Unit 6.

GRAVITATION
2 Mark questions
1. Define the gravitational field. Give its unit.
• The gravitational force experienced by unit mass placed at that point
⃗
𝑭
• ⃗𝑬 =
𝒎
• unit= 𝑵𝒌𝒈−𝟏
2. Define gravitational potential.
• The gravitational potential at a distance r due to a mass is defined as the amount
of work required to take unit mass from the distance r to infinity.
𝑮𝒎𝟏
• 𝑽(𝒓) = −
𝒓
• unit = 𝑱/ 𝒌𝒈
3. State Newton’s universal law of gravitation.
• The strength of force of attraction between two masses is directly proportional
to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them.
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
• 𝑭∝ 𝒓𝟐
3Mark questions
1. Why is there no lunar eclipse and solar eclipse every month?
• If the orbits of the moon and earth lie on the same plane during full moon day
lunar eclipse occurs.In no moon day, solar eclipse occurs
• But moon’s orbit is tilted 50 with respect to earth’s orbit
• Due to this tilt, only during certain period the sun, earth and moon align in the
same line leading to either solar or lunar eclipse.
2. How will you prove that earth itself is spinning?
• Earth’s spinning motion can be proved by observing stars position over a night
• due to earth's spinning motion, the stars in the sky appear to move in circular
motion about the whole star.
3. State Kepler;s 3 laws.
• Law of orbits: Each planet moves around the sun in a n elliptical orbit with the
sun at one of its foci.
• Law of area : The radial vector sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
• Law of period: The square of the time period of revalution of a planet around
the sun in its elliptical arbit is directly proportional to the cube of its semi
majraxis of the ellipse.
4. When the earth is far away from the sun there will be winter, when the earth is
nearer to the sun there will be summer. Is it correct. If not what is the correct
explanation for the occurrence of summer and winter.
• it is wrong
 • The season in the earth arises due to the rotation of the earth around the sun with
23.50 tilt.
• Due to this tilt, the northern part of the earth is farther to the sun, the southern
part is nearer to the sun
• So, When it is summer in the southern hemisphere, the northern hemisphere
experiences winter
5. Explain in detail the idea of weightlessness using lift as an example.
• Freely falling objects experience only gravitational force.they are not in contact
with any surface.
• The normal force acting on the object is zero. The downward acceleration is
equal to acceleration due to gravity of the earth. (𝑎 = 𝑔). 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
• This is called state of weightlessness.
• When the lift falls with downward acceleration (𝑎 = 𝑔), the person inside the
elevator feels weightlessness or free fall.

5 Mark questions
1. Explain the variation of "𝒈"with altitude?
• Consider an object of mass ′𝑚’ at a height ′ℎ′ from the surface of earth.
• Acceleration experienced by the object due to earth
𝑮𝑴
• 𝒈′ =
(𝑹𝒆 +𝒉)𝟐
𝑮𝑴
• 𝒈′ = 𝒉 𝟐
𝑹𝒆 𝟐 (𝟏+ )
𝑹𝒆
𝑮𝑴 𝒉 −𝟐
• 𝒈 = ′
(𝟏 + 𝑹 )
𝑹𝒆 𝟐 𝒆
• 𝒉 ≪ 𝑹𝒆 using binomial expansion, neglecting the
higher orders, we get,
𝑮𝑴 𝒉
• 𝒈′ = (𝟏 − 𝟐 𝑹 )
𝑹𝒆 𝟐 𝒆
𝒉
• 𝒈′ = 𝒈 (𝟏 − 𝟐 𝑹 )
𝒆
• It is found 𝑔′ < 𝑔 as altitude increases, g decreases
2. Explain the variation of "𝒈"with depth from the earth
surface?
• Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 at a depth 𝑑 in a
mine on earth.
• Acceleration due to gravity at depth 𝑑 is
′ 𝐺𝑀′
• 𝑔 = (𝑅 2
𝑒 −𝑑)
• 𝑀′ is the mass of the earth of radius (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)
• density of earth 𝜌 is constant
𝑴
• 𝝆= 𝑽
𝑴′ 𝑴 𝑴
• = 𝑴′ = 𝑽′ 𝑿 ( )
𝑽′ 𝑽 𝑽
𝑴 𝟒
• 𝑴′ = [𝟒 𝟑
] ( 𝝅(𝑹𝒆 − 𝒅)𝟑 )
𝝅𝑹𝒆 𝟑
𝟑
𝑴
• 𝑴′ = 𝟑 (𝑹𝒆 − 𝒅)𝟑
𝑹𝒆
𝑮𝑴 𝟏
• 𝒈′ = (𝑹𝒆 − 𝒅)𝟑
𝑹𝟑𝒆 (𝑹𝒆 −𝒅)𝟐
𝑮𝑴 𝒅
• 𝒈′ = 𝑹𝒆 (𝟏 − )
𝑹𝟑𝒆 𝑹 𝒆
𝑮𝑴 𝒅
• 𝒈′ = (𝟏 − 𝑹 ) thus
𝑹𝟐𝒆 𝒆
𝒅 𝑮𝑴
• 𝒈′ = 𝒈 (𝟏 −
𝑹𝒆
) (∵ 𝒈 = 𝑹𝟐𝒆
)
• Here 𝑔′ < 𝑔
′
• As depth increases , 𝑔 decreases,.

3. Prove that a point at 𝒉 height near the surface of the earth, gravitational potential
energy of the object is 𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
• Consider the earth and mass system with 𝑟 the distance between the mass 𝑚 and
the earth centre
𝐺𝑀 𝑚
• 𝑈 = − 𝑒 ------------------(1)
𝑟
• 𝑟 = (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) here 𝑅𝑒 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
 𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚
• 𝑈=− -----------------(2)
(𝑅𝑒 +ℎ)
• this equation can be modified as ,
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚
• 𝑈=− ℎ
𝑅𝑒 (1+ )
(𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 ℎ
• 𝑈=− (1 + )−1 --------------------(3)
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒
• ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ ≪ 𝑅𝑒 using binomial expansion and neglecting higher
order terms
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 ℎ
• 𝑈=− (1 + ) ----------------------(4)
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒
• for a mass 𝑚 on the earth’s surface
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚
• = 𝑚𝑔𝑅𝑒 -----------------------(5) (∵ 𝐺𝑀𝑒 = 𝑔𝑅𝑒2 )
𝑅𝑒
• 𝑈 = −𝑚𝑔𝑅𝑒 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
• the term 𝑚𝑔𝑅𝑒 can be omitted because it has no role in calculating potential energy
difference,
• 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
4. Derive an expression for escape speed.
Definition
“The minimum speed required to throw a body to escape from the gravitational
pull is called escape velocity.”
• Consider an object of mass 𝑚 thrown up with an initial speed 𝑣𝑖 ,
• The initial total energy of the object = kinetic energy+ potential energy
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑴𝑬
• 𝑬𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − -------------------------(1) 𝑴𝑬 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉,
𝟐 𝑹𝑬
𝑹𝑬 − 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉
• when the object reaches infinity distance, gravitional potential energy is zero

𝑈(∞) = 0,and kinetic energy is also zero.

• Therefore final total energy of the object becomes zero𝐸𝑓 = 0
• According to the law of energy conservation,
• 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓 --------------------------------(2)
• Substituting eqn (1) in (2)
1 𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸
• 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − = 0---------------------(3)
2 𝑅𝐸
• If Escape velocity 𝑣𝑒 ,then,
1 𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸
• 𝑚𝑣𝑒2 =
2 𝑅𝐸
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
• 𝑣𝑒2 = (∵ 𝐺𝑀𝑒 = 𝑔𝑅𝑒2 )
𝑅𝐸
• 𝑣𝑒2 = 2𝑔𝑅𝐸
 • 𝑣𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅𝐸 --------------------------(4)
• Escape speed depends on
• i)Acceleration due to gravity
ii) radius of the earth
it is independent of the mass of the earth and direction thrown.

Escape speed of the earth = 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1

7. PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2. Two mark questions

1. What is elasticity?
• If a body regains its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force,
it is said to be elastic and the property is called elasticity.
• Eg. Rubber, metals
2. What is plasticity?
• If a body does not regains its original shape and size after the removal of
deforming force, it is said to be plastic and the property is called plasticity.
• Eg. Glass
3. Define stress
• The force per unit area is called as stress.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
• Stress (𝜎) =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• unit=𝑵𝒎 −𝟐
: dimension= 𝑴𝑳−𝟏 𝑻−𝟐
4. Define strain
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
• 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝜀) =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
5. Define elastic limit
• The maximum stress within which the body regains its original shape after the
removal of deforming force is called the elastic limit
6. Which one of these is more elastic? rubber or steel? Why?
• Steel is more elastic than rubber. Object which has higher Young’s modulus is
more elastic
• If an equal stress is applied to both steel and rubber, steel produces less strain
• SoYoung’s modulus is higher for steel
7. A spring balance shows wrong readings after using for a long time. Why?
• Spring loses its elasticity after repeated use, the strain increases rapidly even for
a small load. Thereby its shows wrong readings.
8. Why do we use straw for drinking soft drinks?
o Level of Soft drinks inside the straw rise due to capillary action.
o The pressure inside the straw is reducing than the atmospheric pressure, when
we suck the straw. So the soft drink will come up easily.
 Define Hooke’s law
• Hooke’s law is for a small deformation, when the stress and strain are
proportional to each other.
• Ã _ µ i.e., the stress is proportional to the strain in the elastic limit.
10. What is compressibility?
• The fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure.
11. Define Poisson ratio.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
• Poisson ratio =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
12. Define pressure.
• Force acting per unit area
𝑭
• 𝑷=
𝑨
• 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 = 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
• 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑴𝑳−𝟏 𝑻−𝟐

13. Define Pascal’s law.

• If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a particular point, the change is
transmitted to the entire liquid without being diminished in magnitude
14. Define law of floatation.
• A body will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed
part of the body equals the weight of the body.
15. What is viscosity?
• The property of a fluid to oppose the relative motion between its layers.
16. what is Reynold’s number?
• To find out the nature of the flow of 𝝆 = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
fluid,whether it is streamlined or turbulent. 𝝂 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝆𝝂𝑫
• 𝑹𝒄 = 𝑫 = 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆
𝜼
17. When does capillary rise or fall takes place? 𝜼 = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
o In a liquid whose angle of contact with solid is
less than 900 , suffers capillary rise. On the other
hand, in a liquid whose angle of contact is greater than 900 ,suffers capillary fall.
18. Define terminal velocity.
• The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely through
a viscous medium is called terminal velocity.
19. Define stokes law
• The viscous force acting on a spherical body (F),is directly proportional to the
• Radius of sphere (r)
• Velocity of the sphere(v)
• Coefficient of viscosity(𝜂 )
• 𝑭∝𝜼r v
20. Write the applications of stokes law.
 • Floatation of clouds
• Larger raindrops hurt us more than the smaller ones
• A man coming down with the help of a parachute acquires constant terminal
velocity.
21. Write the applications of viscosity.
• The oil used as a lubricant for heavy machinery parts should have a high
viscous coefficient.
• Used a brake oil in hydraulic brakes.
• Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends upon the viscosity of
fluids.
22. Define surface tension
• Force per unit length of the liquid
𝑭
• 𝑻=
𝒍
• 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑴𝑻−𝟐
• Unit = 𝑵𝒎−𝟏
23. Write down the practical applications of capillarity.
• Oil rises in the cotton within an earthern lamp. Similarly sap rises from the roots
of a plant to its leaves and branches.
• Absorption of ink by a blotting paper.
• Cotton dresses have fine pores which act as a capillaries for sweat.
24. Write down the applications of surface tension.
• To reduce the surface tension of water, a small amount of oil is poured which
breaks the elastic film of water surface and mosquitoes eggs are killed.
• By adding the detergent in hot water while washing reduces the surface tension
• A waterproof fabric can be made by adding a suitable waterproof materials.

25. Define Bernoulli’s theorem

• The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass
of an incompressible, non- viscous fluid in a stream lines flow remains constant.
26. Write down the applications of Bernoulli’s theorem.
• Blowing of roofs during wind strom
• Aerofoil lift
• Bunsen burner
• Venturimeter
3 mark questions
1. Derive the expression for terminal velocity of a sphere moving in a high viscous
fluid using Stoke’s force
• Consider a sphere of radius 𝑟 which falls freely through a highly viscous fluid
of coefficient of viscosity 𝜂.
• 𝜌 -density of the sphere 𝜎- density of the fluid.
• Gravitational force acting on the sphere
4
• 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌g (downward force)

• upthrust
4
• 𝑈 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 (upward force)

• viscous force at terminal velocity 𝑣𝑡

• 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟 𝑣𝑡
• The net downward force is equal to the net upward force
• 𝑭𝒈 = 𝑼 + 𝑭 , ⇒ 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒈 − 𝑼
4 4
• = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌g - 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜎𝑔 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣𝑡
3 3
2 𝑟 2 (𝜌−𝜎)𝑔
• 𝑣𝑡 = 9 𝑋 ⇒ 𝑣𝑡 ∝ 𝑟2
𝜂
Terminal speed of the sphere is directly proportional to the square of the radius.
2. Explain the different types of modulus of elasticity
Young’s modulus:
• The ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain is known as Young’s
modulus
𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
• 𝒀=
𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
• 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
𝑭𝒕
𝝈𝒕 =
𝚫𝑨
𝚫𝑳
• 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝝐𝒕 = 𝑳
𝑭
𝝈𝒕 ( 𝒕)
𝚫𝑨
• 𝒀= = 𝚫𝑳
𝝐𝒕 ( )
𝑳
𝑭 𝑳
• 𝒀 = ( 𝒕)𝑿 ( )
𝚫𝑨 𝚫𝑳
Bulk modulus:
The ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain is called Bulk modulus
𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
• 𝑲 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑭𝒏
• 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒏 = = 𝜟𝑷
𝜟𝑨
 𝜟𝑽
• 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝝐𝒗 =
𝑽
𝑭
𝝈𝒏 ( 𝒏)
• 𝑲=− =− 𝜟𝑨
𝜟𝑽
𝝐𝒗 ( )
𝑽
𝜟𝑷 𝑽
• 𝑲=− 𝜟𝑽 = − 𝚫𝑷𝑿 ( )
( ) 𝜟𝑽
𝑽

Rigidity modulus:
The ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain is called rigidity modulus.
shearing stress
𝜼𝑹 =
shearing strain
𝑭𝒕
• 𝝈𝒔 =
𝚫𝑨
𝒙
• 𝝐𝒔 = 𝒉 = 𝜽
𝝈𝒔 𝑭𝒕
• 𝜼𝑹 = =
𝝐𝒔 𝚫𝑨𝜽
3. Write down the applications of Pascal’s law

Hydraulic lift – used to lift a heavyload with a small

force.
It is a force multiplier.
• A- small piston, B- large piston
• A1, A2 cross sectional areas of the piston
• ( A2 > A1 )
• Increase in Pressure of the liquid under the
piston A due to downward force F ,
𝐹
• 𝑃= 1
𝐴1
• This increased pressure P is transmitted equally in all directions undiminished.
• Upward force on piston B due to this pressure
• 𝐹2 = P x 𝐴2
𝐹1
• 𝐹2 = 𝑥 𝐴2
𝐴1
𝐴2 𝐴2
• 𝐹2 = ( ) 𝑥 𝐹1 here ( ) 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝐴1 𝐴1
4. Write down the applications of viscosity
• To select a suitable lubricant for heavy and light machinery
• The highly viscous liquid is used to damp the motion of some instruments and
is used as brake oil in hydraulic brakes.
• Blood circulation through arteries and veins depends on viscosity of the fluid.
5. State the applications of surface tension
 • Mosquito’s eggs are destroyed by adding oil on water surface. Because Oil
reduces surface tension of water.
• Specks of dirt get removed easily, when detergents are added in hot water.
Because heating reduces surface tension of water.
• Used to produce Water-proof fabric by adding suitable waterproof
material(wax).
• Used in desktop printing, to paint automobiles and decorative items.
6. How is surface tension is related to surface energy?
• consider a rectangular frame of wire ABCD dipped in soap solutuion
• let AB is the movable wire. AB is pulled inward due to surface tension.
• Inward force due to surface tension 𝐹 = (2𝑇)𝑙 (2 is meant for two free surface)
• AB is moved to a new position A’B’ by a small distance ∆𝑥
workdone to increase the surface of the soap film, against the inward force,
workdone = force x distance
• = (2𝑇𝑙)(∆𝑥)
• Increase in the area of film
• ∆𝐴 = (2𝑙)(∆𝑥) = 2𝑙∆𝑥
• 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
2𝑇𝑙∆𝑥
• = =𝑇
2𝑙∆𝑥
• Surface energy per unit area of the surface is
numerically equal to the surface tension.
7. Derive an expression for excess pressure inside soap bubble
• R-radius of the soap bubble, T- surface tension of the soap bubble
• Force due to the surface tension towards right 𝐹𝑇 =4𝜋𝑅𝑇
• force due to outside pressure towards right
𝐹𝑃1 = 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2
• force due to inside pressure towards left 𝐹𝑃2 =
2
𝑃2 𝜋𝑅
• at equilibrium 𝐹𝑃2 = 𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1
• 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅 2 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑇+ 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅 2
• (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅 2 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑇
4𝑇
• Excess pressure Δ𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝑅
8. Derive the Poiseuille’s formula for the volume of a liquid flowing per second
through a pipe under streamlined flow.
• Poiseuille analyzed the steady flow of liquid through a capillary tube.
• Volume of the liquid flowing out per second through a horizontal capillary tube
 அளவு பரிமாணம்
𝑉 𝐿3 𝑇 −1
𝑣= ( )
𝑡
𝑃 𝑐
• 𝑣 ∝ 𝜂𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 ( ) 𝑃
𝑙 𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2
𝑐 ( )
𝑙
• 𝑣 = 𝐾 𝜂 𝑟 ( ) ---------------(1)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑃
𝜂 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝑙
• 𝐿3 𝑇 −1 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 r 𝐿

• [𝐿3 𝑇−1 ]=[𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇−1 ]𝑎 [𝐿]𝑏 [𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇−2 ]𝑐

𝑽
3
[𝑀0 𝐿 𝑇−1 ] =[𝑀𝑎+𝑐 𝐿−𝑎+𝑏−2𝑐 𝑇 −𝑎−2𝑐 ]
𝒗 = ( ) -rate of flow
• 𝒕
𝜼 − coefficient of viscosity
• Equating the powers, and solving the equation, we get, 𝒓 − radius of the tube
• a=-1, b=4, c=1 substituting the value in equation (1), we 𝑷
( 𝒍 ) - pressure gradient
get then
𝑃 1
• 𝑣 = 𝐾 𝜂−1 𝑟 4 ( )
𝑙
𝜋
• Experimentally the value of 𝐾, 𝑘=
8
𝝅𝒓𝟒 𝑷
• 𝒗=
𝟖𝜼𝒍
5 mark questions
1. State and prove Bernoulli’s theorem for a flow of incompressible non- viscous and
stream line flow of liquid.
Definition:
The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy, potential energy per unit mass of an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined flow remains a constant.
Proof
.
o A, B terminals of the pipe
o 𝑎𝐴 , 𝑎𝐵 , -cross sectional area of the pipe
o ℎ𝐴 , ℎ𝐵 , -height of the terminals
o 𝑣𝐴, 𝑣𝐵, - velocity of the liquid at A,B
o 𝑃𝐴 , 𝑃𝐵 − liquid pressure at A,B
• Pressure energy of the liquid at A,
𝑃𝐴
𝐸𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑉 = m
𝜌
• Potential energy of the liquid at A,
𝑃𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐴
• Kinetic energy of the liquid at A,
1
𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝐴2
2
 • Total energy of the liquid at A,
𝑃𝐴 1
𝐸𝐴 = m + 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 +𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐴
𝜌 2
• Similarly total energy at B
𝑃𝐵 1
𝐸𝐵 = m + 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐵
𝜌 2
• From law of conservation of energy
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵
𝑃𝐴 1 𝑃𝐵 1
m + 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 +𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐴 = m + 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝐵
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑃𝐴 1
+ 𝑣𝐴2 +𝑔ℎ𝐴 =constant
𝜌 2

8. Heat and Thermodynamics

2 mark questions
1. What is thermal expansion?
Thermal expansion is the tendency of the matter to change in shape , area and volume
due to change in temperature.
2. What is steady state?
The state at which temperature attains constant value everywhere and there is no further
transfer of heat anywhere is called steady state.
3. What are the ways of transfer of heat?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
4. Why Aluminium and Silver are used to make cooking vessels?
Aluminium and Silver have high thermal conductivity. They are good conductors of
heat. so they are used to make cooking vessels.
5. State Newton’s law of cooling.
Rate of loss of heat of an object is directly proportional to the difference in temperature
between that object and its surroundings.
6. State Pervost theory of heat exchange
All bodies emit thermal radiation at all temperatures above the absolute zero
irrespective of the nature of the surroundings.
7. State Stefan-Boltzmann law
The total amount of heat radiated per second per unit area of a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
8. State Wein’s displacement law
The wavelength of maximum intensity of emission of a black body radiation is
𝟏
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the black body. 𝝀𝒎 =
𝑻
9. What is meant by thermal equilibrium?
 If two systems are said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the systems are at
thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with each other.
10. What is meant by state variable? Give example
The variables which completely describe the equilibrium state of a thermodynamic
system. Eg. Pressure, volume, temperature and internal energy
11. What is equation of state?
The equation which connects the state variables in a specific manner is called equation
of state.
12. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and
B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
13.Define heat engine
Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input and converts this heat into work by
undergoing a cyclic process.
14.What are the parts of a heat engine?
• Hot reservoir
• Cold reservoir
• Working substance
15. Define efficiency of heat engine.
The ratio of work done by the engine to the heat observed in one cyclic process
16. State Clausius form of the second law of thermodynamics
Heat always flow from hotter object to colder object spontaneously.
17. State Kelvin -Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in a cycle, whose sole effect is
to convert the heat completely into work. This implies that no heat engine in the
universe can have 100% efficiency.
18. What is Carnot engine?
A reversible heat engine operating in a cycle between two temperatures in a particular
way is called Carnot engine.
19. What are the parts of a Carnot’s engine?
• Source
• Sink
• Insulating stand
• Working substance
20. Define efficiency of a Carnot engine
The ratio of work done by the working substance in one cycle to the amount of heat
extracted from the source.
21.State second law of thernodynamics in terms of entropy
For all processes that occur in nature , the entropy always increases. For reversible
process entropy will not change.
22.What is a refrigerator?
A refrigerator is a Carnot’s engine working in the reverse order.
23. Define coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator.
 Ratio of heat extracted from the cold body (sink) to the external work done by the
compressor W
24. Define one calorie
The energy required to raise 1g of an object by 1°C is called one calorie
• 1 Calorie = 4.186 J
3 Mark questions
1. Derive ideal gas law from Boyle’s law and Charles law
• At constant temperature, Boyle’s law,
𝟏 𝟏
𝒑∝ ⇒ 𝒗∝
𝒗 𝒑
• At constant pressure, Charle’s law
𝒗 ∝ 𝑻
By combining these two equations
𝑻
𝒗∝
𝒑
𝒑𝒗 ∝ 𝑻
𝒑𝒗 = 𝑵𝒌 𝑻 (k- Boltzmann constant)
2. Explain anomalous expansion of water.
• Water contracts when it is cooled from room temperature, until 4°C. (volume
decreases)
• Below 4°C, if it is cooled further, it expands. (volume increases)
• water has a maximum density at 4°C
• this behavior of water is known as ‘anomalous expansion’
3. Why heat always flow from hotter object to colder object?
• Entropy increases when heat flows from hot object to cold object.
• If heat were to flow from cold to hot object, entropy will decrease leading to
violation of second law of thermodynamics.
4. What is PV diagram?
• PV-diagram is graph between pressure (P) and volume(V) of the system.
• The area under the PV diagram will give the work done during expansion or
compression.
5. Explain internal energy
• Internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the sum of kinetic and potential
energies of all the molecules of the system with respect ot the centre of the mass
of the system.
• 𝑼 = 𝑬𝑲 + 𝑬𝑷
6. If the piston of a container is pushed fast inward . will the ideal gas equation be
valid in the intermediate stage? If not why?
• If the piston is pushed fast inward, it will not be a quasi-static process.
• Therefore, ideal gas laws can not be used for non-equilibrium state.
 7. What are the conditions for reversible process
• The process should proceed at an extremely slow rate.
• The system should be in thermodynamic equilibrium state at all times with the
surroundings during the process.
• No dissipative forces such as friction viscosity electrical resistance should be
present.
8. What is meant by thermal conductivity?
• Ability to conduct heat.
• The quantity of heat transferred through a unit length of a material ina direction
normal to unit surface area due to a unit temperature difference under steady
state condition.

5,mark questions

1. Explain the heat engine and obtain its efficiency.

• Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input
and converts this heat into work by undergoing a
cyclic process.
• Hot reservoir: It supplies heat to the engine.
It is always maintained at a high temperature TH.
• Working substance: it is a substance like gas or
water, which converts the heat supplied into work.
Eg: steam engine.
• Cold reservoir:the heat engine ejects some amount
of heat QL into cold reservoir after it doing work. It
is always maintained at a low temperature TL.
• Efficiency of heat engine : ratio of the work done
to the heat absorbed in one cyclic process.
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑾 𝑸𝑯 −𝑸𝑳
• 𝜼= = =
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯
𝑸𝑳
• 𝜼=𝟏−
𝑸𝑯

• since 𝑸𝑳 < 𝑸𝑯 efficiency is always less than 1.

2. Explain in detail the working of a refrigerator.
• A refrigerator is a Carnot’s engine working in the reverse order.
• working substance absorbs a quantity of heat𝑸𝑳 from the cold body at a lower
temperature 𝑻𝑳 .
• A certain amount of work W is done on the
working substance by the compressor and a
quantity of heat𝑸𝑯 is rejected to the hot body at
temperature𝑻𝑯 .
• From the first law of thermodynamics
• 𝑸𝑳 + 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯
• As a result the cold reservoir further cools down
and the surroundings ges hotter.
• Coefficient of performance: ratio of heat
extracted from the cold body to the external
work done by the compressor.
𝑸𝑳
• 𝑪𝑶𝑷 = 𝜷 = 𝑾
𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳
• 𝜷 = 𝑸 −𝑸 =
𝑯 𝑳 𝑻𝑯 −𝑻𝑳
• Inferences
• Greater the COP, the better is the condition of the refrigerator
• A typical refrigerator is around 5 to 6
• Lesser the difference in the temperatures of the cooling chamber and
atmosphere, higher is the COP of a refrigerator
• Heat is taken from cold object to hot object by doing external work. It is not a
violation of second law of thermodynamics and total entropy is always
increased.
3. State and explain Newton’s Law of cooling
Statement: The rate of loss of heat of a object is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperature between that object and its surroundings..
Proof :

o Consider an object of mass m, specific heat capacity s at temperature T Ts -be

the temperature of the surroundings. If the temperature falls bya small amount
dT in time dt, then the amount of heat lost is,
o 𝒅𝑸 = 𝒎𝒔𝒅𝑻 -----------------------------(1)
o Dividing both sides of the above equation by dt,
𝒅𝑸 𝒎𝒔𝒅𝑻
o = --------------------------(2)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
o From Newton’s law of cooling
 𝒅𝑸
o ∝ −(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑸
o = −𝒂(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) ---------------------(3) a- constant
𝒅𝒕
o From equation(2) and (3),
𝒅𝑻
o −𝒂(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) = 𝒎𝒔
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑻 𝒂
o (𝑻−𝑻𝒔 )
=− 𝒅𝒕
𝒎𝒔

o Integrating the above equation on both sides

𝒅𝑻 𝒂
o ∫ (𝑻−𝑻 ) = − ∫ 𝒅𝒕
𝒔 𝒎𝒔
𝒂
o 𝐥𝐧(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 ) = − 𝒕 + 𝒃𝟏 இங்கு 𝒃𝟏 - a constant
𝒎𝒔

o Taking exponential on both sides,

𝒂
o 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒔 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒆−𝒎𝒔𝒕 here 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒆𝒃𝟏 = ஒரு மாறிலி

9. Kinetic theory of gases

2 mark question

1. What is the microscopic origin of pressure?

The molecules of gas exerts momentum on the walls of the container due to collision.
Due to transfer of momentum, the walls experience pressure.
𝟏
Pressure 𝑷 = 𝒏𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟑
2. Why moon has no atmosphere?
The escape speed of gases on the surface of moon is much less than the root mean
square speed of gases due to low gravity. Due to this all gases escape from the surface
of the moon.
3. Why there is no hydrogen in earth’s atmosphere?
• As the rrot mean square speed of hydrogen is much greater than hydrogen that
of nitrogen.
• It easily escapes from the earth’s atmosphere.
• If it exists, highly combustible hydrogen will cause harmful effect.
4. Define the term degrees of freedom.
• Minimum number of independent coordinates needed to specify the position and
configuration of a thermodynamical system in space is called the degrees of
freedom.
5. State the law of equipartition of energy.
• The average kinetic energy of a system of molecules in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T is uniformly distributed to all degrees of freedom.
 6. Define mean free path and write down its expression.
• The average distance travelled by the molecule between two successive
collisions is called mean free path.
7. Write the expression for rms speed (𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 ),average speed (𝒗
̅ ), most probable
speed (𝒗𝒎𝒑 ). Of a gas molecule
𝟑𝑲𝑻
• 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ 𝒎
𝟖𝑲𝑻
• 𝒗
̅=√
𝒎
𝟐𝑲𝑻
• 𝒗𝒎𝒑 = √ 𝒎

3 mark question
1.Write the relation between the average kinetic energy and pressure.

• Internal energy of the gas is given by,

𝟑
• 𝑼= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 (∵ 𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻)
𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝑼 𝟐 𝑼
• 𝑼= 𝑷𝑽, 𝑷= , 𝑷= 𝒖 (∵ 𝒖 = )
𝟐 𝟑 𝑽 𝟑 𝑽
• Writing pressure in terms of mean kinetic energy density using above equation
𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐 ,
• Pressure density 𝑷 = 𝒏𝒎𝒗
𝟑
𝟏
• 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐 (∵ 𝝆 = 𝒏𝒎)
𝟑

• Multiply and divide R.H.S by 2 we get,

𝟐 𝝆𝒗𝟐
• 𝑷= ( )
𝟑 𝟐
𝟐
• 𝑷 = 𝑲𝑬
̅̅̅̅
𝟑
Pressure is equal to the mean kinetic energy per unit volume.

5 mark question

1. Write down the postulates of kinetic theory of gases.

1. All the molecules of a gas are identical elastic spheres.
2. Molecules of different gases are different
3. The average separation between the molecules is larger than the size of
the gas molecules
4. The molecules of a gas are in a state of continuous random motion
 5. The molecules collide with one another and also with the walls of the
container
6. Since the collisions are perfectly elastic, there is no loss of kinetic energy
during collision.
7. Between two successive collisions , a molecule move with uniform
velocity
8. Molecules do not possess any potential energy. The energy is wholly
kinetic.
9. The collisions are instantaneous
10.The molecules obey Newton’s law of motion.
Unit 10 oscillations
2 mark questions

1. What is an epoch?
• The phase of the vibrating particle at time t=0 is called epoch
2. State the laws of simple pendulum.
• Law of length: for a given value of acceleration due to gravity, the time period
of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of the length of
the pendulum.
• 𝑻 ∝ √𝒍
• Law of acceleration: for a fixed length the time period of a simple pendulum
is inversely proportional to the square root of accelearation due to gravity.
𝟏
• 𝑻∝
√𝒈
3. Define resonance give an example.
• It is special case of forced vibration where the frequency of external periodic
force matches with the natural frequency of the vibrating body.
• As a result, the amplitude increases at each step and ultimately it has large
amplitude.
• E.g breaking og glass.
4. What are the factors which do not affect the time period of the pendulum?
1. Mass of the bob (m)
2. Amplitude of the oscillations (A)
3mark question
1. Differentiate simple harmonic motion and angular harmonic motion
S.NO. Simple Harmonic Motion Angular Harmonic Motion
1 The displacement of the particle Measured in terms of angular
is measured in terms of linear displacement ⃗𝜽
⃗
displacement 𝒓
2 Acceleration of the particle is Angular Acceleration of the particle
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑟 is 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃
3 Force 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Torque 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
4 Restoring force 𝐹 = −𝐾𝑟 Restoring Torque 𝜏 = −𝐾𝜃
5 𝑘 𝑘
Angular frequency 𝜔 = √ Angular frequency 𝜔 = √
𝑚 𝐼

5 Mark questions
1. Explain the horizontal oscillations of a spring.
• A block of mass ‘𝑚′ is attached to a massless spring
• This spring-mass set-up is placed on a smooth
horizontal surface. K- is spring constant.
• 𝑥0 be the equilibrium position, when there is no
external force.
• It will oscillate back and forth about its mean position,
when it is displaced to 𝑥 distance towards right side
• According to Hooke’s law, restoring force 𝐹 = −𝐾𝑥 -------------(1)
𝑑2𝑥 𝑘
• According to Newton’s II law, =− 𝑥----------------(2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑2𝑥
• Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion = −𝜔2 𝑥____(3)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑘
• Comparing equation 2 and 3, 𝜔 = √
𝑚
𝑚
• Time period, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝑘

1 𝑘
• Frequency, 𝑓 = √
2𝜋 𝑚

2. Explain in detail the four different types of oscillations

1) Free Oscillations

o it oscillates with a frequency which is equal to the natural frequency of

the oscillator.
o Eg: vibration of a tuning fork
2) damped oscillations
 o Due to the presence of the friction and air drag, energy of the oscillator
decreases gradually as time progresses.
o Eg oscillation in dead beat and ballistic galvanometer
3) maintained oscillations
o Using external energy, loss of energy due to damping is avoided
o The oscillations can be made constant.
Eg the vibration of a tuning fork getting energy from a battery or from external
power supply.
o 4) forced oscillations
o Any oscillator driven by external periodic agengy to overcome damping
is known as forced oscillations. The body vibrates with the frequency of
the applied periodic force.
o Eg sound boards of stringed instruments.
3. What is meant by angular harmonic oscillation? Compute the time period of
angular harmonic oscillation.
o When a body is allowed to rotate freely about a given axis then the oscillation
is known as the angular oscillation.
o A point at which the resultant torque acting on the
body is zero is called mean position.
o If the body displaced from the mean position , then
restoring torque make the body oscillate back and
forth.
o Angular displacement of the body 𝜃 , resultant torque
𝜏 then
o 𝜏 = −𝑘𝜃 -----------------------(1)(K-restoring torsion
constant)
o 𝐼 – moment of inertia, 𝛼 − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 -----------------(2)
o Comparing equation 1 and 2,
𝑘
o 𝐼𝛼 = − 𝑘𝜃, 𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼
𝑑2𝜃 𝑘
o = − 𝜃 ------------(3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
𝑑2𝜃
o = −𝜔2 𝜃 ----------(4)
𝑑𝑡 2
o comparing equation 3 with equation for simple harmonic motion,
𝐾
o 𝜔=√
𝐼

𝐼
o Time period, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝐾

1 𝐾
o Frequency, f= √
2𝜋 𝐼