Minimum limits and labeling

Quality control as envisaged in the Act is to be achieved through pre and

post marketing control, voluntary certification and compulsory labeling of the seeds
of notified kind / varieties.

(a) Power to notify the kind / varieties

New varieties evolved by the State Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes
are notified and released /notified respectively under section 5 of the seeds act in
consultation with the central seed committee and its sub committees constitute under
section 3 and 3(5) of the Seeds Act. As on date more than 2500 varieties and 130
varieties were notified and denotified under this section. List of varieties notified and
denotified from 1969 to 2005 are compiled and made available in the form of a book
called catalogue of varieties notified and denotified under section 5 of the Seeds Act.
Functions of the Central Seed Committee and itssub-committee are defined in Clauses
3 and 4 of part II of seed rule.

(b) Labeling provision

Minimum limits for germination, physical purity and genetic purity of varieties
/ hybrids for crops have been prescribed and notified for labeling seeds of notified
kind / varieties under section 6(a) of the Seeds Act. Size of the label, colour of the
label and content of the label were also notified under sub clause (b) of Section 6 of
Seeds Act. Colour of the label is opel green and size of the label is 10 cm x 15 cm
or proportionate thereof. Responsibility for making labeling content of mark or label,
manner of marking, false / misleading statement on label etc., are defined under
clause 7,8,9,10,11 and 12 of part V of seeds rule.

Section 7 of the act regulates the sale of notified kind or varieties. Accordingly no
person shall keep for sale, offer to sell, barter or otherwise supply any seed of any
notified kind or variety, after the dates recorded on the container mark or label as
the date unto which the seed may expected to retain the germination not less than
prescribed under clause (a) of section 6 of the Act.

(c) Seed Testing

There is a provision to set up a central seed laboratory and state seed

laboratory to discharge functions under section 4(1) and 4(2) of the Seed Act, In
the year 1968 there were 23 state seed testing laboratories in the country. At present
there are 86 Seed testing laboratories functioning in the country. During 1995-96
these laboratories tested about 5 lakh samples. Seed testing laboratories have been
assigned certain important functions under part III (5) of Seed Rule.

(d) Seed Analysts

State Government could appoint the Seed Analysts through notification in the
Official Gazette under Section 12 of the Seed Act defining his area and his jurisdiction.
Seed Analyst should posses certain minimum qualification as prescribedunder clause
20 part IX of Seed Rule.

(e) Seed Inspectors

Classes of seed

The State Government, under section 13 of the Act may appoint such a person
as it thinks fit, having prescribed qualification (Clause 22 part IX of Seed Rule)
through notification, as a Seed Inspector and define the areas within which heshall
exercise jurisdiction for enforcing the seed law. He will be treated as a public servant
within a meaning of section 21 of the I.P.C. (45 of 1860). He has power to examine
records, register document of the seed dealer. He will also exercise such
other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes of this Act or rule
made there under. Duties of Seed inspectors are defined in clause 23 of part IX of
Seed rule. He can issue, stop sale order in case the seed in question contravenes the
provision of relevant Act and rules for which he can use form No.III. When he seizes
any record, register documents or any other material , he should inform a magistrate
and take his order for which he can use form No.IV.

(f) Penalty

If any person, contravenes any provision of the Act or Rule, or prevents a seed
inspector from taking sample under this Act or prevents a Seed Inspector from
exercising any other power conferred on him could be punished under section 19 of
the act with a fine of five hundred rupees for the first offence. In the event of such
person having been previously convicted of an offence under this section with
imprisonment for a term, may extend to six months or with fine, which may extent
to one thousand rupees or with both.

II. Seed certification

The object of the Seed Certification is to maintain and make available to the
public through certification high quality propagating material of notified kind /
varieties so grown and distributed as to ensure genetic identity and genetic purity.
The certified standards in force are Indian Minimum seed certification standards and
seed certification procedures form together for the seed certification regulations.
Seeds of only those varieties which are notified under section under Section 5 of
the seeds act shall be eligible for certification.

 Breeder seed

 Foundation seed

 Certified Seed

Breeder seed

 Breeder seed is a seed directly controlled by the breeder.

 Breeder seed should be genetically so pure as to guarantee that in the

subsequent generation.
  Breeder seed could not come under the perview of seed certification as it is
not meant for public sale.

 Breeder seed should be packed and supplied with breeder's golden yellow stag
as per the guideline given in Indian Minimum Seed Certificationstandards. It
is also the fact that no standard for breeder seed have been prescribed.

Foundation seed

 Foundation class of seed and certified class of seed are to be certified by

the Certification Agencies as per the Indian Minimum Seed Certification
Standards.

 Section 8 of the Seeds Act provide state government or the Central

Government consultation with State Government may be notification in
official gazette, established certification agencies for the state to carry out
the functions entrusted to certification agency by or under this Act (Part IV,
clause 6, part VI clause 14 of Seeds Rule).

Certified seed

 Seed act section 9 provides any person desires of producing certified seed
shall register his name with concerned seed certification agency duly
remitting the prescribed fee in form No.1 for grant of certificate. Certificate
could be granted in form No.11 after meeting the requirement of certification
agency prescribed under Part VII clause 15,16 and 17 of Seed rule.

 It should have the minimum genetical purity of 99%

 Certified seed may be the progeny of certified seed , provided this

reproduction does not exceed two generations beyond foundation seed and
provided that if certification agency determines the genetic and physical
purity, if not be significantly altered

 In case of highly self pollinated crops certification of one further generation

may be permitted
  Certified seed produced from certified seed ,shall be eligible for further seed
increase under certification, except in case of highly self pollinated crops,
where certification of one further generation may be permitted

 Certification tags issued once for certified seed not eligible for further seed
increase under certification

 For paddy and wheat, certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible
for certification by NSC up to two generations from foundation seed

Seed (Control) Order, 1983

III. Restriction of Export and Import of Seeds

There is a provision to restrict export and import of seeds of notified kinds or

varieties. The section 17 defines as under “No person shall for the purpose of sowing
or planting by any person (including himself) export or import or cause tobe
exported or imported any seed of any notified kind or variety unless.

 It conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity specified for

that seed under clause (a) of Section 6 and

 Its container bears in the prescribed manner the mark or label with the
correct particular thereof specified for that seed under clause (b) of
section 6.

Background of the case

The Ministry of civil supplies through an order dated 24.4.1983 had declared
the seed for sowing or planting materials of food crops, fruits, vegetables, cattle
fodder and jute to be essential commodities in exercise of power conferred by Section
2(a) (viii) of Essential Commodities Act, 1955. It was followed by the issue of Seed
(control) order dated 30th December, 1983 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of
Agriculture and Co-operation in exercise of powers contained in section 3 of Essential
Commodities Act, which deals with Central Governments power to control, and
regulate production, supply and distribution of essential commodities.
The Seed (control) order, 1983 had been notified as per Gazette notification, G.S.R
832(E) dated 30. 12.1983. The notification under reference holds good and remains
operative. Joint Secretary (Seeds), Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation has been appointed as Seed Controller
for implementation of seed (control) order.

Gist of the Seed (Control) order, 1983

Issue of License to dealers

All persons carrying on the business of selling, exporting and importing seeds
will be required to carry on the business in accordance with terms and conditions of
license granted to him for which dealer has to make an application in duplicate in
Form 'A' together with a fee of Rs.50/- for license to licensing authority unless the
State Government by notification exempts such class of dealers in such areas and
subject to such conditions as may be specified in the notification.

Based on such enquiry as it thinks fit for licensing authority may grant in
form 'B' or refuse in provisions of the Order. The refusal to grant license shall be
accompanied by clear recording of reasons for such refusal.

Renewal of License

A holder of license shall be eligible for renewal upon and applicable being made
in the prescribed form 'C' (in duplicate) together with a fee of rupees twenty before
the expiry of license or at the most within a month of date of expiry oflicense
for which additional fee of Rs.25/- is required to be paid.

Appointing of Licensing authority

The state government may appoint such number of persons as it thinks

necessary to be inspector and define the area of such Inspector’s jurisdiction through
notification in the official gazette.

Time limit for analysis of samples by Seed testing lab

Time limit for analysis of samples by seed testing lab and suspension /
cancellation of license may be done by Licensing authority after giving an opportunity
of being heard to the holder of license, suspend or cancel the license on
grounds of mis-representation of a material in particular or contravention in
provision of the order.

Suspension / Cancellation of license

The Licensing authority may after giving an opportunity of being held to the
holder of license, suspend or cancel the license on grounds of mis-representation of
material in particular or contravention in provision of the Order.

Appeal

The state government may specify authority for hearing the appeals against
suspension / cancellation under this order and the decision of such authority shall
be final. Any person aggrieved by an order of refusal to grant or amend or renew the
license for sale, export / import of seed may within 60 days from the date of Order
appeal to the designated authority in the manner prescribed in the Order.

Miscellaneous

The licensing authority may on receipt of request in writing together with

Rs.10/- can amend the license of such dealer. Every seed dealer are expected to
maintain such books, accounts and records to this business in order and submit
monthly return of his business for the preceding months in Form 'D' to the licensing
authority by 5th day of every month

The Seeds Act, 1966

(Act No.54 of 1966) [29th December, 1966]

An Act to provide for regulating the quality of certain seeds for sale, and for
matters connected therewith.

It is enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India as

follows:

Short Title, Extent and Commencement

1. (1)This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.

 (2) It extends to the whole of India.

(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by

notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed
for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for different areas
thereof.

Definitions

2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,

1. "Agriculture" includes horticulture;

2. "Central Seed Laboratory" means the Central Seed Laboratory
established or declared as such under sub-section (1) of section 4;
3. "Certification agency" means the certification agency established under
Section 8 or recognised under Section 18;
4. "Committee" means the Central Seed Committee constituted under sub-
section (1) of Section 3;
5. "Container" means a box, bottle, casket, tin, barrel, case, receptacle,
sack, bag, wrapper or other thing in which any article or thing is
placed or packed;
6. "Export" means taking out of India to a place outside India;
7. "Import" means bringing into India from a place outside India;
8. "Kind" means one or more related species or sub-species of crop plants
each individually or collectively known by one common name such as
cabbage, maize, paddy and wheat;
9. "notified kind or variety" , in relation to any seed, means any kind or
variety thereof notified under Section 5;
10."Prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this act;
11."seed" means any of the following classes of seeds used for sowing or
planting-

I. seeds of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits
and vegetables;
 II. cotton seeds;
III. seeds of cattle fodder;

and includes seedlings, and tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings,

all types of grafts and other vegetatively propagated material, of food
crops or cattle fodder;

12."Seed Analyst" means a Seed Analyst appointed under section 12;

13."Seed Inspector" means a Seed Inspector appointed under section 13;
14."State Government", in relation to a Union territory, means the
administrator thereof;
15. "State Seed Laboratory", in relation to any State, means the State Seed

Laboratory established or declared as such under sub-section (2) of

section 4 for that State; and
16. "Variety" means a sub-division of a kind identifiable by growth, yield,
plant, fruit, seed, or other characteristic.

Central Seed Committee

3. (1) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the commencement of
this Act, constitute a Committee called the Central Seed Committee to advise the
Central Government and the State Governments on matters arising out of the
administration of this Act and to carry out the other functions assigned to it by or
under this Act.

2. The Committee shall consist of the following members, namely:-

i. a Chairman to be nominated by the Central Government;

ii. eight persons to be nominated by the Central Government
to represent such interests that Government thinks fit, of
whom not less than two persons shall be representatives
of growers of seed;
iii. One person to be nominated by the Government of each
of the States.
(3) The members of the Committee shall, unless their seats become vacant earlier
by resignation, death or otherwise, be entitled to hold office for two years and shall
be eligible for renomination.

(4) The Committee may, subject to the previous approval of the Central
Government, make bye-laws fixing the quorum and regulating its own procedure and
the conduct of all business to be transacted by it.

(5) The Committee may appoint one or more sub-committees, consisting wholly of
members of the Committee or wholly of other persons or partly of members of the
Committee and partly of other persons, as it thinks fit, for the purpose of discharging
such of its functions as may be delegated to such sub-committee or sub-committees
by the Committee.

(6) The functions of the Committee or any sub-committee thereof may be exercised
notwithstanding any vacancy therein.

(7) The Central Government shall appoint a person to be the secretary of the
Committee and shall provide the Committee with such clerical and other staff as the
Central Government considers necessary.

Central Seed Certification Board

"8A. ,(1) The Central Government shall, by notification in the Official Gazette,
establish
a Central Seed Certification Board (hereinafter referred to as the Board) to advise
the Central
Government and the State Governments on all matters relating to certification and
to co-ordinate
the functioning of the agencies established under section 8.

(2) The Board shall consist of the folJowing members, namely:-

(i) a Chairman, to be nominated by the Central Government;

 lii) four members, to be nominated by the Central Government from out of the
persons employed by th~ State Governments as 'Directors 'of Agriculture;

(iii) three members, to be nominated by the Central Government from out of

the persons employed by the Agricultural Universities as Directors of
Research;

(iv) thirteen persons, to be nominated by the Central Government to represent

such interests as that Government thinks fit, of whom not less than four
persons shall be representatives of seed producers or tradesmen.

(3) A member of the Board shall, unless his s~at becomes vacant earlier by
resignation or otherwise - be entitled to hold officefor two years from the date of
his nomination:

Provided that a person nominated under clause (if) or clause (iii) of sub-section (2)
shall hold office only for so long as he holds the appointment by virtue of which his
nomination was made.

Central Seed Laboratory and State Seed Laboratory

4. (1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish
a Central Seed Laboratory or declare any seed laboratory as the Central Seed
Laboratory to carry out the functions entrusted to the Central Seed Laboratory by
or under this Act.

(2) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish one
or more State Seed Laboratories or declare any seed laboratory as a State Seed
Laboratory where analysis of seeds of any notified kind or variety shall be carried out
by Seed Analysts under this Act in the prescribed manner.
Power to notify kinds or varieties of seeds

5. If the Central Government, after consultation with the Committee, is of opinion

that it is necessary or expedient to regulate the quality of seed of any kind or variety
to be sold for purposes of agriculture, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
declare such kind or variety to be a notified kind or variety for the purposes of this
Act and different kinds or varieties may be notified for different States or for different
areas thereof.

Power to specify minimum limits of germination and purity, etc.

6. The Central Government may, after consultation with the Committee and by
notification in the Official Gazette, specify-

a. the minimum limits of germination and purity with respect to any seed
of any notified kind or variety;
b. the mark or label to indicate that such seed conforms to the minimum
limits of germination and purity specified under clause (a) and the
particulars which such mark or label may contain.

Regulation of sale of seeds of notified kinds or varieties

7. No person shall, himself or by any other person on his behalf, carry on the
business of selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering or otherwise supplying
any seed of any notified kind or variety, unless-

a. such seed is identifiable as to its kind or variety;

b. such seed conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity
specified under clause (a) of section 6;
c. the container of such seed bears in the prescribed manner, the mark
or label containing the correct particulars thereof, specified underclause
(b) of section 6; and
d. he complies with such other requirements as may be prescribed.
Certification agency

8. The State Government or the Central Government in consultation with the State
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish a certification
agency for the State to carry out the functions entrusted to the certification agency
by or under this Act.

Grant of certificate by certification agency

9. (1) Any person selling, keeping for sale, offering to sell, bartering or otherwise
supplying any seed of any notified kind or variety may, if he desires to have such
seed certified by the certification agency, apply to the certification agency for the
grant of a certificate for the purpose.

(2) Every application under sub-section (1) shall be made in such form, shall contain
such particulars and shall be accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed.

(3) On receipt of any such application for the grant of a certificate, the certification
agency may, after such enquiry as it thinks fit and after satisfying itself that the seed
to which the application relates conforms to the minimum limits of germination and
purity specified for that seed under clause (a) of section 6, grant acertificate in such
form and on such conditions as may be prescribed.

Revocation of certificate

10. If the certification agency is satisfied, either on a reference made to it in this

behalf or otherwise, that-

a. the certificate granted by it under section 9 has been obtained by

misrepresentation as to an essential fact; or
b. the holder of the certificate has, without reasonable cause, failed to
comply with the conditions subject to which the certificate has been
granted or has contravened any of the provisions of this Act or the rules
made thereunder;
then, without prejudice to any other penalty to which the holder of the certificate
may be liable under this Act, the certification agency may, after giving the holder of
the certificate an opportunity of showing cause, revoke the certificate.

Appeal

11. (1) Any person aggrieved by a decision of a certification agency under section 9
or section 10, may, within thirty days from the date on which the decision is
communicated to him and on payment of such fees as may be prescribed, prefer an
appeal to such authority as may be specified by the State Government in this behalf:

Provided that the appellate authority may entertain an appeal after the expiry of
the said period of thirty days if it is satisfied that the appellate was prevented by
sufficient cause from filing the appeal in time.

(2) On receipt of an appeal under sub-section (1), the appellate authority shall, after
giving the appellant an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as
expeditiously as possible.

(3) Every order of the appellate authority under this section shall be final.

Seed Analysts

12. The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such
persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be Seed Analysts
and define the areas within which they shall exercise jurisdiction.

Seed Inspectors

13. (1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint
such persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be Seed
Inspectors and define the areas within which they shall exercise jurisdiction.
(2) Every Seed Inspector shall be deemed to be a public servant within themeaning
of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) and shall be officially subordinate
to such authority as the State Government may specify in this behalf.

Powers of Seed Inspector

14. (1) The Seed Inspector may-

a. take samples of any seed of any notified kind or variety from-

i. any person selling such seed; or

ii. any person who is in the course of conveying, delivering or
preparing to deliver such seed to a purchaser or a consignee; or
iii. a purchaser or a consignee after delivery of such seed to him;

b. send such sample for analysis to the Seed Analyst for the area within
which such sample has been taken;
c. enter and search at all reasonable times, with such assistance, if any,
as he considers necessary, any place in which he has reason to believe
that an offence under this Act has been or is being committed and order
in writing the person in possession of any seed in respect of which the
offence has been or is being committed, not to dispose of any stock of
such seed for a specific period not exceeding thirty days or, unless the
alleged offence is such that the defect may be removed by the possessor
of the seed, seize the stock of such seed;
d. examine any record, register, document or any other material object
found in any place mentioned in clause (c) and seize the same if he
has reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the commission of
an offence punishable under this Act; and
e. exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the
purposes of this Act or any rule made thereunder.

(2) Where any sample of any seed of any notified kind or variety is taken under
clause (a) of sub-section (1), its cost, calculated at the rate at which such seed is
usually sold to the public, shall be paid on demand to the person from whom it is
taken.

(3) The power conferred by this section includes power to break-open any container
in which any seed of any notified kind or variety may be contained or to break-open
the door of any premises where any such seed may be kept for sale:

Provided that the power to break-open the door shall be exercised only after the
owner or any other person in occupation of the premises, if he is present therein,
refuses to open the door on being called upon to do so.

(4) Where the Seed Inspector takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section (1),
he shall, as far as possible, call not less than two persons to be present at the time
when such action is taken and take their signatures on a memorandum to be prepared
in the prescribed form and manner.

(5) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (5 of 1898), shall, so far
as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they apply to any
search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under section 98 of
the said Code.

Procedure to be followed by Seed Inspectors

15. (1) Whenever a Seed Inspector intends to take sample of any seed of any
notified kind or variety for analysis, he shall-

a. give notice in writing, then and there, of such intention to the person
from whom he intends to take sample;
b. except in special cases provided by rules made under this Act, take three
representative samples in the prescribed manner and mark and seal or
fasten up each sample in such manner as its nature permits.

(2) When samples of any seed of any notified kind or variety are taken under sub-
section (1), the Seed Inspector shall-
 a. deliver one sample to the person from whom it has been taken;
b. send in the prescribed manner another sample for analysis to the Seed
Analyst for the area within which such sample has been taken; and
c. retain the remaining sample in the prescribed manner for production in
case any legal proceedings are taken or for analysis by the Central Seed
Laboratory under sub-section (2) of section 16, as the case may be.

(3) If the person from whom the samples have been taken refuses to accept one of
the samples, the Seed Inspector shall send intimation to the Seed Analyst of such
refusal and thereupon the Seed Analyst receiving the sample for analysis shall
divide it into two parts and shall seal or fasten up one of those parts and shall cause
it, either upon receipt of the sample or when he delivers his report, to be delivered
to the Seed Inspector who shall retain it for production in case legal proceedings are
taken.

(4) Where a Seed Inspector takes any action under clause (c) of sub-section (1) of
section 14:

a. he shall use all despatch in ascertaining whether or not the seed

contravenes any of the provisions of section 7 and if it is ascertained
that the seed does not so contravene, forthwith revoke the order passed
under the said clause or, as the case may be, take such action as may
be necessary for the return of the stock of the seed seized;
b. if he seizes the stock of the seed, he shall, as soon as may be, inform
a magistrate and take his orders as to the custody thereof;
c. without prejudice to the institution of any prosecution, if the alleged
offence is such that the defect may be removed by the possessor of
the seed, he shall, on being satisfied that the defect has been so
removed, forthwith revoke the order passed under the said clause.
(5) Where as Seed Inspector seizes any record, register, document or any other
material object under clause (d) of sub-section (1) of section 14, he shall, as soon as
may be, inform a magistrate and take his orders as to the custody thereof.

Report of Seed Analyst

16.(1) The Seed Analyst shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the sample
under sub-section (2) of section 15, analyse the sample at the State Seed Laboratory
and deliver, in such form as may be prescribed, one copy of the reportof the result
of the analysis to the Seed Inspector and another copy thereof to the person from
whom the sample has been taken.

(2) After the institution of a prosecution under this Act, the accused vendor or the
complainant may, on payment of the prescribed fee, make an application to the court
for sending any of the samples mentioned in clause (a) or clause (c) of sub- section
(2) of section 15 to the Central Seed Laboratory for its report and on receipt of the
application, the court shall first ascertain that the mark and the seal or fastening as
provided in clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 15 are intact and may then
despatch the sample under its own seal to the Central Seed Laboratory which shall
thereupon send its report to the court in the prescribed form within one month from
the date of receipt of the sample, specifying the result of the analysis.

(3) The report sent by the Central Seed Laboratory under sub-section (2) shall
supersede the report given by the Seed Analyst under sub-section (1).

(4) Where the report sent by the Central Seed Laboratory under sub-section (2) is
produced in any proceedings under Section 19, it shall not be necessary in such
proceedings to produce any sample or part thereof taken for analysis.

Restriction on export and import of seeds of notified kinds or varieties

17. No person shall, for the purpose of sowing or planting by any person (including
himself), export or import or cause to be exported or imported any seed of any
notified kind or variety, unless-
 a. it conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity specified for that
seed under clause (a) of section 6; and
b. its container bears, in the prescribed manner, the mark or label with the correct
particulars thereof specified for that seed under clause (b) of section 6.

Recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign countries

18. The Central Govt. may, on the recommendation of the Committee and by
notification in the Official Gazette, recognise any seed certification agency established
in any foreign country, for the purposes of this Act.

Penalty

19. If any person-

a. contravenes any provision of this Act or any rule made thereunder; or

b. prevents a Seed Inspector from taking sample under this Act;or
c. prevents a Seed Inspector from exercising any other power conferred
on him by or under this Act;

he shall, on conviction, be punishable-

i. for the first offence with fine which may extend to five hundredrupees,
and
ii. in the event of such person having been previously convicted of an
offence under this section, with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to six months, or with fine which may extend to one thousand
rupees, or with both.

Forfeiture of property

20. When any person has been convicted under this Act for the contravention of any
of the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder, the seed in respect
of which the contravention has been committed may be forfeited to the Government.

Offences by companies

21. (1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every
person who at the time the offence was committed was in charge of, and was
responsible to the company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well
as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to
be proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable
to any punishment under this Act if he proves that the offence was committedwithout
his knowledge and that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of
such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under

this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been
committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the
part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such
director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.

Explanation. – For the purpose of this section,-

a. "company" means any body corporate and includes a firm or other

association of individuals; and
b. "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

Protection of action taken in good faith

22. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Government
or any officer of the Government for anything which is in good faith done or intended
to be done under this Act.
Power to give directions

23. The Central Government may give such directions to any State Government as
may appear to the Central Government to be necessary for carrying into execution
in the State any of the provisions of this Act or of any rule made there under.

Exemption

24. Nothing in this Act shall apply to any seed of any notified kind or variety grown
by a person and sold or delivered by him on his own premises direct to another person
for being used by that person for the purpose of sowing or planting.

Power to make rules

25. (1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make
rules to carry out the purpose of this Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the fore-going power,
such rules may provide, for-

a. the functions of the Committee and the travelling and daily allowances
payable to members of the Committee and members of any sub-
committee appointed under sub-section (5) of section 3;
b. the functions of the Central Seed Laboratory;
c. the functions of a certification agency;
d. the manner of marking or labeling the container of seed of any notified
kind or variety under clause (c) of Section 7 and under clause (b) of
section 17;
e. the requirements which may be complied with by a person carrying on
the business referred to in section 7;
f. the form of application for the grant of a certificate under section 9,
the particulars it may contain, the fees which should accompany it, the
form of the certificate and the conditions subject to which the certificate
may be granted;
 g. the form and manner in which and the fee on payment of which an
appeal may be preferred under section 11 and the procedure to be
followed by the appellate authority in disposing of the appeal;
h. the qualifications and duties of Seed Analysts and Seed Inspectors;
i. the manner in which samples may be taken by the Seed Inspector, the
procedure for sending such samples to the Seed Analyst or the Central
Seed Laboratory and the manner of analyzing such samples;
j. the form of report of the result of the analysis under sub-section (1) or
sub-section (2) of section 16 and the fees payable in respect of such
report under the said sub-section (2);
k. the records to be maintained by a person carrying on the business
referred to in section 7 and the particulars which such records shall
contain; and
l. any other matter which is to be or may be prescribed.

(3) Every rule made under this Act shall be laid as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament while it is in session for a total period of thirty
days which may be comprised in one session or in two successive sessions, and if,
before the expiry of the session in which it is so laid or the session immediately
following, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both Houses
agree that the rule should not be made, that rule shall, thereafter have effect only
in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so however, that any
such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything
previously done under that rule.
 New seed policy {1988}

The Government of India evolved a New seed policy implemented from

October 1, 1988.

The policy laid special emphasis on

- Import of high quality of seeds

- A time bound programme to modernize plant quarantine facilities

- Effective implementation of procedures for quarantine /post entry

quarantine and

- Incentives to encourage the domestic industry

- Import of quality seeds.

1. Bulk import of seeds of coarse cereals, pulses and oil seeds may replace (or)
displace the local productions.

2. Transfer of technology may not be actual one, because due to bulk import of
seeds or import of technology, instead we can import the germplasm of
superior variety if any and could be developed locally to meet the demand
(i.e.,) incorporate the advantages of exotic variety to the local types(or) even
direct multiplication's after adaptive trials.

3. As we have superior varieties of international standard (e.g.) Maize, Sorghum,

Bajra, or even in oil seeds like groundnut etc., the bulk import is not
necessiated. Instead we need varieties suitable to agroclimatic zones besides
higher yields.

4. Import of flower seeds could be encouraged in order to earn foreign exchange

through export of flowers and it can be imported under (OGL) opengeneral
license. But there is a fear of introduction of new pest and diseasesas they
are coming without post entry quarantine checkup.
Strengthening of quarantine

Since, 1st October 1988 only bulk import of seeds was under taken without
any progress either in the strengthening of quarantine facilities.

Threat of pest and disease

Introduction of new pest and disease would pose a new problem due to bulk
import due to lack of post entry quarantine. To avoid this threat, the imported seeds
should be subjected to testing and it should be done by one person from ICAR. Entry
of exotic variety without proper field testing may change the disease pattern if that
particular strain is becoming susceptible to existing pathogens.

(e.g.) Kernal burnt - which was not noticed in the previous years is now a major
disease on wheat after the introduction of Kalyansona.

Genetic erosion

It is another danger, due to introduction of similar strains there is a danger

of genetic uniformity and eliminates local diversified strains which leads to problem
of non-availability of improved strains if there is any outbreak of disease.

Incentives to domestic seed industry

Indigenous seed production / seed industry will be affected because of the

entry of multi nation diseases. Since the policy is allowing indiscriminate bulk imports
through private sectors at the same time the import duty on seeds hasbeen
reduced to 15 per cent. Import duty on advanced machines and equipment used in
seed production or processing has also been reduced and interest on post shipment
credit has also been slashed down to help importers. Income tax rebate and
deduction are available to the taxpaying units on the revenue expenditure or inhouse
research and development. Incentives are also being provided to seeds located in
backward areas and growth centers.

Application of biotechnology in agriculture

The multination would prevent the III world countries in enjoying the full
benefit of biotechnology. The bulk import of seed indicates accepting the monopoly
rights and the limitation of potential bio-technology in agriculture.
Advantages of biotechnology in agriculture

Certain plants fertilize themselves through nitrogen fixation, which is one of

the most promising areas of genetic engineering. Bacterium on the roots of plants
like groundnut, and soyabean take nitrogen from the air and transform it into
nitrates. Scientists are studying the possibility of transforming the genes responsible
for nitrogen fixation in wheat, rice, and maize (in which nitrogenfixation doses not
occur). They feel new strains can be grown without expensive chemical fertilizers.

Plant variety protection (PVP) and the Indian agriculture (Protection of

Plant Variety & farmers right Bill,2001)

The Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) are generally being applicable to

industrial property only. The patent laws of India did not provide for IPRs on living
organisms including plant varieties. The question of plant variety protection has been
brought in to sharp focus by Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS) which is a part of Agreement establishing World Trade
Organization (WTO). India is a signatory to TRIPS agreement, which casts an
obligation on member countries to provide for a system of plant variety protection
either through patents or through a sui generis legislation framework or a
combination thereof. Under these agreements, a legislative framework for plant
variety protection has to be provided by member countries within a specified time
period. While this has lent some urgency to the question of plant variety protection,
the question of plant variety rights, even independent of the obligations posed by
TRIP’s agreement, has been under active consideration in view of our strong
agricultural research system. The plant breeding programmes have become more
sophisticated and high input based. The extent of investment by the State on public
research, in evolving varieties of commercial significance, is coming down with
responsibility of evolving new varieties of crops of commercial significance being left
to the private sector commercial organisations. There is also a move on the part of
the international research institutions, who at one time played a pioneering role in
plant breeding and genetic work, to focus on pure or strategic research. In the
wake of the global economic liberalization, it is only expected that agriculture is
accorded the status of an industry and given all incentives and impetus, normally
required for a fast developing, competitive business. To meet our food demands, as
well as to exploit our export potential in agricultural commodities, development and
use of new plant varieties having specific agronomic nutritive or market preference
characteristics are essential. New varieties may be bred for higher yields, greater
resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, longer shelf life, better consumer preference,
higher industrial value, low input requirements and so on. To meetthese demands
the variety improvement activities based on conventional as well as biotechnological
methods requires heavy investments both in scientific, man power and economic
terms. It is therefore, understandable that the fruits of such intensiveefforts will have
to be protected from misuse, and also ensuring an appropriate incentive (reward) to
the breeder.

The following are the plant variety protection steps:

1. Historical developments of plant variety protection

For over 60 years, different forms of protection of new plant varieties through
the system of Plant Breeders' Right (PBR’s) have been in existence in industralised
countries which essentially means that the holder of the PBR can prevent others from
producing propagating material of the protected variety and / or marketing the same.
In order to coordinate inter country implementation of PBR a " Union Internationale
Pour La Protection Des Obtention Vegetables" (UPOV) was established by
International Convention for Protection of New Varieties of plants (the UPOV
convention), which was signed in Paris in 1961. The convention entered into force in
1968. It was revised in 1972, 1978 and 1991. The 1978 Act entered into force in
1981. The 1991 act has not yet entered into force.

The purpose of UPOV convention is to ensure that the member States of the
Union acknowledge the achievements of breeder of new plant varieties by making
available to them exclusive property rights, on the basis of a set of uniform and
clearly defined principles. To be eligible for protection, varieties have to be (I) distinct
from existing known varieties (ii) sufficiently homogenous (uniform) (iii)
stable and (iv) new in the sense that they must not have commercialised prior to
certain dates established by reference to the date of the application for protection.

2. Scope of protection of plant varieties under UPOV convention

Both the 1978 and 1991 conventions set out a minimum scope of protection
offer to member states for the possibility of taking national circumstances into
account in their legislation. Under 1978 Act, the minimum scope of the Plant
Breeders' right requires that the holders' authorization for the production for
purposes of commercial marketing, the offering for sale and marketing of propagating
material of protected variety.

The 1991 Act contains more detailed provision defining the acts concerning
propagating material in relation to which holders' authorization is required.
Exceptionally, but only where the holder has no reasonable opportunity to exercise
his right in relation to the propagating material, his authorization may be required
in relation to any specified acts done with harvested material of the variety.

3. Duration of plant breeder's rights

Like all intellectual property rights, plant breeder’s rights are granted for a
limited period of time (15-20 years) at the end of which varieties protected by them
pass into public domain. The rights are also subject to controls, in the public interest,
against any possible abuse.

4. Exemptions

It is also important to note that authorization of the holder of plant breeders'

rights is not required for the use of his variety for research purpose, including its use
in the breeding of further new varieties.

From the inception of UPOV in 1961, farmers have been allowed to use their
own harvested material of protected varieties for the next production cycle on their
own farms. On farm saving is still a practice in UPOV countries. The 1991 UPOV
convention contains an "Optional exception" which provides that it is unto the national
government to decide whether to permit farmers to use the seed of a PBR protected
variety for propagation purposes on their own holdings or not.
5. Sovereign rights on biological resources

Another major development, which has taken place along with India signing
the World Trade Agreement, is global Biodiversity Convention. India is a signatory
to this convention, which became operational on December 29, 1993. Among other
things it reaffirms that "the states have sovereign rights over their own biological
resources" and that states are responsible for conserving their biological diversity
and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner".

6. Suggestions for a SUI system of plant variety protection

The proposal of 1991 UPOV convention which extents plant breeders rights to
the harvested material, is not appropriate for our country. The frame work for plant
variety protection has to be evolved in a manner that prevents situations where
repeated imports of improved varieties are not required so as to avoid dependence
on foreign sources of supply.

While, finalizing legislation on PVP, the government needs to strike a balance

between its commitment under WTO, growth of the seed sector and their interests of
the farmers, which through a difficult task, is not impossible to achieve.

7. Seed Industry Development in Post PVP period

In the post PVP period, we anticipate fairly high investment in seed research
from private sector and healthy competition with public sector in crop breeding and
seed production and distribution. However, public sector institutions will continue to
play major role in developing varieties of wheat rice, chick pea, pigeon pea,
mungbeans, urdbeans, groundnut, sugarcane, jute, potato and millets. The continued
improvement of these crops is most vital for our food security system. The public
sector will have to continue to develop varieties for rainfed, salt affected, hilly and low
lying flood prone regions. In export potential of food grains and other agricultural
commodities, breeding for quality of produce will have to be given priority. We may
also tailor varieties suited to the needs of the importing countries. Since there is
growing concern about the use of chemical pesticides in crop production, the present
research programme of breeding for resistance against the pests and diseases will
have to be strengthened further. Strategic research on
breeding for research against pests and diseases will be priority areas of
research of a public institution. We anticipate that the material generated from
these research programmes will be made available to the private sector.

Seed industry both in public and private sector is likely to develop at a fast
rate after the legislation on plant variety protection is enacted. The recent experience
shows that contribution of both public and private sector in Seed industry
development is complimentary. While private sector seed companies are
concentrating on hybrids of millets, oil seeds, cotton and vegetables, the public sector
seed corporations are engaged in seed production and distribution of self- pollinated
crops. It has also been observed that due to competition among the seedcompanies,
the farmers have been benefited not only in respect of stability in prices of hybrid
seeds but also better quality of seeds. It is expected that with programmatic policy
planning, faster growth of both public and private sector in seed research and
development will be ensured so that they can play important rolein improving the
incomes and standards of living of our farmers.
 Objective Question Bank

Course Title- Principles of Seed Technology

1. Central seed testing laboratory is located at

a Banglore b Hyderabad
c New Delhi d Varanasi
2. ISTA is located at
a New Delhi b Munich
c Rome d Zurich
3. Validity period of a certificates for seed is
a 6 month b 9 month
c 12 month d 15 month
4. NSC was established in
a 1972 b 1971
c 1963 d 1967
5. Seed certification standard for India is fixed by

a ISTA b Central Seed Certification Board

c AOSSCA d PPV and FRA

6. The crop with lowest seed multiplication ratio is

a Field pea b Sesame

c Coconut d Groundnut

7. The crop with highest seed multiplication ratio is

a Field pea b Sesame

c Soybean d Groundnut
8. A farmer has to purchase the seed to produce certified seed from
a Seed Certification Agency b Seed Corporation c
University d Market
9. At field level Breeder Seed Production programme is
a Certified by Field Inspector b Certified by the Officer of the CSTL
c Certified by the committee d Monitored by the committee
constituted for the purpose constituted for the purpose

10. The colour of the tag of the seed of Wheat variety WH 147 purchased by the farmer to produce
Certified seed II will be

a Yellow b Azure Blue

c Green d White

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11. The number of tiers involved in seed multiplication in India is a
One b Two
c Three d Four
12. The population formed by sowing of hybrid seed will be
a Homogeneous population b Homogeneous population of
of homozygous plants heterozygous plants
c Heterogeneous population d Heterogeneous population of
of homozygous plants heterozygous plants

13. A farmer is producing the Certified seed of Wheat variety WH 147. During
verification of the source of seed the colour of the tag should be

a Golden Yellow b White

c Azure Blue d Bottle Green
14. The head quarter of PPV&FR is located at
a Hyderabad b Bangloere
c Lucknow d New Delhi
15. Name given to all the cultivated variants of plant varieties produced by breeding procedure after
its notification is designated as
a Extant variety b Cultivar
c Cultigen d EDV
16. Any genera with only one known species that to under cultivation designated as a
Cultigen b Genera
c Cultivar d Variety
17. The colour of the tag of Foundation seed I is of
a Golden Yellow b White
c Azure Blue d Bottle Green
18. A farmer has to purchase the seed for sowing purpose to produce Foundation seed from

a Seed Certification Agency b Seed Corporation

c University d Open Market
19. The colour of the Breeder seed Tag is of
a Golden Yellow b Off White
c Azure Blue d Bottle Green
20. The highest seed replacement rate is of

a A Synthetic b A Composite
c A hybrid d A variety

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21. Obtaining optimum population of healthy plants of the selected variety adopting normal
recommended seed rate is termed as

a Real value of seed b Planting value of seed

c Seed aptitude d Genuine seed

22. The seed yield from a unit area is governed by.

a genetic potential of the variety and b Optimum plant population of a potential
environmental condition variety
c optimum plant population and
d Genetic potential of the variety, optimum
environmental
population of healthy plants and
conditions
environmental conditions

23. A plant grouping except micro-organism with in a single botanical taxon of the lowest
known rank, is known as

a Variety b Strain
c Species d Land race

24. The seed soled, based on the result of the laboratory established by the producer but not from a
recognized lab is considered as
a Privately Certified seed b Truthfully labeled seed c
Certified seed d Denotified seed
25. The class that does not represent seed multiplication chain in India A Nucleus
seed B Breeder seed
C Foundation seed D Certified seed
26. In United States mainly for autogamous crops the generation between Foundation and Certified
seed is considered as
A Foundation seed II B Registered seed
C Certified seed I D. Truthfully labeled seed
27. Foundation and Certified seed production and procurement of Breeder, Foundation and Certified
seed is the role of
A. Seed Certification Agency B. Seed Corporation
C. Agricultural University D. ICAR
28. Number of autonomous bodies involved in seed multiplication chain are
A. Two B. Three
C. Four D. Five
29. Number of time seed may be multiplied from Breeder to Certified seed that is provided to farmer
for production of food
A. Two B. Three
C. Four D. Any

3
30. Seed produced by registered seed growers under the supervision of Seed Certification Agency,
which is certified by a blue colour (Shade ISI No. 104, azure blue) certificate is
A. Registered seed B. Breeder seed
C. Foundation seed D. Certified seed
31. As per seed act the seed crop should be raised from the seed
A. Genetic pure seed without any approved B. Genetic pure seed produced by the seed
source grower
C. Genetic pure seed purchased from D. Of approved source
the open market
32. The validity period of the seed certificate is
A. Nine months from the date of harvest B. Nine months from the date of
processing

C. Nine months from the date of test D. 12 month from the date of sowing
of the seed crop
33. The rice disease known as ‘foolish seedling’-disease with extremely fast growth of spindly and pale
seedling, that break off easily is caused by the substance
secreted by a parasitic fungi (Fusarium moniliforme). A.
Gibberellin B. Auxin
C. Abscisic acid D. Cytokinnins
34. In botanical nomenclature a variety is a
A. Sub group of a species B. Sub group of genera
C. Sub group of a class D. Sub group ofkingdom

4
 Seed Porcessing
35. Top most screen with larger holes than the desirable seed size to remove the inert matter of
larger size is known as
a Grader b Scalper
c Aspirator d Huller
36. In public sector seed processing plants belongs to.
a Seed Corporation b Seed certification agency c
Private agency d Farmer
37. A specified quantity of processed seed of a variety and class produced by a grower is known as

a Certified seed b Processed seed

c Farmers seed d Seed lot
38. Improvement in physical purity of seed lot by removal of undesirable material and upgrading of
seed quality through removal of damaged and undersized seed by mechanical devices with highest
efficiency including minimum loss and damage to seed is known as

a Seed processing b Seed treatment

c Seed halogenation d Seed invigoration

39. Pre conditioning, basic cleaning and grading are the major steps of
a Grading b Seed processing
c Seed treatment d Quality control
40. Th e
operation that prepares a seed lot for basic cleaning.
a Pre cleaning b Grading
c Pre conditioning d Pre taming

41. Equipments used for removal of corn seeds from its cob a
Debearder b Sheller
c Huller d Scarifier
42. The equipment removes tightly fixed husk from seeds of grasses to facilitate in the process of
sowing and germination
a Debearder b Sheller
c Huller d Scarifier
43. The equipment scratches the hard seed coat to improve the process of germination by increasing
exchange of water and oxygen in crops like lucerne, fababean, rice bean etc.
a Scarifier b Stratifier
c Scalper d Sheller

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44. The thumb rules for seed storage have been developed by

a E.H. Roberts b H.F. Harrington

c Douglos d Thompson

45. Huller, Sheller, Debearder, decoaticator are the equipment of seed processing involved in

a Basic cleaning b Grading

c Pre conditioning d Cleaning
46. A vital link between production and marketing of seeds
a Tanning b Numbering
c Processing d Colouring
47. Se ed of groundnut is stored as

a Nut b Kernel
c Dehulled seed d Seed
48. The step of seed processing that removes the larger, smaller, lighter and thicker adulterants as
compared to the crop seed, from the seed lot is known as .
a Pre conditioning b Basic cleaning
c Grading d Separation
49. Top most screen of a seed cleaner/ grader with larger hole than the desirable seed size to
remove the inert matter of larger size than the seed is known as

a Grader b Scalper
c Aspirator d Debearder

50. The separator that separates the inert matter, other crop seeds, weed seeds and shrivelled seeds
from healthy leguminous seeds using the ability of a seed to roll due to its shape is known as

a Indent b Gravity
c Spiral d Disc
51. The revolving separator that provides each seed a chance to fit into the indent by turning out the
seed mass is known as
a Indent cylindrical b Gravity separator
separator
d Disc separator
c Spiral separator

52. A separator consists of a stratifying deck surface mounted at a slight angle that reciprocates and
tosses heavy seed in uphill direction, whereas, light material remains at down hill place is known
as
a Indent cylindrical separator Gravity separator c
Spiral separator Disc separator

6
53. Lighter inert matter and adulterant than the crop seed is removed from the seed lot by the
process of .

a Preconditioning b Hulling
c Dehulling d Aspiration

54. Moisture content of the seed by the hot air oven method is given by
a ( Intial wt-final wt) / Final b (Final wt-initial wt) / Initial wt X 100
wt X 100

c Wet wt / Dry wt X 100 d Wet weight-Dry weight

55. The mash size of a screen is presented as
a N/4 inch b N/8 inch
c N/16 inch d N/64 inch
56. Th e
shape of the mash of top screen is generally
a Oblong b Round
c Triangular d Wire mash

57. The total of relative humidity in percent and temperature in Fahrenheit should not exceed
for safe storage of seed.
a 50 b 70
c 100 d 120
58. Separation based on seed weight is done with the help of

a Aspirator b Gravity separator

c Spiral separator d Disc separator
59. Separation based on seed shape is done with the help of

a Aspirator b Gravity separator

c Spiral separator d Disc separator

60. Separation based on seed surface texture is done with the help of a
Aspirator b Gravity separator
c Spiral separator d Disc separator
61. Separation based on seed surface texture is done with the help of
a Indent cylindrical b Gravity separator
separator
d Disc separator
c Spiral separator

62. In general, separation based on seed colour is done with the help of
a Indent cylindrical b Gravity separator
separator

c Spiral separator d Hand picking

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63. Exposure of imbibed seeds to higher/lower temperatures for a prescribed period of time to
overcome mechanical or morphological dormancy is known as

a Scarification b Stratification
c Scalping d Priming

64. Process of enriching the seeds with bioactive chemicals is known as a

Fortification b Stratification
c Halogenation d Priming
65. Soaking of seeds in organic solvents to improve the germination and vigour of the seed by
infusion of bioactive chemicals into the seed without altering seed moisture content is known as
a Fortification b Permeation
c Halogenation d Priming
66. Hydration of the seed to initiate the pre-germinative metabolism followed by dehydration to fix
the biochemical events is known as seed

a Fortification b Hardening
c infusion d Dressing

67. Controlled hydration of seeds through a carrier or a high molecular solute to a level that starts
pre-germinative metabolic activity followed by dehydration to check emergence of the radicle is
known as seed

a Fortification b Hardening
c infusion d Priming

68. Soaking of seeds in salt solutions is known as

a Osmo-priming b Bio-priming
c Halo-priming d Solid matrix priming
69. Seed coating with biological agents like Rhizobium
a Osmo-priming b Bio-priming
c Halo-priming d Solid matrix priming
70. Enclosing or encapsulation of the small seed with a small quantity of inert (foreign) material to
produce a globular unit of standard size is known as

a Seed priming b Seed hardening

c Seed pelleting d Seed Fortification

71. Coating of seed with all the possible useful active ingredients (insecticide + fungicide +
micronutrients + colouring agents + etc) with an adhesive is known as

a Hard seed b Prime seed

c Designer seed d Pelleted seed

8
72. To check mesomechochory in sesame the seed is dressed with

a Fungicide b Bacteriacide
c Nematacide d Insecticide

73. Seed feeder that obtains water metabolically from seeds and releases it into their immediate
environment along with waste heat are

a The primary seed b The secondary seed feeder

feeder

c Internal seed feeder d All

74. Callosobruchus spp is very serious insect pest of

a Pulses b Vegetatively propagated crops

c Cereals d Oil seed crops

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Seed storage
75. Seeds that may withstand dehydration without damage are considered as. a Dormant
seed b Recalcitrant seed
c orthodox seed d Hard seed
76. The two greatest enemies of storage life of seeds are
a high moisture and high b High light intensity and high
temperature temperature
c Low light intensity and high d Low oxygen and high moisture
moisture

77. Cryopreservation means storage (conserving) of materials at

a Very high temperature b Liquid nitrogen temperature c
low temperature d room temperature
78. Storage or conservation of materials at –196 degrees Celsius is called as a Cold
storage b Medium term storage
c Cryopreservation d Short term storage
79. Optimal storage condition is
a airtight, low humidity, and low b Free air flow, low humidity, and low
temperature temperature

c airtight, High humidity, and low d airtight, low humidity, and high
temperature temperature
80. An improvement in seed performance by any post harvest physio-chemical treatment resulting in
better storability, improved germination and field performance over a wide range of edapho-
climatic conditions than the corresponding untreated seed is considered as
a Seed pelleting b Seed pelleting
c seed invigoration d Seed ageing
81. Elements of Group XVII of periodic table are known as a
Hydrogen b Nitrogen
c Helium d Halogen
82. Replacement of one atom with halogen is known as
halogenation
a Carbon b Nitrogen
c Oxygen d Hydrogen
83. The halogen is absorbed by of the seed and reduces the physiological deterioration
a Protein b Carbohydrate
c Unsaturated fatty acid d Saturated fatty acid

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84. The Halogen protect seed during storage due to property a
Antimicrobial b Fumigation
c Repellent d Attractant
85. All the stored insect pests belong to the order
a Coleopetra, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera b Lepidoptera , Diptera and Odonata c
Coleopetra, Diptera, Odonata d Hymenoptera, Diptera, Odonata
86. Important store grain pests are from the class
A Chordeta b Reptilia
c Insecta and Acarira d Only Acarira
87. Cigarette beetle, confused flour beetle, Indian meal, red flour beetle and saw toothed beetle are
feeder
a External feeder b Internal feeder
c External and internal feeder d These are not store grainpest
88. Live on the seeds already damaged by other insects in store. a Mites
b Snail
c Nematodes d Rat
89. Exposure of seeds to gaseous form of harmful chemicals to control seed borne fungi and insects
to control deterioration of seed during storage is known as
a Halogenation b Fumigation
c Invigoration d Pelleting
90. Seed sample of -with more than the 1% insect infestation are rejected a Oil
seed b Legume and maize
c Vegetable d Cereals
91. In Oil seed crops maximum permitted insect infestation during storage is a 0.1%
b 0.5%
c 1% d Nil
92. Objectionable insect pest of sweet potato

a Scale insect b Scale and mealy bug

c Wireworm and weevil d Bruchus

93. Scale insect is the objectionable pest of

a Okra b Sugarcane
c Colocassia d Potato
94. Seed of wheat reduced to husk indicates infestation of
a Red flour, beetle b Saw toothed beetle
c khapra beetle d Flat grain beetle

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Seed health
95. A variety used by farmer was resistant to YMV of soybean but in the current year the symptoms of
disease appeared on the plants. It shows deterioration of
a Seed b Variety
c Crop d Soil
96. Diaphanoscope is used to test the
a Physical purity b Genetic purity
c Moisture content d Seed viability
97. At seed level disease is objectionable both in sorghum and pearl millet.

a Head smut b Grain smut

c Downy mildew d Ergot

98. Seed of pearl millet from fields having ergot infection even within the prescribed limits should be
subjected to floatation treatment in to become eligible for
certification.
a Water b Brine solution
c Brawn solution d Brown solution
99. The seed certification standard of Karnal bunt for foundation class is 0.05%. It means one has to
observe minimum seeds

a 100 b 1000
c 10000 d 100000
100. In India Orobanche cumna is a designated objectionable parasitic weed of

a Safflower b Sugarcane
c Soybean d Sunflower

101. In India Cuscutta spp is a designated objectionable parasitic weed of

a Egyptin clover b Lucerne

c Oat d Niger

102.Seed sample of maize and pulses with insect infestation more than are
rejected during certification
O.1% 0.5%
1.0% 10%

103. Seed sample other than maize and pulses with insect infestation more than
are rejected during certification.
A. O.1% B. 0.5%
C. 1.0% D. 10%

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104.To avoid transmission of loose smut in barley, wheat, oat and triticale m
isolation distance should be maintained in Certified seed production programme.
A. 50m B. 100m
C. 150m D. 200m
105.Top borer, Internode borer, Stalk borer, Plassey borer, Gurdaspur borer, Scale insect, Mealy
bug are the objectionable insect pest of
A. Maize B. Sorghum
C. Pearl millet D. Sugarcane
106. The field infected by brown rot, wart or nematode should not be selected for seed production of
A. Potato tubers B. Sugarcane
C. Onion D. Soybean
107. Halo blight is the objectionable seed borne disease of
A. Mung bean B. Rajmash
C. Soybean D. Urid ban
108. Cercospora leaf spot is the objectionable seed borne disease of
A. Niger B. Sesame
C. Linseed D. Groundnut
109. The disease objectionable both for sunflower and pearl millet at field level is Halo blight
Head smut
Cercospora leaf spot Downy mildew
110. objectionable disease of pearl millet both at seed and field level is
A. Ergot B. Downymildew
C. Head smut D. Grainsmut
111. Common objectionable disease of wheat, triticale, oat and barley at field level is
A. False smut B. Yellow Rust
C. Loose smut D. Blackrust
112. The objectionable pest in seed production of chickpea in India is
A. Fusarium wilt B. Rhizoctonia root rot
C. Helicoverpa D. None
113. Seed fields that can be reinspected
A. Sorghum infected by grain and B. Sorghum infected by ergot
head smut
D. Wheat infected with Loose smut
C. Pearl millet infected by
downy mildew

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114. Downy mildew of pearl millet is an objectionable seed borne disease
A. At seed level B. At field level
C. At both the levels D. It is not an objectionabledisease
115. The objectionable weed in seed production of soybean at field level in India is
A. Wild soybean B. Glycinesoja
C. Cardiospermum halicacabum D. None
116. The objectionable weed of rice at seed level in India
A. O. sativa var. fatua B. O. rufipogon
C. O. nivara D. Zizaniapalustris
117. The objectionable weed of rape seed and mustard at seed level in India is A. Argimone
mexicana B. Carthamus tinctorious
C. Cichorium intybus D. Orobanche
118. Carthamus oxyacantha is the objectionable weed of
A. Linseed B. Safflower
C. Sunflower D. Soybean
119. The objectionable weed of Egyptian clover at seed level in India.
A. Cichorium intybus B. Chicoriumintybus
C. Cikorium intybus D. Cikoriumintybus
120. Phalaris minor is an objectionable weed of wheat
A. at both seed and field level B. Only at seedlevel
C. Only at field level D. It is not an objectionable
weed
121.Infestation of granary weevil, rice weevil, lesser and larger grain borer, angumois grain moth,
seed beetles etc are
A. Not visible form the out side B. Visible from the out side
C. No infestation in store D. Only on thesurface
122.Granary weevil, rice weevil, lesser and larger grain borer, angumois grain moth, seed beetles etc.
lay their eggs in seeds
A. when seeds are attached to the plant B. At the time of harvesting
and are at milk stage

C. At the time of processing D. Instore

123. In India, the objectionable seed borne disease of soybean in seed certification is
A. Cercospora leaf spot B. YM virus
C. Root rot D. None

14
 124. Downey mildew is an objectionable seed borne disease of
A. Sunflower B. Pearlmillet
C. Both Aand B D. Fieldpea
125. The soil may become sick with the continuous use of seed infected with
disease for sowing purpose
A. Loose smut of wheat and
Cercospora leaf spot of sesame
C. Rice bunt and head smut of
sorghum
B. arnal bunt of wheat and downy mildew
of sunflower
D. Downey mildew of pearl millet and
Halo blight of mung

15
Seed production
126.----------------- is maintained by avoiding Out crossing and mixture of seeds of other varietiesin
the produced seed lot.
A. Physical B. Genetic
C. Health D. Germinability
127. The purity of the seed that is improved by rouging is
A. Physical purity B. Geneticpurity
C. Ethic purity D. Expressedpurity
128. Genetic impurity in pigeonpea due to out crossing can be sorted out by
A. ODV test B. GOT test
C. Both ODVand GOT D. DUS test
129. Seed plot is grown at a particular distance from the sources of genetic contamination to avoid
A. Self pollination B. Outcrossing
C. Goitenogamy D. Crosspollination
130.Sorghum, pigeonpea, cotton, linseed, sesame require more isolation distance during seed
production as these crops have type of pollination.
Self pollinated Cross pollinated
Often self pollinated Often cross pollinated
131.Exposure of male and female part of flower due to pressure of insect during nectar or pollen
collection is known as
A. Bursting B. Anthesis
C. Tripping D. Hammering
132. The pollen grains are tested for viability by using solution. A. 2% aceto-
carmine B. Iodine solution
C. Agar agar D. Commusiveblue
133.The act of removing the plants of the same species, which is deviating from the normal
expression of the variety in a seed production plot is designated as
A. Weeding B. Rouging
C. Offtype removal D. Cropping
134.Selective removal of undesirable plants of the seed crop on the basis of visual inspection in the
field to improve quality of seed is known as .
A. Weeding B. Rouging
C. Offtype removal D. Cropping

16
135. An isolation distance of three meter is recommended in many self pollinated crops to check

A. Out crossing B. Cross pollination

C. Infection of disease D. Mechanicalmixture
136.In determination of isolation distance tester means population with
alleles of the genes for marker character.
A. Dominant B. Recessive
C. Additive D. Epistitc
137.Careful and systematic evaluation of a seed production field and the removal of all undesirable
plants of the same crop is known as .
A. Weeding B. Rouging
C. Offtype removal D. Cropping
138.Removal of plant of wheat infested by loose smut from the seed production plot of wheat is
known as .
A. Weeding B. Rouging
C. Offtype removal D. Cropping
139.Isoation and roguing are the major field operations of seed production that differs from
commercial cultivation to maintain
A. Genetic purity and seed health B. Physical purity and germination
C. Out crossing and vigour D. Uniformity andstability

140.In a seed production plot, plant similar for distinguishing character(s) but deviates in the
agronomical trait(s) like, days to flowering, plant height, disease reaction and days to maturity is
designated as .
A. Rogue B. Offtype
C. Volunteer plant D. ODV
141.A plant in the seed crop, which deviates from the norm for the cultivar, but does not obviously
belong to another cultivar
A. Rogue B. Offtype
C. Volunteer plant D. ODV

142.Plant showing variation in expression of distinguishing characters or abnormal performance of the

plant in comparison to normal expression of the cultivar i.e., plant of other cultivar, other species
or diseased plant of the same cultivar is considered as
A. Rogue B. Offtype
C. Volunteer plant D. ODV

17
143.Knowledge of of the variety in seed production is the pre-requisite for the persons
engaged in rouging.
A. Diagnostic and phenological traits B. Qualitative and quantitative traits
C. Expression against biotic stresses D. Polygenic and oligogenictraits
144. Theoretically rouging should be performed
A. Before flowering B. After flowering
C. At the time of flowering D. At the time ofmaturity
145. Testing of genetic purity at seed level is known as test A.
ODV B. GOT
C. DUS D. VCU

146. Testing of genetic purity at plant level is known as

A. ODV B. GOT
C. DUS D. VCU
147.Plants of the same crop grown in the field due to shattered seeds of previous season crop/variety
alongwith the present season crop is known as
A. Assistant plant B. Pollen shedder
C. Volunteer plant D. Weed
148. Undesirable natural Out crossing has
A. No effect on morphology of the B. ficant alteration on morphology of produced
produced seed seed
C. Seed will be of larger seed size D. Seed will be or darker in colour
149.Deterioration of a variety when the proportion of different states of unnoticed traits may reach
equilibrium by natural selection and express in new environment is known as
A. Genetic drift B. Residual Segregation
C. Genetic shift D. Naturalselection
150. Cause of variation during seed multiplication that can not be controlled by seed producer is
A. Out crossing B. Mutation
C. Residual segregation D. Recombination

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Seed law enforcement
151. Prof visited India in the year 1961, emphasized on controlling the quality of
seeds by certifying them and enacting seed law.
A. A.S. Carter
B. K. Dorph Peterson
C. L.O. Copeland
D. O.L. Justice
152. Minimum Seed certification were determined in the year
A. 1966
B. 1971
C. 1975
D. 1989
153. advises the Central Government and the State Governments on matter
arising out of the administration of the Seed Act.
a) Central Seed committee
b) State seed Committee
c) University
d) ICAR
154. The method to be adopted for seed testing is finalized by
a) Central Seed Testing Lab
b) Directorate of Seed Research
c) International Seed Testing Association
d) National Seed Testing Association
155. The seed rules were passed in the year
A. 1963
B. 1966
C. 1968
D. 1971
156. The procedure to be followed by Seed inspector for inspection of seed is described in
the book entitled
A hand book of seed inspector Seed
Testing manual
Seed Technology
Seed Certification manual
157. The takes sample of the notified variety being sent for testing in Seed
Testing laboratory
A. Seed inspector of seed certification agency
B. Officer of seed corporation
C. Engineer of processing plant
D. Representative of the University

19
158. By the Seed (control) order, the seed was included in commodities.
a) Essential
b) Non essential
c) Food
d) Volatile
159. In public sector quality of seed is the responsibility of
A. Seed Corporation
B. Seed Certification Agency
C. Seed seller
D. Farmer
160. National Seed Policy was framed in the year
A. 1966
B. 1983
C. 2002
D. 2006
161. One or more related species or sub-species of crop plants each individually or
collectively known by one common name is termed as
in seed act 1966.
A. Kind
B. Brand
C. Variety
D. Type
162. The seed testing laboratory to which the sample has been submitted for analysis
shall submit the report of analysis to the Seed Inspector with in
days of receipt of the sample.
A. 30 days
B. 45 days
C. 60 days
D. 90 days
163. As per Seed Act 1966 the person who contravenes the functioning of Seed Inspector
from exercising powers may fine upto rupees for the
first offense.
a. Rs 500
b. Rs 1000
c. Rs. 5000
d. Rs. 10000
164. For production of foundation seed, the sowing will be of class seed.
a. Nucleus seed b.
Breeder seed
c. Foundation seed
d. Certified seed

20
165. Production of the Breeder seed is the responsibility of A State
Government
B. National Seed Corporation
C. Central Seed Testing Board
D. Division of Seed, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
166. Availability of Foundation seed for production of Certified seed is the responsibility
of
A. State Government
B. ICAR
C. Central Seed Testing Board
D. Division of Seed, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
167. Number of generation allowed after Breeder seed in seed multiplication chain is
A2
B3
C4
D5
168. Production of Foundation and Certified seed is the responsibility of
A. Seed Certification Agency
B. Seed Testing Laboratory
C. Seed Corporation
D. ICAR
169. On the tag of the Breeder Seed Signature is of
a. Seed certification inspector
b. Seed Analyst
c. Seed Certification Officer
d. Consult Plant Breeder
170. A farmer interested in Certified seed production has to get registered with
A. Seed Corporation
B. Seed Certification Agency
C. University
D. State Department of Agriculture
171. In March 2002 the first transgenic hybrid of was allowed for
commercial cultivation in farmer’s field in India .
a. Maize
b. Pearl millet
c. Cotton
d. Tomato

21
172. India became member of ISTA in the year
1. 1961
2. 1963
3. 1966
4. 1971
173. The Essential Commodities Act, was enacted in the year
A. 1950
B. 1955
C. 1960
D. 1968
174. Seeds Control Order under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 was enacted in the
year.
A. 1981
B. 1983
C. 1987
D. 1988
175. Consumer Protection Act was enacted in the year A. 1984
B. 1986
C. 1988
D. 2000
176. Environment Protection Act, with its 1989 Rules pertaining to Genetically
Modified Organisms was enacted in the year
A. 1986
B. 1989
C. 2002
D. 2006
177. New Policy on Seed Development was enacted in the year A. 1985
B. 1988
C. 1998
D. 2008
178. The Biological Diversity Act, was enacted in the year A.
1992
B. 1998
C. 2000
D. 2002

22
179. The Plants, Fruits and Seeds (Regulation of Import into India) Order, was enacted in
the year
A. 1987
B. 1989
C. 1999
D. 2005
180. Industrial Policy was enacted in the year A.
1961
B. 1991
C. 1971
D. 1981
181. Geographical Indication of Goods Act, was enacted in the year A. 1979
B. 1989
C. 1999
D. 2009
182. Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, was enacted in the year
1. 1999
2. 2000
3. 2001
4. 2005
183. National Seed Policy was enacted in the year
A. 1966
B. 1968
C. 1998
D. 2002
184. The Government of India enacted the in 1966 to regulate the seed
industry.
a) Seed bill b)
Seed act
c) Seed regulation
d) Seed law
185. The act provided a system for seed quality control through independent State
Agency
a) Seed production b)
Seed certification
c) Seed corporation
d) Department of Agriculture

23
186. In 1991 under Industrial Policy seed production was identified as a
a) High priority industry
b) Low priority industry
c) Not as an industry
d) Cottage industry
187. Minimum gap required for seed production programme of different varieties of the same
crop in the selected field is
a) One to two years.
b) Two-three years
c) One season
d) Five years
188. The act providing protection to a variety in India is
a) Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Right Act
B) Plant Variety Protection and Farmers Right Act
C) Plant Variety Patent Act
D) IPR on Plant Variety Act
189. Seed act (1966, sub section 16 of section 2) defined a sub division of a kind identified by
its growth, yield, plant, fruit, seed or other characters as
A. Cultivar
B. Land race
C. Farmer variety
D. Variety
190. A notified under section 5 of Seed Act 1966; and Farmers’ variety as defined in PPV act;
and a variety about which there is common knowledge or any other variety, which is in
public domain is known as under
PPVFR act.
a. Extant variety
b. Extent variety
c. Extinct variety
d. Extend variety
191. A variety is designated as in respect to the initial variety
when it is predominantly derived from such initial variety
a. Essentially derived variety
b. Extant variety
c. Extent variety
d. Old variety
192. The variety is notified under section 5 for years.
a. 05
b. 10
c. 15
d. 20

24
193. A variety, which has been traditionally cultivated and evolved by the farmers’ in their
fields. It may be a wild relative or land race of a variety about which farmer possess the
common knowledge is known as
a. Wild variety
b. Extant variety
c. Land race
d. Farmers’ variety
194. A variety is notified by the office of
a. Ministry of Agriculture State Government b.
Ministry of Agriculture Government of India
c. University
d. ICAR
195. Seed of only varieties are produced by seed multiplication chain.
A. Notified
B. Identified
C. Released
D. Denotified

196. India has adapted tier system for seed multiplication.

A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four
197. The short form of International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
A. IUPNVP
B. UPOV
C. PPV&FRA
D. ISTA
198. Full control on a protected variety is of
A) Farmer
B) Authority
C) Breeder
D) ICAR
199. On grant of protection, has rights of commercialization for the
registered variety
A. The breeder
B. The farmer
C. The Authority
D. ICAR

25
200. As per PPV and FR Act the right for researchers is A. free
access to registered varieties for research
B. No free access to registered varieties for research
C. free access to registered varieties for market
D. free access to registered varieties for export
.
201. In the Indian Act, for making EDVs
A. The breeders’ authorization is needed
B. The breeders’ authorization is not needed
C. Only original breeder can develop the EDV
D. Authorization of PPV and FR Authority is needed
202. Indian act granted on plant variety
A. Patent
B. Copyright
C. Protection
D. Exclusive right
203. As per Indian Act methods and processes of agriculture and horticulture A. Cannot
be patented
B. Can be patented
C. Can be granted copyright
D. Can be granted exclusive right

204. The Indian Patent Amendment Act, call, cell lines, cell organelles like mitochondria and
genes
A. Cannot be patented
B. Can be patented
C. Can be granted copyright
D. Can be granted exclusive right .
205. Is there any Act for protecting a new plant variety in India
A. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001
B. The Protection of Plant Varieties Act 2001
C. The Plant variety Protection Act 2001
D. UPOV
206. Under the TRIPS agreement it is obligatory on part of a Member to provide protection to
new plant variety therefore India opted for
A. sui generis system
B. Patent
C. Copy right
D. Exclusive right

26
207. The PPV and FR act 2001 of India provides safeguards
A. Only to farmers
B. Only to breeders
C. Only to researchers’
D. All the three
208. What kind of varieties is registerable under the PPV&FR Act
A. Only extant varieties without confirmation of DUS testing
B. Only new varieties with confirmation of DUS testing
C. Only Public sector varieties after confirmation of DUS testing
D. Extant and new varieties with confirmation of DUS testing
209. The original variety from which the Essentially Derived Variety” is developed
A. Should be protected
B. Should not be protected
C. May or may not beprotected
D. Should be patented
210. Plant variety is considered if at the date of filing of the application for
protection, the propagating material of such variety has not been sold with the consent of
breeder or his successor for the purpose of exploitation of such variety earlier than one year
in India before the date of filing such application
A. Novel
B. Distinctive
C. Stable
D. Uniform
211. The stability of the new variety is tested/considered by
A. Eberhart and Russell Model
B. Uniform and stable expression of the essential traits over the year and locations
C. Freeman and Perkins model
D. Perkins and Jinks model
212. The variety submitted for protection is considered as
A. Candidate variety
B. Extant variety
C. Farmers variety
D. Reference variety
213. Deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome of seed is termed
as seed
A. Legislation
B. Policy
C. Act
D. Rule

27
214. Law which has been enacted by government body to regulate, to authorize, to provide
(funds), to sanction, to grant, to declare or to restrict is known as seed
A. Legislation
B. Policy
C. Act
D. Rule
215. The principal changes include regulation and registration in new seed bill is
A. Seed can be sold only after certification from public sector, and no place for transgenic
seed.
B. Even transgenic seed can be sold after certification from public sector
C. For certification only private seed certification laboratory will be accredited
D. All seeds to be sold, provisions for self-certification and accreditation of private seed
testing laboratories, and regulation of transgenic seeds.
216. In New Seed Bill 2004
A. Only varieties notified by the government need to be registered.
B. All seeds for sale must be registered.
C. All varieties for sale must be registered
D. Registration is compulsory only for private seed agencies
217. In New Seed Bill 2004
A. No provision for transgenic varieties of seeds.
B. Special provisions for registration of transgenic varieties of seeds.
C. Transgenic varieties of seed will be register with non-transgenic without any
discrimination
D. Transgenic varieties of seed of Indian origin will be register with non-
transgenic without any discrimination
218. In the event of under performance of seeds New Seed Bill 2004 has
A. No specific provision for compensation.
B. Provision of seed replacement
C. Provision for compensation to farmers under the Consumer Protection Act,
1986
D. Provision of cost of seed

219. As per New Seed Bill 2004 any person who contravenes any provisions of the Act or
imports, sells or stocks seeds deemed to be misbranded or not registered can be punishable
by a fine of
A. Rs. 500-5000
B. Rs 1000- 10,000
C. Rs 5,000 to 25,000
D. Rs. 10000/-

28
Seed Certification
220. Minimum gap required for seed production programme of different varieties
of the same crop in the selected field is
A. 1-2 year
B. 2-3 years
C. 3-4
D. 4-5 year
221. The field will not be selected for seed production programme if in the Last year /
season
A. Same variety of the same crop was cultivated B.
Different variety of the same crop was cultivated
C. Different crop was cultivated
D. No crop was cultivated
222. Seed production plot should be under
A. Sole cropping
B. Inter cropping
C. Mixed cropping
D. None of the above
223. Plants formed by the seed of the crop grown last year in the same field is known as
A. Off type
B. Rogue
C. Volunteer plant
D. Objectionable weed
224. Off-type and rogues should be removed from seed production plot
A. Before sowing B.
Before flowering
C. After flowering
D. At the time of maturity
225. Seed used for sowing purpose, isolation distance, volunteer plants, presence of
offtypes and rogue may deteriorate
A. Physical purity
B. Genetic purity
C. Genetical purity
D. None of the above
226. Removal of lentil plant from the seed production plot of Lens culinaris
is known as
A. Weeding
B. Rouging
C. Cleaning
D. Nicking

29
227. Modification in distance to keep the seed crop in isolation is permitted only in
hybrid seed production of
A. Maize
B. Pearl millet
C. Pigeonpea
D. Sunflower
228. The entire area planted under seed production programme by an individual
constitutes a unit of certification provided the entire seed production programme is
to produce seed of one category and one variety and the area should not exceed ha.
A. 5ha
B. 10ha
C. 25 ha
D. 50ha
229. The tolerance limits for offtypes to establish the uniformity Under DUS test for
Self-pollinated crops (except cereals) is
a) 0.1%
b) 1%
c) 5%
d) 10%
230. The plant of cotton with presence of red flower on the same plant with white
flower is considered as
a) Offtype
b) Rogue
c) Out crossed
d) Genetic pure
231. Loss in genetic purity is an indicator of deterioration
A) Seed deterioration
B) Variety deterioration
C) Soil deterioration
D) Crop deterioration
232. Deterioration of varieties due to mutation such as 'fatuoids' in oats or 'rabbit ear' in
peas can be controlled by
a. Production of seed in isolation
b. Roguing
c. Seed treatment
d. Change in the seed production field
233. Presence of objectionable weed in the seed of rice produced by a farmer shows
deterioration of
A) Seed B ) Variety
C) Soil D) Crop

30
234. Rouging and cultivation of crop in isolation are the effective instruments to check
deterioration.
(a) Physical
(b) Genetic
(c) Crop
(d) Plant
235. Designated inseparable crop plants during seed production of wheat is a. Chickpea
b. Mung bean
c. Oat
d. Lentil
236. Method applied by a breeder for development of a variety may influence
deterioration of
A) Seed B)
Variety
C) Crop
D) Seed health
237. The plant of the same crop present in the field due to previous year/season crop is
known as
A) Shattered plant B)
Volunteer plant
C) Weed
D) ODV
238. Plant of same variety with different expression mainly for phenological traits is
removed form the seed production plot to reduce
A) Genetic shift B)
Genetic drift
C) Genetic erosion
D) Genetic identity
239. An isolation distance is maintained between two
A) Genera
B) Crops
C) Cross incompatible species of the same genera
D) Varieties of the same crop
240. Certification of seed is done at
A) One level B)
Two levels
C) Three levels
D) Four levels

31
241. The most appropriate stage of inspections of loose-smut-susceptible wheat's and
cross-pollinated crops is
a) Pre flowering b)
Flowering
c) Post flowering
d) Maturity
242. The validity period of seed certification could be further extended provided on re-
testing seed conforms to the prescribed standards for
a. Three months b.
six months
c. Nine months
d. 12 months
243. The validity period of seed certification could be further extended provided on re-
testing seed conforms to the prescribed standards in respect of
a) Physical purity, germination and insect damage
b) Moisture content, germination and seed health
c) Genetic purity, physical purity and germination
d) Validity period can not be extended
244. Seed of the varieties eligible for certification shall be
a. Protected under PPV and FR Act 2001.
b. Notified under section 5 of the seeds Act, 1966
c. Released by CVRC
d. Identified by the respective workshop of the crop
245. In general, the smallest number of plants of one cross-pollinated variety
that should be grown to ensure genetic integrity
a. 100 plants b.
200 plants
c. 500 plants
d. 1000plants
246. At head formation stage a cross shape cut is made for seed stalk emergence in
A. Egyptian clover
B. Potato
C. Cabbage
D. Castor
247. To induce seed stalk formation horizontal cut is made on the A. Curd
ofcauliflower
B. Sugarcane sett
C. Potato tuber
D. Sweet potato

32
248. Seed rate of true potato seed for one hectare is
A. 2.5t/ha
B. 1kg/ha
C. 100kg/ha
D. 100g/ha
249. A variety of wheat is maintained by
A. Single plant selection from single plant progeny of nucleus seed production
plot
B. Single ear selection from ear to row progeny of nucleus seed production plot
C. Single plant selection from Breeder seed production plot
D. Single ear selection from Breeder seed production plot
250. The indent of breeder’s seed production is allocated to different institutions,
through proforma
A. BSP I
B. BSP II
C. BSP III
D. BSP IV
251. In maintenance breeding programme gentic purity is maintained by
A. Rouging of offtype plant
B. Removal of the line in which offtype plant appears
C. Rejection of the line in the event all the plants of the line are offtype
D. Rouging is never required in maintenance breeding
252. The report of the monitoring team is submitted to ICAR and Seed Division Ministry
of Agriculture, GOI in rpoforma
A. BSP I
B. BSP II
C. BSP III
D. BSP V
253. Foundation seed producer transfers the seed to
A. Seed Corporation
B. Seed Processing Plant
C. Seed Certification Agency
D. The University
254. The Certified seed is processed under the supervision of the officer from
A. Seed Corporation
B. Seed Certification Agency
C. Engineer of Seed Processing Plant
D. University/CAR institute

33
255. scattered fields constituting one unit of seed certification should not be separated by
A. More than 40m
B. More than 50 m
C. More than 100m
D. More than 500m
256. Percent field that should be covered during field inspection is
A. About 25-40%
B. About 50%
C. About 60-80 %
D. >90%
257. Number of plants/ earheads of seed crop which should be observed during field
inspection as one unit is known as
A. Field reckon
B. field count
C. Field step
D. Field assessment
258. Number of field counts required on the basis of field size ranges from A. 2-7
B. 5-9
C. 7-10
D. 10-20
259. Number of field inspection for seed certification rages from A. 1-2
B. 1-5
C. 2-4
D. 5-10

260. Sample dawn from different bags of a seed lot is known as A.

Primary sample
B. Secondary sample
C. Submitted sample
D. Working sample

261. Physical purity analysis by number is performed on

A. Composite sample B.
Submitted sample
C. Working sample
D. Secondary sample

34
262. Seed of black soybean present in yellow seeded variety of soybean in physical
purity analysis by number will be considered as
A. Inert matter
B. OCS
C. ODV
D. Pure seed
263. Which one of the following is not observed during physical purity analysis by
number
A. Other crop seed
B. Weed seed
C. Objectionable weed seed
D. Other variety seed
264. In physical purity analysis by weight immature, shrivelled, diseased germinated or
under sized seed of the crop under test is considered as
A. Inert matter
B. Pure
C. ODV
D. Unhealthy seed
265. The sum total of the part present in the seed sample other than the seed of the crop
under test is termed as
A. Inert matter
B. Other part
C. Dockage
D. Stone
266. Insect preset in the seed sample is considered as
A. Inert matter
B. Bio matter
C. Pure seed
D. Not a part of seed sample
267. The husk less seed of the following crops are counted separately in physical purity
analysis
A. Sorghum and pearl millet
B. Oat and barley
C. Sunflower and rice
D. Niger and sesame
268. Among the following crops the lowest physical purity percentage for seed
certification is required for
A. Groundnut
B. Wheat
C. Soybean
D. Pearl millet

35
269. Among the following crops the highest physical purity percentage for seed
certification is required for
A. Wheat
B. Rice
C. Cabbage
D. Okra

36
Hybrid
270. What is common among rice, maize, pearl millet, sunflower, safflower, castor,
pigeonpea and cotton
A. Exalbuminous seed
B. Allogamy
C. Commercial hybrid
D. Photo insensitivity
271. In the event of unavailability of male sterility in self pollinated field crops with small
flower hybrid seeds may be produced commercially by
A. Doak method
B. Rope pulling
C. Gametocide
D. Tripping
272. The male sterility system with nearly 50% male fertile plants in female line during
hybrid seed production programme is
A. CMS
B. GMS
C. CGMS
D. Self incapability
273. The crop of hybrid is
A Homogeneous population of Homozygous plants B
Homogeneous population of Heterozygous plants
C. Heterogeneous population of Homozygous plants
D. Heterogeneous population of Heterozygous plants
274. When days to flowering in A and R line are same then
has not to be adopted for hybrid seed production of rice
A. Staggered sowing
B. Rope pulling
C. Spray of GA3
D. Seed treatment
275. IN CGMS system hybrid seed is harvested from
A. A line
B. B line
C. R line
D. H line
276. Cytoplasmic male sterility may not be used for in safflower because of
A. Low vigour in F1 plant
B. No heterosis in F1 plant C.
Male Sterility in F1 plant
D. High cost of seed production

37
277. Presence of male fertile plant in ‘A’ line with otherwise similar expression of all the
distinguishing traits during hybrid seed production is considered as
A. B line plant
B. R line plant
C. Pollen shedder
D. Pollen load
278. In three line breeding, seed of restorer line is produced by
a. AXR
b. BXR
c. AXB
d. RXR
279. Hybrid seed production involving three line breeding requires
A. More seed of R than A line
B. More seed of A than R line
C. More seed of A than B line
D. More seed of B than A line
280. Seed of maintainer line in three line seed production programme is maintained by
a. A XA
b. BXB
c. RXR
d. AXB
281. Chemical used for induction of male sterility is known as
a. CHA
b. ABA
c. GHA
d. HCA
282. In hybrid seed production of sunflower, multiple heads are generally found in
a. A line
b. B line
c. Rline
d. Hybrid plant
283. Among the 123 hybrid seed producer of cotton, I2 have submitted seed of female as
hybrid. It may be verified with the help of test at
field level.
a. ODV
b. GOT
c. DUS
d. VCU

38
284. Foundation seed for production of certified seed of hybrid category with the use of
three line breeding will be
a. Seed of hybrid
b. Seed of A and B line
c. Seed of B and R line
d. Seed of A and R line
285. Certified seed of provided to farmer for cultivation forms
homogeneous population of heterozygous plants.
a. OPV
b. Composite
c. Synthetic
d. Hybrid
286. Chemical Hybridizing Agents are applied on parent during hybrid
seed production programme
a. Male
b. Female
c. Both
d. Any one
287. In three line breeding programme male sterile pollens are produced in a. A line
plant
b. B line plant
c. R line pant
d. Hybrid plant
288. R line is know as Restorer because
a. It restores hybrid vigour
b. It restores male sterility c.
It restores male fertility
d. Its use is restricted
289. The term for same period of anthesis in ‘R’ line and stigma receptivity of ‘A’ line in
hybrid seed production is termed as
a. Synchronous maturity b.
Nicking
c. Staggering
d. Confounding
290. In seed multiplication chain, seed of ‘A’ and ‘R’ lines are considered as
for production of hybrid seed
a. Breeder seed
b. Foundation seed
c. Certified seed
d. Parental seed

39
291. GA3 is sprayed in hybrid seed production programme of rice for
a. Inducing mal sterility
b. Achieving nicking
c. enchaining exertion of inflorescence
d. Enhancing time of stigma receptivity
292. Chemical required for hybrid seed production of rice is
a. GA3
b. GA 6
c. Urea
d. IAA
293. Row ratio in hybrid seed production of pearl millet is
A. Equal number of male and female lines
B. >number of female and < number of male lines
C. <number of female and > number of male lines
D. No ratio between male and female line is required
294. Commercial hybrid seed production programme of cotton by hand emasculation and
pollination involving male fertile female line is known as
a. Doak method
b. Self incompatibility method
c. Two line breeding method
d. Three line breeding method
295. Cytoplasmic male sterility may be exploited for hybrid seed production of
a. Soybean
b. Cotton
c. Potato
d. Okra
296. In terms of genetics A and B lines are a.
Isogonic lines
b. Male sterile lines
c. Male fertile lines
d. Parent for hybrid seed production
297. The line that should not be made available to others for total control on the
commerce of the CGMS based hybrid is
a. A line
b. B line
c. R line
d. I line

40
298. Physical enhancement of pollination during hybrid seed production programme is
known as
a. Secondary pollination
b. Complementary pollination c.
Supplementarypollination
d. Auxiliary pollination
299. The cytoplasm of a hybrid produced by CGMS system will always be a. Of A
line
b. Of B line
c. Of R line
d. Hybrid
300. In the cytoplasm of R Line gene is present
A. Male sterile
B. Male fertile
C. Male sterile/fertile
D. No gene of sterility or fertility
301. In a crop with availability of all the three types of male sterility system the cost of
hybrid seed production will be the highest for
a. CMS system b.
GMS system
c. CGMS system
d. It will be same
302. Hybrid seed produced in three line system express male fertility due to A.
Heterozygous condition for Fertility with sterile cytoplasm
B. Heterozygous condition for Fertility with fertile cytoplasm
C. Homozygous recessive condition for sterility with fertile cytoplasm
D. Homozygous dominant condition for fertility with sterile cytoplasm
303. In a hybrid seed production programme involving CGMS system very high fruit
setting in any one plant pf A line indicates the possibility of
a. Male sterility
b. Hybridity
c. Male fertility
d. Heterosis

304. The highest seed replacement rate is of

A. A Synthetic
B. A Composite
C. A hybrid
D. A variety

41
305. Sterility is expressed in CGMS system when
A. Gene for sterility is present in nucleus
B. Gene for sterility is present in cytoplasm
C. Gene for sterility is present both in cytoplasm and nucleus
D. Gene for sterility is present in nucleus or in cytoplasm
306. The difference between maintainer and male sterile line in cytoplsmic and
cytoplasmic genetic male sterility system is of
A. Cytoplasm
B. Nuclear gene
C. Both cytoplasm and nuclear gene
D. No difference
307. The restorer parent in hybrid seed production programme based on CGMS system
may have
A. homozygous recessive sterility gene on chromosome with fertility gene in
cytoplasm
B. homozygous recessive sterility gene on chromosome with sterility gene in
cytoplasm
C. homozygous dominant fertility gene on chromosome with sterility gene in
cytoplasm
D. Heterozygous fertility gene on chromosome with fertility gene in
cytoplasm
308. In GMS system maintainer is
A. Heterozygous for the gene of sterility
B. Homozygous for the gene of sterility
C. Homozygous for the gene of fertility
D. Cytoplasm is responsible for sterility
309. In GMS system sterility and fertility may be judged based on expressions of
A. Seed
B. Stigma
C. Plant growth
D. Pollen

310. In system hybrid seed is produced by making cross between with

heterozygous gene for sterility in pollen parent and homozygous gene for sterility in
female parent
A. CMS
B. GMS
C. CGMS
D. Self incompatibility

52
311. In hybrid seed production programme of rice the staggering is provided at
A. at the time of transplanting B. At
the time of nursery raising
C. At the time of flowering
D. At the time of harvesting
312. GA 3 is applied in hybrid seed production of
A. Rice
B. Maize
C. Pearl millet
D. All the three
313. What is the similarity between rice, pearl millet, maize and pigeonpea
A. All are dicot
B. All are cereal
C. All have commercial hybrid
D. All are often cross pollinated
314. The hybrid seed production programme based on CGMS should be kept in isolation
to avoid
A. Self pollination
B. Cross pollination
C. Outcrossing
D. Goitenogamy
315. A farmer has to change the hybrid seed after every year due to
deterioration in
A. Physical purity
B. Genetic purity
C. Germinability
D. Vigour
316. Supplementary pollination is a prerequisite in commercial hybrid seed production of
a. Pigeonpea
b. Pearl millet
c. Rice
d. Sorghum

317. In commercial hybrid seed production of maize

A. Spadix is removed form female parent
B. Spadix is removed form male parent C.
Tassel is removed from female parent
D. Tassel is removed from male parent

53
318. For hybrid seed production programme deatsseling is required in A
Maize
B Pearl millet
C Rice
D Sorghum
319. Space isolation can be altered In hybrid seed production programme of
A. Sorghum
B. Pearl millet
C. Sunflower
D. Maize
320. Traps put in the store to catch the insects like Tribolium and Sitophilus are
A Pheromone B
Allomone
C. Karomone
D. Hormone
321. Among the following locations the poor seed storage place is
A. Cuttack
B. New Delhi
C. Hyderabad
D. Shimla
322. A specified quantity of processed seed of a variety and class produced by a grower is
known as
A. Seed lot
B. Seed batch
C. Seed bunch
D. Seed cluster
323. Prescribed maximum limit of a soybean seed lot is A.
10,000 kg
B. 20,000 kg
C. 40,000 kg
D. Any quantity

324. Among the field crops the maximum size based on weight of true seed in a seed lot is
of
A. Rice
B. Wheat
C. Soybean
D. Maize

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325. Primary sample of rice stored in bags is drawn with the help of
A. Seed Divider B.
Trier
C. Hand
D. Cup
326. The composite sample is reduced to the required quality with the help of
A. Hand
B. Trier
C. Grader
D. Divider
327. Dollowing divider is generally used to reduce the sample size
A. Gamet divider
B. Centrifugal divider
C. Multiple slot divider
D. Boerner type divider
328. Composite sample should be times more than the submitted sample
A. 5 times
B. 10 times
C. 25times
D. Any quantity
329. Working sample is prepared at
A. Farmers Field
B. In Seed Processing Plant before processing of seed
C. In Seed Processing Plant after processing of seed
D. Seed Testing Lab
330. Composite sample is prepared at
A. Farmers Field
B. In Seed Processing Plant before processing of seed C. In
Seed Processing Plant after processing of seed
D. Seed Testing Lab
331. Haulm cutting is required in seed production of
A. Egyptian clover
B. Potato
C. Cauliflower
D. Castor
332. Nucleus seed of carrot is produced by
A) Seed to seed method B) Seed to root method C)
Root to seed method D) Any method

55
333. Dormancy of can be broken by treating the seed with 1% thiourea + 1
ppm GA3 for one hour followed by 3% ethylene chlorophydrin solution and storage
for 72 hr
A Faba bean B
Lentil
C Jatropha D
Potato
334. Minimum number of seeds tested for germination is A. 100
B. 200
C. 400
D. 500
335. The seed tested for germination is
A. Any seed from pure seed fraction of physical purity test
B. Healthy seed from pure seed fraction of physical purity test
C. Any seed from working sample
D. Healthy seed from working sample
336. In sand method of germination the seed is covered with
A. Paper towel
B. Wet sand
C. Dry sand
D. Wax paper
337. Seeds of Kharif crops are normally exposed to C for testing the germination
percent
A. 20C B.
25C
C. 30C
D. 40C
338. Seedlings with well developed, complete, proportionate and healthy essential
structures are known as
A. Intact seedlings
B. Seedling with slight defect
C. Perfect seedling
D. Normal seedling
339. The seedlings exhibiting slight defects in one of their essential structure with an
otherwise satisfactory and balanced seedling are counted as
A. Germinated seedling
B. Abnormal seedling
C. Ungerminated seed
D. In any category

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340. The seedlings with secondary infection with an otherwise satisfactory and balanced
seedling are counted as
A. Germinated seedling
B. Abnormal seedling
C. Ungerminated seed
D. In any category
341. Hard seed of the crop form family are considered as germinated
A. Cruciferae and Compositeae B.
Leguminoseae and Malvaceae
C. Gramineae and Fabaceae
D. None of the family
342. Fresh ungerminated seeds are considered as
A. Germinated
B. Abnormal seedling
C. Normal seedling
D. Seedling with slight defect
343. In germination test the seed that has absorbed water without any sign of decaying is
known as
A. Hard seed
B. Fresh Ungerminated seed
C. Dead seed
D. Stone
344. One farmer took certified seed production programme of three varieties of chickpea
in 8 ha, 7 ha and 3 ha respectively and two varieties of wheat in 8 ha and 12 ha
respectively. The number of units for seed certification will be
A) 6 B) 8
C) 4 D) 9
345. The designated inseparable crop plants during seed production of wheat. Is
A. Chickpea
B. Mungbean
C. Lentil
D. Linseed
346. Seed production programme of cowpea, French bean, cluster bean and Indian bean
should pass the seed certification standard for infection of only in hilly areas areas.
A. Ascochyta leaf blight
B. Rhizoctonoa root rot
C. Fusarium wilt
D. Yellow mosaic virus

57
347. The objectionable fungal disease of wheat both at field and seed level is
A. Karnal bunt
B. Loose smut
C. Rust
D. Blight
348. The objectionable weed of wheat both at field and seed level
A. Convolvulus arvensis
B. Phalaris minor
C. Melilotus alba
D. Cyprus rotandus
349. Minimum number of seed that should be present in a working sample is A. 1000
B. 2000
C. 2500
D. 5000
350. During Physical Purity analysis by number seed of any other crop present
with the certified seed is considered as
A. Weed seed
B. Inert matter
C. Other Crop Seed
D. ODV
351. must be free from micro-organisms, toxic substances, insects
and foreign seeds to test the germinability.
A. Seed
B. Substrata
C. Germinator
D. Water
352. The test indicating the capacity of seed to form normal healthy seedlings under
optimum conditions is known as
A. Seed vigour test
B. Viability test
C. Germination test
D. GOT
353. All the matter present in the sample not defined as seed is known as
during physical purity analysis by weight.
A. Abitic matter
B. Inert matter
C. Lifeless matter
D. Immobile matter

58
354. The pH of the substratum for germination test should be A. 5.0-
7.0
B. 6.0-7.5
C. 7.0-8.0
D. 7.5-8.5
355. Germination of matured seed of mung bean on pod present on pod due to favourable
environment is an example of
A. Vivipary
B. Pre harvest sprouting
C. Dormancy
D. Quiescence
356. The germination in which epicotyl expands to raise the first true leaf out of the soil
and the hypocotyl remains short and compact is known as
A. Epigeal germination
B. Hypogeal germination
C. Vivipary
D. Sprouting
357. Chamber with facilities to manipulate temperature and photoperiod as per need
with 100% humidity is known as
A. Incubator
B. Germinator
C. BOD incubator
D. Humidifier
358. Roots from embryonic tip instead of radicle are known as
A. Primary root
B. Seminal root
C. Aerial root
D. Adventitious root
359. Avoiding out crossing by keeping the crop in isolation is a very effective tool to
maintain genetic purity of
A. Self pollinated crops
B. Cross pollinated crops
C. Vegtatively propagated crops
D. Cereals
360. Rouging is a very effective tool to maintain genetic purity of
A. Self pollinated crops
B. Cross pollinated crops
C. Often cross pollinated crops
D. Vegtatively propagated crops

59
361. Rouging for genetic impurity is not possible in
A. Inbred lines
B. Hybrids variety
C. Composite variety
D. Pure line
362. Selection involved in maintenance breeding is
A. Negative
B. Positive
C. Neutral
D. Recurrent
363. Formation of haploid archisporium cells by normal reductional division without
pollination and formation of embryosac without fertilization is
A. Apospory
B. Diplospory
C. Parthenogenesis
D. Pseudogamy
364. During seed production programme disease escape accomplished by the
avoidance of insect vector is known as
A. Tripping
B. Klenducity
C. Avoidance
D. Vector carnage
365. Presence of male and female part on the same plant in the same flower is known as
A. Monoecious
B. Hermaphrodite
C. Dioecious
D. Male sterile
366. A means of assessing whether or not the variation within the test results or between
the tests is sufficiently wide to raise doubt about the accuracy of results is provided by
A. Acceptance
B. Homogeneity
C. Significance
D. Tolerance
367. Substitution of sexual reproduction by an asexual multiplication process without
nucleus and cell fusion for seed production is known as
A. Amphimixis
B. Apomixis
C. Vegetative reproduction
D. Autogamy

60
368. The seed lot from which the sample is drawn should be relatively
A. Homogeneous
B. Heterogeneous
C. Uniform
D. Variable
369. The sample is placed at a temperature of 130 ± 2°C for hr as per
requirement of the crop to determine moisture content
A. ±1
B. 3±1
C. 4±1
D. 17 ± 1
370. The application of an appropriate statistical method to test the results of seed testing
enables the analyst to determine the validity of results within a calculated range of
limits, the amount of this range in called the
A. Acceptance
B. Homogeneity
C. Significance
D. Tolerance
371. During genetic purity test at field level the ODV is reported in
A. Percentage by weight
B. Percentage/number
C. Number/number
D. Number/weight
372. The indicator in viability test is
A. 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride
B. 2, 4,5,6 tetraphenyl tetrazolium bromide
C. Carbolic acid
D. Ninhydrin
373. The sample is placed at a temperature of for 17 ±1hrs to
determine moisture content
A. 103 ±2°C
B. 130 ±2°C
C. 98±2°C
D. 198±2°C
374. To test the Foundation seed of wheat for Karnal bunt infection one has to observe
minimum seed
A. 100
B. 1000
C. 10000
D. 100000

61
375. Which of the following part of a viable seed will not show red colour during
viability test
A. Embryo
B. Cotyledon
C. Endosperm
D. Scultellum
376. After preconditioning the coat of seed is removed without any
damage to cotyledon and embryo to treat the seed with indicator for viability test.
A. Dicot
B. Monocot
C. Exalbuminous
D. Albuminous
377. type seed is bisected longitudinally or pierced with a needle at a
non-essential part of the seed to facilitate entry of indicator for viability test
A. Dicot
B. Monocot
C. Exalbuminous
D. Albuminous
378. In germination test seedlings which are passed as intact or with slight defect but are
infected by micro-organisms from a source other than seed are considered as
A. Normal seedling
B. Abnormal seedling
C. Non germinated seed
D. Diseased seed
379. A colourless solution of 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (indicator) reacts
with hydrogen in living cell due to action of enzyme
A. Poeroxidase
B. Dehydrogenase
C. Nitrogenase
D. Pectianse

380. The colourless solution of Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride reacts with

in released in cell to form coloured substance.
A. Oxygen
B. Hydrogen
C. Nitrogen
D. Carbon dioxide

62
381. seed certification standard for germination of soybean is 70%
A. Minimum
B. Maximum
C. Optimum
D. Average
382. Minimum seed certification standard for germinability of wheat, barley, triticale,
oat, chickpea, rape seed and mustard is
A. 65%
B. 75%
C. 85%
D. 90%
383. Seeds, which are neither hard nor germinated but remain clean, firm and apparently
viable at the end of the test period of germination, are known as
A. Fresh Ungerminated seed
B. Dead seed
C. Viable seed
D. Hard seed
384. Tetrazoluim test was evolved by
A. G. Lakon
B. M. Mchargue
C. G. Gadd
D. A. Eidmann
385. The first seed testing laboratory was established in
A. Saxony Germany 1869
B. Connecticut, America 1876
C. Zurich, Switzerland 1900
D. Rome, Italy 1921
386. The father of seed technology is
A. M. Mchargue
B. Gadd
C. C. Eidmann
D. Friedrich Nobbe
387. International Seed Testing Laboratory was established in the year A. 1911
B. 1921
C. 1931
D. 1941

63
388. The Food and Agriculture Organization was established in the year A. 1934
B. 1940
C. 1947
D. 1948
389. A method for separating and mapping protein bands from homogenized plant
preparation is known as
A. Electrophoresis
B. DNA finger printing
C. Isozyme analysis
D. Protein analysis
390. Male Sterile Hybrid is formed in
A. CMS
B. GMS
C. CGMS
D. CHA
391. Seed of female parent in GMS system is maintained by making cross between
A. msms X MsMs
B. msms X msms C.
msms X Msms
D. Msms X Msms
392. During testing of soybean seed the term stone is used in
A. Physical purity
B. Genetic purity
C. Germination
D. Viability
393. During hybrid seed production programme CHA is applied on
A. A line
B. Feamle parent
C. Male parent
D. Hybrid
394. Germination in which development of shoot is not visible because a round shaped
green portion is emerged out so that the new plant is
already established when the real shoot emerges is known as
A. Hypogeal germination
B. Epigeal germination
C. Cleistogeal Germination
D. Herko germination
395. Normal surrounding temperature, humidity and light without the use of artificial
means
A. Ambient conditions

64
 B. Natural condition
C. BOD condition
D. Innate condition
396. The crop in which plume emerge first under anaerobic and radical in aerobic
condition
A. Wheat
B. Sugarcane C.
Rice
D. Soybean

397. Storage of respiring seeds in an oxygen free atmosphere is known as

A. Anoxia
B. Anaerobic
C. Aerobic
D. Inundation

398. United States of America based seed testing system

A. International Seed Testing Associate
B. American Seed Testing Association
C. Association of Official Seed Analysts
D. Seed Testing Association of USA
399. Blocking of cleaning screens by seeds or particles of intermediate size which get
stuck in the holes of screen during seed processing is known as
A. Blinding
B. Chocking
C. Slamming
D. Blocking
400. Abnormal growth of seedling in the absence of light
A. Dark growth
B. Etiolation
C. Photolytic
D. Photo neutral

401. Death of seeds, germinating or young seedlings in the nursery resulting from attack by
certain soil-living fungi due to rot of the stem near the surface of the soil is known as
A. Damping-off
B. Rotting
C. Seedling death syndrome
D. Seed decaying
402. Method for cleaning seeds from particles with higher or lower specific density by
submerging in water or other liquid
A. Flotation
B. Sinking
C. Dipping
D. Rising

403. Vigour test method in which the ability of seed is tested under physical stress i.e.,
a layer of crushed brick stone grave
A. GADA Test

65