Final Report of Geology

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
A FIELD REPORT ON
GELOGY
SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO
AMRIT AACHARYA (063BCE005)
BIJAY SUBEDI (063BCE017)
BIKRAM K.C. (063BCE018)
BIR BDR. BOHRA (063BCE024)
September 10, 2008
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………...........6-7
1. Introduction
2. Objectives of study
3. Location of study area
2. Study of Mass Movement and study of Preventive and corrective measures

………………………………………………..8-18
1. Mass movement
2. Types of mass movement
3. Causes
4. Classification
5. Preventive and corrective measures
6. Description of each location
7. Location A
8. Location B
9. Location D
10.Field observation
11.Sketch
3. Measurement of Attitude of planner features of rock …………………....19-22

1. Rocky outcrops and Exposures
2. Planner features
3. Attitude of planner features
4. Types of geological compass
5. Measurement of attitude of planner features in rock outcrops at
Location E
4. Identification of Rocks in the field ……………………………………….23-32

1. Rock
2. Classification of rock
3. How to identify rocks in the field
4. Types of rocks identified in the field
5. Rock identification form
6. Civil engineering significance of each rock types observed in Malekhu
field
5. Geology of the study area …………………………………………………..34-37

1. Regional geological framework
2. Geological information
3. Rock types in the formation
6. Study of geological structures in the field ………………………………..38-43
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1. Geological structures
2. Types of geological structures
3. Types of geological structures observed in the Malekhu area
4. Unconformity
5. Fold
6. Fault
7. Thrusts
8. Sketch, photographs, description of location
9. Civil Engineering Significance of each geologic al structures
7. Study of river channel morphology ………………………………………45-48

1. River morphology
2. Types of river morphology
3. Features developed by river channel
4. Civil engineering significance of river channel
5. Sketch, photographs, description of location
8. Engineering Geological studies of the rock outcrops ………………….49-54

1. Define engineering geology
2. Importance of engineering geology in the field of civil engineering
3. Engineering geological data
4. Parameters of engineering geological data
9. Rock mass ………………………………………………………………….55-58

1. Definition
2. Rock mass classification systems
3. Q-system
4. RMR-system
5. Parameters of RMR-System
6. mass classification system in the Malekhu area
7. Rock mass class in the Malekhu area
8. Photographs, description of location
10.Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….59-60
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PREFACE
Engineering Geology is an applied discipline of geology which is concerned
with the application of geological knowledge to engineering problems .The
selection of suitable sites for bridges, tunnels, dams, roads along hill slopes etc,
are only successful with the application of geological knowledge . e.g. to design
reservoir, determination of suitable location, slope stability, and determination of
earthquake, flood, and subsidence danger areas considered for roads, pipelines, or
other engineering works should be known for construction purposes.
It helps an engineer in planning, designing and construction, in safer, stable
and economic way. Therefore Geology is an important topic for civil engineers.
Civil Engineer is only responsible for studying the stability of the infrastructures
in different types of land geology including rock, their slope and many other
things. So only theoretical knowledge is not sufficient to enrich the civil engineers
about practical problems and their solutions. For producing satisfactory results of
any work practical knowledge is of foremost importance. Therefore a thorough
knowledge of actual field visit counts for its credit. Geology deals with rocks and
their origin, structure, orientation, strength, stability, hardness, weathering
property, etc. It also deals with minute study of rocks structure including faults,
folds, joints, beds, and other discontinuities. Engineers should have knowledge of
topographic map for proper location of site and other activities. It is therefore
very essential to make field visits. The three day Malekhu tour enables us to learn
the various geological conditions related to Engineering point of view. The scope
of field study outline before were fully made with the co-operation of faculty
member and Malekhu possess wonderful geological diversities and almost all type
of rock structures and geological factors like rivers, hills, slopes and
sedimentations, were available to study within small area. At last but not least we
are very grateful to our respected teachers and lectures that helped in completing
this three day visit in a very responsible manner and gave us much important
knowledge in a very short period of time
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very much thankful to the Department of Civil Engineering for
conducting such a fruitful visit on the Malekhu area that has given us golden
opportunity to gain the knowledge on different aspect of geology which plays an
important role in completing any civil engineering projects. We especially express
our gratitude to our respected teachers Mr. Prakash Chandra Ghimere and Mr.
Ajay sir for their special guide line in recognizing local geological conditions and
their descriptions, well co-ordination, valuable suggestion.
We would also like to thank our friends and seniors who helped us directly and
indirectly in the successful completion of Malekhu field visit and preparation of
the report through any kind of means.
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1.INTRODUCTION
Since the Engineering works should be implied on the field, so it is a must
for an engineer to know about the field before he starts his activities. And the
knowledge of the geological condition for an engineer is provided by a branch of
geology known as Engineering Geology.
Engineering Geology is an applied discipline of geology which is concerned

with the application of geological knowledge to engineering problems .The
selection of suitable sites for bridges, tunnels, dams, roads along hill slopes etc,
are only successful with the application of geological knowledge . e.g. to design
reservoir, determination of suitable location, slope stability, and determination of
earthquake, flood, and subsidence danger areas considered for roads, pipelines, or
other engineering works should be known for construction purposes.
Engineering geology is now established as an interdisciplinary branch of
science & engineering. In other way, it is an interdisciplinary profession in which
the Engineering Geologist works closely with must understand and respond to the
needs of the civil engineer. It is closely related with urban geology and deals with
the impact of human activities on the physical environment.
Engineering works that lack the benefit of geologic input are likely to cost
more than necessary, function below their expected optimum or fail altogether.
This is not to say that only geologic factors are important consideration in the
failure of the design & construction of engineering works. Unfortunately,
examples are far too common in which lack of geologic information is at the root
of problems encountered during development.
This branch as well includes the investigation of sites for the proper
stability of structures. It helps an engineer in planning, designing and
construction, in safer, stable and economic way.
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The main objectives of three days field visit were: -
Measurement of dip amount and strike of rocks
Engineering geological studies along the large scale geological
discontinuity (the Mahabharata thrust)
Study of landslides
Geomorphology of river channel
Rock identification in the field
Study of the bedding planes, faults and joints, the rocky outcrops.
Study of rock slopes along the road corridor
The rock mapping techniques of the rocky outcrops and so on….
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1.2. METHODOLOGY
The only methodology implemented in this study is direct field visit
methodology. The true inspection with the detail field visits was done to know the
real nature of the geological structures .The field inspection method includes the
collection of samples, description of the collected samples via different criteria’s
,testing the vegetation of the area etc. The inaccessible places were also studied by
the inferred method i.e. following the study of area through maps predominantly.
1.3. LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

The location of our field study was Malekhu, west from the Kathmandu,
along Prithvi highway in Dhading district. The location politically lies in Dhading
District. This Site is suitable place for our study as it provides mixed diversity
within a small range of area. Our main study area was Malekhu and nearby which
covers about 110 sq Km and lies in between 270 25’ - 270 52’ latitude and 840 48’ -
84 0 59’ longitude.
Malekhu
Fig:- map of Nepal
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2.STUDY OF MASS MOVEMENT AND STUDY OF
PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES
2.1. MASS MOVEMENT
Mass movement or mass wasting is movements of rock waste, bed rock, soil
or mud which usually occur along steep-sided hills and mountains under the
influence of gravity. This sudden flow of rock wastes is mainly due to their
position, gravitational forces as well as due to the water presence.
2.1 TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT

There are three types of mass movements:-
i. Slope failure
ii. Debris flow
iii. Landslides
i. Slope failure
The down slope movement of rock wastes, weathered surface soil layer in a
small dimension and rapid movement influenced by surface and sub-surface
water is called Slope Failure. It often takes place in weathered surface and sandy
soils. Its velocity is about 10 mm per day which is very high. Crest, scarp, debris,
tension cracks etc. are the chief components of slope failure.
The preventive measures applied in these cases are like trimming of debris,
reinforcement of slope, decreases in rate of percolation (by increasing speed of
flowing water on surface) etc.
Slope failure depends mainly upon the following factors
a. Angle at which it is sustaining b .height
c. Material d. Strength. e. Water stress in the pores.
The slope failure loosen the rock mass and the open the stress relief joints
or fractures. The mass resulted due to the slope failure moves parallel the failure
plane. So far as the impact of the net load due to the mass is concerned, along the
slope component mgCosθ act, which in one way is the driving force of the debris,
resulted. The component of mgSinθ acts vertical to the plane of slope (where
θ=Angle of the slope with respect to the horizontal plane). The net impact, say E,
due to the failure is:
E=
Clearing the debris is considered as the best solution in case of slope failure
along the road, but it could sometimes lead catastrophic landslides.
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Fig: Slope failure
ii. Debris flow

Debris flow is the rapid down slope movement of enormous amount of
viscous soils and boulders either mixed or separately. it is the flow of deposited
and eroded sediments along the stream. When the shear strength of the hill slope
material considerably reduced the rapid movement of solid earth material
including large volume of water can take place such a flow including complex
debris are called debris flow. If the material is fine the phenomenon is called earth
flow .The slow but continuous movement of the slope containing the thicker soil
layer without distinct slip surface is recognized as creeping. The major role in
debris flow is of gravity and pours water so it generally occurs in monsoon.
Preventive measures:
Water percolation safety and consequence reduction in pour-
water pressure.
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FIG: - DEBRIS FLOW
iii. Landslide
A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a
sloppy slip surface under the influence of gravitational force. It occurs in gentle
slope in large dimension in slow and continuous manner.
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Fig: - landslides
All landslides are the result of failure of the soil and rock materials that
make up the hill slope and they are driven by gravity. They can vary in size from a
single boulder in a rock fall or topple to tens of millions of cubic meters of
material in a debris avalanche. Landslides can be triggered by natural causes or by
human activity.
Wasting of mass caused by slope angle, role of gravity, pour water pressure and
consequence saturation of fine clay etc. is called landslide. They seem natural and
same material is flowing continuously. Multiple scarps can be seen in landslide.
Slip surface of landside

The slip surface of landslide can be found out
a) By visual inspection: It includes, Convexity of slope, concentric type of
scarp, Planes of seepage, Clay horizon can be seen
b) Geophysical investigation
c) By propagating wave inside soil.
d) By core drilling e) Pit/trench construction
Classification of landslide
Landslide may be classified on the basis of type of movements and
materials into the following types:
Types of movement Type of material
Bedrock Engineering soil
Predominantly Predominantly
coarse fine
Falls Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall
Topples Rock topples Debris topples Earth topples
Rotational Few units Rock slump Debris slump Earth slump
Slide Translational Many Rock block slide Debris block slide Earth block
units Rock slide Debris slide slide
Earth slide
Lateral spread Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread
Flows Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow

(deep creep)
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of
movement
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Causes of landslides
The main cause of landslide is the force of gravity. It has been observed that
softer and unconsolidated rocks are more affected generally unable to withstand
the pull of gravity. Landslide may be caused due to:
a. Water content. b. Overloading c. Structural textures.
Geological causes Morphological Physical causes Human causes

causes
Weak materials Slope angle Intense rainfall Excavation
Sensitive materials Uplift Rapid snow melt Loading
Weathered Rebound Prolonged Drawdown
materials Fluvial erosion precipitation Land use change
Sheared materials Wave erosion Rapid drawdown Water
Jointed or fissured Glacial erosion Earthquake management
materials Erosion of lateral Volcanic eruption Mining
Adversely margins Thawing Quarrying
orientated Subterranean Freeze-thaw Vibration
discontinuities erosion Shrink-swell Water leakage
Permeability Slope loading Ground water deforestation
contrasts Vegetation change changes mining
Material contrasts Soil pore water
pressure
Surface runoff
Other mass
movements
Definition of Landslides features

a. Crown:-
The Practically underplayed material adjacent to highest part of main scarp.
b. Main scarp:-
A Steep surface on undisturbed ground at upper edge of landslide cause by
movement of displaced material; it is visible part of surface of rupture.
c. Top:-
The Highest point of contact between displaced materials and main scrap.
d. Head:-
The Upper parts of the landslide along contact between displaced material
and main scarp.
e. Minor scarp:-
A Steep surface on displaced material of landslide produced by differential
movements within displaced material.
f. Main body:-
The Part of displaced material of landslide that over lines surface of rupture
between main scarp and toe of surface of rupture.
g. Foot:-
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The Portion of landslide that has moved beyond the toe of surface of
rupture and over lies original ground surface.
h. Toe:-
The Lower, usually curved margin of displaced material of a landslide most
distant from main scarp.
Prevention of landslide
Retaining wall: Retaining walls can be constructed at the landslide expected

area. However it is costly. Even then it should be constructed at the place
which does not have differential movement.
By reducing Q:By bringing about reduction in pore water pressure(Q) also,
we can avoid landslide.
Construction of surface drainage from the area behind the scarp: We
should construct surface drainage from the area behind the scarp so that
water does not enter into the crack and thereby also does not affect the
pore water pressure. The drain should however be maid above the crack for
this purpose.
Avoid disturbing mechanical equilibrium condition: Landslide occur due
to disturbance in mechanical equilibrium. Thus one should avoid doing
such a thing so that pore water pressure does not develop.
Construction of Gabion wall: Gabion wall should be constructed at the
place of differential moment. If retaining wall is however maid, it will be
waste of money. Gabion wall can also be constructed at a place which has
developed pore water pressure. At a place where pore water pressure exists,
a small hole should be made before construction of gabion wall.
Though most of the reasons given above for the occurrence of landslide are
true, some may be stated otherwise. For eg. It is not always true that construction
of road results in landslide, Sometime nature itself may bring about devastating
landslides.
In addition to above stated things one should also know certain important
features of landslide. When we look at the place of landslide, if we see too many
scraps, we can conclude that many landslides may have been gone at that place.
Age of landslide can be recognized by the degree of weathering of the rock at the
place of its occurrence.
2.3 Causes of mass movement

i. Natural Factor
Steep Slope
Heavy and concentrated precipitation (maximum rainfall).
Undercutting of banks by river and streams.
ii. Material of Slope and Shear Strength of Material
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iii. Presence of Soft and Weak Rock.
Alternate layer of weak and strong rock.

High grade weathering rock.
Heavily fractured rock.
High porous rock.
iv. Construction Activities (Artificial Cause)
Road in mountainous area.

Water canals in steep slope.
v. Improper Land Use
Agricultural practice, irrigation in slope area.

Quarrying of constructional materials.
Over grazing.
Deforestation.
2.4 Preventive and corrective measures

There are several methods for controlling mass movements. The method
depends upon the factors like nature of the slide, the underlying causes for
it, the nature and amount of material likely to be involved in it and
economic considerations.
i. For Artificial Slopes
Construction of breast wall is below the road, gabion wall,

retaining wall, etc.
Surface drainage (Cascade drain, canal, etc.).
Sub-surface drainage (Weep hole in retaining wall).
Slope trimming (Flattering, benching).
River structure work (Check dam).
Bio-engineering concept of soil stabilization
Suitable vegetation in slope
Hardening
ii. For Natural Slopes
River structure work (Check dam).

Benching and diversion.
Re-vegetation.
Bio-engineering grass seeding, a forestation.
2.5 Case study
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2.5.1 Khatri Pauwa (Chainage 17km from Kathmandu)
In this place we found that there was certain landslide towards the
downward during the monsoon season. So as safety measures were taken by
building the composite retaining structures of cement masonry and gabion walls
around the region where the landslide has occurred. The landslide had occurred in
the side slope of a small valley.
Fig: -Chainage 17km from Kathmandu

A large amount of loose material was deposited over the retaining structure
which was obtained from landslide. The area was composed of hard soil and soft
rock with fractures in rocks. During the monsoon season, the rain water had flown
in the area weakening the rocks by flowing inside the cracks and the steep slope
further added in the rupture of hill site. Geological material present there was also
of low load bearing capacity due to presence of the fractured rock. Dynamic load
due to the moving vehicle further increased the danger the failure of the site; some
of the consequences followed them such as the traffic interruption during the
monsoon season, economic loss as we have to rebuild the road or the construction
site after the landslide damage. Thus we have to make some preventive measures
in order to minimize the consequences as far as possible. For this purpose first we
have to build the breast wall taking in the account of factor of safety.
To stop further landslide bio-engineering works were done on the surface of
landslide. Even after building of stabilizing structures we also add protection
measures such as surface drain friction angle vegetation such as herbs are planted
which now called bio-engineering. The self weight of the gabion wall hampers the
equilibrium of the material and the structure. The protection measure is
applicable only for the falling material but not for the equilibrium structure.
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It includes the mass wasting of hill slopes process in which predominance of P.E.
has been disturbed by shifting the position of mass, failure.
2.5.2 Belkhu Khola

This was the second station of our study along the Prithvi highway. It
was the place where Belkhu and Trishuli River meet .The flow direction of Belkhu
River was perpendicular to the flow direction of Trishuli River up to the point of
confluence.
fig: - Belkhu river along Tribhuvan highway
At this location mainly the downstream of the bridge and the right
bank of Trishuli River has been observed. The place was heavily affected by the
rainfall of 1994 .The bridged washed away and the condition we see is the period
of over nine years. The things found upon the observation listed below:
Poor settlement downstream the bridge.

Life may have been lost during the disaster.
The debris flow may have washed out the bridge.
There was mass movement along the river bank.
Description of opposite bank.
i. The bank is of well-graded material having vertical slope.

ii.It seems to be stable to period before.
iii.The soil may have exposed for about of 1000 years because of its red color.
iv.The brown color shows that there may the recent exposure.
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v.The clear line in the middle of the area passes horizontally along the river
direction having the vegetation to the particular area shows that the strata laid
horizontally.
vi.The material shows contrast color.There is risk of being falling so should be
alert all the time.
2.5.3 Dhading besi bridge

The picture shows that the mass movement occurred due to flow of water
into the mass from the top side of the mass though cracks. The land slide was
about 50m. In length and we found very different soil condition in short interval.
There was rock exposure at the bottom of beginning point of the landslide above
which loose soil was there. A bio-engineering method of protection was applied
there along with good management of surface water providing side drain and
cascade drain. At the middle of the land slide stone masonry wall was constructed
over which huge mass of the landslide was protected. We also saw a small portion
eroded by flow of water. Dry stone masonry wall was provided there. At the end
of the land slide gabion wall was provided to protect the landslide. Vegetation was
grown enough there and few trees were there which shows that, that portion of
landslide was in naturally stable condition. Further possibility of mass movement
was protected there by draining water form top side of the mass and leaving some
gap near the zone to prevent the further mass movement by pressure due the
moving vehicles on the road at upside of slope. The location of the place is 3Km.
form Malekhu towards Gajuri. It includes the tension cracks on the roadside by
which water entered in the road. There is presence of vegetation on both sides of
the mass movement side.
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Fig: - 42 km along Prithvi highway
2.5.4 MALEKHU (Ch 68+000)

In Malekhu there is an exposure/outcrop of rock. We can see number of
discontinuities sets in outcrops. Due to rock failure there was movement of rock
particles to prevent rock fragments falling to road gabion wall has been built
along the side of the road. The individual rock was found to be strong but due the
presence of number of discontinuities the whole rock mass was unstable. The
landslide has length of about 60m. A huge mass was deposited behind the gabion
wall. The gabion wall was constructed not for retaining purpose but to prevent the
rock fragments coming to the road. Thus the wall served as the catch wall. Some
vegetation and few trees were grown at the beginning of the landslide but
remaining portion was fully rocky portion with number of discontinuities. The
movement of heavy vehicles also affected the stability of the rock mass. There
was possibility of further movement of rock mass towards the road, which could
produce serious problem in future in rainy season.
Fig:- Malekhu
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3 Measurement of attitude of planner features
of rock
3.1. Rock Exposures and Rock outcrops

Rock exposure is the naturally visible rock to the surface of the earth
.Solid rock is not exposed anywhere on the surface of the earth; it is often covered
by thin r thick layer of alluvium or soil .IN some places, alluvium or soil may be
spread for thousands of square kilometers and the bed rock may not be visible
anywhere.
An Outcrop is defined as the artificial exposure of the geological units on
the surface of the earth. It is major source of data where we can measure attitudes
of geological materials easily. Generally the rock outcrop is natural while the rock
exposure is human induced.
3.2. Planar features at rocky outcrops

The distinct visible marks or features of the rock outcrops are known as the
planner feature of the rock outcrops. The Planner features have the significant
importance for the study of the structural features .There are different planner
features, which we can see in the rock outcrops.
3.2.1. Bedding plane
The layers which are easily distinguished on the basis of variation in color,
composition and grain size is known as bed. The plane of this bed or strata is
known as bedding plane .It has fundamental significance in the study of structural
features of sedimentary rocks. The different beds are distinguished from each
other by difference in mineral composition, variation in grain size texture,
difference in color and variation thickness.
3.2.2. Foliation plane
The segregation of minerals into layers or bands of contrasting
mineralogical composition is known as foliation. The plane of these different
bands occurred in metamorphic rock is known as foliation plane. Foliation plane
is generally formed by dynamo-thermal metamorphism of coarse-grained igneous
and sedimentary rocks at progressive stages of the process.
3.2.3. Joints
The rupture surface present after the cracks is known as joints .These are
the divisional planes or factures ,which divide rocks into parts or blocks without
transverse movement of blocks. There may or may not be small movement in the
blocks perpendicular to the facture surface.
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3.3. Attitude of planner features
Attitude:
Orientation of linear and planner surfaces in horizontal
direction with respect to north and in vertical plane with reference to horizontal is
known as attitude.
Orientation of linear features

Trend: The orientation of horizontal projection of the linear feature
measured with respect to the north is called trend.
Plunge: The angle of inclination measured of its own linear features
horizontally is called plunge.
Orientation of planner features

Strike: The line of intersection of the bedding plane with the horizontal is
called the strike line and its orientation is called the strike. The true dip and strike
is always perpendicular to the each other.
Dip amount and dip direction: The angle made by the strata of the
rock out crop or any geological unit to the horizontal is called dip amount and its
orientation with respect to the north is called dip direction.
3.4. Types of Geological compass

The geological compass is the combination of clinometers and compass.
(Clinometers is an instrument used to measure inclination of surface). This
geological compass is used to measure attitudes of outcrops.
Types of geological compass:
a) Clinometer compass:
Consists of clinometers and compass with no leveling advantages. Easy to
handle but the possibility of errors is high. No corrections can be applied. Its use
can be time consuming because we have to keep in two positions to take attitudes.
b) Brunton compass:
It is derived from its company name. It is also like clinometers but
provided with leveling device.
c) Clar compass:
Scale of measurement of inclination is on the side of compass. So,
efficiency is double since we can read both data at the same time. It is also
provided with leveling device.
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d) Ptyberger frager compass:
Combination of clinometers and prismatic compass with help of this
compass both the dip amount and dip directions components can be measured
simultaneously in a single measurement.
e) Digital compass:
When we keep it in the outcrop in the proper manner, it gives attitudes in
the digits, and hence highly efficient.
Digital compass attached to personal computers:
We don’t need to write data also. Data are recorded directly on the word-
pad or personal computers.
The geological compass used by our group is clinometers compass. Due to
its nature, there may be error in the measured outcrop data.
3.5. Measurements of attitudes of planner

features in rock outcrops at location
The measurement of the orientation of the planar features i.e. rock
outcrops is done on the field. It is measurement of its attitude, which helps us to
know the actual position of the planar feature on the earth.
Left bank of Malekhu Khola about 40m upstream of old bridge, we
measured the attitudes of the planner features.
S.N. Dip Direction Dip Amount Attitude Remarks

1 N 18 W 76 76/18 J
2 S 17 E 80 80/17 B
3 S 16 E 70 70/16 B
4 S 19 E 74 74/19 B
5 S 84 E 65 65/84 J
6 S 70 W 56 56/70 J
7 S 22 E 81 81/22 B
8 S 50 E 81 81/50 J
9 S9W 90 90/9 B
10 S 10 E 84 84/10 B
11 S 80 E 58 58/80 J
12 S 15 E 81 81/15 B
13 S 88 E 56 56/88 J
14 S 12 E 86 86/12 B
15 S 80 E 79 79/80 J
16 S 88 E 37 37/88 J
17 N 79 E 38 38/79 J
18 N 86 W 87 87/86 B
19 S9E 87 87/9 B
20 N 72 E 74 74/72 J
21 N 85 E 55 55/85 J
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22 W 82 N 76 76/72 J
23 S 17 E 80 80/17 B
24 S 16 E 70 70/16 B
25 S 19 E 74 74/19 B
26 S 84 W 65 65/84 J
27 S 70 W 56 56/70 J
28 S 22 E 81 81/22 B
29 S 50 E 81 81/50 J
30 N 72 E 74 74/72 J
31 E5N 55 55/5 J
32 S 22 E 81 81/22 B
33 S 50 E 81 81/50 J
34 S 16 E 70 70/16 B
35 S 19 E 74 74/19 B
36 W 82 N 76 76/72 J
37 S 17 E 80 80/17 B
38 N 86 W 87 87/86 B
39 S9E 87 87/9 B
40 N 72 E 74 74/72 J
B= bed
J= joint
Note: The direction of strike is perpendicular to dip direction
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4.Identification of Rocks in Field
4.1. Rock
Rock is defined as the naturally forming, hard and compact solid aggregates
or assemblage of minerals forming the crust of the earth. It is said to be
monomineralic rock if it is formed from assemblage or aggregates of only one
mineral and multimineralic if it is formed from more than one mineral.
4.2. Rock Types

All the rocks found in nature are not the same. Even a small area contains
large number of rocks varieties. One rocks differ from other in color, strength,
crystal structure, composition, porosity, hardness and specific gravity, cleavage,
fracture, grain size etc on the basis of the variations, rocks are classified into
different classes.
On the basis of rock origin, they are classified as: -
4.2.1. Igneous rock
Those rocks, which are formed from a hot, molten material by the process
of cooling and crystallization called ‘magmatism’ on or beneath the surface of
earth is called Igneous rock.
These are the rocks formed by the solidification of magma either under neat
the surface or above it: accordingly they are divided into two groups:
a. Intrusive bodies: which are formed underneath the surface of the earth
b. Extrusive bodies: which are formed due to consolidation of magma above the
surface of the earth. These are also known as volcanic rocks
On the basis of the depth of formation, intrusive rocks are of two types
Plutonic rocks: which are formed at very depths.
Hypobysal rocks: which are formed at shallow depths.
On the basis of chemical composition of the minerals of the rocks.
Acidic rock: If silica content is >66%
Intermediate rock: If silica content is 52-66%
Basic rock: If silica content is 45-52%
Ultra basic rock: If silica content is <45%
On the basis of CIPW Norms the Igneous rock is classified on the basis of % of all
the minerals of that rock. This is based on chemical analysis and mathematical
calculations. This norm was developed by petrologists Cross, Iddings Prisson, and
Washington. So this is known as CIPW norm calculation.
On the basis of Mineralogical Classification, classification of igneous rocks is

based upon the % and type of feldspar, absence or presence of quartz,
feldspathoid or olivine, type of mafic mineral and grain size and texture. Igneous
23
rocks containing quartz, feldspathoid (foid mineral) or rich in light color mineral
are often called felsic and many igneous rocks containing abundant dark colored
minerals such as pyroxene, amphibole, olive or biotic are called mafic minerals
which are rich in Mg and Fe.
On the basis of Texture Igneous rocks are classified as

Pegmatite
Obsidian
Tuff
Breccias
Spilite
Serpentine
Kimberlite
4.2.2. Sedimentary Rock

Those rocks formed from the process of sedimentation are called
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentation process includes accumulation, compaction,
cementation and consolidation of sediments formed by weathering of old rocks
(either igneous or sedimentary or even sedimentary itself) and are then
transported by geological agents like water, wind, ice etc. These eroded sediments
are deposited on the depositional basin, after travelling some distance or
precipitation of soluble materials from solution or accumulation of decomposed
organic matters in the layers. Sediments rocks consist almost entirely (>95%) of
three types: Sandstones, mud rocks and carbonate rocks.
Broadly sedimentation includes:

Compaction: - Decrease in volume by weight of overlying sediments.
Lithification: - Change of loose sediments into rock.
Cementation: - Joining of sediments with fine materials.
Digenesis: - Cementation, Compaction and finally growth of new minerals.
Sedimentary rocks can be classified as:

a. Clastic (Detrital) Rock
b. Non-Clastic Rock
4.2.3. Metamorphic Rock

Those rocks formed by the alteration of the pre-existing rocks by the
process of metamorphism are called metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism is a natural process by which existing rocks are altered into new
rock under the influence of pressure, temperature and chemical reaction. In rock,
the minerals have preferred orientation
24
4.3. How to identify rocks in the field
Rocks can be identified in the field with the following tips and points:-
Igneous Rock:
1. No bedding planes.
2. Random orientation of minerals and self-interlocked.
3. Hard and massive.
4. Usually contain much feldspar
5. Entire absence of fossils.
6. have heat effect on the country rock
7. huge massive body cross-cut into another rock
Sedimentary Rock:
1. Random orientation of minerals and sediments.
2. Sediments and minerals are cemented by fine matrix.
3. Have thick bedding planes.
4. Generally, soft, stratified i.e. characteristically bedded.
5. Fossils common
6. Stratification, lamination, cross bedding. Ripple marks, mud-marks etc are
the usual structures.
7. No effect on the enclosing or the top and bottom rocks.
8. Quartz, clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, hematite are the common minerals.
E.g.: - calcite, limestone, magnetite, sandstone, shale, etc.
Fig:- sandstone Fig:- limestone

Metamorphic Rock:
1. Preferred orientation of minerals.
2. Have foliation planes i.e. thin folia of minerals.
3. Have rock cleavage.
4. Foliated, gneissose, schistose, granular lose, slaty etc are the common
structure.
25
5. In this case fossils are rarely preserved in rocks of sedimentary origin
except slate.
Types of metamorphic rocks:-
Gneiss
It is the rock with dark and light streaks or bands in alternating specific gravity
are variable. Garnet (like mustard seed) can be seen in the rocks. The grain is
medium or coarse. The structural feature is called gneissosity.
Fig:-Gneiss
Schist
It is the rock that has extremely variable color and specific gravity. The dominant
constituent is calcite. Others are mica, quartz and special minerals like muscovite
(white colored), biotite (black colored), and chlorite (green colored). The rock is
fusible and the property is called schistosity.
Slate
It is a black rock with low or medium specific gravity. Flaky minerals are quite
abundant and others are hard to distinguish. The rock is compact and can be
scratched by knife. It has foliation with slaty cleavage.
Fig:-Slate
26
Phyllite
It is a greenish and soft type of rock. It is layered and foliation plane is quite
dominant with incompetent beds (the thickness less than 1cm is called foliation
other it is called bed). No distinct grains can be seen. It is an igneous rock that has
changed into metamorphic rock.
Fig :-phyllite
Quartzite
It is usually light colored with shades of gray, yellow. It has medium specific
gravity (i.e. S.G. =7). It has quartz, as major constituents while others are mica,
feldspar. It is medium grained and the texture is massive and granular.
Fig :- quartz
Marble
It is derived from the latin word ‘a shining stone’. It is also a paarametamorphic
rock. It is the rock of medium specific gravity, which is light colored. The major
component is calcite. Texture is massive and granular. A knife can scratch it.
27
Fig :- Marble
4.4. Types of rock identified in the field

Major metamorphic rocks identified in the field were Slate, Phyllite, Schist,
Gneiss, Marble
Slate: - Smooth and slaty cleavage, fine-grained texture. It can be split-up into
smooth thin sheets. Due to its low crushing strength it is also used as building
material. It was found at a distance of five hundred meter north of highway.
Phyllite: - It is the fine-grained metamorphic rock. Slaty cleavage with soapy
touch. Essential minerals are mica, quartz, horn blend etc. This is found at the
south from the highway along the stream.
Dark green type of phyllite was found in the Robang Formation(RB).
Schist: - It is formed by the dynamic metamorphism of shale. It is available in light

colors and closely spaced foliation planes. Platy and flaky minerals arranged in
regular layers.
Gneiss: - They are the coarse grained foliated rock formed by the dynamic
metamorphism of the sandstones, conglomerates and granites. They are
characterized by the inspection of segregation of minerals into layers. Contrast in
color, texture and composition. They are massive. In Malekhu it was found at a
distance of four thousand six hundred fifty meter south from the highway. The
gneiss was found in the boulder as an eye structure and so called Augen Gneiss.
This was found on the Kulekhani formation (ku) of Bhimphedhi group.
Marble:- Marble is essentially a granular rock composed chiefly of recrystallized

calcite. It is characterized by a granular structure. Marble often show banded
structure. Marbles are commonly used in building constructions in the form of
blocks, slabs, aches, and as chip for flooring. It is also used as decorative and
ornamental purpose. In Malekhu it was found at a distance of three thousand two
hundred seventy five meter south from the highway.
Quartzite: - Quartzite is a granular metamorphic rocks composed mainly of the
intercultural grains of quartz. The name Orthoquartizile is used for a sedimentary
rock of similar composition but of different origin; it has siliceous cement. It
28
contains sub-ordinate amount of micas, feldspars, garnet and some amphiboles
which result from the impurities of the original sandstone during the process of
metamorphism. The rock is generally very hard, strong, dense and uniformly
grained. It finds extensive use in building and road construction.
.
Different types of Sedimentary rocks found in the field of study are as follows:-
Limestone: - These are the most abundant sedimentary rock formed from the
non-elastic group and are composed of chiefly calcium carbonate. However the
presence of dolomite, quartz, feldspar and iron oxides is rather a common
mineral. Limestone is a primary source of materials for the manufacture of
Portland cement and for a wide variety of limes. Its other uses are in the
Metallurgical industries as a flux.
It was found along the Prithvi Highway towards Gajuri as the Robang Formation
(RF) as a Malekhu Limestone Formation (ML) in the Upper Nuwakot Group.
Sandstone: - Sandstone is a mechanically formed sedimentary rock. It is formed

by the cementation of the sand particles of sized between 1/10mm to 2mm in
diameter. Sandstone is perhaps the most familiar of all the rocks as it is usually
quarried and used more than any other rock, for all types of buildings. The
various varieties of sandstone are named after the cementing material. E.g.
Siliceous Sandstone, Ferruginous Sandstone, Calcareous Sandstone, Argillaceous
Sandstone etc.
Breccias: - Breccias are a mechanically formed Sedimentary rock consisting of the

angular fragments. These sediments are heterogeneous in nature; cemented
together by clay; iron oxide, silica or calcium carbonate and are generally of more
than 2 mm size. Because of the heterogeneous character they are not used as
building stines but some of the varieties which are susceptible to polish can be
used for ornamental works.
Igneous Rocks found in the field of study are described below:
Granite: - Granite may be defined as the Plutonic light colored igneous rock.
These are among the most common igneous rock. Two most common and
essential mineral constitutes of granite are Quartz and Feldspar. The first is
always recognized by its vitreous luster, with MHN 7 and cleavage less wide
translucent appearance. Feldspar, forming Granite may be of two types: K-
Feldspar, commonly Orthoclase and the soda bearing Plagioclase Feldspar like
Albite and Oligoclase. Feldspar microcline may occur in some granite.Agra Granite
was found in the right bank of Malekhu Khola south west of "Chhapan Danda".
4.5. Rock identification form

For rock 1
S.no. Parameters Condition

1. Color Grayish
29
2. Texture Non-crystalline
3. Structure Foliation plane
4. Grain size Fine
5. Specific gravity Low to medium
6. Acid test No reaction
7. Mineral composition
8. Origin Metamorphic
9. Engineering properties
10. Identification Slate
11. Uses Roofing
FOR ROCK 2

1. Color White
2. Texture Crystalline
3. Structure bedding plane
4. Grain size Medium
5. Specific gravity High
6. Acid test Vigorous
reaction with acid HCl
7. Mineral composition Calcite
8. Origin Sedimentary
9. Engineering properties High strength
and permeable
10. Identification Limestone
11. Uses Manufacture of
mortars, cements as
well as fertilizers in
white wash
For rock 3

1. Color Dark green
sloty
4. Grain size Fine to medium
30
5. Specific gravity High
7. Mineral composition Horne blende
10. Identification Amphibolites
11. Uses Dimension
stones
For rock 4

1. Color Silver white
3. Structure Foliation
plane
4. Grain size Medium to
coarse
5. Specific gravity Low to
medium
7. Mineral composition
9. Engineering properties Low strength
10. Identification Phyllite
11. Uses
For rock 5
S.no. Parameters condition

1. Color Dirty white
2. Texture crystalline
and slaty cleavage
4. Grain size medium
31
5. Specific gravity medium
7. Mineral composition Quartz
9. Engineering properties Dimension
stone, foundation
stone
10. Identification quartzite
11. Uses Roofing
For rock 6
S.no. Parameters condition
1. Color Silver white
Schiestosity
4. Grain size coarse
5. Specific gravity Low to medium
7. Mineral composition Granite, chlorite,
quartz
9. Engineering properties Low strength
10. Identification Schist
11. Uses
For rock 7

1. Color White
3. Structure Bedding plane
4. Grain size Coarse
5. Specific gravity medium
32
7. Mineral composition Calcite
10. Identification Marble
11. Uses Roofing,
decoration and
manufacturing of
cement
33
5.Geology of Study Area
Geologically, Malekhu contains many geological peculiarities like joints,
faults, different types of rocks, streams and amazing flow direction of the
Malekhu River.
TOPOGRAPHY
Malekhu is a small village on Dhading district about 70km south – west of
Kathmandu and lies at latitude of 27degree 45 minute 50 second and longitude of
84 degree 49 minute 5 second to 84 degree 50 minute 50 second. It is situated at
the bank of Trishuli and Malekhu River. The Trishuli River is flowing from east to
west and Malekhu River from south to north that finally emerges into Trishuli
River. Malekhu River at a distance of about 3km from Malekhu bazaar. The
Trishuli River seems to be flowing linearly with some occasional meanders.
Malekhu lies in the region of lesser Himalayas, one of the morho-tectonic
zone of Nepal. Siwaliks and higher Himalayas are its neighboring morpho-tectonic
zones. Main boundary thrust (MBT) in south separates the Siwaliks and the Lesser
Himalaya and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in north separates the Higher
Himalaya and Lesser Himalaya. The MBT is itself an active fault that has brought
older rocks of lesser. Himalayas to Siwaliks.
The lesser Himalayas are mostly composed of unfossiliferous, sedimentary and
meta-sedimentary rock such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite etc. There are also
some intrusions of granite.
The lesser Himalayas of Nepal vary from east to west in stratigraphy, structure
and magmatism. The eastern Nepal is characterized by development of extensive
thrust sheet of crystalline rocks that have traveled southward. In central Nepal, a
large thrust sheet called Kathmandu Nape covers a wide area around the
Kathmandu region. Malekhu lies in the vicinity of Mahabharata thrust, which lies
between Indian and Tibetan plates and thus landslides are quite common here. In
few places the Mahabharata range is intercepted by major Rivers through which
all the water from Nepal originating from north drain to south. The Mahabharata
region is characterized by concentration of population along the ridge and gently
dipping northern slopes.
CLIMATE
The climate of Malekhu has a typical sub-tropical. The vegetations consist of
deciduous trees like chilaune, sal etc grasses and bushes. Malekhu is a river valley
extending from east to west along the Trishuli River and most of the inhabitants
are concentrated on the southern part. This causes lack of direct sunshine and
foggy mornings.
5.1. Regional geological framework
Malekhu is a small village on Dhading district about 70km south-west of
Kathmandu and lies at latitude of 270 45’ 50’’ to 270 50’ 38’’ and longitude of 840
49’ 05’’ to 840 50’ 50’’. It is situated at the bank of Trishuli and Malekhu River. The
Trishuli River is flowing from east to west and Malekhu River from south to north
that finally emerges to Trishuli River. Malekhu River also has a tributary namely
Apakhola which meets Malekhu River at a distance of about 3km from Malekhu
34
bazaar. The Trishuli River seems to be flowing linearly with some occasional
meanders. Malekhu lies in the region of lesser Himalayas.
Malekhu lies in the vicinity of Mahabharat thrust, which lies between Indian and
Tibetan plates and thus landslides are quite common here. In few places the
Mahabharat range is intercepted by major rivers through which all the water from
Nepal originating from north drain to south. The Mahabharat region is
characterized by concentration of population along the ridge and gently dipping
Northern slopes.
Malekhu has a typical subtropical climate. The vegetations consist of
deciduous trees like chilaune, sal, etc. grasses and bushes. Malekhu is a river
valley extending from east to west along the Trishuli River and most of the
inhabitants are concentrated on the southern part. This causes lack of direct
sunshine and foggy mornings.
5.2. Recognition of Geological Units

Following geological units were recognized in the field during field visit:
i) Benighat Slate:
The name is derived from the village ‘Benighat’ at the confluence of
Budhigandaki and Trishuli River.
This formation consists of grey to black slate. In some places it is highly
carbonaceous (graphite), also it is calcareous and dolomitic at the lower part .Inter
collation of quartz vein 2cm to 4 cm thick is also observed in some places. The
beds are not thicker than 5cm to 7cm in this formation .this formation is about
500 m t0 300m thick .
Attitude of bedding plane
Strike: E-W
Dip direction: S
Dip amount: 860
It was found on Thopla Khola and Dhading Road.
After 300m from suspension bridge over Trisuli River, calcareous beds of
Benighat slate is observed this was fine grained yellowish grey in color and highly
fractured and jointed.
Strike: N 850 E –S 850 W
Dip direction: N 50 W
Dip amount: 750
The difference in attitude in Benighat slate indicates that these may be fault
of fold in this formation.
ii) Malekhu Limestone:

It is named after the ‘Malekhu’ village near Kulekhani village. Main lithology
is schist, quartzite and carbonates in varying proportion and they form white
colored marble. Cross bedding is also found near the middle part of formation.
About 400m far from the bridge over Malekhu Khola, nearly vertical beds of
dolomitic limestone of grayish color were observed
35
Dip direction: S 200 E
Dip amount: 750
About 200m from the previous location along Malekhu Khola towards
upstream, We observed a fault plane .Left side of the fault plane composed of
limestone of whitish yellow color and the right side of the fault plane composed
of grayish white phyllitic limestone .The fault plane composed of mylonite bressia
.Nearly 200m from the fault plane, there is a transitional contact between Malekhu
Limestone and Robbang Formation.
Dip direction: S 200 E
Dip amount: 900
iii) Robbang Formation

The name derived from the village ‘Rogbang ‘in Dhading district. Along
Malekhu Khola, on right bank about 500 m .from the Prithvi highway, near
Malekhu limestone and dark green phyllite of robang formation was observed
from where river bends sharply.
Main lithology is phylite and yellowish quartzite called ‘dunga quartzite’
which is highly jointed. Phyllite is gradually replaced by massive yellowish
towards south .Some phyllitem beds are black in color due to graphite .Nearly
middle part of the formation ,we observed was Amphibolites, a metamorphic
product of basic intrusive rock-dolerite.
The thickness of this formation is about 200 m to 1000m.
Strike: N 550 E-S 550 W
Dip direction: S 350E Dip amount: 500
Attitude of bedding plane at dunga Quartzite:
Dip direction: S 100E
Dip amount: 900
It is found along Prithvi Highway towards Gajuri
About 500m far from the Malekhu, the contact between Robbang Formation
and Malekhu Limestone is found which transitional contact.
Strike: N800 E-S 800 W
Dip amount: 750
About 100m far from the contact, Amphibolites a metabasic rock is
observed which is weathered and is olive and muddy in color with
contact of metabasic rock and quartzite is observed. It may be Dunga
Quartzite.
Attitude of bedding plane at dunga Quartzite:
Dip amount: 850
36
iv) Raduwa Formation
The name is derived from the village ’Raduwa’ in Dhading district .This
name was first used by Stocklin and Bhattarai at 1971
A highly fractured zone of Mahabharat Thrust exposed at right bank of
Malekhu Khola, every fine, grey to black mylonite is observed. This separates
Robbang formation of Nuwakot Complex and Raduwa Formation of Kathmandu
Complex.
The main Rock type of this formation is mica-schist of coarse crystalline of
dark grey color due to predominant micaceous minerals. Near MBT garnetiferrous
schist is also observed which is perfectly foliated .This formation is about 1000m
thick.
Strike: N 750 E-S 750W Dip direction: S 150 E
Dip amount: 75 0
v) Bhainsedovan Marble:
This formation is named after the village Bhainsedovan on the Tribhuvan
Highway. It is in contact with Raduwa formation. Well exposed marble is in front
of dharapani. It is metamorphic equivalent of limestone and so white in color,
crystalline in texture associated with pyrite mineral. It is about 800 m thick.
Strike: N 700 E-S 700 W Dip direction: S 200 E
Dip amount: 70 0
5.3. Engineering significance

The study area Malekhu has great importance from the engineering point of
view. This area being in the lesser Himalayan at an average height of 2200m to
3300m from the mean sea level has grate possibilities of constructing dams and
reservoirs. Such as example of the construction is Kulekhani hydro power station.
The other having engineering significant is that the area is bounded by
M.B.T. differentiating it from the Siwalik region and M.B.T. differencing if from the
higher Himalayas. The earth quake in this region is bit lower that that of Siwalik
and quaternary basin containing H.F.T,M.F.T. having large number of faults there
by has high chance of earthquake. As M.B.T. is less active than H.F.T./M.F.T, the
quake in this region is more prominent. The weak the point of areas is i.e.
composes of low graded metamorphic rocks and phyllite are predominant. The
phyllite has low bearing capacity and be easily weathered, there by having gentle
slope.
37
6.Study of the Geological Structures in Field
We all know that the earth is a dynamic body. So different types of external
and internal forces act upon the earth due to various geological processes like
earthquakes, volcanisms etc. Due to such activities along with gradual shrinkage
of interior of earth, causes structural changes on the rocks lying on earth’s crust
to displace and distort. Such structures are called geological structures e.g. Folds,
faults, joints etc. There are two types of deformation structures:-
Continuous deformation structures: - These are the product of plastic
and viscoplastic deformations e.g.: Folds, Veins, Foliation, and Cleavage etc.
Deformation structures: - These are the product of brittle deformation
e.g. Joints, Faults etc.
6.1. Unconformity
Unconformity is the plane of discontinuity that separates two rock
sequences, which differ notably in age. When the rocks are formedcontinuously or
regularly one after the another with break or depositional gap between the two
conformable sequences, it is called unconformity. It occurs mainly due to erosion,
deposition and tectonic activities.
It develops in the three stages in which under the first stage older
rock forms whereas in the second stage upliftment and surfacial erosion of the
older rock occurs. In the last stage younger succession of beds forms after long
time interval above the surface of erosion.
There are three types of unconformity :-
Parallel unconformity
Angular unconformity
Non conformity
6.2. Folds
Any bend or flexure on rocks formed by plastic or viscoplastic
deformations, which changes dip amount and often changes dip direction of rocks
are called folds. They may be formed due to- tangential compression, intrusions,
differential compactions etc.
Folds can be classified on different basis. On the basis of attitude of fold,
they may be classified as:-
i. Plunging fold
ii. Non plunging fold
iii. Doubly plunging fold
On the of upward and downward bend it is classified as:-
38
i. Anticline fold
Fig:- anticline fold
ii. Syncline fold
Fig:-syncline fold
6.2.1. Recognition of folds in the field:-

Visual inspections
Repetition and omission of beds
Measuring attitudes of beds of rocks and plotting them in map and taking
cross-section
Recognition of folds during excavation of tunnels/construction of roads
6.3. Faults
Earthquakes result from movement along a fault. Faults and earthquakes
are cause and effect. The sense of motion on faults describes how the block
moves relative to each other. Faults may move along preexisting fracture or may
form a new one. There are 3 basic types of faults: normal, reverse, and strike-slip.
Normal and reverse faulting result in vertical slip, while strike-slip faulting results
in horizontal slip. In nature, motion is seldom absolutely along one direction.
There can be a combination of vertical and horizontal slip, which would make the
movement along the fault oblique.
39
Normal faults: Normal faults are associated with extension. A good
example of normal faulting is the Basin and Range topography of the western
United States. The western part of the North American plate has been pulled
apart into a series of "blocks". Most Basins and Range structures result from the
tilting of these blocks. A major Basin and Range fault zone is the Wasatch Fault
zone, which is 220 miles long (360 kilometers) and extends from Utah into Idaho.
Reverse faults: Reverse faults are associated with compress

ional forces- 2 plates or fault blocks pushing towards each other. One
side ends up on top! Thrust faults are reverse faults that move up a
shallower angle than ordinary reverse faults.
Strike-slip faults: Strike-slip faults are associated with shear

stresses. One side of the fault "slides" past the other. "Sometimes" it is
fairly easy to recognize where movement on a strike-slip fault has
occurred. The photo below shows a creek located along the San Andreas
Fault. The zigzag effect (offset) of the creek channel is the result of
movement along the fault.
40
Structures formed during faulting:
i. Slicking slides:-
They are the linear features developed in the fault plane, in which the
relative displacement takes place.
ii. Fault gauge:-
It is the finely pulverized, clay like powdered rock material formed
due to rubbing and shearing of block during faulting process.
iii. Fault breccias:-

The crushed (but not powdered) angular fragmentary material during
faulting and found near the base of the up-thrown block is called fault breccias.
Very often, such angular fragments are embedded and cemented in the fault
gauge and forms a rock-like mass again, which is also called fault breccias.
iv. Mylonite:-
It is extremely fine –grained and very hard, coherent type of rock
formed due to faulting. It is also called micro-breccias.
Recognition of faults in the field:-
i. Discontinuity of the structures

ii. Repetition or omission of beds
iii. Silicification and mineralization
iv. Presence of slickenside
v. Characteristics feature of faults; fault gauge, fault breccias, Mylonite
etc. indicates existence of faults
vi. Difference in sedimentary faces
vii. Physiographic features:
a) Offset ridges b) Fault scarp c) Pediment scarp
d) Offset stream e) Aligned spring f) Alluvial fan
g) Monocline h) Triangular facet
41
6.4. Joints
These are the ruptures/fractures without any remarkable displacement or
even if negligible is there, it is perpendicular to the fracture plane. Joint intersect
the existing structures like foliation, beddings etc. Joints are relatively smooth
fracture; they are present in most consolidated rocks of igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary origin.
Joint sets: - Series of parallel joints are called joint sets.
Joint system: - A group of intersecting joint sets is called joint
system.
Conjugate joints:-
Two sets of joints, which are nearly perpendicular to each other and
produced by the same stress system, are called conjugate joints.
6.5. Vein
The filling of the minerals in between the fault planes produces a new
structure, which is called vein. Veins may have valuable minerals like gold, copper,
diamond, silver etc so it is important for the economy of the country.
6.6. Thrust
A kind of reversed fault in which hanging wall has actually moved up
relative to the footwall is called thrust e.g. Mahabharat thrust separates Nuwakot
complex and Kathmandu complex. These thrusts are formed due to actual
movement of hanging wall in upward direction.
6.7. Engineering significance of geological

structures
6.7.1. Fold
For the foundation of dam on the large fold, the flank which is dipping
towards downstream is unfavuorable and the one which is dipping
downstream is comparatively safer.
In tunneling, if the tunnel passes through the syncline, then the stress is
exerted more on the side than the crown, while in anticline condition,
tensional fracture may be developed on the crown causing over break.
In synclinal aquifer, the groundwater potential is higher and in
antisynclinal, the same is reverse.
In folded area, there is possibility of rupture due to action of further stress.

6.7.2. Fault
Fault causes considerable fracturing and shattering of rocks along the fault
zone. This means they are not compact and massive. These places are very
weak and hence unfit as foundation sites for withstanding heavy loads.
The most dangerous problem of faulting is that it may occur in the same
place again. This means the faulted ground is unstable as long as the fault
42
remains active. So in such places no civil engineering foundation will be
safer and stable.
Generally, faults are accompanied by earthquakes which cause severe
shaking of ground.
Since faults bring different rocks together, there will be no homogeneity of
physical characters. Foundation across these areas is undesirable.
6.7.3. Joints
The sites where joints are found are weak physically.
Through these joints water is likely to percolate into the rock and saturate
it. This may cause the decay of rock. This may cause the site unsuitable for
bridge, dam construction.
43
7.Study of River Channel Morphology
7.1. River morphology

The surface water flowing in course of their own are known are known as
streams and the large stream flowing through extensive area and receiving water
from smaller side streams is known as river .The defined course followed by river
is known as the river channel.
Factors Responsible for River Channel Morphology
Discharge: The volume of water flowing per unit time is known as
discharge. The discharge of water may affect for the river channel morphology.
The activities of river may depend on the discharge of water .The high discharge
water may cause erosion, transportation and deposition in high rate, which
activities ultimately may affect for the river channel morphology.
Velocity: The velocity has the significance role for river channel
morphology .The fast moving rivers are capable of erosion and carrying a greater
amount of materials. The velocity itself depends on the gradient and discharge of
river.
Lithology: The nature of rocks along the channel and side may effect for
the river channel morphology. Some types of rocks are more easily eroded by river
water .The river channel, which passes through the limestone, will be straight
Activity of River
When a river flows continuously in its way it carries out different activities
along with it’s continue flow. The activities of river are different indifferent places
according to the velocity of river, gradient of river and energy of flow .There are
three different activities generally done by the river.
i) Erosion ii) transportation and iii) deposition.
The water flowing in a river along its seaward journey erodes the land over
which it flows, brings about its chemical decay, denudes rock, and transports the
rock debris, which formed during erosion and weathering and finally deposits the
transported materials under the favorable conditions. Hence the Eros ional and
depositional can be divided as follows:
i) Erosional features
Hydraulic action
Abrasion
Attraction
Solution
ii) Transportation
The process in which the river carries erosional materials from one place to
another is called transportation.
iii) Depositional Features:
The discharge of river gradient of its valley floor is responsible for the
velocity of channels. Hydraulic action of the river is the breaking down of the rock
44
mass due to the continuous impact of the moving water along the channel. The
water running along the river channel contains some amount of rock fragments,
the large boulders and pebbles roll along the valley floor. The rolling boulders and
pebbles naturally rub themselves against the valley floor during the travel while in
suspension impinges periodically upon the floor of the river valley. Such impacts
are responsible for the mechanical wear and tear of rocks forming base and
adjustment of river channel. The process of mechanical breaking down of
bedrocks due to the impacts is known as abrasion. The process of mechanical
breaking down of the transported rock-fragment due to impinging themselves is
attraction. A river along its seaward journey traverses through a vast country or
naturally comes across varieties of country rocks along its path of travel. Some
rocks are practically insoluble but other are soluble in running water containing
dilute acids, carbonate rocks like limestone are attacked by running water. In less
soluble rocks some of the soluble constituents are slowly remained in solution as
a result rock mass is rendered weak and subjected more conventionally further
erosion. Running water transports load due to kinetic energy associated with its
flow. The exact magnitude of energy depends upon the gradient of the valley floor
shape and size of channel and discharge of as soon as the velocity of the running
water decreases its transporting capacity is proportionally reduced and as a result
part of its load is dropped down.
7.2. Types of River Channel Morphology

Mainly there are three types of river channel. They are,
i. Straight: - The River follows in a straight path in its high energy level.
In this case erosion is predominant and the velocity of river is maximum. In hilly
region, the river follows in straight path.
Fig:- Straight river

ii. Meandering: - In this type of flow, the river follows the path like as
snake’s movement. In the valley region, the river follows the meandering path.
Erosion and deposition take place side by side in the same time.
45
Depositional
Bank
Point Bar Deposit
Striking Bank
Channel Deposit Bar
Fig:- Meandering river
iii. Braided: - In this type of Flow the river follows multiple channel.
Deposition is predominant in this flow .The braided river tends to be very wide
and relatively shallow. The river follows this type of path in Terai region.
Fig:- Braided river
Features Developed by Rivers

Delta:
When a river ultimately meets the sea or lake, the flowing water looses its
velocity and has therefore no other way to drop down the balance of its load right
at its point of emergence at the mouth if river. Such depositions naturally initiates
under Natural conditions. The formation of land mass is approximately triangular
in shape; are called deltas. Deltas are seemed low elevated on the mouth of river.
River
Delta
Sea
Fig:-Delta deposit
Fan:
46
Likewise delta, fans are also the triangular landmass deposition at the
meeting point of rivers. These are high elevated as compared with deltas. If
gradient of both rivers are approximately same fans can be formed.
Fig:- Fan deposit

Ox-bow lakes:
If only a narrow strip of land separates individual loops of
meandering stream from each other, then during large water discharging time the
river has tendency to flow straight; isolating the loop on one side. That isolated
loop forms a lake called Ox-bow Lake.
Figure 4:- Different Stages of Formation of Ox Bow Lake
47
7.4 Civil Engineering Significance of River Channel
A civil engineer has to face different types of river channels for the
construction of different types of civil engineering projects as well as for the
survey of availability of construction materials. If a bridge is to be constructed on
a straight river, it is not applicable to make foundation in the river channel as
scouring is intense along the path. As side cutting is lower in such case, an arc
bridge may be good. For example, Meeteri Bridge constructed over the Bhotekoshi
River is an arc bridge which joins Nepal and China.
In the meandering river, if the bridge is constructed in a curve portion, then the
foundation on the striking bank may be affected. In such case the site for bridge
can be chosen in the straight portion of the river.
In case of braided river, a span of bridge is high with many pillars on the river
path. For hydropower site, in Straight River run off type hydropower is applicable.
In meandering type, both run off and reservoir type hydro powers are suitable
depending to site condition.
, the availability of construction materials also detects the type structures. For
example, due to the availability of granite boulders, a gravity dam is constructed
to make reservoir of Kulekhani Hydropower Project.
48
8.ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE
ROCK OUTCROP
8.1. Engineering Geology
Engineering Geology is the branch of geology which deals with the
application of geological knowledge in the field of civil engineering for the
construction of infrastructures such as road, bridge, dam reservoir etc.
Engineering is defined in the statutes of the IAEG as the science devoted to the
investigation, study and solution of the engineering and environmental problems
which may arise as the result of the interaction between geology and the works or
activities of man, as well as of the prediction of and development of measures for
the prevention or remediation of geological hazards.
8.2. Importance of Engineering Geology

Geology in civil engineering is concerned with the engineering behavior of
earth materials. It includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and
materials; assessing risks posed by site conditions; designing earthworks and
structure foundations; and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and foundation
construction.
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site investigation of
soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of
interest to determine their engineering properties including how they will interact
with, on or in a proposed construction. Site investigations are needed to gain an
understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place.
Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the
environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil
liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.
8.3. Engineering geological data

There are some factors whose condition in case of rock are observed and recorded
in order to determine the age of the rock is simply known as engineering
geological data. These data also helps us to determine the present condition and
the nature of the rock.
8.4 Importance of engineering geological data
Purpose specific geological data collected from field (rock mass) which can be
quantified and used as design parameter. It is quantities diagnosis of an area. It
must be purpose specific. Site investigation is the investigation of particular area
for specific purpose data collection. It is very essential to draw any engineering
geological map or to solve any geological problems.
We always deal with a rock mass not only with a block of rock. Rock mass means
intact rock with its discontinuities. In many cases, the technicians are in dark in
this aspect. He or she collect a piece of sample and take it to the lab and conclude
his/her result. This is not a correct way to publish any geological decision. In fact,
it is much more important to know the entire rock mass up to our concern.
49
8.4. Parameters of engineering geological data
Rock type: -
1. Sedimentary
2. Igneous
3. metamorphic
Rock strength: -
1. High
2. Medium
3. Low
Weathering grade: -
1. Fresh weather (w0)
2. Slightly weathered (w1)
3. Moderately weathered (w2)
4. Highly weathered (w3)
5. Completely weathered (w4)
6. Residual soil (w5)
Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D): -
It is expressed in percentage. The expression for RQD has is:
RQD=115-3.3*Jv
Where Jv = Joint volume. I.e. number of joint per unit volume.
Spacing of discontinuity: -
It is expressed in cm and all the discontinuity is taken under
considered area.
Aperture or separation of discontinuity: -
1. Tight (<.1cm)
2. Open (expressed in cm, all the data are taken)
3. Wide (>30cm)
Infilling materials of Discontinuities
Persistence(Continuity)
Roughness of discontinuity: -
1. Smooth
2. Rough
3. Very smooth
4. Undulated
50
Number of joint set
Orientation of joint set
Orientation of discontinuities is the attitude of the
discontunities.Depending upon the slope of discontunitiy rock has different
strength at the different direction.If the direction of the discontinuity is in
the same direction as the rock mass ,it is an unfavorable condition.But if the
discontinuity is in opposite direction to the rock mass,it is a favorable
condition.
Expressed including dip amount and dip direction, (i.e. dip amt/dip dir)
Ground water condition: -
1. Dry
2. Dripping
3. Seepage
4. Flowing
5. Damp/wet
8.4 Geological engineering data in the field
S.N. Parameters Properties Remarks
1 Rock type Sedimentary
2 Rock strength High
3 Weathering W1
4 R.Q.D. test 62.2
5 Spacing of 5.5,2.5,23.5,6.8,3.5,10 In cm
discontinuity
S.N. Parameters 6 Aperture of tight Remarks

discontinuity
7 Infilling Calcareous
materials
8 Persistence 90%
9 Roughness Rough
51
of continuity
10 No. of joint 3
set
11 Orientation 83/165,
of joint set 5/251,
19/65
12 Ground Dry
water
condition
Properties
2 Rock strength Medium
3 Weathering W2
4 R.Q.D. test 82
5 Spacing of 9,10,6,3.5,12.5,6 In cm
discontinuity
6 Aperture of Tight
discontinuity
7 Infilling Clay
materials
8 Persistence 95%
9 Roughness of Smooth
continuity
10 No. of joint set 3
11 Orientation of 80/162,24/72,56/77
joint set
12 Ground water Dry

condition
52
3 Weathering W1
4 R.Q.D. test 75.4
5 Spacing of discontinuity 16,15,9,14,9,3,5,10,7 In cm
6 Aperture of discontinuity Wide
7 Infilling materials Clay
8 Persistence 90%
9 Roughness of continuity Smooth
11 Orientation of joint set 83/189,88/267,8/082
12 Ground water condition dry
3 Weathering W1
4 R.Q.D. test 82
5 Spacing of discontinuity 15.65,13.2 In cm.
6 Aperture of discontinuity Tight
7 Infilling materials Clay and sand
8 Persistence 50%
53
12 Ground water condition Dry
3 Weathering W1
4 R.Q.D. test 83
5 Spacing of discontinuity 3,5.9,2,8,4.6,12 In cm.
6 Aperture of discontinuity Tight
7 Infilling materials Clay
8 Persistence 70%
12 Ground water condition Dry
54
9.ROCK MASS
9.1. Definition
The collective mass formed by the rock material (intact rock and discontinuities is
called rock mass. So the rock exposed on the outcrop is not rock, in fact it is the
rock mass. Rock materials (intact rock) are a part of rock mass. Since in actual
practice discontinuities are present, rock material alone doesn't exists in nature.
Rock mass is a mass of rock interrupted by discontinuities with each constituent
discrete block having intact rock properties. Rock masses are heterogeneous
because of different rock types, presence of discontinuities, and varying degree of
weathering.
Rock Mass = Intact Rock + Discontinuities
The objectives of rock mass identification are to
Identify the most significant parameters influencing the behavior of a rock
mass.
Divide a particular rock mass formulation into groups of similar behavior –
rock mass classes of varying quality.
Provide a basis of understanding the characteristics of each rock mass class
Relate the experience of rock conditions at one site to the conditions and
experience encountered at others
Derive quantitative data and guidelines for engineering design
Provide common basis for communication between engineers and
geologists
9.2. Rock Mass Classification Systems: -

During the feasibility and preliminary design stages of a project, when very little
detailed information is available on the rock mass and its stress and hydrologic
characteristics, the use of a rock mass classification scheme can be of
considerable benefit. At its simplest, this may involve using the classification
scheme as a check-list to ensure that all relevant information has been considered.
At the other end of the spectrum, one or more rock mass classification schemes
can be used to build up a picture of the composition and characteristics of a rock
mass to provide initial estimates of support requirements, and to provide
estimates of the strength and deformation properties of the rock mass. It is
important to understand the limitations of rock mass classification schemes
(Plastron and Brooch, 2006) and that their use does not (and cannot) replace some
of the more elaborate design procedures. However, the use of these design
procedures requires access to relatively detailed information on in situ stresses,
rock mass properties and planned excavation sequence, none of which may be
available at an early stage in the project. As this information becomes available,
the use of the rock mass classification schemes should be updated and used in
conjunction with site specific analyses.
Engineering rock mass classification

Rock mass classification schemes have been developing for over 100 years since
Ritter (1879) attempted to formalise an empirical approach to tunnel design, in
55
particular for determining support requirements. While the classification schemes
are appropriate for their original application, especially if used within the bounds
of the case histories from which they were developed, considerable caution must
be exercised in applying rock mass classifications to other rock engineering
problems.
Terzaghi's rock mass classification

The earliest reference to the use of rock mass classification for the design of
tunnel support is in a paper by Terzaghi (1946) in which the rock loads, carried by
steel sets, are estimated on the basis of a descriptive classification. While no
useful purpose would be served by including details of Terzaghi's classification in
this discussion on the design of support, it is interesting to examine the rock
mass descriptions included in his original paper, because he draws attention to
those characteristics that dominate rock mass behavior, particularly in situations
where gravity constitutes the dominant driving force. The clear and concise
definitions and the practical comments included in these descriptions are good
examples of the type of engineering geology information, which is most useful for
engineering design.
Terzaghi's descriptions (quoted directly from his paper) are:

• across sound rock. On account of the injury to the rock due to blasting,
spalls may drop off the roof several hours or days after blasting. This is
known as a spalling condition. Hard, intact rock may also be encountered in
the popping condition involving the spontaneous and violent detachment of
rock slabs from the sides or roof.
• Stratified rock consists of individual strata with little or no resistance
against separation along the boundaries between the strata. The strata may
or may not be weakened by transverse joints. In such rock the spalling
condition is quite common
• Moderately jointed rock contains joints and hair cracks, but the blocks
between joints are locally grown together or so intimately interlocked that
vertical walls do not require lateral support. In rocks of this type, both
spalling and popping conditions may be encountered.
• Blocky and seamy rock consists of chemically intact or almost intact rock
fragments which are entirely separated from each other and imperfectly
interlocked. In such rock, vertical walls may require lateral support.
• Crushed but chemically intact rock has the character of crusher run. If
most or all of the fragments are as small as fine sand grains and no
recementation has taken place, crushed rock below the water table exhibits
the properties of a water-bearing sand.
• Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without perceptible volume
increase. A prerequisite for squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and
sub-microscopic particles of micaceous minerals or clay minerals with a low
swelling capacity.
• Swelling rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on account of expansion. The
capacity to swell seems to be limited to those rocks that contain clay
minerals such as montmorillonite, with a high swelling capacity.
56
9.3. Q-System of rock mass classification
The Q-system of rock mass classification was developed in Norway in 1974 by
Nick Barton, Lien, R., and Lunde, J at NGI (Norwegian Geotechnical Institute). The
system was developed on the basis of an analysis of 212 tunnel case histories
from Scandinavia. It is a quantitative classification system and is an engineering
system facilitating the design of tunnel supports. Q-system use six different
parameters to assess the rock mass qualityIt is a quantitative classification system
and is an engineering system facilitating the design of tunnel supports. Q-system
use six different parameters to assess the rock mass quality. The parameters are:
Rock Quality Designation RQD
Joint set number Jn
Roughness of the most unfavorable joint or discontinuity Jr
Degree of alteration of filling along the weakest joint Ja
Water inflow Jw
Stress Reduction Factor SRF
Then Q-factor can then be calculated as: Q =
9.4. RMR-System of rock mass classification

The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system is a geomechanical classification system for
rocks, developed by T.Z. Bieniawski between 1972 and 1973.
The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR
system
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
Rock quality designation (RQD)
Spacing of discontinuities
Condition of discontinuities
Groundwater conditions
Orientation of discontinuities
Each of the six parameters is assigned a value corresponding to the characteristics
of the mountain. These values are derived from field surveys. The sum of the six
parameters is the "RMR value", which lies between 0 and 100.
Rock Mass Rating has found wide application in various types of engineering
projects such as tunnels, slopes, foundations, and mines. It is also adaptable for
knowledge-based expert systems.
Below is the classification table for the RMR system.
Rock
RMR
quality
57
0 – 20 Very poor
21 - 40 Poor
41 - 60 Fair
61 - 80 Good
81 -
Very good
100
58
10.0 CONCLUSIONS
Our geological tour conducted on (11-13)th of jestha for group(A/B) was very
helpful in understanding and comparing the landslides, slope failure and debris
flow practically in the field. We were also able to understand different terms and
terminologies that we were not able to understand in the theory classes. From the
field visit we also knew about the strike, dip of the bedding plane, their
orientation and their origin.
The three day Malekhu tour enables us to learn the various geological conditions
related to Engineering point of view. The scope of field study outline before were
fully made with the co-operation of faculty member and Malekhu possess
wonderful geological diversities and almost all type of rock structures and
geological factors like rivers, hills, slopes and sedimentations, were available to
study within small area.
In the Malekhu site visit, our main objective was to understand the geology of the
entire country through the small area. The tour was also intended to give an
insight to the various trouble cause of geological failure during the civil
engineering construction. Many geological structures like Benighat Slat, Malekhu
Lime Stone, Robang Formation, Radhuwa Formation, etc. are studied in the field
along with their main Lithology boundary condition and exposure place. The area
was found full of metamorphic rocks like Phyllite, schist, gneiss, slate, quartzite,
etc. rocks were found.
Therefore from this tour, we were successful in obtaining the great knowledge
regarding to the different geological activities, their effect, causes and their
preventive measures related to the subjective matter.
At last we had concluded that Malekhu and its surrounding is the answer for
geological curiosity. Actually, the Malekhu is small in area but it has large amount
or numbers of the geological phenomenon and hence it can provide broad
knowledge for the learners.
Along the Malekhu River, we found sedimentary rock and gradually
metamorphosed from Phyllite to crystalline schist and along the way to Dhading,
it gradually metamorphosed to lime stone to Phyllite and then to slate.
Every major bed was dipped in north direction. This proved the tectonic
movement along the way from south to north.
Besides this, we have learnt different methods of geological data collection
measures and the way, how rock mapping is done.
Handling the compass and to measure the attitude of rock outcrop is now very
easy to us.
By the river channel morphology we knew that, how the river flows, what are the
factors affecting erosion and deposition and how it occurs
59
References:-
1. Old reports
2. Engineering Geology (By Prakash Chandra Ghimire and Mahesh Sing
Dhar)
3. Field Manual
Prepared by:
Mr. Amrit Aacharya
Mr. Bijay subedi
Mr. Bikram K.C.
Mr. Bir Bahadur Bohra
60
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TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

September 10, 2008

2. Study of Mass Movement and study of Preventive and corrective measures

3. Measurement of Attitude of planner features of rock …………………....19-22

4. Identification of Rocks in the field ……………………………………….23-32

5. Geology of the study area …………………………………………………..34-37

6. Study of geological structures in the field ………………………………..38-43

7. Study of river channel morphology ………………………………………45-48

8. Engineering Geological studies of the rock outcrops ………………….49-54

9. Rock mass ………………………………………………………………….55-58

Engineering Geology is an applied discipline of geology which is concerned

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

1.3. LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

Fig:- map of Nepal

2.1 TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT

ii. Debris flow

Slip surface of landside

Types of movement Type of material

Bedrock Engineering soil

Topples Rock topples Debris topples Earth topples

Rotational Few units Rock slump Debris slump Earth slump

Flows Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow

Geological causes Morphological Physical causes Human causes

Definition of Landslides features

Retaining wall: Retaining walls can be constructed at the landslide expected

2.3 Causes of mass movement

ii. Material of Slope and Shear Strength of Material

Alternate layer of weak and strong rock.

iv. Construction Activities (Artificial Cause)

Road in mountainous area.

v. Improper Land Use

Agricultural practice, irrigation in slope area.

2.4 Preventive and corrective measures

i. For Artificial Slopes

Construction of breast wall is below the road, gabion wall,

ii. For Natural Slopes

River structure work (Check dam).

2.5 Case study

Fig: -Chainage 17km from Kathmandu

2.5.2 Belkhu Khola

fig: - Belkhu river along Tribhuvan highway

Poor settlement downstream the bridge.

i. The bank is of well-graded material having vertical slope.

2.5.3 Dhading besi bridge

2.5.4 MALEKHU (Ch 68+000)

3.1. Rock Exposures and Rock outcrops

3.2. Planar features at rocky outcrops

Orientation of linear features

Orientation of planner features

3.4. Types of Geological compass

3.5. Measurements of attitudes of planner

S.N. Dip Direction Dip Amount Attitude Remarks

4.2. Rock Types

On the basis of Mineralogical Classification, classification of igneous rocks is

On the basis of Texture Igneous rocks are classified as

4.2.2. Sedimentary Rock

Broadly sedimentation includes:

Sedimentary rocks can be classified as:

4.2.3. Metamorphic Rock