What is Gender

‘Gender' is the collective term for the categories of masculine or

feminine or neutral (Queer).
Anthropology borrowed the term to discuss the social roles
occupied by males and females in society.
The gendered roles in society were assumed to be the ‘natural’
result of one’s sex, but cross-cultural studies demonstrate that
gender roles vary across culture.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors,
expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender
diverse people.
“Gender is seen as the process by which individuals who are born
into biological categories (male or female) become the social
categories (men and women ) through the acquisition of Socially-
defined roles.”
 • Sex Versus Gender
Sex Gender
1. Biological phenomenon 1. Social phenomenon
2. Given at the birth 2. Learned through socialization
3. Cannot change as only women can 3. Can be changed, both men and
give birth not male women can work as teacher and
4. Sex problems include genital issues, professional
some illness are only associated 4. Gender problems include
with female oppression, discrimination and
5. Sex typing include male and female violence
6. Sex related Characteristics are same 5. Gender typing include feminine
across all societies such as male and and masculine.
female body features 6. Gender characteristic change
7. It does not change over the period across societies as female roles
of time differ in rural, urban societies
7. It changed over the period of
time
 What is gender studies?
• Gender Studies is the study or field that analyses
constructions of gender in society, often with reference to
class, race, sexuality, and other sociological characteristics.
• Gender Studies is primarily a study of genders, their
relationship with each other, their respective status in the
society, their roles in the socio-economic and political
spheres and the forces that affect them” (Colorado.edu).
1. Gender studies is a field of study that looks at the world
from the perspective of gender
2. Gender studies looks into the fact that discrimination has
occurred throughout the course of history due to a lack of
knowledge.
3. Gender studies examines the causes of these injustices and
looks for real-world solutions and means of prevention
 Importance of gender studies
• It helps in the identification of the problems related to
genders.
• Its helps Resolve gender related conflicts, abuse and
discrimination
• Resolve economic suppression of the women such as
wages, jobs quota
• Political rights such as votes, political participation
• Property rights
• Resolving injustice with the women
• Health related discrimination and improved health status
of the women
• Cross-cultural gender identities and roles along with
gender related oppression.
 Scope of Gender Studies in Pakistan
1-Career as Educator In Gender Studies:
If you have studied gender study then you can become one of the professional
Gender study expert by paving your career in the field of education.
1. Elementary, Secondary school teachers
2. Teacher at university level
2- Career as a Researcher:
Below are career options which these gender study background can opt and try by
affiliating their selves with this field of researching:
3. Cultural resource management officer
4. Gender Department
5. GRAP
6. WAF
3- Public Sector Offices
7. Culture department
8. Social Welfare Department
9. Women development department
10.Labor department or any seat requiring MA in Social Sciences
4-Career as Communicator
All those related individuals who have completed their studies in a major subject
of gender study then they can act and have job as communicator as well:
1. Writers
2. Journalists
3. Producers
4. Documentary Editors
5-Career as an Advocate
These gender study professionals can also serve as advocates and below are
further job categories which these gender study professionals can opt in their
professional lives:
3. Lawyers
4. Paralegals
5. Litigation support officer
6- Private Sector
There are multiple national and international organization are working on Gender
issues. Hence, Master degree holders have a vast chance of career in such
organization. UNICEF, UNESCO, JICA, UNO etc.
 • History of Status of Wome
• Greece:
• Matrilineal system, powerful queens and sexual
freedom of the women.
• Family system was democratic (egalitarian society)
and there was no stratification based on gender.
(Minoan Crete) referred to as the golden age.
• Literature also showed the matriarchal society of the
Amazon where women warriors. Similarly in Sparta
women warriors were significant and played a good
role.
• However in the later period patrilineal system started
and patriarchy started goddess were replaced with
gods.
 • Plato
• Equal education for girls as for boys to make them rulers as
superior women are better than inferior men.
• Inferior class of women oppose the democracy and women can
participate in occupations.
• Women are inferior and they were excluded from Plato’s
academy. He is of the opinion that female can distract men in their
pursuit of knowledge hence both should live in separate worlds
• Aristotle
• Husband should rule wife and children as if slaves are meant to be
ruled by free men, women are meant to be ruled by men.
• Women in Athens are like cattle’s, no women in public, divorce
was acceptable, child rearing was somewhat moved to concubines
which further restricted their status. However, women of Sparta
have higher degree of freedom, fit and warriors.
 • Romans
• Roman’s allotted complete authority to male over family,
decision, death sentence etc. they were responsible for
entire functioning in the household and caring for the
female and children.
• Women had freedom, religious significance, however,
they can distract men. When male were on military
troops they had some economic functions as well
showing their freedom.
• Middle age
• Christianity was in Europe e and misogamy was
practices and took the lives. However, only some women
got the chance of education. Which hunts during later
middle ages was the most brutal experience against
women i.e. childless marriage, sexual impurity.
 • Renaissance
• Positive effects on women, education was available, many
female authors emerged writers and artists. Prestige was
given to them. Later martin Luther advocated women.
• Women in 17th century
• Less than what today but contributed a lot. They
participated in every sphere of life and also worked
without payment (indentured servants). No vote yet.
Remarriage and more pregnancies to meet the need to
colonial world.
• 18th century
• Colonial world settled, population exploded, families
became patriarchal. Still no formal education and only
role related to family and religion.
Multidisciplinary nature of gender studies
• Education: Lack of education to the women, nature of education needed
for them, discrimination on the basis of education and how to resolve the
existing situation.
• Health: Lack of health facilities to women, approach to the health centers,
maternal mortality rates and how to improve the existing situation.
• Sociology: Social construction of the gender, role observance
• Economic: Low wages, jobs availability, workplace violence, harassment
• Politics: Right to vote, lower participation both at voting and
representation, how to increase it.
• Literature: Lower presentation of women based literature and also
written by them
• Anthropology: It is used to explain ideas about gender and how they
evolved.
• Psychology: It is used to understand the human nature and the nature of
human sexuality with regard to gender
• Biology: It can differentiate the biological differences between different
genders
 • Gender Studies in Pakistan
Gender Studies, first introduced as a five-year project in 1989 by the
Women’s Development Division, Government of Pakistan, has now
developed into a well-established discipline across the national
universities of Pakistan. The purpose to introduce Gender Studies was
• To make women visible, their achievements
• To develop or create alternative concepts, approaches in the context
of Pakistan.
• Strategies for national development with an active participation of
women.
• To contextualize the feminism movement in Pakistan and lead way of
their involvement in political, economic and educational spheres.
 • Gender Studies and Research
• Pakistan Journal of Women’s Studies; Alam-e-Niswan : It is published
twice a year by
• Pakistan Association for Women's Studies. The first issue was published
in 1994.
• Women’s Research and Resource Center—FJWU, RWP
• Some Programs of Women’s Studies and Gender Studies in Pakistan
• Allama Iqbal Open university in 1989 MSC in women studies distance
learning program.
• Institute of Women Development Studies—University of Sindh,
Jamshoro 1994
• Women’s Studies Department AIOU 1997
• Women’s studies center University of Balochistan, Quetta.
• Department of women’s studies Punjab University, Lahore
• Department of women’s studies Peshawar University
• Compulsory course of women studies in all the departments of Fatima
Jinnah university, which is a women university.
• QAU also offers a program in MPhil gender studies.
• In 2001, Bhauddin Zakria university started a program in gender and
society.
• Institute of social and cultural studies in university of the Punjab also
offers MPhil in Gender studies.
 The Curriculum Revision Committee of Women’s (2003-HEC)
• One of the most relevant recommendation is that Women’s Studies should
be introduced as one of the qualifying subjects in the competitive
examinations (CSS, PCS) and this recommendation was implemented by
FSPC. Other recommendations included:
• Active collaboration between the various departments, centers and
institutes teaching Women’s Studies in Pakistan with the purpose of
sharing expertise.
• Translations in Urdu (or any other language of Pakistan) of key-texts in
Women’s Studies.
• Special funds should be made by the HEC for R & D
• Special grants for library development in Women’s Studies
• Women’s Studies at undergraduate level and College Level (Text)
 • Gender studies and women studies difference
1-Difference on the basis of emergence
• Gender studies is a new field of knowledge based on new ideas and development
• Women studies is an older field to show the status of women
2-Difference on the basis of scope
• Women studies is limited in its scope as it only focuses on the issues of women such as health,
education, reproduction, economic and political. It does not look into other genders.
• The scope of gender studies is broader. It studies both genders in different societies, different
factors that influence their status.
3-Subject matter difference
• Women studies only studies role and status of women and achievements
• Gender studies both genders their role and status and their relationships
4-Difference with respect to development
• Women studies focuses on women in development (WID)
• Gender studies focus on women and development (WAD) also gender and development (GAD)
 5-Difference of the brand of feminism
• Women studies is the offshoot from radical feminism which asserts that patriarchy is the root cause
of women oppression and complete segregation is the key
• Gender studies is inspired from liberal feminism. It recognizes the importance of both gender
6-Difference associated with wave of feminism
• Women studies stem from second wave of feminisms which dealt with the demand for equality in
all spheres of life.
• Gender studies came out from third wave of feminism which focus on gender in the process of
development
7-Difference on the basis of opportunities
• Focus of women studies on visibility of the women
• Focus of gender studies is also on their problems and social construction and removing stereotypes
8- Difference on the basis of Criticism
Gender studies is widely criticized
Women studies is less criticized
 • Autonomy and integration debate (Academic)
• Origin
• The debate started in 1982 at the annual National Women’s Suffrage Association
(NWSA) that whether or not gender studies or women studies be offered separately or
merged with other subjects.
• Autonomy
The strategy of autonomy ensures independent programs, a space where feminists of a
great variety can engage in active dialogue and have control over material and human
resources and knowledge production. It is a way of constructing a new discipline, and a
new structure that challenges the traditional compartmentalization of the academia.
Their main issue is Ghettoizing or isolation.
• Integrationists
Integration means mainstreaming women’s perspective across different disciplines and
across the existing university programs/departments, but it is also about increasing
gender-awareness in all the issues addressed. It is a strategy of transforming the
patriarchal institution from within. There main concern is assimilation
 • Autonomy (Separatists)
1. Undermine Gender Studies Goals: Those who supported autonomy believed that feminists
should work in isolation and try to focus on problems of women particularly instead of
focusing on their issues as part of a ‘bigger picture’. They believed integration within the
academic fields (and within the society as well) would lead to feminists being steered away
from their main goal
2. Only way of progress: this is the only way of achieving your goals, as by integration you
will not work freely. Feminist movement would not be deprioritize
3. Impose Constraints: integration will impose theoretical, methodological and other
constraints for workers. sociology of religion unless sociology is not a distinct discipline
4. Best way of generating knowledge: separatism is the best way of creating new knowledge.
They call for treating women studies as a women specific discipline.. According to them
women studies programs offer the best means of generating new knowledge through the
interaction of likeminded scholars while maintaining critical perspective.
5. Distinct faculty positions by power base and visibility
6. Women study is an entity and should be studied separately
7. Women study is a shadow structure and it needs to become surface structure
 • Integration
1. Change is a slow process :They believed that change is a slow process and it requires
actors working within the system to change it. They were afraid of ‘Isolation’ women
studies as trying to transform the academia would lead to a bigger and wider change.
Integrating with other subjects would yield better results.
2. Best way to compel policy makers: involvement of stakeholders
3. Increase Sexism: According to integrationists, separating women’s study would increase
sexism hence their integration is the best solution and mutually beneficial.
4. Women’s role in the society cannot be understood without taking other social variables
in consideration such as role of men, their interaction. Hence, integration is the best
solution.
5. According to the opponents of the autonomy, separating women’s study from other
disciplines is difficult to achieve. If a holistic view of issues affecting women is required
it cannot be studied in isolation.
6. Autonomy would lead to academic Ghettoization (isolated and underprivileged)
7. Need to take step in each department to confront gender blindness
 • Autonomy and integration debate with regard to status
• “Autonomy defines as the capacity for a woman to achieve wellbeing and a
role in decision making.” It is individual’s capacity of self-determination and
self-governance and desire for freedom in some areas of the one’s life.
• Moral autonomy: It is based on Kant’s view of give oneself moral laws and
not merely heeding injunctions of the others.
• Personal autonomy: It is the freedom of one’s regarding social actions and
decision making
• Political autonomy: Respect of the political decisions and also participation
Health related autonomy: It includes use of contraceptives and taking
health related decisions
• Education autonomy: Attaining education with own choice
• Economic autonomy: Indulge in any sort of jobs and business opportunities.
 • Integration of the women in society
• Access to recourse: use of existing financial resources and assets
• Legal rights and status
• Psychological integration of the women is an important tool. It helps
in addressing stress and its consequences
• Integration of women in population and development programmes not
mere a problem rather an agent of change.
• As full partners, women and men should jointly identify the
community's needs and respond creatively with appropriate solutions.
Such a redefined social and economic development process would
promote not only the material but the spiritual welfare of that
community
 Definition of gender based violence
Gender-based violence is violence directed against a person because of their gender. Both
women and men experience gender-based violence but the majority of victims are women
and girls.
Gender-based violence and violence against women are terms that are often used
interchangeably as it has been widely acknowledged that most gender-based violence is
inflicted on women and girls, by men.
According to UN, violence against women is defined as any act of gender based violence
that results in or is likely to result in physical sexual or mental harm or suffering to women
including threats of such acts coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring
in the public or private life.
The term “gender-based violence” refers to violence that targets individuals or groups on
the basis of their gender. The United Nations’ Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights’ Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) defines
it as “violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects
women disproportionately”.
 Explanation
• It is an act i.e. action (physical, verbal and gestures)
• Result in physical sexual or mental harm
• Threats of such acts also referred to as threat of violence
• Deprivation of liberty
• Public or private life
• Both women and men experience it but ratio is very high for women
 • Characteristics of Violence against women
• Violence against women affects everyone. Only when everyone is safe in public
and private, can women, men, children, families, homes, neighborhoods, workplaces,
communities, institutions, economies, ecosystems, and nations truly thrive.
• Violence against women is rampant. 35% of women worldwide have experienced
physical and/or sexual violence. Look around whatever room you’re in: that’s about
1 in 3 of the women you see. In pakistan 40% married women have experienced
violence in life.
• Violence against women is everywhere. Violence is one expression of women’s
unequal status. It varies in form and degree across cultures and countries, but persists
worldwide.
• Lifetime Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence :24.5 %
• Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence in the last 12 months : 14.5 %
• Lifetime Non-Partner Sexual Violence : Child Marriage :21 %
• Violence against women is expensive. The annual cost of intimate partner violence
alone in the U.S. alone exceeds $5.8 billion, including both medical costs and lost
productivity. Violence against women has been shown to reduce countries’ gross
national product.
• Violence against women hurts men and children. And leads to more violence.
Witnessing violence in one’s home is the strongest predictor of violence in one’s adult
and intimate relationships.
• Violence and discrimination against women is often seen as normal, not a big
deal, a private problem, or the fault of…women. That’s what’s happening every
time a woman is blamed for “getting herself raped.” (Welcome to “rape culture”—the
norms that emerge when people and institutions tolerate, shrug off, or justify rape.)
• https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-
figures
• https://pakistan.unfpa.org/en/topics/gender-based-violence-6#:~:text=A
%20staggering%2032%20per%20cent,Health%20Survey%202012%2D2013).
 • Types of Violence against women
• Psychological violence: This is also referred to as mental abuse or
emotional abuse.
• Physical violence:
• Sexual violence: forced intercourse or intercourse without a woman’s
• Controlling behaviors: such as isolating a person from their family and
friends,
• Harassment
• Economic violence
 • It can also be divided into two broader categories of
• Direct violence against women: All acts of gender-­based violence that
result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm
or suffering to an individual, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private
life.
• Indirect violence against women: Attitudes, stereotypes and cultural
norms that underpin gendered practices and may cause gender-based
forms of direct violence.
• The triangle of violence, defined by the Norwegian sociologist Johan
Galtung, identifies three types of violence.
• Direct violence war, murder, rape, assault, verbal attacks — is the kind
we physically perceive, but it manifests out of conditions created by the
first two invisible forms and can’t be eliminated without eliminating
them.
• Cultural violence is the prevailing attitudes and beliefs that justify and
legitimize the structural violence, making it seem natural. Feelings of
superiority/inferiority based on class, race, sex, religion, and nationality.
• Structural violence is injustice and exploitation built into a social
system that generates wealth for the few and poverty for the many.
 • Direct Forms of Violence
• War
• Murder
• Rape
• Assault
• verbal attacks
• Acid Attacks
• Domestics violence
• Structural forms of violence
• Poverty
• Denial of human rights
• Hunger
• Racism
• Sexism
• Prejudice
 • Reasons of Violence against women
• Poverty (60%)
• Impatience
• Individual psychological problems
• Sexual frustrations
• Bigotries of Societies i.e. dual standards or dual moral values specifically
• Unbearable life pressure
• Drug use
• Exposure to violence or trauma
• Wrong interpretation of religion
• Unequal power relations between men and women (limited economic opportunities)
• Cultural tradition
• low levels of education
• Lack of actions by government
 Theories of Violence against women
There are various theories that explain violence against women within the context of
individual, dyadic, institutional/social factors. It is argued that violence arises due to
interactions among individuals, biological and psychological factors, and various
social processes that create a situation where violence is committed, condoned and
legitimized.
• Individual level Theories
• Evolutionary Approach.
Bateman-Trivers theory of the evolutionary basis of sex differences explain that
Human males have higher fitness variance than females and compete more intensely
and dangerously than females. Arguably, this explains why violence and crime are
male dominated in all societies; this reiterates that females should take on the tasks
of pregnancy and nurturing the young, which are often better served by female.
• Physiology or Neurophysiology. These theories rely heavily on pathological and
physiological causative mechanisms for explaining violence against women.
According to this perspective, changes in hormonal neurotransmitters and
neurophysiological processes may result in the development or regulation of
violent behavior among men.
• Higher level of Testosterone leads to aggressive behavior
• Lower level of Serotonin is related with aggressive behavior
• Psychopathology and personality traits. This theory explains violent behaviors
in terms of mental illness. “The men who battered women were mentally ill and
the women who remained in violent relationships were also mentally ill”. A
growing body of research has found that there is a high incidence of
psychopathology and personality disorders, most frequently antisocial
personality disorder, borderline personality organization, or post-traumatic
stress syndrome, among men who assault their wives. Different personality and
psychiatric disorders have been diagnosed among sex offenders.
• Social Learning theory.
• Social learning theory hypothesizes that humans learn social behavior by
watching the behavior of others.
• It is theorized that people repeat that behavior if the results are rewarding.
• Within this framework, aggression is also a learned behavior and an
individual commits aggression in order to achieve specific objectives. And if
the objectives are achieved, he will repeat that behavior again Hence,
aggression is not an inevitable behavior, rather it is a social behavior that is
learned and shaped by its consequences, continuing if it is reinforced.
• “Male violence against women endures in human societies because it is
modeled both in individual families and in the society more generally and
has positive results” .
 • Institutional or structural level
Family, schools, and the media. According to this line of thinking, various institutions, such as family,
schools, the media, and religion, can promote violence as an acceptable way of men controlling women.
1. It is argued that family is the most powerful institution in socialization and, if violence is practiced
within the family, the violent behaviors are transmitted to the younger generation. Similarly, sex roles
are transmitted through family.
2. Socialization in schools that reinforces sex role stereotypes and condones the use of interpersonal
violence may also contribute to the violent behavior of men. In School teachers treat differently on the
basis of biological difference which reinforce gender roles such as sports, dressing and punishment
style.
3. Sometimes religious schools are also reported to be responsible for the socialization of violent
behavior against women. In the Pakistan context wrong interpretation of religion is also a cause of
violence.
4. Media: Some feminist theorists have found that pornography promotes the objectification of women
and endorses sexual aggression toward women. Not only pornography but also television shows and
movies filled with scenes of women being threatened, raped, beaten, tortured, and murdered also tend
to give the impression in the minds of many young males that women can be treated in this way.
Feminist theory
• This theory focused on the ideology of familial patriarchy, which
supposedly teaches men how and when to use violent techniques.
• They argued that women’s relatively disadvantaged position compared to
men in terms of their economic, legal, and educational status makes women
vulnerable to becoming victims of aggression and violence. This
disadvantaged status puts males in a powerful position and this male
dominance may be central to the violence against women.
• According to this theory, the female body is stigmatized in such a way that
men consider it necessary to control and subjugate women.
 • General theories
• Loss of control theory: men having lower self-control and lack of anger
management
• Learned helplessness theory: more episodes of violence make women live with
that. They adjust to this owing to helplessness
• The cycle of violence theory: men are trained not to show their emotions this
leads to anger, frustration which ultimately explodes
• Family relationship conflict model: both men and women contribute to violence.
They both provoke each other owing to certain family issues
• The control wheel theory: perpetrator uses different mechanism to control the
behavior of the other. Economic abuse, isolation, emotional, threat of violence etc.
• Psycho-dynamic perspective: unconscious along with early childhood experience
leads to violence and justify it.
• Marxist perspective: resources and control over resources is the cause
 • Solution of gender based violence
• Create laws and enforce existing laws that protect women from discrimination and
violence, including rape, beatings, verbal abuse, mutilation, torture, “honor” killings and
trafficking.
• Educate community members on their responsibilities under international and national
human rights laws.
• Promote the peaceful resolution of disputes by including the perspectives of women and
girls. Family level most important
• Strengthen women’s ability to earn money and support their households by providing skills
training for women.
• Sensitize the public to the disadvantages of early and forced child marriages.
• Highlight the value of girls’ education and of women’s economic development.
• Encourage women to participate in the political process and educate the public about the
value of women’s votes.
• Raise public awareness of the poor conditions some women face, particularly in rural areas.
 Other Workable strategies
• Completion of secondary education for girls (and boys).
• Delaying age of marriage to 18.
• Women’s economic autonomy and access to skills training, credit and
employment.
• Promotion of Social norms that promote gender equality.
• Quality response services (judicial, security/protection, social and
medical) staffed with knowledgeable, skilled and trained personnel.
• Availability of safe spaces or shelters.
• Access to support groups.
 What is Feminism
• The word ‘feminism’ itself originated from the French word féminisme in
the nineteenth century, either as a medical term to describe the
feminization of a male body.
• When it was used in the United States in the early part of the twentieth
century it was only used to refer to one group of women: ‘that asserted the
uniqueness of women, the mystical experience of motherhood and
women’s special purity.
• It soon became understood to denote a political stance of someone
committed to changing the social position of women.
• The goals of feminism are:
1. To demonstrate the importance of women
2. To reveal that historically women have been subordinate to men
3. To bring about gender equity i.e. change in existing situation
• Feminism can be viewed in the following three ways (Dimensions):
1. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and
their equality with men in all spheres of life.
2. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive
relations of men and women using women’s perspectives.
3. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at
transforming them (Mannathoko in Meena, 1992).
 Rise of Feminism
1. It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual
division of labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the
stability of society.
2. It was also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the position of
women as natural.
3. Feminism also questioned the dominant views or philosophies that viewed
women as less human than males. Examples of these philosophies are:
• The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities( Aristotle)
• A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas).
• The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man
attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can attain-
whether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses
and hands (Charles Darwin).
 Common aspects shared by Feminists
• Gender is not natural but a social construct.
• They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life.
• Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.
Feminist Differences
• Explanations of women’s oppression. Areas of focus e.g. cultural
stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc.
• Direction of change or what constitute women’s liberation.
 Theories of Feminism
• Theory is a set of assumptions about any social phenomenon
• Theories of feminism means that set of particular ideas clubbed under
one category on the basis of same attribute and pattern.
• Liberal Feminism
• Radical Feminism
• Socialist or Marxist Feminism
• Psycho-analytical Feminism
• Men’s Feminism
• Post-modern Feminism
• Cultural Feminism
• Islamic Feminism
 • Liberal Feminism
• All people are created equal and should not be denied equality of opportunity because of
gender. Inequality stems from the denial of equal rights.
• Background
• Industrial Revolution
• Democratic political idea in USA i.e. Equality and Liberty
• (Individualism) Philosophy of liberalism with the belief in individual rights e.g. Right to
freedom and autonomy
• Types of liberal feminism
• Classical liberal tradition
• This tradition regards human beings as rational, autonomous, and self-interested individuals.
This tradition strongly values liberty. They advocated for negative rights i.e. impose duties on
people not to interfere with anyone else such as freedom of speech etc.
• Modern liberal tradition
• Their focus was on positive rights. Such rights impose affirmative duties on other to take
particular actions such as free education, safety etc.
 Salient features
• They believe that women should be given the same opportunities in political,
economic, and educational fields and that they have the same mental capacity as
men.
• For liberals the key battle is access to education because if men and women are
educated equally, then it follows that they will get equal access to society.
• They rejected the penis envy theory and stated it to be nothing more than a
social bias. However, they stated that women need to become like men by
aspiring for male values through education etc.
• Their Primary focus is on individual autonomy, rights, liberty, and independence.
Emphasize the power of the individual to change things.
• They admit separate workplace but demanded household work recognition and
this started wages debate in 1970.
• Focused on discrimination especially in the gendered job market & on women’s
entry in male dominated professions.
 • Time period:
• Began in the 19th and Early 20th Century with Mary Wollenstonecraft
• Notable advocates
• Mary Wollenstonecraft wrote “A vindication of the rights of women”
which commented on the society’s views of women and encouraged
women to make separate decisions other than those made for them by
society.
• John Stuart Mill also believed in equal rights for both sexes. In his
book The Subjection of Women, Mill argues that three major parts of
women's lives are hindering them: society and gender construction,
education, and marriage
 How can change be brought?
• Provision of education to women without any discrimination.
• Through acts of legislation that remove the barriers for women. These acts
of legislation demand equal opportunities and rights for women.
• They demanded to jobs and equal pay. Liberal feminists believe that
removing barriers that directly challenges the ideologies of patriarchy, as
well as liberates women.
• They affirms that women’s subordinate social position can be addressed by
existing political processes under democracy.
• NO revaluation rather than democracy is itself enough to change the status
of women. Don’t want to overturn the social status quo in order to achieve
better social conditions for women.
• Focus on changing attitudes, stereotypes and biases in language, textbooks
and the media also advocated for diversification of the curriculum.
 • CRITICISM
• It does not focus on the patriarchal social structure but on
individuals. So mere institutional changes are not enough, the whole
system needs to be changed. Do not offer strategy to counter
traditional norms and values that constrain women.
• It focuses too much on the transformation of women into men and
disregards the traditional role of women and its importance.
• It is only for women who have a middle class, heterosexual white
background. View women as a homogeneous category ignoring class,
race and ethnicity. Its calls for access to education, health,
employment, legal instruments leave out lower class women
 • Radical Feminism (1960-1980s)
• Men control the norms of acceptable sexual behavior and radical feminists Speak out against all
social structures because they are created by men. Women are the first oppressed group their
oppression is most widespread and deepest.
Background
• Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s – 80s as a breakaway of Marxists who were
frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analyzing gender oppression.
• Their slogan was the ‘Personal is political’ (Bryson, 1992) meaning that no aspect of life lacked a
political dimension.
• The theory is radical in nature, that is it is violent, fast, uncompromising and strongly oppose
patriarchal systems
• Launched a wholesale onslaught against male dominated society and consider men as the enemy
• Notable advocates:
• Mary Daly was an advocate of this theory. She was the first feminist philosopher who challenged
gender roles and launched war against patriarchy. ‘Gym/Ecology: The Met ethics of Radical
Feminism (1978) Daly argues that men have tried to oppress women throughout history and
focuses on the actual practices of this oppression.’
 • Salient features:
• Women are being seen as the “other” to the male norm and so they have been
systematically oppressed and marginalized over the course of humanity.
• Believe in patriarchal theory. Radical feminists were opposed to patriarchy. They
try to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing norms.
• The oppression of women by men is a system called patriarchy. Patriarchy is based in
an oppressive family structure. Organized religion and many other cultural structures -
even language itself - support patriarchy.
• They think sexuality is the root cause of oppression and women are oppressed by the
sex industry (prostitution, pornography etc.) as women from the lowest socioeconomic
classes engage in prostitution. It is a forced choice with no
• They believe that pornography leads to psychological, physical and economic
coercion and leads to sexism and then rape. It also mentions that well known
participants of the industry are raped or pimped.
• Evaluating and then breaking down traditional gender roles in private relationships as
well as in public policies
 • How change can be brought
• Early radical feminism believed that “men as part of the problem should be part
of the solution.” Even though radical feminism is usually associated in the popular
consciousness with separatism and man-hating.
• At first violence against women should be abolished.
• They believe that a woman-centered politics could only be devised in a woman-
only space. So they focus on a policy of separatism, at least at the level of policy-
making and meetings.
• They wanted a political formation free from the male defects (such as leader).
• Women are to struggle on their own for their own liberation. Radicals reject
assistance by males because men are viewed as enemies of the liberation.
• Believed in expanding reproductive rights such as right to abortion,
sterilization, birth control and the freedom to make these choices without
pressure from men or governmental and religious authorities.
• Revolutionary changes/ restructuring the society.
• CRITICISM
• It does not address issues of race and class.
• It reinforces the idea of gender essentialism (Gender essentialism is a concept
used to examine the attribution of fixed, intrinsic, innate qualities to women
and men) and that “men are acting only as men when they oppress females.”
• Radical feminist academic scholarship is often highly biased and even invents
statistics e.g. radical feminist "scholars" on witchcraft have in the past claimed
that 9 million women were killed in the European “witch trials” which is
outright fake.
• Radical feminism often resorts to violence and proclaims hate speech.
• Radical feminist’s methods for resolving tensions are impractical and
inhumane. Gender segregation would not only be absurd in practicality but
would contradict most, if not all human rights legislation. It is impossible to
change the structures without involving men.
 • Marxist/Socialist Feminism
• Marxist Feminists applied the Marxist theory of economic determinism in
explaining the oppression of women.
• Marxist feminists emphasize that within the workplace women face challenges of
job market segregation, lower wages for the same work, and sexual
harassment.
• It is primarily concerned with the division of labor. Socialist or Marxist feminism
links changes in women’s social conditions which result in their oppression.
• Subordination is not result of biological factors but social positions and social
position is determined by Economic possessions.
• Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of private property
. Men are powerful because they own the means of production. Women do not
own the means of production hence are a subordinate class that is oppressed,
exploited just like the proletariats.
• Bourgeoisie=Men and Proletariat=Women
• Perspectives of Engels on women
• Engels in The Origin of the Family, Private property and the State says that the shift
from feudalism to private land ownership has led to women being denied access to
waged labour as they are in enslavement to men who own the land.
• CRITICISM
• It focuses only on economic reasons and focuses on solving those issues.
• The root cause, patriarchy, is not addressed in detailed.
• Changing the economic structure cannot change the mindset.
• They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before the advent of
Capitalism.
• Experiences in Socialist countries, for example, Soviet Union, Cuba, China
and the former Eastern Block, did not show that women’s positions in these
societies were any better. These societies are still male dominated with
powerful posts in male hands.
 • How change can be brought?
• Marxist Feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic
system. They call for a socialist Revolution that would change the
structure and ownership of the means of production.
• Focused on liberating women by improving their material condition as
women are oppressed due to financial dependence on men.
• Revolved around taking the "burden" off women in regards to
housework and other traditional female domestic jobs i.e. change in
Gender Roles.
• For them, revolution is the only answer. Men and women should struggle
against capitalist oppressors. Class and gender struggles should take place
at the same time.
• There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of both
sexes. The way roles are constructed should be reviewed.
 • Liberal Feminists
• John Stuart Mill.
• Harriet Taylor.
• Harriet Tubman.
• Susan B. Anthony.
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
• Radical Feminists
• Famous radical feminists include
• Andrea Dworkin,
• Catharine MacKinnon,
• Valerie Solanas, and
• Alice Walker
• Marxists
• Angela Davis.
• Raya Dunayevskaya.
• Silvia Federici.
• Shulamith Firestone.
• Clara Fraser.
• Anuradha Ghandy.
 • Psychoanalytical Feminism
• Freud is the founder of the Psychoanalytic school.
• Salient features
• Freud writes in his lecture on “Femininity” that “psychoanalysis does
not try to describe what a woman is, but sets about enquiring how she
comes into being, how a woman develops out of a child with a
bisexual disposition”.
• He believes that femininity as sexed identity is a achievement rather
than a naturally given. It is achieved through repetition of gender roles.
• Freud believed that penis envy leads women to shame, vanity etc.
making her inferior to men. For women a baby is the ultimate penis
substitute.
• They addressed political and social factors affecting the development of male and
female subjects.
• Psychoanalytic feminists see women’s oppression rooted within psychic structures
and reinforced by the continual repetition the dynamics formed in infancy and
continued till childhood through socialization and role assignment.
• In The Reproduction of Mothering, Nancy Chodorow, argues that different
experiences in infancy predispose girls and boys toward different developmental
paths. Boys definitively separating from their mothers to identify with the father’s
social power and girls developing a more symbiotic/continuous sense of self in
relation to the mother.
• It makes boys emotionally stunted and less capable of intimate personal
relationships, but better prepared for public life. Girls develop a closer relation with
their mother, and have more fluid psychic boundaries that facilitate a greater
capacity for intimacy but leave them less prepared to negotiate the public sphere.
 How change can be brought?
• Because of these deeply ingrained patterns, psychoanalytic feminists wanted to
alter the experiences of early childhood and family relations, as well as
linguistic patterns that produce and reinforce masculinity and femininity.
• Some want to introduce dual parenting (Dorothy Dinnersein).
• Change in socialization pattern. (this is quite comprehensive and include the
role of family, community, media, religion as politics)
Criticism on psycho-analytical feminism
• It is based on 30 years before and time has changed.
• The concepts of Oedipus complex are very different to comprehend
• Penis- envy and affiliation of femininity with passivity and masculinity activity
are vague and difficult for other feminist scholars to work on and understand.
• Women oppression in the society is more of a social phenomenon not psychic as
focused by Freud
 • Men’s Feminism
• Salient Features
• The task of men’s feminism is to study men in their relationship to
women.
• They believe in scrutinizing masculinity and to develop a theory of
masculinity.
• All men had at least the potential to be the oppressor and had greater
opportunities for power, and therefore it was important that men got
together in their own separatist groups to discuss the effects this
knowledge had upon them as individuals.
• Dominant men create a hegemonic masculinity and so they also
oppresses other men (such as homosexual men). Gender inequality is
due to these dominant men.
 • Benefits of men’s feminism
• Men should be made part of feminist movement to reduce misconception
and increase women voice.
• Men’s participation is a part of universalization of the feminist movement
• Eliminating men’s from feminist movement will hamper the cause as it
will only become a women oriented problem and not a societal problem.
• Criticism
• Men can’t become feminist owing to intrinsic difference between sexes.
• Men have not suffered the same way as women hence they can’t
comprehended the situation.
 • Postmodern Feminism
• Post-modern feminists also claim that gender is largely developed from
a discourse that we learn to adopt over time. Gender is therefore
neither natural nor innate. Instead, gender is constituted by the way we
talk, create images and present ourselves to other.
• Female & male bodies, sexual desires are exhibited through these
discourses.
• It is intersectional which seeks to examine how biological, social and
cultural categorizations interact to explain status of women.
• It accepts diversity. Queer theory presented by the postmodern
• Notable advocates:
• Helene Cixous, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeve
• CRITICISM
• Men and women are two separate entities but they are reduced to one
single identity
• Romanticizes women’s interaction
 Waves of Feminism
Feminist history can be divided into three waves. The first wave, occurring
in the 19th and early 20th century, was mainly concerned with women’s
right to vote. The second wave, at its height in the 1960s and 1970s, refers
to the women’s liberation movement for equal legal and social rights. The
third wave, beginning in the 1990s, focused on individuality and
intersectional aspects.
 • First Wave of Feminism (started from 19th century to 20 century)
• Historical Context
Women widely are considered to be:
• Intellectually inferior and Physically weak
• Emotional and irrational
• Suited to the role of wives and mother
• They were not educated at school/universities.
• A married women’s property and salary were owned by her husband.
• Rape and physical abuse were legal within marriage
• Divorce available to men but far more difficult to women
• Abortion was illegal.
 Key Concerns or assumptions of first wave of feminism
• First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the 19th
and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the
United States.
• The first wave of feminism debuted with Elizabeth Cady Stanton's 1848
Seneca Falls Convention address, which promoted voting rights for
women.
• It emerged out of an environment of urban industrialism and liberal,
socialist politics. The goal of this wave was to open up opportunities for
women, with a focus on suffrage.
• First-wave feminism promoted equal contract and property rights for
women, opposing ownership of married women by their husbands. By the
late 19th century, feminist activism was primarily focused on the right to
vote
 Key Demands
• Right to vote
• Property rights i.e. Marriage and property laws (husband owned the
salary)
• Employment opportunities including Better working conditions
• The right to education
• Reproductive rights (marital rapes etc. )
 • Most Important incidents
• Russia: In 1913 women observed their first International Women's Day on the last
Sunday in February. Following discussions, International Women's Day was
transferred to 8 March and this day has remained the global date for International
Women's Day ever since.
• England: In 1918 Marie Stopes, who believed in equality in marriage and the
importance of women's sexual desire, published Married Love, a sex manual that,
according to a survey of American academics in 1935, was one of the 25 most
influential books of the previous 50 years.
• Germany: in 1919 granted women the right to vote
• England 1919- Nancy Astor became the first woman to take her seat in the House
of Commons.
• China: The first female students were accepted in Peking University, soon
followed by universities all over China.
 Second Wave of Feminism (1960’S-1980’S)
• The second wave began in the 1960s and continued into the 90s. This wave unfolded in
the context of the anti-war and civil rights movements.
• It had two variants: Equal rights feminists and radical feminists.
• The former wanted equality in the workplace and home
• While the latter was dedicated to a more radical shift in patriarchal society.
• Many second wave feminists felt the influence of the rise of a Marxist intellectual
movement called the New Left. While Marxism cast the working class as an oppressed
social class, second wave feminism also saw women as an oppressed class.
• Historical Background
• Women could attend school and university
• Women did not receive equal pay for the same work
• It was easier to gain a divorce but socially frown upon
• Rape and physically abuse within marriage were illegal but husbands were rarely convicted
• Abortion was still illegal and Women’s body were objectified in advertising
 Key concerns and basic assumptions
• Raising consciousness about sexism and patriarchy gender based violence, domestic
abuse and marital rape
• Women should be equal to men in all respects but more focus was on inequalities in the
workplace
• Legalizing abortion and birth control
• Sexual liberation of women
• Women may have legal rights but they are still treated as inferior.
• Women achieved championed abortion rights, reproductive freedom, and other
women’s health issues.
• The second-wave slogan, “The Personal is Political,” identified women’s cultural
and political inequalities.
• There are two major areas of concern in 2nd wave i.e. employment and sexual
freedom as it is the combination of Marxist and radical feminism
• Most Important incidents
• 1966 Twenty-eight women, among them Betty Friedan, founded the National
Organization for Women (NOW).
• 1969 The American radical organization Redstockings organized.
• 1973 The American National Black Feminist Organization was formed
• 1977 the Canadian Human Rights Act was passed, prohibiting discrimination
based on characteristics including sex and sexual orientation, and requiring "equal
pay for work of equal value.

However, the successes of the second wave did not account for all
women, and daughters of second-wavers realized that this “women’s
rights movement” did not acknowledge non-white, lower class women.
 • Third Wave of Feminism (1990’S-2008)
• Historical context
• Women seem to be more equal to men
• Women are no longer obligated to marry or have children, and
marriage is more equal.
• The legal system is better at protecting women’s right.
• The movement that called as young feminist emphasizing
collective action to effect changes and embrace the diversity
represented by various feminisms.
• They focused on a multicultural emphasis and strived to address
problems stemming from sexism, racism, social class inequality
and homophobia
 • Key concerns:
• The third wave of feminism began in the mid-90 and was informed by post-colonial and
post-modern thinking.
• The third wave was made possible by the greater economic and professional power and
status achieved by women of the second wave, the massive expansion in opportunities for
the dissemination of ideas created by the information revolution of the late 20th century.
• Third-wave feminists sought to question, reclaim, and redefine the ideas, words, and
media that have transmitted ideas about womanhood, gender, beauty, sexuality,
femininity, and masculinity, among other things.
• Intersectionality (the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class,
and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping
and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage)
• The diversity of "women" is recognized and emphasis is placed on identity, gender, race,
nation, social order and sexual preference
• Changes on stereotypes, media portrayals and language used to define women.
• The most important incidents
• 1994: The Gender Equity in Education Act became law in the U.S. It banned
sex-role stereotyping and gender discrimination in the classroom
• 1994: The Violence Against Women Act became law in the U.S
• 1995: The Fourth World Conference on Women was held in China
• 2007: The Gender Equality Duty of the Equality Act 2006 came into effect in the
United Kingdom
• 2008: Norway requires all companies to have at least forty percent women on
their boards
• First wave feminism was all about the vote. Give us the vote. (Women are
weaker physically mentally and are suited for roles of mothers. They don’t have
access to education/ health and does not have any political and legal rights)
• Second wave feminism was a little broader. It was about women being more
than mothers (not that there’s anything wrong with being a stay-at-home mom).
It was about branching out into science and math and jobs that weren’t being a
secretary.
• Third wave feminism continues to branch out. As we go on, we have
become less focused on one issue, which isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Third
wave feminism is generally more inclusive. You hear the term “intersectional
feminism” a lot. That means that it is no longer exclusively aimed at the upper-
middle-class white woman. The hope is that feminism fights for women of all
races and socioeconomic levels. Feminists fight for LGBT+ women. We fight
for homeless women. And there are so many more issues that we stand for.
• First wave= 1900 to 1959 and even before 1900
• Second wave= 1960 to 1980/1990
• Third wave= 1990 to 2000 to 2008
• Fourth wave= 2008 to present

• Liberal Feminism= late 19th to early 20th

• Radical feminism= 1960s
• Marxist= 1960s and 1970s
• Psychoanalytical= 1968,1970
• Men’s feminism= 1970
• Post modern=2000
 • Suffrage movement History
• Women were excluded from voting in ancient Greece and republican Rome, as
well as in the few democracies that had emerged in Europe by the end of the
18th century. When the franchise was widened, as it was in the United
Kingdom in 1832, women continued to be denied all voting rights. The
question of women’s voting rights finally became an issue in the 19th century,
and the struggle was particularly intense in Great Britain and the United States,
but those countries were not the first to grant women the right to vote, at least
not on a national basis.
• By the early years of the 20th century, women had won the right to vote in
national elections in New Zealand (1893), Australia (1902), Finland (1906),
and Norway (1913).
• Czechoslovakia (1919); the United States and Hungary (1920); Great Britain
(1918 and 1928); Burma (Myanmar; 1922); Ecuador (1929); South
Africa (1930);
 • Background and Beginning of Movement
• Poor women working in the cotton and woolen mills in 1846 worked
12 to 16 hours daily. Many lived six to a room and two to a bed in
company boarding houses and were paid $2 a week.
• Women were not permitted to give evidence in court, nor, did they
have the right to speak in public before an audience.
• When a woman married, her husband legally owned all she had
(including her earnings, her clothes and jewelry, and her children).
• Out of outrage at the condition of women and antislavery movement
lead to the suffrage movement.
 • The United States
• From the founding of the United States, women were almost universally excluded from voting. The
movement for woman suffrage started in the early 19th century during the agitation against
slavery.
Before Civil War
• Women such as Lucretia Mott showed a keen interest in the antislavery movement and proved to be
admirable public speakers.
• When Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined the antislavery forces, she and Mott agreed that the rights of
women, as well as those of slaves, needed amends.
• In July 1848 they issued a call for a convention to discuss the issue of women’s rights; this convention
met in Stanton’s hometown, Seneca Falls, New York, on July 19–20, 1848, and issued a declaration
that called for woman suffrage and for the right of women to educational and employment
opportunities.
• It was followed in 1850 by the first national convention of the women’s movement, held
in Worcester, Massachusetts, by Lucy Stone and a group of prominent Eastern suffragists.
• Another convention, held in Syracuse, New York, in 1852, was the occasion of the first joint
venture between Stanton and Susan B. Anthony; together these two figures led the American
suffragist movement for the next 50 years.
 After Civil War
• Several attempts were made in this regard after the American Civil War (1861–
65), but even though the Territory of Wyoming granted women the right to
vote in all elections in 1869, it soon became apparent that an amendment of
the federal Constitution would be a preferable plan.
• Accordingly, the National Woman Suffrage Association was formed in 1869
with the declared object of securing the ballot for women by an amendment to
the Constitution. Anthony and Stanton were the leaders of this organization,
which held a convention every year for 50 years after its founding.
• In 1869 another organization, the American Woman Suffrage Association,
was founded by Lucy Stone with the aim of securing woman suffrage by
obtaining amendments to that effect in the constitutions of the various states.
• In 1890 the two organizations united under the name National American
Woman Suffrage Association and worked together for almost 30 years.
• Group-1 (Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Seneca
Falls,1848) later on Susan B. Anthony joined Stanton and in 1852
convention was held. These two or this group also formed National
Woman Suffrage Association in 1869
• Group-2(Lucy Stone, convention in 1850, 1869, the American
Woman Suffrage Association)
• 1890 these two merged into National American Woman Suffrage
Association
• World War I, and the major role played in it by women in various capacities, broke down
most of the remaining opposition to woman suffrage in the United States. Amendments
to the federal Constitution concerning woman suffrage had been introduced into
Congress in 1878 and 1914, but the 1878 amendment had been overwhelmingly defeated,
and the 1914 amendment had narrowly failed to gain even a simple majority of the votes
in the House of Representatives and the Senate (a two-thirds majority vote in Congress
was needed for the amendment to be sent to the state legislatures for ratification).
• Representative Rankin opens debate on a suffrage amendment in the House. The
amendment passes. The amendment fails to win the required two thirds majority in the
Senate.
Michigan, South Dakota, and Oklahoma adopt woman suffrage.
President Woodrow Wilson states his support for a federal woman suffrage amendment.
President Wilson addresses the Senate about adopting woman suffrage at the end of World
War I 1919
• The Senate finally passes the Nineteenth Amendment and the ratification process begins.
August 26, 1920
 • Opposition - Anti -Suffragists
• Religion was a factor of opposition in the beginning. Some church people said
the Bible placed women under the power and authority of men.
• Moralists felt that women should devote themselves to the spiritual and
family side of life; that children would go uncared for and that the morals of
the nation would crumble if women got the vote.
• Heads of industry felt that if women had the right to vote, they would work
for child labor laws and to improve working conditions in mills and factories.
• Some, men and women, were opposed to change. They liked life the way it
was.
 • The Men Behind the Women
• Henry Blackwell: A Constant Agitator For Women’s Rights, Helped to Publish the
Woman’s Journal With His Wife Lucy Stone and Daughter Alice Stone Blackwell.
• George Catt: An Engineer Whose Support And Understanding Of His Wife Carrie
Chapman Catt Freed Her To Devote Her Time To Leading The National Suffrage Drive.
• John Dewey: Educator
• Max Eastman: Editor
• David Starr Jordan, Stanford University President
• Senator Robert Lafollette
• James Mott: Quaker Businessman, Accompanied His Wife Lucretia Mott To The Seneca
Falls Convention, Chaired the First Woman’s Rights Meeting.
• Parker Pillsbury : Anti-Slavery Editor Who Worked On the Revolution with Susan B.
Anthony And Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
• Stephen Foster, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips: Abolitionists Who Were Early
Supporters
 • Women Who Worked for Woman Suffrage and Equal Rights
• Jane Addams: 1860-1935, Social Reformer, Author, Peace And Suffrage Leader; NAWSA First Vice
President, 1911 -1914.
• Susan Brownell Anthony : 1820-1906, Quaker, Teacher, Temperance And Abolition Organizer, Editor,
Hunger Striker. Carrie Lane Chapman Catt: 1859-1947, Field Organizer With Susan B. Anthony,
Reorganized NAWSA To Be More Political, Fundraiser, Administrator, Opposed Militants, Founded
League Of Women Voters.
• Angelina Emily Grimke: 1805-1879, Woman’s Rights Pioneer, Joined Quakers, Led Anti-Slavery
Meetings.
• Sarah Moore Grimke: 1792 -1873, Lecturer, Writer, Outspoken Advocate Of Abolition, Early
Champion Of Women’s Rights, Defender Of Women’s Right To Speak When It Was Challenged.
• Julia Ward Howe : 1819-1910, Author Of “The Battle Hymn Of The Republic,” Founder And Leader
of AWSA, Editor of the Woman’s Journal, Lecturer.
• ElizabethCady Stanton: 1815 -1902, Brilliant Woman’sRights Leader, Abolitionist, Issued Call
• Lucy Stone : 1818-1893, Spoke For Abolition And Women’s Rights, Organized Own Lectures,
Married Sojourner Truth: 1797-1883, Born A Slave, Preached Against Prostitution 1830, Encouraged
Brotherly Love, Spoke At Women’s Rights Meetings In 1850s
 • Activities
• Conventions And Campaigns
• Lobbying
• Petitioning: Examples: In 1866, Petitions with 10,000 Names Were Sent To
Congress; In 1894, Petitions With 600,000 Signatures Were Sent To The New
York State Constitutional Convention.
• Published Material: Examples: “The Woman’s Journal” By Lucy Stone and
Henry Blackwell; “The Revolution” By Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady
Stanton. Rallies
• Parades: Examples: 1910, First Woman Suffrage Parade; 1912, 2000
Marched In A New York Parade; 1913, 5,000 Marched In Washington D.C. In
Woodrow Wilson’s Inaugural Parade; 1913, 10,000 Marched In New York
• Attempts to Vote: In 1868, In New Jersey, 172 Women Cast Ballots In The
Presidential Election; Their Votes Were Not Counted. In 1872, Susan B.
Anthony And 15 Others Tried To Vote. She Was Arrested And Fined.
 • Reasons of lower health status of women in Pakistan
1. Bias in food distribution leads to malnutrition among female children (Anemia in women).
• Prevalence of anemia among women of reproductive age (% of women ages 15-49) in Pakistan was 52.10 as
of 2016. Its highest value over the past 26 years was 53.60 in 1990, while its lowest value was 48.80 in 2001.
• Definition: Prevalence of anemia among women of reproductive age refers to the combined prevalence of
both non-pregnant with haemoglobin levels below 12 g/dL and pregnant women with haemoglobin levels
below 11 g/dL (WHO).
1. Early marriages of girls
• 21% of girls in Pakistan are married before their 18th birthday and 3% are married before the age of 15.
• According to UNICEF, Pakistan has the sixth highest number of absolute child brides in the world –
1,909,000. The median age of marriage is lowest in rural areas and in Gilgit Baltistan. A 2017 study estimates
that ending child marriage in Pakistan could lead to a $6229 million rise in earnings and productivity.
1. Excessive childbearing
2. Social and familial control over women’s sexuality. In terms of seeking health for herself, a woman
has no control over decision-making, difficulty in accessing health centers and discomfort with
communicating with male physicians.
3. Their economic dependence on men.
4. Lack of education
5. Many health related misconception in the family
8. Restrictions on their mobility determine the access to health services and
acquisition of education.
9. Gender bias within the health service delivery system in terms of lack of
female service providers.
• 10. Four delays of pregnancy related issues
• Delay in decision
• Delay in transportation
• Delay in emergency care
• Delay in recognition of post natal care
• 11. unsafe induced abortion
• 12. violence and mental health
• Stats:
• Maternal Mortality Ratio Index of 2015 ranked Pakistan at 149th position out of 179
countries with 154 deaths per 100,000 births. In 2020 this figure is 140 deaths.
• Public spending on healthcare:
• In 2015, public spending on health Pakistan was US$ 45 per capita which was 41$ in
2014 and as compared to US$ 109 in India, US$ 233 in China, and US$ 677 in
Turkey. (World Bank)
• Policies of the Government:
• In the Constitution of Pakistan, Articles 38(a), 38(d) and 25(1) refer to women's
health. Pakistan has taken certain initiatives in the health sector to redress gender
imbalances.
• The SAP was launched in 1992–1993 to accelerate improvement in the social
indicators. Closing the gender gap is the foremost objective of the SAP.
• 4500 lady health visitors (LHVs) are registered with the Pakistan Nursing Council
backed up by a community based workforce of over 100 000 LHWs. Pakistan has
also recently initiated a programme to deploy 12 000 community midwives in the
rural areas.
• Family Planning Policy (FP)-2020 Objectives:
• Raising Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR) from 35 percent to 55 percent by
2020.
• The federal government will provide the amount for the contraceptive
requirement as US $186 million over the period 2013 to 2020.
• Family planning will be a priority for LHWs, who cover 70 percent of rural
areas.
 • Recommendations to improve the health status of women
1. Strong government commitment and decentralized management
2. A shift from a top-down, physician-dominated system to a client-
centered model
3. Adoption of a reproductive health approach
4. Clear goals and indicators, with monitoring and evaluation systems
5. Participation of nongovernmental organizations, local communities,
and women in planning and implementation
6. Emphasis on multispectral linkages (community, NGO, state)
 Health Care Theory
• The Wittmann-Price Theory of Emancipated Decision-making (EDM) is a
nursing model that considers gender differences in the healthcare environment
• Social norms have the potential of oppressing free choice, an apparent
phenomenon to professional nurses working in women’s health.
• Women often feels obligated to choose the most socially accepted option rather
than the choice that best suits her personally. This leads to dissatisfied with the
decision. EDM originally had five sub-concepts
1. Awareness of social norms
2. Flexible environment
3. Personal knowledge
4. Reflection
5. Empowerment
 Strategies by WHO
1. Health policy and system development
2. Communicable disease control
3. Improving the health of women and children
4. Noncommunicable diseases and mental health
5. Addressing the social determinants of health
6. Emergency preparedness and response and disaster risk management
7. Partnerships, resource mobilization and coordination
 • Status of Women in Education
• Women's education in Pakistan is a fundamental right of
every female citizen, according to Article 37 of the
Constitution of Pakistan 1973.
• Quaid-e-Azam Said to “The All Pakistan Educational
Conference” at Karachi on 27th November 1947
“Education does not merely mean academic education
and even that of a very poor type. What we have to do is
to mobilize our people and build up a character of our
future generation.”
• According to UNDP report, Pakistan ranked 154 in 189
countries in terms of Gender-related Development Index
(GDI).
• Pakistan is among those countries where literacy rate is very
low. Especially, female literacy rate is 45% against
male literacy rate that is 69%. The education in Pakistan
shows a bleak picture especially in Balochistan where
education is grim. 70% girls are dropped out from schools in
Balochistan. The overall female literacy rate is 25% which is
not satisfying. More than 40% girls never go to schools. In
2013, 64% rural areas females’ population never went to
school in Balochistan.
• 56% of male students—compared to 44% of their female
counterparts—are attending school in Pakistan
• 87% in Islamabad. In more remote areas, like the rural
Balochistani district of Kohlu, just 20% of residents can read
and write.
 • Reasons of lower literacy or education of women
• Gender division of Labor:
• Gender division of labour forces women to primarily specialize in unpaid care work
as mothers and wives at home, whereas men perform paid work, and come out as
breadwinners. This has led to a low level of resource investment in girls' education
not only by their families but also by the state
• Militancy problem:
• Destruction of schools and killings have harmed women's education in Pakistan. In
September 2012 the Pakistani newspaper Dawn reported that 710 schools have been
destroyed or damaged by militants in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and 401 schools have
been destroyed or damaged in Swat. Militant forces have also targeted girls who go to
school.
• Bad condition of School Facilities:
• Many schools are in need of better facilities to improve the teaching environment. For
instance, 9% of primary schools do not have a blackboard, 24% do not have
textbooks available for pupils, and 46% do not have desks for their students. 48%
schools in Pakistan do not have functional toilets. Only 52% of all government
schools in the country have all four facilities – toilets, boundary walls, running
electricity and water.
• Rural and Urban trends towards education:
• In year 2006, the literacy rate in urban areas was recorded as 58.3% while
in rural areas it was 28.3%, and only 12% among rural women. Female
enrollment was recorded highest at the primary level, but it progressively
decreases at the secondary, college and tertiary levels.
• Comparison with boys:
• According to the 2011 Human Development Report of the United Nations
Development Program, approximately twice as many males as females
receive a secondary education in Pakistan. In 2012, girls completed an
average of 5.5 years of schooling compared with an overall average of 6.3
years. 48% of the poorest girls aged 5-16 are enrolled in school, compared
to 68% of the poorest boys the same age.
• Poverty
• Early marriages
• School based violence or threat of violence
• Discriminatory gender norms
 • Within school system
• Lack of investment
• High cost of education
• Poor quality of education
• No enforcement of compulsion of education
• Corruption
• Transport- physical proximity of the schools
• Lack of hygiene facilities- all four facilities mentioned
before
• Outside the school system
• Poverty
• Social norms
• Insecurity and armed forces
• What is the Government doing?
• The Pakistan Government has endorsed the new Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 4 on Education to ensure all girls and
boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and
secondary education by 2030. However, the education budget
was short of $565 million USD in order to be able to provide 12
years of education for all children in Pakistan in 2015. Public
expenditures on education amount to only 2.3% (2019-20) of
the GDP of the country.
• Pakistan’s Right to Education Act guarantees every child age
five to 16 the right to free and compulsory education. But the
Act does not cover the final two years of secondary education
girls need to thrive -- and build a better future for their families,
communities and country.
 Recommendations to improve the situation
• Free Education: As stated in article 25-A, every citizen of
Pakistan should be given free education.
• Focus on the Parents: Why do I say this? because often and
especially when it comes to girls, parents are the biggest obstacle
to achieving an education. So, what do we do? we mobilize
parents.
• Budget allocation
• Removing cultural and religious misconceptions
• Increasing access to the educational institution
• Improving infrastructure
• More incentives
• Monitoring and evaluation
• Non formal education/ an alternate
 • Women and Employment
• The percentage of women in the labour force remains a low 26%
for women ages 15-64 years, equivalent to approximately 14.4
million women. Women usually work on the farm of the household,
practice subsistence agriculture, or otherwise work within the
household economic unit. Women in Pakistan tend to be less
“visible” with respect to their work outside the home and their
contributions to household income, as well as their participation in
social and political life.
• Though women constitute 49% of Pakistan’s population, they
constitute only 24-26%% of the labour force. The ILO data
indicates that Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) for men
(82.5%) is more than three times higher than women (24.8%). The
Employment-to-Population Ratio (EPR) is 20% for female workers
and 64% for male workers which shows that underutilization rate
for women workers is 80% (working age population).
• Women’s share in wage employment is only 15% as they are engaged
mostly as contributing family workers (54%), eventually working without
pay. Only 37% of women workers are paid wages regularly. Others are
engaged as part time or piece-rate workers. Of the regularly paid women
workers, 55% received less than the applicable minimum wage (Rs12,000)
in 2014-15.
• The Labour Force Survey 2014-15, the most recent available, indicates that
women are concentrated in agriculture (72%), manufacturing (14%) and
community and personal services (11%). Less than 2% of the female labour
force is registered with the provincial social security institutions thus leaving
them without any social protection.
• An IMF study estimates that Pakistani GDP can increase by nearly one-third
if women labour force participation rates match male participation rates. A
recent ILO study indicates that if Pakistan merely reduces the gender gap in
female participation by 25%, its GDP can increase by 9%, an increase of
$139 billion. It is much more than the US aid in the last 16 years ($33
billion) and CPEC loans and investment (of more than $60 billion).
 • Issues faced by women:
• Research on women doing paid work in Pakistan reveals
that they work out of economic need.
• Limited employment options,
• Unequal wages,
• Bad work conditions
• Sexual harassment
• Double burden of labour due to unremitting domestic
responsibilities at home i.e. Finding balance between
work and personal life
• Husband's insecurities (Loug kya kahain gai?)
• Negative attitudes of male co-workers
 • What is the Government Doing?
• Pakistan is the signatory to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, as well as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) that have commitments on improving women’s.
• The government has launched the Youth Business Loan Scheme, with 50 percent of loans
reserved for female.
• The Punjab government has announced special budget allocations for the women’s
empowerment package in the provincial budget.
• Under the Sindh Government’s Landless Haris Project, of the total beneficiaries,
• 70.6 percent of land titles were given to women farmers.
• The government has established a 10 percent quota for women’s employment in civil service,
while the Punjab Government (under the Punjab Fair Representation of Women Act 2014)
• Women’s Ombudsperson offices have been established at the federal and provincial level to
ensure implementation of the protection against harassment.
• An amount of Rs 2.7 billion has been proposed for women empowerment and their socio-
economic development for the 11 Year Plan.
• The government has also started the national women transfer scheme and Benazir Income
Support Programme (BISP) which facilitates women providing a monthly cash transfer to the
woman head of the household.
 • What else can be done?
• Enforce Article 25A, that mandates provision of free school education for ages
• 5-16 years across Pakistan by ensuring that infrastructure (schools, teachers, and
books) is available and duty bearers are held responsible for non-compliance.
• Inclusive education for all should be promoted and should include skills based
learning, and vocational training.
• The government should implement the 10% quota for women in government service
without further delay, and include an increase in number of women in the police force
(only 1%) and allied law enforcement and female judges at all levels.
• A study to identify the factors that lead to low recruitment of women in public service
should be undertaken.
• Legislation to recognize home based workers and bring them within the sphere of
labour laws and social security. (Sialkot)
• Incentives should be offered that reward businesses which employ a certain
percentage women, have women in senior decision making management positions, or
are owned by women.
• The government should also support the First Women’s Bank, a public sector
institution created for helping women’s economic activities, to fulfill its mandate.
 • Women and Law
• Since independence Pakistan has formulated Laws to protect
women and to give them security. At time of foundation, there was
little legal distinction between the rights that women and men
enjoyed
• The Constitution of Pakistan thus says:
• There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex along; Steps
shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all spheres
of national life; the state shall protect the marriage, the family, the
mother and the child. At the provincial level also, the 18th
amendment to the Constitution (2010) granted greater autonomy
to the provinces in matters related to the advancement of women
along with other issues. But, like other social sectors of Pakistan,
the perennial problem of policy implementation has also plagued
this sector.
• From 2012 to 2017, the Government of Punjab introduced and
implemented several significant measures to counter gender-based
discrimination, violence against women, and economic and social
empowerment of women. Positive steps have also been taken to
encourage and promote women’s participation in the political
process and the workforce, while education has remained a key
priority for the Government of Punjab.
National level laws
• The Acid Control and Acid Crime Prevention Act, 2011
• Prevention of Anti-Women Practices Act, 2011
• Criminal Law (Amendment) (Offense of Rape) Act 2016
• Criminal Law (Amendment) (Offences in the name or pretext of
Honour) Act, 2016
• Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016
• Hindu Marriage Act, 2017
 Recent Policy Initiatives For Women Empowerment in Punjab
• Punjab Women Empowerment Package 2012 (PWEP)
• Punjab Women Empowerment Initiatives 2014 (PWEI)
• Punjab Women Empowerment Package 2016 (PWEP)
• Punjab Women Development Policy, 2018
Laws for the Protection of Women in Punjab
• Punjab Women Protection Authority Act, 2017
• Punjab Protection of Women against Violence Act, 2016
• Punjab Muslim Family Laws (Amendment) Act, 2015
• Punjab Family Courts (Amendment) Act, 2015
• Punjab Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 2015
• Punjab Partition of Immovable Property (Amendment) Act, 2015
• The Punjab Land Revenue (Amendment) Act 2015
• Punjab Fair Representation of Women Act, 2014
• The Punjab Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace
(Amendment) Act, 2012
• At official level, the following Laws have been adopted in Pakistan to safeguard women:
• Muslim family Laws Ordinance (MFLO) of 1961.
• Dowry and Bridal Gifts Restriction Act, 1976.
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2004.
• Protection of Women Act (2006)20, revised the Hudood Ordinance.
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2010 (on sexual harassment).
• Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace, 2010.
• Prevention of Anti-Women Practices (Criminal Law Amendment) Act, 2011.21
• Criminal Law Act (Second Amendment, 2011), referred as Acid Control and Acid Crime
Prevention Act.
• Criminal Law Act (Third Amendment, 2011), referred to as Prevention of Anti-Women
Practices.
• The Women in Distress and Detention Fund (Amendment) Act, 2011
• Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection), Act 2012
• National Commission on the Status of Women Act, 2012
• Enforcement of Women Ownership Rights Act 2012.
• The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Elimination of Custom of Ghag Act 2013.
 Reasons of lower participation of
women’s in Law
• Patriarchy
• Lower political participation
• Social Stigma
• Fewer lawyers and judges
Gender and Governance
Defining Governance
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb
“gubernare,” or more originally from the Greek word
“kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its
etymology, governance refers to the manner of steering or
governing, or of directing and controlling, a group of people or
a state.
Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is
often defined as the art of governance. Nevertheless, they are
distinct from each other in the sense that politics is broader
than governance. Governance is commonly defined as the
exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-
being of their country’s citizens or subjects.
 • Female political participation statistics
• With only 19.3% female representation in the House of
Representatives and 23% in the Senate, the United States
currently ranks 103rd in the world in terms of women’s representation
in national legislatures.
• Only 24.3 per cent of all national parliamentarians were women as of
February 2019, a slow increase from 11.3 per cent in 1995
(archive.ipu.org).
• As of June 2019, 11 women are serving as Head of State and 12 are
serving as Head of Government.
• Rwanda has the highest number of women parliamentarians
worldwide, where, women have won 61.3 per cent of seats in the lower
house .
• Globally, there are 27 States in which women account for less than 10
per cent of parliamentarians in single or lower houses, as of February
2019
• https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-p
articipation/facts-and-figures
• Gender Issues in Women as Voters
1. Mostly women vote by the choice of the male relatives, they are expected to
follow the opinion of their male relatives when it comes to their right to
decide about their vote
2. Lack of access of polling stations and lack of transportation poses a challenge
to women's participation in electoral processes(Women's restricted mobility).
3. Politics is considered men's job, women are expected to fulfill their
household gender roles.
4. Women's participation as voter or active political campaigner is considered
un-islamic in different spheres of District Mardan and Swabi
5. (CNIC) Act of National Identity Card restricts women from taking part in
political processes. CNIC for women is considered unimportant in rural areas.
6. Security issues hamper females from voting
7. Untrained polling staff and a lack of professionalism
8. The environment of political parties and male domination within in the
political parties is a huge challenge for women's participation in the political
processes.
 • Gender Issues in Women as Candidates
1. Women are not given due credit in the form of nominations from the respective
political parties. While a total of 3.5% of women candidates were nominated by the
political parties, 96.5% of the candidates were men. The low level of representation of
women in the election indicates low confidence on the part of political parties towards
them.
2. Women have been considered as a passive vote bank, and political parties tend to use
them mostly for representative functions at public gatherings, meetings, and campaigns.
3. There is a tokenism (Symbolic) in including women's wings and women workers, but
no real and actual changes have been made to state that political parties actively support
women.
4. Structural discrimination in party organizations has influenced women’s
representation when it comes to the contestation of elections The environment of
political parties and male domination
5. It is considered inappropriate for women to take part in the public political campaigns (gatherings).
6. Women's participation as voter or active political campaigner is considered un-Islamic.
7. Dynastic politics.
8. Financial constraints as women are not funded.
• Gender Issues in Women as Representatives
1. They are not respected e.g. Shiri mazari and other incidents
2. Sexual Harassment e.g. Talal and IK incidents
3. Character assassination- Fatima Jinaha
4. Not respected as they have reserved seats
5. In many cases, their funds are taken away from them and used by
other party members, leaving them unable to work in their
districts or on issues they wish to focus on.
6. Without a sizable majority in the legislative bodies, they are
bound to constantly negotiate with their male colleagues and
senior party members for their support. It is akin to campaigning,
when these women have to go 'door to door' to ask for support.
7. Thought as un-Islamic
8. Lower education level
9. Less legal knowledge
 Reasons of lower political participation of the women
Ideological hurdles
• Patriarchy and male dominance
• Gender roles
• Lack of social support in family
• Feudal mindset and men’s job
• Illiteracy and lack of education
• Nepotism
• Insecurity and lawlessness
Economic hurdles
• Male financial control
• Fund’s control by men
• Distribution of inheritance
 Political hurdles
• Absence of Political Socialization
• Family Politics
• Campaign Issues
• Limited Quota
• Absence of merit
• Absence of Facilities
• Lack of Voter Registration
• http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/
13%20Arfan%20Latif_30_2.pdf
 • Feminist movement in Pakistan Back and History
• Feminism in Pakistan is not a new concept as Islam has provided
rights to the women.
• Fatima Jinnah and Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali Khan were key
members of feminist movement before and after the independence
of Pakistan.
• All Pakistan Women’s Association (APWA) in 1949
• Contesting of presidential election by Fatima Jinnah was an
important event which showed that a lot more needs to be done.
• Similarly, the Women’s Action Forum (WAF) was established in
September 1981
• However, the real wave of feminist struggle arose in 1980 as a
reaction to General Zia-ul-Haq’s controversial implementation of
the Hudood Ordinance. WAF publically opposed the unjust
rulings passed under the bill, raising awareness.
• Unsurprisingly, feminism gained most traction during Benazir
Bhutto’s two terms as Prime Minister (1988-1990 and 1993-1996),
during which time NGOs and focus groups were given considerable
power and urge the government to make amends.
• Unfortunately, the momentum decreased once Nawaz Sharif took
office in 1997 and women found themselves losing ground. The
Council of Islamic Ideology recommended making burqa
mandatory and honor killings also rose to new highs.
• Some lost ground was reclaimed when General Pervez Musharraf
rallied for women’s rights and encouraged their involvement in
media, sports and other socio-political activities. Criminal Law
Amendment Act (2004), the Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill, the
Criminal Acid Act, Protection of Women Act, Status of Women Bill.
• When we observe the laws related to women they are mostly during
the period of 2000 onwards.
 • Feminism brands
A modern, Islamic feminism and a secular feminism.
• Modern Islamic feminists such as Riffat Hassan, Amina Wadud
and Asma Barlas seek to further women’s rights by redefining
Islamic views and focusing on the female-centric laws Islam
offers. This form of feminism appeals largely to the lower,
middle and upper-middle strata of society which looks to
religion for answers.
• Secular feminists like Shahnaz Rouse and Fouzia Saeed
consider feminism as an extension of basic human rights,
regardless of any religious connotations. Once again, these
women are labelled as characters of western culture by those
who misinterpret Islamic teachings to suit feed their own,
chauvinistic principles.
Latest trends and debate on that
• THE ALL PAKISTAN WOMEN ASSOCIATION (APWA), a non-profit and non
political welfare organization was established in Feb 1949 by Begum Ra’ana Liaquat
Ali Khan. She pioneered the first women’s movement in Pakistan. APWA is the
country’s oldest N.G.O and the largest organization, of voluntary women workers.
• APWA developed from emergency relief work during the refugee crises at the
partition of India and Pakistan.
• APWA has always raised social and economic issues, gender injustices and
discrimination, inadequate participation of women in national and decision making
position.
• APWA emerged as an organization committed to the furtherance of the general
economic welfare of the women and children of Pakistan and set up multi project
centers, throughout Pakistan with schools, mother and child health centers, maternity
homes, family planning services, orphanage, craft centers, industrial homes, income
generation project in urban and rural areas in all the Provinces of Pakistan.
• APWA also established public private partnership under the official umbrella of the
government of Pakistan which has consultative status and also internationally. It also
works closely with the U.N and other international affiliates. They are all related to
education, health and womens empowerment which is APWA’s core philosophy.
 • Women’s Action Forum
• A women's rights organization and has a presence in several cities in Pakistan. It
is a non-partisan, non-hierarchical and non-funded organization. It is supportive
of all aspects of women's rights and related issues, irrespective of political
affiliations, belief system, or ethnicity. The following year, the Lahore and then
the Islamabad Chapters were formed. Some years later, the Peshawar chapter
came into being. And in May 2008, a Chapter of WAF started in Hyderabad, in
the Province of Sindh. WAF does active lobbying, advocacy on behalf of women
in Pakistan. It stages demonstrations and public-awareness campaigns. It is
committed to a just and peaceful society based on democracy. The issues picked
up by WAF have included challenging discriminatory legislation against women,
the invisibility of women in government plans and policies, the exclusion of
women from media, sports and cultural activities, dress codes for women,
violence against women and the seclusion of women. WAF's activism has led to
the birth of many women's rights groups and resource centres thereby increasing
its outreach. WAF considers all issues as "women's issues" and has taken
positions on national and global developments. It allies itself with democratic
and progressive forces in the country as well as linking its struggle with that of
minorities and other oppressed peoples.
 Other Famous Organizations:
• Aurat foundation (AF) was founded in 1986. it works to
provide information and undertake advocacy for women
issues and good governance.
• The human rights commission of Pakistan (HRCP) was
established in 1987. it has established a leading role in the
struggle for the provision of human rights for all and
democratic development in the country.
• The AGHS legal and cell was established in 1980 and focuses
on the rights of women, children and minorities.
• National commission on the status of women NCSW) was
established in 2000. The NCSW examines policies, programs
and measures taken by the state for women development and
gender equality.
 Famous Activists
• Raána Liaqat Ali Khan, established APWA and Pakistan women national guard
(PWNG).
• Jahan Ara Shah Nawaz and Shaista Ikram Ullah ware members of the first
legislative assembly of Pakistan. Their first led to the Muslim Personal Law
(1948), charter of women rights (1956) and the Muslim family law Ordinance
(1961).
• The following women contributed to the feminist movement in the Urdu
Literature.
– Ishrat Afreen
– Ada Jafri
– Hajra Masroor
– Fehmida Riaz
– Parveen Shakir
– Begum Akhtar Riaz Uddin
• Zaib-un-Nisa, a writer and journalist is considered as the pioneer of feminism in
Pakistan. She is served as the face of independence, professional Pakistani
women and defined the role of women in the term of contribution towards
society.
• Suffrage trend and issues in Pakistan
• Pre-partition struggle of Indian Muslims that won
them an independent country would have remained
incomplete and meaningless had women not
contributed their share of hard-work and sacrifice.
• The 1965 presidential elections proved one point – a
woman has to do way more than a man to establish her
worth in his world and even then she will be blamed
for harassment she faces. Fatima Jinnah also had to
bear character assassination at the hands of a dictator
along with other setbacks, including poor finances and
an unfair and unequal election campaign, which
collectively deprived us of her leadership.
• Women in Pakistan were granted voting rights in 1947 – later
reaffirmed in 1956 – with provision of reserved seats in the Parliament.
However, they face objectification and are viewed as ineffectual.
• Pakistan’s National Assembly has 60 seats reserved for women in
addition to the 272 general seats for which direct elections are held.
The reserved seats are distributed on the basis of party positions in the
polls. (272+60+10=342).
• Due to a provision in the Elections Act 2017 which demands that
political parties allocate at least five percent tickets to women in the
general seats of both the national and provincial assemblies, more
women contested general seats in 2018 than in any election in the past.
• The registration of female voters for the 2018 elections increased by 24
percent compared to the 2013 elections; in 2013 over 95 percent of
registered women did not even vote in at least 17 National Assembly
constituencies
• In Election act 2017, the ECP introduced a rule where 10 percent of women
had to vote in a constituency for the vote to be valid. In the run up to the
2018 general election, the ECP also started a zealous registration drive. As a
result, an extra three million women voted. only 3 constituencies had a
female turn-out below 10%, compared to 2013 where it was below 5% in 17
constituencies. 22 constituencies had a higher women turn out than male
turnout.
• Although a constitutional right, millions of women have been banned from
voting through agreements among political parties, local elders, and
powerful figures, citing customs and traditions as an excuse. Often, women’s
lifestyles, especially in rural areas, are completely detached from politics. So
even if they may not be prevented from voting by their male relatives, they
are raised to not pay attention to elections. And then of course there are
hardliners who state that female participation in elections
is haram (forbidden). This makes it hard for women to leave their homes,
especially those who are not from liberal or urban backgrounds. In villages
such as Dhaular, Balwal, Mogla and Dhoke Dhall not a single woman voted
in the 17 polling stations set up in these villages during the 2013 election.
 • Impact of political quota in Pakistan
• Constitution of 1956
• 10 reserved
• Constitution of 1962
• 6 seats for women each wings. Female suffrage on the basis of women
territorial constituencies was abolished, and the women were to be elected
by the assemblies through indirect elections
• LFO of Yahya Khan13 reserved seats for women (6 from West Pakistan
and 7 from East Pakistan), The elections under LFO were held on 7
December 1970 but the Assembly thus selected could not convene its
session due to the cession of East Pakistan.
• Constitution of 1973
• 10 seats were reserved for women in the National Assembly while no seat
in the Upper House or Senate. Under the Revival of Constitution Order
(P.O.14 of 1985) reserved seats for women were increased from 10 to 20
• Musharaf Era 33% in local bodies
• Social impacts
• Social played role beyond home or reproductive agent
• women accomplished modernity
• Political Impacts
1. Opened door of women participation in politics
2. Role in decision making
3. Propagation of women rights
4. Change in political manifesto i.e. women issues given
priority in manifesto
5. Change in mindset about women
6. Legitimization of women organizations
7. Impact at personal life Confidence building
 The United Nations has organized four major conferences on women (
https://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/intergovernmental-support/world-conferences-on
-women
)
• 1st, 1975: The World Conference of the International Women's Year was held in Mexico City
on 19 June-2 July 1975.
• Discrimination against women
• Ensuring full gender equality
• Participation of women in development
• Social and economic integration for women
• Increased contribution of women in global peace
• The attention of global community to be drawn to develop the future oriented goals, effective strategies and
plans of action for advancement of women
• 2nd, 1980: The World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality,
Development and Peace was held in Copenhagen on 14-30 July 1980.
– Involvement of men in improving women’s role in society
– Political participation and rights for women
– Addressing women’s need in planning
– Women in decision making
– Extending the facility and services related to women at national level
– Day care services
– Credit services
– Provision of financial services of women
– Education and awareness among women
• 3rd, 1985: The World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements
of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and
Peace was held on 15-26 June 1985 in Nairobi.
– Employment
– Health
– Education and social services
– Industry and science
– Communication and environment
• 4th, 1995: The World Conference on Women: Action for Equality,
Development and Peace was held in Beijing on 4-15 Sept. 1995.
• 12 Ares of Platform For Action
1- Women And Poverty. 2- Education And Training Of Women. 3- Women
And Health. 4- Violence Against Women. 5- Women And Arm Conflict. 6-
Women And The Economy. 7- Women And The Power And Decision
Making 8- Women And The Mechanism For Advancement. 9- Women And
The Rights For Human. 10- Women And The Media. 11- Women And The
Environment. 12- Women And The Girl Child
• Since the Beijing conference in 1995, the General Assembly and
the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) have held
several sessions to review the implementation of the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action.
• 2000: The Five-year Review of the implementation of the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action (Beijing+5) held in the
General Assembly, 5 - 9 June 2000. The outcome document
entitled “Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace
in the Twenty-first Century” was issued in document A/55/341.
• 2005 : The Ten-year Review and Appraisal of the implementation
of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the
outcome of the twenty-third special session of the General
Assembly (2000) was held during the 49th session of the
CSW from 28 February to 11 March 2005. The outcome report is
issued in document: E/CN.6/2005/11.
• 2010: The 15-year Review of the implementation of the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action (1995) and the outcomes of
the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly (2000)
was held from 1-12 March 2010, during the 54th session of the
CSW. The outcome document was issued in E/2010/27.
• 2015: The 59th session of the Commission on the Status of
Women (CSW59), which took place at in New York from 9 to
20 March 2015, marked the Beijing+20. The Political
Declaration adopted on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of
the Fourth World Conference on Women is issued in E/2015/2
• 2020: The 25-year review and appraisal of the Beijing Platform
for Action will take place during the Commission’s 64th session
to be held in March 2020 (
https://www.unwomen.org/en/csw/csw64-2020).
 • Masculinities and Femininity
• "Femininities" and "masculinities" describe gender identities. They
describe socio-cultural categories in everyday language; and are
shaped by socio-cultural processes.
• In everyday language, femininities and masculinities do not fit into
sex. In any one culture, certain behaviors or practices may be widely
recognized as “feminine” or “masculine,” irrespective of who adopts.
• Femininities and masculinities are plural—there are many forms of
femininity and many forms of masculinity.
• Any one person—woman or man—engages in many forms of
femininity and masculinity, which she or he adopts (consciously or
unconsciously) depending on context, the expectations of others, the
life stage, and so forth.
• Femininities and masculinities are learned. Messages about “feminine”
and “masculine” behaviors are embedded in advertising, media, news,
educational materials, and so forth. These messages are present in a
range of environments, from the home to the workplace to public
 Masculine traits Feminine traits

Present: Being in the moment Free: Open and unrestricted

Grounded: In touch with reality Spontaneous: reacts from the emotions

Contained: Provide the needs of others Intuitive: Act on innate traits

Potent: Being strong Skeptical: Questioning other

Independent Accepting: accept the circumstances

Non emotional Nurturing: caring

Aggressive…..sexually aggressive Cruel

Tough/ hard and strong/ active Passive

Grounded: in touch with reality Analytical

 Queer Theory (1980)
• Michel Foucault writes in "The History of Sexuality", critiquing the idea of
the "repressive hypothesis
• Sex was a private matter limited within a marriage between a husband and
wife, and discourses of sex have been otherwise prohibited and repressed.
• As a result of this repression, people sought outlets to release sexual feelings,
building their own discourses of sex and thus liberating themselves from the
confines of a sexually repressive society.
• Historical Context
• Public policies in the mid 1980’s were selectively blind to the plight of gay
men who had contracted AIDS. It is estimated that 20,000 men died by 1987.
This led to setting up of in-formal and non-governmental health centers by
civilians. Like the women of the second wave, these gay individuals were
enraged by the casual attitude shown by the government.
• In such an atmosphere the idea of fluidity of gender was created. It led to the
idea that gay individuals were no different than others and that their sexuality
did not mean something was wrong with them. It was rather the heterosexual
men and women who were acting according to social constructs.
 • What is Queer Theory
• Queer” is often used as an umbrella term by and for
persons who identify as gay, lesbian, and bisexual, intersex,
and/or transgender and as an alternative to LGBTI labels
• In 1991, Teresa de Lauretis used the words “queer theory”
to describe a way of thinking that did not use
heterosexuality or binary gender (male & female)
constructs as its starting point, but instead argued for a
more fluid concept of identity. The works of Michel
Foucault and Judith Butler are often considered the
founding texts of queer theory.
• Thus, queer theory is a framework of ideas that suggests
identities are not stable or fixed.
 • Key Assumptions of Queer Theory
• Identity is Fluid. There is nothing fix in identity
hence it can be changed.
• It denies that heterosexuality is normal or ‘natural’.
• Multiple Genders
• Gender is about practice or performativity
• Gender is based on biological characteristics but is
determined by Social roles and related aspects
• Rights to all genders
• Queer theory proposes that we should deliberately
challenge all notions of fixed identity.
 • Judith Butler’s Gender performativity theory.
• Judith Butler’s book Gender Trouble (1990) made a profound
contribution to the field. She argued that gender is socially
constructed. So male and female behaviors are constructed
and reinforced by media and culture. Gender performativity
theory also suggests that sexuality is not assigned to one
orientation or preference. Sexual identity is fluid, a person can
be heterosexual at one time and bisexual at another.
• Key Aspects of Butler’s theory:
• Our identity is not fixed (male, female, heterosexual)
• Our identity is made up of a pile of (social and cultural) things
which we have previously expressed, or which have been said
about us. IT is made of certain expectations from us.
• There is not really an ‘inner self’.
• Gender, like other aspects of identity, is a performance. If
you perform the requirements of one gender than you are
assigned that gender
• People can therefore change if they perform the
characteristics of another gender. (If a heterosexual female
starts performing activities and adopts characteristics of a
heterosexual male then her identity changes.)
• The binary divide between masculinity and femininity is a
social construct built on the binary divide between men
and women – which is also a social construction.
• We should challenge the traditional views of masculinity,
femininity and sexuality.
 • What is Social Constructionism
Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge in sociology
and communication that examines the development of jointly-
constructed understandings of the world.
It forms the basis for shared reality i.e. social reality is
always shared.
According to constructionism, the world around us is socially
constructed rather than being objective (Real) or subjective
(our psychological (cognitive) processes and structures at
individual level).
The focus of constructionism is on the social product or shared
reality while focus of constructivism is on individual reality.
Example of Money (Objective-Subjective and Social
Construction)
 Social Construction of Gender
• Social construction of gender means that while a legitimate biological
basis for gender may exist, some of perceptions of gender may be
socially constructed. This includes aspects and processes involved in
the construction of gender.
1. Gender Identity
2. Gender Roles (Expectations)
3. Gender Accountability
4. Gender and Division of labor
5. Gender and Language
6. Gender as accomplishment
7. Sexual Orientation
8. Gender Socialization
9. Role of Social institutions (media- schooling)
10.Belief system
 • Gender Identity
• A person's internal sense of being male, female, some combination of
male and female, or neither male or female.
• Gender identity is not a stable, fixed trait - rather, it is socially
constructed and may vary over time for an individual. Simone de
Beauvoir’s quote, "one is not born a woman, but becomes one".
The notion of womanhood or femininity is accomplished through an
active process of creating gender identity through interacting with
others in a particular social context.
• Gender Roles
• Gender roles” are the parts males and females are expected to play in
social settings. The expectation that women will perform more
housework and childcare and be paid less at work than men is a
social construction in the sense that we find constant social
replications of these gender-based expectations. At one time a person
is masculine while at others he behaves like feminine.
 • Gender and Division of labor
• Gender is not pure categories; while they are different physiologically.
They are “transformed by social practices and move on generation to
generation to fit into either kind of the gender i.e. male or female.
• Gender Accountability
• We hold ourselves and each other accountable for our presentations of
gender (how we ‘measure up’). We are aware that others may evaluate
and characterize our behavior
• Gender is a category that people evaluate and is Omnirelevant to
social life. Gender as Omnirelevant means that we can always be
judged by what we do as a man or as a woman. This is the basis for
the reasoning that people are always performing gender and that
gender is always relevant in social situations.
• Accountability can apply to behaviors that do conform to cultural
conceptions as well as to the gender.
 • Gender and Language
• Language “creates the world and frames the truths that can be told,”
therefore language can be analyzed to uncover how categories are
socially constructed. West and Zimmerman stated that when men
and women interact, they reinforce essential gender differences and
therefore maintain a power relationship. Men dictate discussion
and how things must happen. In other words, what is considered
important in the conversation is constructed by men who direct
conversations and the women who accept this reality.
• Language is either gender sensitive or gender neutral. Mankind,
nurse etc.
• Language is used to reinforce gender identity and gender division
of labor.
• Discriminatory
• Increase sexism
 • Gender as Accomplishment
Gender is not simply what one is, but what one does - it is
actively produced within social interactions. Gender is an
accomplishment i.e. when a person abide by or fulfills gender
roles he or she feels accomplished. When a person gets most of
the roles done attached to the masculinity he will feel that he
has accomplished.
• Sexual Orientation
The perception of sexuality by others is an extension of others'
perceptions of one's gender. Heterosexuality is assumed for
those individuals who appear to act appropriately masculine or
appropriately feminine. If one wants to be perceived as a
lesbian, one must first be perceived as a woman; if one wants to
be seen as a gay man, one has to be seen as a man
 Gender Socialization
Socialization is a life long learning process and
gender roles, gender identities are reinforced by the
socialization.
Role of Social Institutions (Media- Schooling)
Media shapes the shared reality and with reference to
gender it is also applicable.
Similarly, role of schooling is also very important.
Belief system
Our belief system shapes the reality for us. Similarly,
construction of gender identity, roles and
expectations are also based on our belief system.
 Theories of Social Construction of Gender
There are multiple theories that explain how gender is
socially constructed and not a natural phenomenon, as u
know theory is a set of assumptions hence each theory
is based on few inter-related assumptions. The focus of
all the theories is on
• Gender Roles and division of labor.
• Expectations from others
• How these roles are formulated by patriarchy and
culture.
• How these roles are performed (doing gender) and
reinforced by socialization and psychological process.
Gender Role Theory (1-John Money, 2- Gilbert Herdt)
• All those things a person says or does, to disclose himself or
herself as having the statue of a boy or girl (John Money).
• Gender roles arose from correspondent inference, meaning
that gender roles was extended to general gender division of
labor (Gilbert Herdt).
• Gender roles are socially constructed on the basis of hierarchy
with an advantaged male position (Andrew Cherlin).
Functionalist Approach (Talcott Parsons)
Division of labor with reference to the gender are enacted to
maximize the effectiveness and social efficiency. Performance
of a particular type of role time and again enhances the social
efficiency.
 Feminine and Masculine Culture (Geert Hofsted’s)
Femininity and masculinity refers to gender roles in both
traditional and modern societies and most of the segment of
the society adopts those traits. Femininity and masculinity
cultures can overlap with one another. For example in
Pakistan rural societies are mostly masculine and urban
referred to as feminine.
• In femininity culture both male and female are supposed to
be modest, tender and concerned with quality of life.
• In Masculinity culture both are supposed to be assertive,
tough and focused.
Gender Performativity (Butler)
Gender is not fixed rather it is fluid and gender depends on
the role performance
 Doing Gender (Zimmerman)
Gender is understood as created and maintained while actors
assume and play out roles. Hence, many roles are gendered i.e. a
particular gender performs particular roles.
Psycho-Social Development (Erikson)
• 1 Trust vs. Mistrust First year of life Basic needs and attachment
• 2 Autonomy vs. Shame 1-3 years Gaining independence
• 3 Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6 years Act in socially responsible way
• 4 Industry vs. inferiority 6-12 years Competing with peer
• 5 Identity vs. Role confusion Adolescence Determining identity
• 6 Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Intimate relationships
• 7 Generativist vs. self- absorption Middle adulthood Being
productive
• 8 Integrity vs. despair Old age Evaluating one’s life
 • Is sex socially determined/ Nature vs/ Culture Debate
• Nature
• It can be said that to an extent sex is also socially constructed. It is true
that the distinctions between the sexes depend on 6 anatomical features,
however let’s look at all these in detail.
1. Chromosome make-up: XY (M) OR XX (F)
2. External genitals: Penis(M) OR Vagina (F) (Some people are born with
ambiguous genitalia and they are classified as intersex (intersex people
are individuals born with any of several variations in sex characteristics
including chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that,
according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights, "do not fit the typical definitions for male or female bodies"))
3. Internal genitalia: testes(M) OR Ovaries (F)
4. Gonads
5. Hormonal states [estrogen (F) and Testosterone (M)]
6. Secondary sex characteristics
 Culture Debate
• West and Zimmerman also give a definition for sex
category: “Achieved through application of the sex criteria,
but in everyday life, categorization is established and
sustained by the socially required identificatory displays
that declare one's membership in one or the other category".
Performativity argument
Explanatory argument
Being of a certain sex,” is to have a “conferred legal status,” a
property that someone has only because she or he is embedded
in a society with certain legal institutions. In case of sex it is
by doctors etc.
Theories of social Construction of Gender Already
discussed
 Conclusion
Research at the Johns Hopkins Children Center has shown that gender
identity is almost entirely based on nature and is almost exclusively
predetermined before the birth of the baby. Reiner followed 14 children
whose testicles and male hormone levels were completely normal at birth,
but who were born without a penis. 12 of the children were surgically
reconstructed to appear female. Today, all 12 of the children raised as
females are strongly male typical in their behaviors, attitudes, friends and
play. This re-iterates that perhaps gender may not totally be culturally
constructed and certain aspects are a result of nature. However we can also
argue that traits of masculinity or femininity may rest on cultural factors.
• Other natural differences between binary genders are;
 Females attain puberty earlier than males
 There is difference in bone development and structure between both
 There is research to suggest that males are better math and females are
better at multitasking and speaking.
 Gender and development
UN charter 1945 and Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948 provided the basis of human rights and rights of the women.
During 1960s the focus was on women’s reproductive health as
they were treated and considered as wives and mothers (Role
Assignment).
During 1970s and 1980s the focus shifted on women’s economic
contribution. The first UN conference in Mexico provided strong
footings.
• 1-2Women in Development+ Women and Development(WID+
WAD, 1970s)
• 3-Gender and Development (GAD, 1980s)
• 4-Globalization and Gender (1990s)
• 5-Dependency theory, 6-modernization theory, 7-world system
theory, 8-colonial perspective, 9-functionalist perspective
 Colonial perspectives on Gender
Status of women during Colonial Period
Today, women are believed to be equal to men however this was
not always the case.
• During colonial times, women did not have the same roles as
women do today; men and women had fixed roles in society.
• Married women were not exactly considered as companions
instead, as the husband’s property.
• Factors such as race, religion, geography/region, and social
class were substantial to the extent of control a woman had
over her own life. These factors significantly shaped the lives
of these women. This difference was visible between Women
in England and Dutch and Germany where they had more
freedom and rights.
• The typical woman in colonial period was expected to run a household and
attend to domestic duties such as spinning, sewing, preserving food, animal
husbandry, cooking, cleaning, and raising children.
• Families tended to be large, and childbearing could be dangerous prior to
advancements in medicine and health care. A responsible housewife was
supposed to be resourceful with her family’s budget, which led to
manufactured goods being a vital contribution to the success of a household.
• When necessary, it was the responsibility of the colonial housewife to help
her husband in agriculture endeavors.
• Mothers were also responsible for the spiritual and civic well-being of their
children.
• In the colonial era, the commonly held idea was that good housewives would
raise good children who would become upstanding citizens in the community.
As a wife, the woman was to be dutiful, obedient, faithful, and subservient to
her husband.
• Legal statutes and societal norms allowed for husbands to exert power over
their wives, which could result in violent circumstances. Some housewives
were able to file for divorces, but these instances were not the norm.
 • Colonialism and sub-continent
• The British in India saw themselves as a force for
enlightenment, especially for women. To support their claim,
they pointed to the laws liberalizing women’s legal position.
• Official British policy was of non-interference in personal
and religious matters, which inhibited the evolution of social
change in written law. Between 1772 and 1947 they
introduced nine major reforms.
1. Laws forbidding female infanticide
2. Sati and child marriage
3. Raising the age of consent
4. Allowing widow remarriage
5. Improving women’s inheritance rights.
• British policies in certain other areas present a different outlook
often highlighting the colonizers’ approach to women. Liddle &
Joshi have delineated three such examples:
1. The restitution of conjugal rights: This ideology was derived
from Christian ecclesiastical law and was brought to India from
England. Under this law a spouse can sue one’s partner if she
refuses to fulfill the sexual obligations of marriage. A prison term
was imposed for non-compliance.
2. Regarding prostitution, the soldiers in the army were provided
with Indian prostitutes by the official military authorities. These
prostitutes had to get themselves registered and carried a
licensed card with them.
3. Women's suffrage that is the right of women to vote and to stand
for office was granted to Indian women in a very limited sense in
1921 in Madras presidency. This franchise was given to those
women and men who were educated and wealthy.
 History of Functionalist Perspective
• The functionalist perspective was developed in the 1940s and
1950s, and largely developed by Talcott Parsons’ model.
• The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system
whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the
function of its constituent elements, namely: norms, customs,
traditions, and institutions.
Gender and structural functionalism
• Structural functionalists postulate that gender roles arise from
the need to establish a division of labor that will help maintain
the smooth running of the family and contribute to the stability
of society.
• Women give birth and nurture children, this leads to the gender
roles and division of labor.. Hence division of labor is based on
nature.
• The functionalist perspective of gender role
s suggests that gender roles exist to
maximize social efficiency.
• From
a functionalist point of view, inequality play
s a role in holding society together and
encouraging efficiency.
• According to structural-functionalists,
stratification and inequality are inevitable
and beneficial to society, hence gender
inequality also benefits society.
 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)
• Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) consist of loans provided by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries
that experienced economic crises.
• Goals of SAPs
1. SAPs are created with the goal of reducing the borrowing country's fiscal
imbalances (Fiscal imbalance is a mismatch in the revenue powers and
expenditure responsibilities of a government) in the short and medium
term.
2. They are designed to structurally adjust the economy of the country by
limiting govt. control and promoting market competition.
3. In order to adjust the economy to long-term growth.
 Gender critique
1. The structural adjustment programs aggravate women's already unequal
access, which further harms women by increasing competition.
2. One of the most detrimental effects of SAPs on women is the
conditionality requirement for fiscal austerity. More often than not,
countries begin the budget cuts with social programs and subsidies.
They typically cut from programs such as health care, welfare
programs, social security, education, and agricultural subsidies. Social
programs are seen as unnecessary, high cost expenses that must be cut
in order for a state to decrease its debts. The ramifications of the loss of
social programs are huge and are felt especially by women.
3. IMF's structural adjustment programs indirectly cause a severe impact
on women due to patriarchy of society and the invisibility of women at
IMF.
 4- Increase Gender income disparity and employment ration
• There are less jobs for women, also if have fewer opportunities the
wage gap increases
• There is a huge cut in the jobs of women which hurts the employment
ratio as men have more jobs than women
5-Impact on working environment
• Less money, huge cuts, no welfare leads to impaired working
conditions
6- Effect on education and health of the women
• Overall health and education status of the women’s deteriorates
 Dependency theory
Dependency theory, an approach to understanding economic underdevelopment that emphasizes
the putative constraints imposed by the global political and economic order. First proposed in the late
1950s by the Argentine economist and statesman Raúl Prebisch, dependency theory gained prominence
in the 1960s and ’70s.
1. The cause of the low levels of development in less economically developed countries is caused by
their reliance and dependence on more economically developed countries.
2. Developing countries will remain less developed because the surplus that they produce will be
tapped off by developed countries. Under the guise of multinational corporations. There is, as
such, no profit left for reinvestment and development.
3. The underdevelopment in the third world countries is not due to the fact that they are not pacing up
the modern technology and the current trends in the developed countries it is mainly caused by the
economic exposure and the political influence of the developed countries.
4. Poor nations provide market access to wealthy permitting the wealthy nations to enjoy a higher
standard of living.
5. Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means i.e. economics,
media control, politics, education, culture.
6. Wealthy nations actively counter attempts by dependent nations to resist their influences by means
of economic sanctions and/or the use of military force.
 Dependency Theory Applied to Gender and Development
• Women’s proportion of global supply chain production workers discloses a range
of 65% to 90% women in many global supply chains, most obviously the
garment industry, and in some countries it is much higher – in China, 75% of
garment workers are women, in Bangladesh the figure is 85%, and it rises to 90%
in Cambobdia.
• From a Dependency perspective, increased participation in the work force also
implies increased hazards for women. On April 24, 2013, Rana Plaza, a garment
factory outside of Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapsed, killing at least 1,127 workers.
• Women’s jobs outside the home tend to be the lowest earning, least secure, and
most dangerous available in the economy, especially in periods of recession that
plague most developing countries.
• The dearth of labour laws, or ignorance and lack of enforcement of the labour
codes in practice, allow for the exploitation of women. It increases the issues of
the wages, health and workplace environment
• Unfortunately, even the global nature of business does not confer universal
rights for these women. Many U.S.-based companies, such as Target, The
Limited, Wal-Mart, GEAR for Sports, Liz Claiborne, and Lee Jeans, have
contracts with Guatemalan factories and continue to honor them even if the
factories break explicit company policy, such as physically examining women.
• They are purposefully kept out of the gendered workforce and their cheap labor
is exploited by men and the patriarchal world systems.
 • Modernization Theory
• Modernization theory explains how society or social change occurred through
industrialization and urbanization and ultimately changed the lives of the
individuals. This theory was developed in 1950s to show the process of social
change i.e. social, economic and political institutions in Europe and South
America.
• The first wave of this theory was established during 1950s and 60s to explain the
development. Development has three variants.
• Economic development: Economic development is very important for overall
development of the society.
• Literacy and cultural development: increased educational level is another
important indicator of development and progress.
• National identity development: national identity development is also at the
core of overall development of the society.
 First wave of modernization theory
It attempted to explain why poorer countries have failed to develop, focusing on what
cultural and economic conditions might act as ‘barriers’ to development
• Modernization theorists argue that there are a number of cultural and economic barriers
that prevent traditional societies from developing.
• Cultural barriers are seen as internal to the country – it is essentially their fault for being
backward. Western culture, on the other hand, is seen as having a superior culture that has
allowed for it to develop.
• Economic barriers to development
• These are barriers which may make developing countries unattractive to investors.
• Lack of infrastructure
• Lack of technology
• Lack of skills in the work force
• Political instability
• Lack of capital in the country
• Modernisation Theory 2: How countries should develop Rostow’s five stage model of development
• Stage 1 – Traditional societies whose economies are dominated by subsistence farming. Such societies
have little wealth to invest and have limited access to modern industry and technology. Rostow argued
that at this stage there are cultural barriers to development.
• Stage 2 – The preconditions for take off – the stage in which western aid packages brings western
values, practices and expertise into the society. This can take the form of:
• Science and technology – to improve agriculture
• Infrastructure – improving roads and cities communications
• Industry – western companies establishing factories
• Stage 3 – Take off stage –The society experiences economic growth as new modern practices become
the norm. Profits are reinvested in infrastructure etc. and a new entrepreneurial class emerges and
urbanized that is willing to invest further and take risks. The country now moves beyond subsistence
economy and starts exporting goods to other countries
• Stage 4- the drive to maturity.
• More economic growth and investment in education, media and birth control. The population start to
realize new opportunities opening up and strive to make the most of their lives.
• Stage 5 The age of high mass consumption. This is where economic growth and production are at
Western levels.
 Modernisation Theory and Gender Inequality
• Modernisation Theory blames internal cultural factors for women’s subordination in the
developing world. It is argued that some traditional cultures, and especially the religious ideas that
underpin the values, norms, institutions and customs of the developing world.
• Trade openness and the spread of information and communication technologies (ICTs) have
increased women’s access to economic opportunities and in some cases increased their wages
relative to men’s. but this trend is not visible in developing countries.
• Growth in exports, together with a decline in the importance of physical strength and a rise in
the importance of cognitive skills, has increased the demand for female labour. But this is not the
case in the developing countries which hinder their progress.
• Women have moved out of agriculture and into manufacturing and particularly services. These
changes have taken place across all countries, but this trend is less visible in developing countries.
• International peer pressure has also led more countries than ever to ratify treaties against
discrimination, growing media exposure and consumers’ demands for better treatment of workers
has pushed multinationals toward fairer wages and better working conditions for women. This peer
pressure and international treaties deliberately work less in developing countries.
• Globalisation could also influence existing gender roles and norms, ultimately promoting more
egalitarian views: women turned income earners may be able to leverage their new position in
their households by influencing the house- hold members, shifting relative power within the
households.
 World system theory
• World-systems theory is a macro-scale approach to analyzing the world history of the mankind and
social changes in different countries. Currently, the theory divides the world into the core, semi-
periphery and periphery countries.
• Core nations
• Core nations appear to be powerful, wealthy and highly independent of outside control. They are
able to deal with bureaucracies effectively; they have powerful militaries and can boast with strong
economies.
• Semi-peripheral nations (Satellite)
• These regions have a less developed economy and are not dominant in the international trade. In
terms of their influence on the world economies, they end up midway between the core and
periphery countries. However, they strive to get into a dominant position of the core nation.
• Peripheral nations
• These are the nations that are the least economically developed. One of the main reasons for their
peripheral status is the high percentage of uneducated people who can mainly provide cheap
unskilled labor to the core nations. There is a very high level of social inequality, together with a
relatively weak government which is unable to control country’s economic activity and the
extensive influence of the core nations.
 Assumptions and key points of world system theory
• The core, or developed countries control world wages and monopolies the
production of manufactured goods USA,UK etc.
• The semi-peripheral zone includes countries like South Africa or Brazil which
resemble the core in terms of their urban centers but also have areas of rural poverty
which resemble the peripheral countries.
• Finally, there are the peripheral countries at the bottom, mainly in Africa, which
provide the raw materials such as cash crops to the core and semi periphery. These
are also the emerging markets in which the core attempts to market their
manufactured goods.
• Countries can be upwardly or downwardly mobile in the world system. This is one
of the key differences between World System’s Theory and Dependency Theory
• The Modern World System is dynamic – core countries are constantly evolving new
ways of extracting profit from poorer countries and regions by Unfair Trade Rules,
Western Cooperation and Land Grabs
 • Globalization and Gender
• Centralization of power
• Corporate enterprises
• Passive, compliant workforce
• Social exclusion, loss of previously accepted benefits (for example,
affordable childcare and maternity leave) and personal insecurity,
coupled with the greater mobility of persons facilitated by ease of
communications, including some more open borders, have contributed
to this increase
• Revolutionary technologies
 • General Headings regarding gender discrimination regarding gender and
development
1. Concentration of power
2. Wage difference
3. Lack of education
4. Lack of ICT
5. Health hazards
6. Occupational safety
7. Corporate enterprises
8. Passive, compliant workforce
9. Social exclusion, loss of previously accepted benefits (for example, affordable
childcare and maternity leave)
10. Unfair Trade Rules, Western Cooperation and Land Grabs
 • Women In Development (WID) Liberal Feministic
Objective
• Its main purpose was to integrate women previously viewed as passive
beneficiaries of any advancement into the development process.
Reason
• Under WID, women’s subordination was seen in terms of their exclusion
from the market sphere and limited control over resources. African countries
viewed women as second class in economic and political spheres, thus
policies that sidelined women were crafted.
Solutions
• Since WID assumed that women were the same the world over, it gave
women the opportunity of getting actively involved in development. Hence,
WID enhanced people’s understanding of women’s development needs,
particularly the need to provide them with more employment opportunities.
• Furthermore, WID addressed women’s practical needs by creating
income generating opportunities like access to credit facilities from
financial institutions and setting up sound and recognized self-
sustaining projects like weaving and crafting to mention a few.
• Also WID focuses on advocacy strategies that are for more and equal
participation of women in employment and other spheres of society
economics in particular.
• The other strategy is to increase women’s ability to manage the
household by practicing sound and proper family planning methods.
 • Women And Development (WAD)
Originated during 1970 as a result of WID
It drew out of dependency theory
• WAD sees women not benefitting from the global economic
structures. The approach states that women’s status will only improve
when international structures become more equitable.
• Women has always been a part of the development hence integrating
women in the development is a myth.
• WAD points out that although women are involved in such activities
of development; the contributions of women have been overlooked
and marginalized in national and donor development plans.
 Solutions
1. Accepted women as an important contributor to economic sphere.
2. Stressed on the acknowledgment of Women work in both public and
private domains in the society.
3. Integration of the women should focus on the international system.
Once international system becomes more equitable women’s
position would improve.
Criticism
4. Failed to analyze the patriarchal system and oppression of the
women.
5. More focus on international system rather than localized system
 Gender And Development (GAD)
Developed during 1980s on the basis of socialist feminism with a more holistic approach. Inclusion
of both genders.
Reason
The primary reason of women’s oppression as well as male is the capitalistic system
Aim and Solution
• GAD is concerned with addressing the root of inequalities of both gender and class that create
many of the practical problems women experience in their daily lives as opposed to the WID
approach that views the absence of women in development plans and policies as the problem.
• GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and men.
• It seeks to ensure that both women and men participate in and benefit equally from
development and so emphasizes equality of benefit and control. It recognizes that women may be
involved in development, but not necessarily benefit from it.
• GAD is not concerned with women only, but with the way in which gender relations allot specific
roles, responsibilities and expectations between men and women, often to the detriment of women.
• Women as agent of change rather a part of the development
• Stress the need to organize women for better voice and change
 GAD over both WID and WAD
Point 1: Although the WID approach made demands for women’s
inclusion in development it did not call for changes in the overall social
structure or economic system in which women were to be included. This
was addressed in GAD.
Point 2: By exclusively targeting women WID creates suspicions and
tensions among men and women in communities. This was countered
through GAD
Point 3: WID focused exclusively on productive aspects of women’s
work, ignoring or minimizing the reproductive side of women’s lives.
This was again countered in GAD by focusing on both roles of the
women
GENDER - ORIENTATION

By

M. NAWAZ KHALID ARBI

MSc. Gender & Women Studies, MA (English), LLB
Cell # 0321-9467207 Email: nawazkhalid123@gmail.com
 What is Gender
SEX GENDER
 BIOLOGICAL:  ACQUIRED
 MALE OR FEMALE:  FAMININE & MASCULINE
Physical category, Natural,  SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED
Born with.  CAN BE CHANGED
 IT DETERMINES
 CANNOT BE CHANGED ROLES,RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN MAN &
WOMEN
 It is influence by: Class,
Race, Age, Culture,
Religion, Politics, War,
Education etc
 Gender Stereotypes
• These are related to gender roles (which are
assigned to the sexes).
• So stereotyping ignores the vast individual
difference that exist between male &female.
• Could be generalizations.
 Common Stereotypes

GIRLS/WOMEN BOYS/MEN
• Weak • Powerful
• Dependent • Independent
• Emotional • Rational
• Fragile • Protector
• Passive • Active
• Soft spoken • Force full
• Secretaries • Bosses
• Nurturing • Casual /Assertive
• Gentle • Strong
• Caretakers • Achievers
 Differential Socialization
Various agencies reinforce stereotypes:
 FAMILY
 SCHOOL/TEACHERS/CURICULLA
 PEER GROUPS
 MASS MEDIA
 ROLE MODELS
 IMITATION
 EXPECTATIONS
 DIVISION OF LABOUR
 LANGUAGE
 CLASS, OCCUPATION, RACIAL & CULTURAL VARIATIONS
 GENDER BOUNDARIES----PUBLIC & PRIVATE SPACES
 Cycle Of Change
• Values & Attitudes
• Perpetuating Institutions
• Gender Practices
 Feminism is a Belief
Definition of Feminism-- It is an awareness of women’s:
 Oppression
 Subordination
 Marginalization
 Discrimination.
 Exploitation in society e.g. family, work…
 Conscious action by women & men to change women’s
situation.
 Feminism may be understood as:
 Feminism is a belief that women universally face
some form of oppression or exploitation.
Feminism is a social movement to change the
position of women.
Feminism is a commitment to uncover &
understand the causes of oppression & it also
commits to work individually & collectively to end
authoritarianism.
 Feminist is a person who:-
 Holds that women suffer discrimination.
 Advance women’s interests.
 Advocacy of the claims of women.
 Support need of radical change in the social,
economic, political & legal orders.
 Feminist
So a feminist is any one who
recognizes the existence of
discrimination on the basis of
gender (sexes) , male dominance
& patriarchy & who takes some
action against it.
 AGENDA OF FEMINISM
It has many dimensions including:
 Analysis of gender roles.
 Patriarchy.
 Class struggle.
 National liberation.
 Poverty & Development.
 Dowry killing.
 Violence against women.
 Religious exploitation.
 ………………………………………
 What is Patriarchy?

• The word patriarchy literally means the rule of the father or

the ‘patriarch’, and originally it was used to describe a
specific type of ‘male-dominated family’--- the large
household of the patriarch which included women, junior
men, children, slaves and domestic servants all under the
rule of this dominant male.

• Now it is used more generally to refer to male domination,

to the power relationship by which men domination & is
characterized as a system whereby women are kept
subordinate in a number of ways.
 PATRIARCHY
It varies from class to class, race to race, in ethnicity,
period of history….
 The nature of control can differ.
 From our grandmothers to our mothers 7 to us.
 It differ from upper class women , tribal women etc.
 Hindu, Muslim, European, African etc.
 Cultural & Social practices vary.
 PATRIARCHAL CONTROL
 Women’s production or labour power.
 Women’s reproductive power.
 Control of women’s sexuality & its
exploitation.
 Control women’s mobility.
 Control on property & economic recourses.
 PATRIARCHY IS A SYSTEM
It permeates in every institution in society which makes it invisible &
natural.
 Family.
 Social Relations.
 Religious Beliefs.
 Laws.
 Education.
 Text Books.
 Media.
 Employment.
 Work environment.
 State.
 Military & so on.
 MANIFESTATION OF PATRIARCHY
 Different forms of discrimination.
• Destroys self respect.
• Subordination.
• Self-Esteem.
• Sets limits on aspirations
• Courageous initiatives/act is condemned (unfeminine).
• Violation of defined roles & spaces is considered shameless
& be-perda.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL ISSUES &
PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH OF WOMEN
 OBJECTIVE
• Concept of Health & Wellbeing
• Psychosocial Issues of Women
• Impact on Health
• Psychiatric Disorders
 Psychosocial Issues
• Gender Preference
Cultural, Sociopolitical background
• Illegal Abortion
• Infanticide
• Injustice in the hands of Loved ones (parents)
• Quality of Diet, Fear of early physical maturity
• Quality of Education
• Over expectations/Responsibilities
• Employment/ Limited Jobs
• Underpaid
• Harassment at Work Place
• Decision making in Marriage
• Exchange marriages/Marriage with Qurraan
• Late Marriages, in search of matching, avoidance
• Pregnancy/Infertility
• Quitting job after marriage
• Violence against Women
• Domestic violence ( private matter )
• Spouse Abuse , Marital Rape.
• Burning to death ( Kitchen stove bursts )
• Acid burn victims
• Honor killing ( Karro kaari )
• Attack at Malaala
 Understanding Bases of Violence

• Intrinsic/Extrinsic Factors
• Individual Personality
• Education less than Husband
• Witnessed Violence in childhood
• Power, Decision maker
• Employment of Women-Independence
Privilege/ Right
• Early Marriage
• Dowry (Jahez)
• Women with no children or no male child
• Mother’s in law role
• Zan, Zar & Zameen, Source of evil
• Inheritance-NO Share
• Women exchanged to settle disputes
• Stress of Physiological changes
• Menarche
• Pregnancy
• Menopause
• Old Age
 Major issues and concerns for women
• Denial of fundamental rights

- right to life
- right to movement (mobility)
- right to citizenship
- right to information
- right to vote
- right to education, health, reproductive health
- right to choice marriage
- right to own land, property
- right to inheritance
- right to play, fine arts etc.
 Sexist Expressions

•Men are the head of the household

•Women don't know anything about guy stuff
•Men don't have feelings
•Big boys don't cry
•Man's
All men achievements
are created equal (key word here is men),
• She is wrapped around my little finger
The best man for the job
 Shake it off, be a man
•IfCry
a man drove
like a little girl 50 miles at 60 m
•she (ex. [aIsn’t
You throw she
ball] like a beauty?
a little girl like when a guy talks about his car etc.),
•guys (when you mean both men and women or sometimes just one of the
genders),
 Sexist Words
 mankind
manhood
man-made
Manly
manhours
manpower,
man the desk
Manpower Planning
chairman,
policeman
postman
foreman
 Neutral Words


People
Human beings
Staffing
chairperson
camera operator."
business people
Humankind
Human Resource
Workforce
 Clinches
• Women Are Born Unclean
• Intellectually Inferior
• Physically Week
• Mother Of Evils
• Foundation Of Devil
• Gateway To Hell
• Dependent
• Emotional
• Fit Or Private Place
THANKS --QUESTIONS