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HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONICS
426
oscillator if
the operating frequency of a transistor Hartley pF.
anpe 1. Find inductance between the coils M= 20 uH and C= 20
L= 100 H. L, =ImH, nmutual
+ 2 x 20) 10°(20 x10-))
t VLI +L +2 M)c 2x3-14 V100 +1000
= 1052 kHz.
2x3-14 V[140 × 10 x (20 x 10)I
50 kHz to 150 kHz. The
> Example 2. A Hartley oscillator is to span a frequency range from transistor to be used has
The
variable capacitance has the values in the range 50 pf to 450 pF. of the inductances. Neglect
hfe = 50 and Ahe 0-5 (Ahe = hye hge-e hrl. Determine the values
mutual inductance between the coils and use CE circuit configuration.
We know that f=
2nIL, +g) C)
The oscillator frequency has to be varied in the ratio l:3. The variable capacitances have the
values in the ratio l:9 so the frequency of osc1llations can be varied in the ratio I:3.
Therefore, 50 × 10=
2x 3-14 V{ (L + L) x 450 × 102
Solving we get LË + Ly= 0-0225 H=22-5 mH ...(1)

Again
Lz_he50 = 100
L Ahe 0.5
Therefore Ly= 100 L. ...(2)
Solving cqs. (1) and (2). we get
LË 0-225 mH and L 22-275 mH
Example 3. AHartley oscillator is designed with L=2 mH, L, =20 uH and a variable ca
pacitance. Determine the range of c«pacit»ce 1zhves, if the frequeney of oscittation is varied
between 950 and 2050 kHz.
In case of Hartley oscillator, we have
 Therefore L,- 100 L
Solving cqs. () and (2). we get
L 0225 mH and L, 22275 mH
A Hartley oscillator is designed with L, = 2 mH, L, =20 uH and a variable ca
ENample 3. freq1ncy of oscillation is varied
pacitance. Determine the range of cepacitance vrhes, if the
between 950and 2050 kHz.
In casc of Hartley oscillator, we have
X
X
2 T V[(L + L + 2 M) C| 2 T V(L,+ L) C
Substituting the given values,
950 x i0=
2 TV[(2 x 10)+ (20 x 10°)] Ci

2n V(202x 10)Cil
Therefore, C=
4x(3-14)x (2-02 x 10*) x (950 x 10)
= 13-9x 101F= 13-9 pF
1
Similarly. Cz =
4 x (3-14) x (2-02 x I0) x (2050 x 10')
= 2.98 x 1012 F=2-98 pF
The required range varies from 2:98 pF to 13-9 pF.
 TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS (Suinsokdal)
431
Example 2. In a transistor
Colpitt's oscillator, L= 100 uH, LgC =0:6 mH, Cj =0001 Ca
=0-01 uF and Ce = 10uF. Determine () uF,
(iii) minimum gain to sustain osclllations andoperating frequency, (i) feedback fraction,
(i) The operating frequency fis given by emitter resistance if R, = 2-5 kS2.
(0-001 x 100 x (0-01 x 10)
|LC| 2n L(100 x 10x (0-001 x 10) x (001x 10))
= 528 x 10° Hz = 528 kHz

(ii) Feedback fraction, C_0001 x 10-6

B=hfe= C 0-01 x 106
=0-1

(iii) The minimum gain to sustain oscillations

Amin 1
B 0-1
A=
Re
or
R,=-5 x103 = 250 S2
R A 10

Example 3. In a transistor Colpitt's oscillator L = 100 uH, L¡PC =0-6 mH, C = 0-001 uF,
C;=001 uF. Determine (i) operating frequency, (G9) feedback fraction, (il) Lainimum gan to
sustain oscillations and emitter resistance if R, = 2-5 kS2.
() Operating frequency,

1
Therefore,
l(iox0-001 x 10) (10x001x 10)|
= 528 x 10 Hz= S28 kHz
B=hp=0001 xI0-6
(ii) =0-1
C 0-01x 1o6

(ii) Amin 0.10

Re Re
R
ARe
or
Further
Amin
2-5 x 103-= 2:5 x 10 = 250 S2.
Therefore, R= 10

11.6| CLAPP OSCILLATOR

single inductor L of
Clapp oscillator is a refinement of Colpitt's oscillator. In this oscillator, the
the Colpitt's oscillator is replaced by L-C3 combination as shown in fig. (11).
The aadition of capacitor Ca improves the frequency stability and eliminates the effect of
ransistor parameters on the operation of the circuit. In Colpitt's oscillator, the resonant frequency is
the transistor and
atected by transistor and stray capacitances. However, in case of Clapp Oscillator,
 Toobtain the condition of
maintenance of oscillations, we
of eq. (3). Hence
(I +he) L
=0 or

(Ci +Cz) x CzL-1

or h, = o* C; L- |=LCG
...5)
Or

Eq. (5) give the ondition of maint :ance of oscillations.

C=0.001 uF,
Example 1. Find the operating frequency of atrarsistor Colpitt's oscillator if
C=0-01l pF and L= 15 uH.
1 (C+ C2)
For Colpitt's oscillator
LC| C2
(0-001 +0-01)10-6
Therefore,
J2x3-14 (15x 10) (0-001 x 10) (0-01 x 10 ")J
= 1361 x 10 Hz 1361 kHz.
 C. Gryetal

Fig. (17) Crystal controtled oscllator Fig (18) Crystat controlled osettator opersting
(serles feedback). In prallel resonant mode

Fig. (18) shows the crystal controlled oscillatorandoperating in parallel resonant mode We know
it is connected in shunt. At the parallel
that the parallel impedance of a crystal is maximum an hence inductive reactance of largest vaiue. if we
resornant operating frequency a crystal appears as circuit, the two circuits are identicai except that the
compare this circuit with the Colpitt's oscillator to note that the frequency of the oscillator is
the inductor. It is important
crystal takes the placc of resistance R of the crystal is very smail, its Qis very
determincd by the crystal paramcters. Since the is very high.
high. Hence the frequency stability of the oscillator acrystal has the values : L=lHC=0-01
of
Example 1. The ac. equivalent circuit f, of the crystal.
pF. R= 1000 2 and Cu = 20 pF. Calculate f, and Cy =20 pF = 20 x10F.
C= C-01 pF=0-01 >x 10 Fand
Given that L= 1H,
 HANDB0OK OF ELECTRONICS
438

We know that I:=2 VL C)

Substituting the given values, we get
=1589 x 10° Hz
2 x 3-14 x V(1x 10-01 × 10lz
= 1589 kHz.

Further,
1 |(C+ Cu>
2T |LCCH
1 (0-01 x 10l+ 20x 10-l
2x3-4 lx0-01x 10-1 20 x 10
= 1590 x 10 = 1590 kHz.
 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
343
CS Since in negative tecdback (1 - A B) > 1,Z, is less
feedhak than Z.. That is output impedance decreases
Juc to negative
ºENample 1:An amplitier with voltage gain of 60 dh
uses (|/20) of its output in negative
fecdback.. Calculate the gain with feedback in dh,
Gtven that. A = 60 db or antilog (00/ 20) = |,000
and B=(|/ 20)
)
Therefore gan with feedbak.
I000
A,= |+ BA
|+(|I 20) ×1000
= 19.6
= 20 log1o 196 db= 25-85 db.

Example 2. When the negative feedback is applied to an amplifier of gain 100, the overall
gain falls to 50. Calculate
(i) the fraction of output voltage feedback.
(iü) if this fraction is maintained, the value of the amplifier gain required if theoverall stage
gain is to be 75.
4 100
() We know that A'= 50 =
|+BA 1+ Bx 100
Therefore. 50 (| + 100 B) = 100 or 50 + 5000 B = 100
100 50
Therefore, B= =0-01
5000
A
(ii) Now 75 +0-75 A=A
75=+0-01 A
75
A= = 300.
Therefore, | -0-75
A negative feedback of B= 0-002 is applied to an amplifier of guin 1.000.
> Example 3. annplifier if the internal amplifier is
Calculate the change in overall gain of the feedback
subjected to gain reduction of 15%.
Voltage gain with feedback is given by
A 1000 -333-33
"1+BA 1+ 0-002 x1000
then
When the gain is reduced to 15%,
A'= (| -0-15) x1000 = 850
with fecdback is given by
In this case, the voltage gain
850 =314-8
Af =1+ 0-002 x 850

%change in overall gain 333-33-3148

X J00= 333-33
x100
Af
=56%
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HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONICS
344
feedback is 50 whereas with negative feedback
PAnple 4. The gain of the amplifer withoutgain falls to 40, find the percentage reduction in
VaS to 23. If due to ageing, the anmplifier negative feedback.
stage gain (i) without feedback and (i) with
A 50 B= =0-02
Here A'= or 25 = |+ 50 B Or
50
|+AB
() Wirhout feedback
50 40 x 100 = 20%.
% reduction in stage gain= S0
feedback was 50. the gain with negative
() With negative feedback. When the gain without
fecdback was 25. Now thc gain without feedback falls to 40.
Therefore new gain negative feed back = A/(1 + BA) = 40/[| + (40 x 0-02)] = 22·2

% reduction in stage gain = 25- 22-2 100 = 11-22%.

25

Example 5. A transistor amplifier has a voltage gain of 50. The input resistance of the
amplifier is I k2 and the output resistance is 40 k9. The amplifier is now provided with 10%
negative voltage feedback in series with the input. Calculate the voltage gain, input and
output resistances with fecdback.
In this problem 10% negative voltage feed back has been provided, i.e., B=- 10/100 =0-1
A 50 50
() A´= = 8-33
I-BA 1-(-0-I x50)
(ii) Z= Z; (l-BA) = I k[1-(-0-1 x50)] = 6ks2
40 k 40 k
= 6-66 kQ
(ii)
2=I-BAI-(-0-1 x50) 6

Example 6. An RC coupled amplifier has a mid frequency gain of 200 and a frequency
response from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. A negative feedback net work with B = 0-02 is incorporated
into the amplifier circuit. Determine the new system performance.
A 200
Here A =1+ BA =40
1+0-02 x200
100
fi=+BA 1+0-02 x200 = 20 Hz

f=h1 BA) =20 (1 +0-02 x 200) = I00 kHz

+
Bandwidth dW'=f-i=100 kHz -20 Hz =100 kHZ
Bandwidth without fecdback dW=f2-fi= 20 kHz 100 Hz = 20 kHZ
As expccted bandwidth product remains the same
A dW=200 x 20 =
4000 kHz
and a'x dW'= 40 x 100 = 4000
kHz
Eyamplef 7. An amplifier with negative Teedback has an
only t 1% can be Tor some spectic use. overall gain of 100, Variation of this
io% are expected owing tolerated
to Prouucon spreads in If the open-loop gain
variations of
lum value of the feedback device
Tracuon and also the open characteristics,
condition. b determine
loop gain to satisfy the
the above
 Example 8. An ampliier has an input
of the and a voltage gain of 10,000. If a negativeimpedance of
of 1 k2 and output impedance of 10 k2
th 10% feedback B = 0-02 is applied to it, determine the
input and output impedances of the amplifier.
ut and
Given that, A = 10,000, B = 0-02, Z, = | k2 and Z, =
10 ks2.
Input impedance with feedback (Z) is given by
(Z),=(1 + BA) Z, = (1 +0-02 x 10000) x Ik2
= 201 k2
Output impedance with feedback (Zo), is given by
10 k2
= 49-75 Q.
(2o)f=1 +BA 1+0-02 x10000
ency
ated > Example 9. We have an amplifier of 60 dB gain. It has an output impedance Z, =12 k2. It
is required to modify its output impedance to 600 2 by applying negative feedback. Calculate
for 10%
the value of the feedback factor. Also find the percentage change in the overall gain,
chánge in the gain of the internal amplifier.
Zo (negative feedback)
We know that,
Given that
Zo1+AB
= 60 db = 1000. Z, = 12000 S2 and Zhr= 600 S2
A
12000
600 = 1+ 1000 B
Therefore.
20
0r
T1+ 1000 B
19 =0-019 = 1-9%
B= 1000
is
Therefore,
dA
Again 1+AB A
A 0-1 0-1 =0-005 =0-5%
20
1+ 1000 x 0-019*1+19
 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONICS
436
1o12
R= (2x3·14)× 300 x20
MS2.
= 265 x 10° S2 = 26-6
capacitanee changes in the ratio 1: 10. Hence with the re...
fromn question
Ii Is obviousfrequency that
r£nge from 20 Hz to 200 Hz can be covered. For the next frequency range

the resistance should be deereased by a factor of I0. Thus R= 2-65 MQ. Simil
0Hz to 2 kHz.
fequency range from 2 kHz to 20 kHz another resistance R =0-265 MSZ or 265 k2 is reouired
tor the
2-65 MS2 and 26-5 M2.
Theretoe. the three values of resistances are 265 kS2,
Given that the gain of the amplitier Is 5. So, K = 5.
Now
Ry
Rz +R4 3 K 3 5 15
Rs 15 R3 13
|+ Or
R4 2 R4 2
Therefore, R3:Ry =13:2.
11.8 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
We have seen that the frequency of LC
oscillators
parameters. These vàlues change with time, temperature depends upon the values of tank cirvu
changes, ete. Hence the frequeney
Oscillations does not remain constant at
desired value. For excellent stability of oscillation,
piczo electric quartz crystal is used n place of the
a cr stal oscillator. tuned circuit in oscillator Such an oscillator 1S Ca
The natural shape of a quartz
crystal is hexagonal. There are
optie axis, the x-axis is called the clect Is is called
the