• Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase ones

understanding of the phenomenon and communicate that understanding to others.

• Practical Research involves survey, interviews, and field level investigation in order to achieve the
correct information.
• Variable is the building block or the necessary item in Quantitative Research.

2. USE STANDARDIZED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The data collection instruments include questionnaires, polls, or surveys. Standardized, pre-tested
instruments guide data collection thus ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Pre-
testing helps Identify areas in the research instruments that need revisions. It makes sure that
respondents provide the expected answers or satisfies the intent of the researcher to meet the
research objectives.

3. ASSUME A NORMAL POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

For more reliable data analysis of quantitative data, a normal population distribution curve is
preferred over a non-normal distribution. This requires a large population, the numbers of which
depend on how the characteristics of the population vary. This requires adherence to the principle
of random sampling to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results that defeat the purpose of
research.

4. PRESENT DATA IN TABLES, GRAPHS, OR FIGURES

The data obtained using quantitative methods are organized using tables, graphs, figures that
consolidate large numbers of data to show trends, or relationships, or differences among variables.
This fosters understanding to the readers or clients of the research investigation.

5. USE REPEATABLE METHOD

Researchers can repeat the quantitative method to verify or confirm the findings in another
setting. This reinforces the validity of groundbreaking discoveries or findings thus eliminating the
possibility of spurious or erroneous conclusions.

6. CAN PREDICT OUTCOMES

Quantitative models or formula derived from data analysis can predict outcomes. If-then scenarios
can be constructed using complex mathematical computations with the aid of computers.

7. USE MEASURING DEVICES

Advanced digital or electronic instruments are used to measure or gather quantitative data from
the field. The instruments ensure N objective and accurate collection of data provided that these
are calibrated. Calibration means that the instruments used by the researcher matches the
measurements of a reference instrument that is considered a standard.

STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

✓ the most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to
disproving it. Because of a bigger number of the sample of a population, the results of
generalizations are more reliable and valid.
✓ Quantitative experiments also filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the
results gained can be seen as real and unbiased.
✓ Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for
follow research to take.

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

o Quantitative research can be costly, difficult and time consuming because most of the
researchers are non mathematicians.
 o Quantitative studies require extensive statistical treatment, requiring stringent standards,
more so with confirmation of results. When ambiguities in some findings surface, retesting
and refinement of the design call for another investment in time and resources to polish
the results.
o Quantitative methods also tend to turn out only proved or unproven results, leaving little
room for uncertainty, or grey areas. For the social sciences, education, anthropology and
psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes or no response.

SUMMARY:
❖ The major characteristic of quantitative research is that conclusions are expressed in
numbers or as results of statistical treatment.
❖ Conclusive data are organized using tables, graphs, or figures that consolidate large
numbers of data to show trends, relationships, or differences among variables.
❖ The major strength of quantitative research is that is an excellent way of using or of
finalizing results and providing or disproving a hypothesis. Said results can be seen as real
and unbiased, because they are numerically expressed after appropriate statistical
treatment.
❖ The major weakness of quantitative research is that it can be expensive, time- consuming
and requires extensive statistical treatment, requiring tests, retests, among others.

VARIABLES | Types/kinds of Research Variables

VARIABLES
o A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are
trying to measure in some way.
o Some feature with the potential to change typically one that may influence or reflect a
relationship or outcome. For example, potential variables might be time it takes for
something to occur, whether or not an object is used within a study, or the presence of a
feature among members of the sample
o “Variable is central idea in research. A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity
or quality that varies. Variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical
or categorical values.”

KINDS
1. Continuous and Discontinuous variables
Continuous variables have infinite number of values.
Example: Income of employee, The temperature of a day, Pocket money of a student,
Age

Discontinuous Variable is with a limited number of values that cannot be divide into
fractions. A discontinuous variable is a categorical variable.
Example: A person: Live or dead, Employment: status Unemployed or employed,
Result: Pass or Fail
2. Independent VS. Dependent Variables
BIG CONCEPT—Researchers often manipulate or measure independent and dependent
variables in studies to test cause-and- effect relationships.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE—The independent variable is the cause. Its value is
independent of other variables in your study.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE—The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on
changes in the independent variable.
What is an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE?
Experimental Variables
In experiments, you manipulate independent variables directly to see how they affect your
dependent variable. The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to see how the
outcomes differ
Example: Independent variable levels—You are studying the impact of a new medication on
the blood pressure of patients with hypertension.
A low-dose experimental group, A high-dose experimental group, A placebo group

Subject variables
Subject variables are characteristics that vary across participants, and they can’t be
manipulated by researchers. For example, gender identity, ethnicity, race, income, and
education are all important subject variables that social researchers treat as independent
variables.
Example: Quasi-experimental design
o You study whether gender identity affects neural responses to infant cries.
o After collecting data, you check for statistically significant differences between the
groups. You find some and conclude that gender identity influences brain responses
to infant cries.

What is a DEPENDENT VARIABLE?

The dependent variable is what you record after you’ve manipulated the independent
variable. You use this measurement data to check whether and to what extent your
independent variable influences the dependent variable by conducting statistical analyses.

Based on your findings, you can estimate the degree to which your independent variable
variation drives changes in your dependent variable. You can also predict how much your
dependent variable will change as a result of variation in the independent variable..
Example Independent and Dependent Variables: You design a study to test whether changes in room
temperature have an effect on math test scores.
o Your independent variable is the temperature of the room. You vary the room temperature
by making it cooler for half the participants, and warmer for the other half.
o Your dependent variable is math test scores. You measure the math skills of all participants
using a standardized test and check whether they differ based on room temperature.

3. Moderating Variables
is a type of variable that affects the relationship between a dependent variable and
an independent variable.
For example, suppose we want to fit a regression model in which we use the
independent variable hours spent exercising each week to predict the dependent

variable resting heart rate.

• We suspect that more hours spent exercising is associated with a lower resting heart
rate. However, this relationship could be affected by a moderating variable such as
gender.
• It’s possible that each extra hour of exercise causes resting heart rate to drop more
for men compared to women.
4. Intervening Variables
• An intervening variable is a variable that affects the relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable.
• Often this type of variable can appear when researchers are studying the
relationship between two variables and don’t realize that another variable is
actually intervening in the relationship.
Example 1: Education & Spending

Researchers may be interested in the relationship between education (the independent

variable) and yearly spending (the dependent variable). After collecting data on education
level and yearly spending for 1,000 individuals, they find that there is a strong positive
correlation between the two variables. In particular, they find that individuals who have
more education tend to spend more. However, without realizing it the researchers have failed
to take note of the intervening variable income. It turns out that individuals who have
 higher levels of education tend to hold higher-paying jobs, which means they naturally have
more money to spend.

Example 2: Poverty and Life Expectancy

Researchers may be interested in the relationship between poverty (the independent
variable) and life expectancy (the dependent variable). After collecting data on poverty
and life expectancy for 10,000 individuals, they find that there is a strong correlation
between the two variables. In particular, they find that more impoverished individuals tend
to have lower life expectancies. However, without realizing it the researchers have failed to
take note of the intervening variable healthcare. It turns out that individuals who are more
impoverished have less reliable access to healthcare, which naturally means that they have

lower life expectancies.

5. Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables, also known as confounding variables, are defined as all other
variables that could affect the findings of an experiment but are not independent
variables.
Types of Extraneous Variable
1. Demand characteristics
Demand characteristics provide cues that motivate participants to conform to the
behavioral expectations of the researcher. Oftentimes, the experimental settings or the
research material can give away the intention of the research study to the participants.

The participants can in turn use these cues to behave in ways that are related and
consistent with the hypotheses of the study. This can cause bias in the results of the
research and lower the external validity of the generalization of the results in the
population.

2. Experimenter or investigator effects

• These are unintentional or unknown actions of the researchers that can influence the
results of the study. Experimental effects can be divided into two.
• One, experimental interaction with the participants which can unintentionally influence
the behaviors of the participants and the errors in observation, measurement, analysis, and
interpretation by the researcher. These errors can change the results of the research and
lead to false conclusions.

3. Situational variables
Situational variables can affect or change the behaviors of the participants because of the
influence of factors such as lighting or temperature. These factors are the sources of
random error or random variation in experimental measurements. A reduction in situational
factors will show the actual relationship that exists between independent and dependent
variables.

4. Participant or person variables

• This is any trait or aspect from the background of the participant that can affect the
research results, even when it is not in the interest of the experiment.
 • These variables include gender, religion, age sex, educational attainment, and marital
status. Because these differences can lead to different results in the research participants,
it is important to first analyze these factors.

THE IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

The value of quantitative research to man’s quest to discover the unknown and improve underlying
conditions is undeniable. Throughout history, quantitative research has paved the way to finding
meaningful solutions to difficulties. For instance, the development of vaccines to strengthen our
immunity against viruses causing highly communicable diseases like polio, influenza, chickenpox, and
measles to name a few, underwent thorough experimental trials. Corona Virus Disease of 2019
(Covid-19) as the pandemic has critically affected the world economy, education, as well as physical
and emotional well- being of people.

Using quantitative design helps us determine and better understand relationships between variables
or phenomenon crucial to reducing the range of uncertainty because the mathematics (more of
this in the last module) behind quantitative studies helps us make close estimates of the outcome
(dependent variable) from a given condition/s (independent variable). Relationship between
demand and supply, age and health, discipline and academic achievement, practice and winning at
sports, depression and suicidal rates, algae population and Oxygen demand are just few examples of
real-life applications of correlation studies in the past that we still apply today.

Fields Contribution/Application Example

Social Science • Show effects of intervention to The effects of pandemic on
group behavior social behavior and economic
• Understand cultural or racial stability
conflicts
• Human satisfaction and
stressors
Natural and Physical Science • Investigate the effectiveness of Anti-diabetic properties of
a product or treatment to common Philippine herbs
illnesses
• Finding or enhancing
alternative energy sources
•Advancement in material
science
Agriculture and Fisheries • Increase the yield of crops The effectiveness of organic
• Prevent and cure crops and and inorganic fertilizer to
livestock diseases vegetable production
Sports Science • Enhance athletic performance Diet and exercise techniques
for different kinds of sports.
Business • Offer device marketing Effectiveness of Facebook ads
strategies on sales.
• Improve marketability
Arts and Design • Show relationship between color The effects of music on
and architectural space learning and behavior.
• Maximize use of Multimedia
and adaptation for recreation,
business marketing and lifestyle
changes.
LESSON: Research Title
Basic Parts of a Research Title
• Research goal/result
• Research variables
• Research locale
RESEARCH GOAL or RESULT Key Words

This is the TARGET of the study Assess

What you want to: Develop
o Investigate Evaluate
o Examine Innovate
o Describe Link
o Explain Effect
o Explore Impact
Relationship
Correlate
Factors (affecting)

Research Variable Example

This must include the Independent Variable (IV) Covid 19

Usually tells us the: Online Classes
o Topic Mobile Games
o Focus Anxiety and
o Issue or Depression
o Problem Cyber Bullying
GOAL + IV = VIEW OF THE PROBLEM

Research Variable Example

also includes the Students

Dependent Variable (DV) Teachers
Employees
This is affected by the IV Youth
which usually the Skills
respondents Learning
Must specify who has a great impact
Effect of Covid-19 to the Social Specific factor to be
Skills of…. affected

Research Variable Example

Dependent Variable (DV) o Mental Health

________________ o Behavior
Qualitative Variables – used categorical variables o Attitude
(CV), also known as “Concept Variables” _______________________________

✓ A Non-numerical variable
✓ Categorized through description, theme,
and code

Examples: Perception; Belief; Satisfaction; Eye color;

Gender; Religion and more
 Quanti = Quali =

Goal+IV+DV+Locale Goal+CV+DV+Locale

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Note: DV here refers to the

respondents of the study
not a quantifiable variable

Qualitative Research

Research Locale Key Words

This is the PLACE where the study will be held o School

o Barangay
o City
o Community
o Significant Place
o Depending on the choice

In Content Substance:
o It must possess originality
o It must be interesting and excite the reader’s intellectual curiosity to look further into the
study (eye-catching)
o It should be explicit in the variable to be investigated-the subject involved and the place of
study.
o Note: Avoid the use of “A Study of” or
o “A Comparative Study of” “An Investigation of”
In Form:
o It should not exceed three lines
(written in Inverted Pyramid)
o It must not be more than 20 to 24 substantive words (also called Content Words like:
Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs)
o No Abbreviation and acronym should be used. Example: DepEd, ANHS, SHS
o All words must be in capital letters
(on the cover page and Title Page)
o It must be arranged in thought phrases
Other Research Title Example
o The Challenges of Post Covid 19 Pandemic in the School Community
o Effects of Digital Inequality to Teachers and Learners during the Pandemic
Simple Guide Steps in Writing Research Title
1. Identify your research problem
Start by listing down these problems then you must answer this question: What is your number one
problem that you would like to address/focus?
2. Define the main objective of your study
3. Solution to the problem (intervention)
4. Place it all together

LESSON: Background of the Study

The background of the study is one of the key aspects you need to get right when you are writing a
research paper. It is the key to introducing your readers to the topic of your research, and it is
different from the lead part. Here is how to write background of the study in research studies.

The background of the study is a part of a research provided in the introduction section of the
paper. The background of the study is a compilation of adequate information that is based on the
analysis of the problem or proposed argument, the steps and methods needed to arrive at the
design and the implementation of the results achieved and feasible solutions

STAGES OF WRITING
1. Conduct preliminary research. Visit a library. check the Internet and other electronic
databases to find relevant information from the reputable sources
2. Read and gather the information. You should take notes and also keep an accurate track
of the sources of information you have used up to this point.
3. Develop research question or thesis statement. Write out your position or opinion as an
authoritative statement.
4. Complete your research. Use questions and thesis statement as your guide.
5. Work on structure. Create five different sections that have the key issues; major findings,
and the controversies that are surrounding your research question or thesis and also a
section that provides evaluation and a conclusion.
6. Identify the further studies that need to be done. Put them into the Conclusion section.
Mention possible solutions to the issue that have not been put into consideration in the
past.
7. Proofread. You can also ask someone else to help you go through it.

WRITING FORMAT
o Begin by giving a general overview of your thesis topic and introduce the main ideas you will
be making use of throughout your thesis.
o Then, give the detailed and precise information about all the methodologies used in the
research. This can take up to several paragraphs depending on the individual and research
question or thesis topic.
 o Cite your sources where necessary to avoid plagiarism.
o Then you can introduce the experiment by describing your choice of methodology briefly,
why you have decided to use this methodology instead of others and the objective of the
methodology.

What is the importance of background of the study?

The background of the study helps your reader determine if you have a basic understanding of the
research problem being investigated and promotes confidence in the overall quality of your analysis
and findings.

How to write background of the study in a research paper

Stage 1.
o At the beginning stages of formulating your thesis, many of the issues are still very unclear,
and you need to solidify your thoughts, so you should conduct preliminary research. This
will help you to put forward a research question or thesis statement that will finally lead to
more relevant and specific research. You can visit a library, check the internet and other
electronic databases to find preliminary sources such as scholarly journals and books about
your background of the study.
Stage 2.
o Read and gather the info you need to develop – a thesis statement or research question
that will guide your thesis. You should take notes and also keep an accurate track of the
sources of information you have used up to this point. A lot of people use note cards, but it’s
easier and better to use electronic note-taking programs in this electronic age. Just make
sure to use a form that is comfortable and easier for you. Also, make sure you cite the
source of every information you are using on each note so that you won’t forget where you
got the information from, just in case you want to use it in your thesis.
Stage 3.
o Develop and pen down the research question or thesis statement. Think about the things
you’ve read and searched, and the issues or solutions that have been found by other people,
and then formulate your stance or opinion on the issue. Write out your position or opinion
as an authoritative statement. You may conduct more detailed research at this point and
look for more sources that are more relevant to your research question or thesis.
Stage 4.
o Complete your research using the thesis statement as your guide. Find sources that are
relevant to your specific thesis and provide more insight into your research question using
these sources. Your sources should provide information on the history and past researches
related to your thesis.
Stage 5.
o As you create your background study, create relevant sections. When you start writing,
create five different sections that have the key issues, major findings, and the controversies
that are surrounding your thesis, and also a section that provides evaluation and a
conclusion.
Stage 6.
o Identify the further studies that need to be done in the conclusion section. Also mention
possible solutions to the issues that have not been put into consideration in the past.
Stage 7.
o Revise and edit your background of the study carefully. You can write out several drafts of
your work, revising, editing, and adding more information before coming up with the final
one. Make sure each draft is better than the previous. You can also ask someone else to help
you go through it.
LESSON: formulating research questions and limitations
Formulating
Means translating and transforming the selected research problem into a scientifically answerable
research question. This is the aim of the every study

Questions for qualitative research often have to be designed on the spot, leaving room for people to
elaborate on their answers and even to turn the study in a direction the researcher didn’t expect.
The literature review is the mother of research question. Maxwell (2005)

Quantitative Research Questions

o In quantitative research It should identify the variables being investigated and specify the
type of relationship (descriptive, predictive, or causal) to be investigated.
o Research Questions Usually a research problem is initially posed as a question, which serves
as the focus of the researcher’s investigation.
o Research question should specify What (measureable variables), Who (subjects and controls),
Where (location) ,How (method). Kent and campbell (2005)

SMART
S – Specific: Do: Set real numbers with real deadlines. Don't Say. "I want more visitors."
M – Measurable: Do: Make sure your goal is trackable. Don't Hide behind buzzwords like, "brand
engagement," or, "social influence."
A – Attainable : Do: Work towards a goal that is challenging. but possible. Don't: Try to take over
the world in one night.
R – Realistic : Do: Be honest with yourself- you know what you and your team are capable of. Don't
Forget any hurdles you may have to overcome.
T – Time bound: Do: Give yourself a deadline. Don't Keep pushing towards a goal you might hit,
"some day."

Characteristics of a good research question

o Specific
o Feasible
o Original
o Complex and arguable
o Relevant
o Researchable
o Focused

Guidelines for Quantitative Research Questions

1. Choose an interesting general topic. Even directed academic research should focus on a
topic in which the writer is at least somewhat personally invested.
2. Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches in current
periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to help you
narrow your focus. What questions does this early research raise?
3. Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always
keep your audience in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would
that particular audience be interested in this question?
4. Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself
open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic.
5. Evaluate your question. After enlisting the questions, evaluate these questions to realize if
they would be effective research questions, or if they need more revisions (Creswell, 2012).
Statement of the Problem
o Restating your main problem
o Usually comes into 2 parts
o General Problem
o Specific Problem

Scope and Delimitations

The scope of study in the thesis or research paper contains the explanation of what information or
subject is being analyzed. It is followed by an explanation of the limitation of the research.
Research usually limited in scope by sample size, time and geographic area

The delimitation of study is the description of the scope of study. It will explain why definite
aspects of a subject were chosen and why others were excluded. It mentions the research method
used as well as the certain theories that applied to the data (Esposito, 2002).

Delimitations and limitations clarify the boundaries, exceptions, and reservations inherent in every
study. The two concepts are different

Delimitations It involves the scope of a study. For example, the scope may focus on specific variables,
specific participants, specific sites, or narrowed to one type of research design (e.g., ethnography or
experimental research).

Limitations It aims to identify potential weaknesses of the study. For example, all statistical
procedures and research strategies, such as surveys or grounded theory studies have limitations. In
introductory discussions about these strategies, authors typically mention both their strengths and
their weaknesses (Fatatado, 2016).

LESSON: Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Framework
• is a representation of the relationship you expect to see between your variables, or the
characteristics or properties that you want to study.
• Conceptual frameworks can be written or visual and are generally developed based on
a literature review of existing studies about your topic.
Steps in developing Conceptual Framework
• Your research question guides your work by determining exactly what you want to find out,
giving your research process a clear focus.
Example: Let’s say you want to study whether students who study more hours get higher
exam scores. To investigate this question, you can use methods such as an experiment or
a survey to test the relationship between variables.
• In order to move forward with your research question and test a cause-and-effect
relationship, you must first identify at least two key variables: your independent and
dependent variables.
Example: Following our example: The expected cause, “hours of study,” is
the independent variable (the predictor, or explanatory variable) the expected effect, “exam
score,” is the dependent variable (the response, or outcome variable).
• Now that you’ve figured out your research question and variables, the first step in designing
your conceptual framework is visualizing your expected cause-and-effect relationship.
 We demonstrate this using basic design components of boxes and arrows. Here, each variable
appears in a box. To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow should start from the
independent variable (the cause) and point to the dependent variable (the effect)

It’s crucial to identify other variables that can influence the relationship between your
independent and dependent variables early in your research process.
Some common variables to include are moderating, mediating, and control variables.
• Moderating variable or (moderators) alter the effect that an independent variable has on
a dependent variable. In other words, moderators change the “effect” component of the
cause-and-effect relationship.
Example: Moderator. We expect that the number of hours a student studies is related to
their exam score—i.e., the more you prepare, the higher your score will be. Let’s add the
moderator “IQ.” Here, a student’s IQ level can change the effect that the variable “hours of
study” has on the exam score. The higher the IQ, the fewer hours of study are needed to do
well on the exam. We expect that the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the number
of study hours has on the exam score.

• Mediating Variables. Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a mediating variable.
Mediating variables link the independent and dependent variables, allowing the
relationship between them to be better explained.
• The mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed” comes between
the independent and dependent variables. Hours of study impacts the number of
practice problems, which in turn impacts the exam score.

Mediating vs. Moderator

It’s important not to confuse moderating and mediating variables. To remember the difference, you
can think of them in relation to the independent variable:
• A moderating variable is not affected by the independent variable, even though it
affects the dependent variable. For example, no matter how many hours you study
(the independent variable), your IQ will not get higher.
 • A mediating variable is affected by the independent variable. In turn, it also affects
the dependent variable. Therefore, it links the two variables and helps explain the
relationship between them.

Control Variables
• These are variables that are held constant so that they don’t interfere with the results.
Even though you aren’t interested in measuring them for your study, it’s crucial to be aware
of as many of them as you can be.

Different kinds of Paradigm

• I-P-O (input output process)
• Flow chart