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    Prints of The 20th Century - A History - Riva Castleman (1976)

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    Ludwig Szoha
    This passage discusses some key influences from the late 19th century that continued to shape art in the 20th century. It notes that Cezanne's paintings influenced Cubism not as they were in the 1880s but how they appeared to Braque and Picasso in 1907. It describes how printmaking developed alongside other media in the 20th century, with some time lag, and how patrons encouraged artists to make prints even if their primary focus was unique works. It gives the example of Picasso's etching The Frugal Repast which was commissioned by Ambroise Vollard in 1913 after initially being etched in 1904 with little success.

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    Prints of The 20th Century - A History - Riva Castleman (1976)

    Uploaded by

    Ludwig Szoha
    314 views244 pages
    This passage discusses some key influences from the late 19th century that continued to shape art in the 20th century. It notes that Cezanne's paintings influenced Cubism not as they were in the 1880s but how they appeared to Braque and Picasso in 1907. It describes how printmaking developed alongside other media in the 20th century, with some time lag, and how patrons encouraged artists to make prints even if their primary focus was unique works. It gives the example of Picasso's etching The Frugal Repast which was commissioned by Ambroise Vollard in 1913 after initially being etched in 1904 with little success.

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    Prints of the 20th Century - A History - Riva Castleman (1976)

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    This passage discusses some key influences from the late 19th century that continued to shape art in the 20th century. It notes that Cezanne's paintings influenced Cubism not as they were in the 1880s but how they appeared to Braque and Picasso in 1907. It describes how printmaking developed alongside other media in the 20th century, with some time lag, and how patrons encouraged artists to make prints even if their primary focus was unique works. It gives the example of Picasso's etching The Frugal Repast which was commissioned by Ambroise Vollard in 1913 after initially being etched in 1904 with little success.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    314 views244 pages

    Prints of The 20th Century - A History - Riva Castleman (1976)

    Uploaded by

    Ludwig Szoha
    This passage discusses some key influences from the late 19th century that continued to shape art in the 20th century. It notes that Cezanne's paintings influenced Cubism not as they were in the 1880s but how they appeared to Braque and Picasso in 1907. It describes how printmaking developed alongside other media in the 20th century, with some time lag, and how patrons encouraged artists to make prints even if their primary focus was unique works. It gives the example of Picasso's etching The Frugal Repast which was commissioned by Ambroise Vollard in 1913 after initially being etched in 1904 with little success.

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    The book provides an overview of printmaking techniques and major works from the 20th century.

    It is a history of printmaking in the 20th century, covering major artists, movements, and techniques.

    It discusses techniques like etching, lithography, woodcut and discusses the works of major artists in those mediums.

    RIVA CASTLEMAN ^^

    HftRIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY

    31111Q1Q987582 Prints
    of the 20th Century
    A HISTORY

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    3 1111 01098 7582

    Riva Casdeman
    is Deputy Director for Curatorial Affairs

    and Director of the Department, of Prints and Illustrated

    DATE DUE
    JUL 2 1989

    AUG 2 3 1 9 89

    .iL^ i,=fy-

    SEP 1 1990
    FES 1 6 1996

    ^ P^
    1 m \

    In the United States please write to:


    THAMES AND HUDSON INC.
    500 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York loiio
    I

    Pablo Picasso (1881-^1973), The


    I
    f-ru(;cil Repast, 1904; printed 1913. Etching, iS^ i4Ji (46 •
    37-6). Gift of
    Abby Aldnch Rockctcller
    RIVA CASTLEMAN

    PRINTS
    THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
    OF
    Revised and enlarged edition

    195 illustrations, 33 in color

    THAMES AND HUDSON


    All the illustrations in this book are from the collection
    of The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

    Any copy of this book issued by the publisher as a


    paperback is sold subject to the condition that it shall not
    by way of trade or otherwise be lent, resold, hired out or
    otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent
    in any form of binding or cover other than that in which
    it is published and without a similar condition including
    these words being imposed on a subsequent purchaser.

    © 1976 and 1988 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London

    Published m the United States in 1988 by


    Thames and Hudson Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue,
    New York, New York 101 10

    L.ibrary of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-51289

    All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be


    reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
    electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording
    or any other information storage and retrieval system,
    without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

    Printed and bound in Spain by Artes Graficas Toledo S.A.


    D.L.TO - 1401-1988
    Traditions are beautiful - to create
    - not to follow

    Franz Marc, 191

    Translated by Alfred H. Barr, Jr., in 1963 from


    Franz Marc, Briefe, Aufzeichnungen und Aphorism.
    Berlin, Paul Cassirer, 1920, p. 127
    Digitized by the Internet Archive
    in 2010

    http://www.archive.org/details/printsoftwentietOOcast
    Contents

    1 Introduction : some nineteenth-century influences 9

    2 Expressionism in France and Germany up to World


    War I: Fauves, Die Briicke, Der Blaue Rcitcr 17

    3 Cubism and early abstract movements 37

    4 Postwar Expressionism and nonobjective art in


    Germany 55

    5 Dada and Surrealism 67

    6 Independent directions: the School ot Paris and


    the revival of lithography 85

    7 Picasso after Cubism 107

    8 Between the wars: Mexico, the United States, Japan 1


    19

    9 Printmaking after World War II

    the persistence of Expressionism and Surrealism 128

    10 The flourishing of lithography in the U.S.A.


    the prints of Pop art 165

    11 Op, kinetic. Concrete, and the Conceptual arts 191

    12 Pluralism and appropriation in Europe and America 209

    Notes on the text 227

    Glossary of printmaking terms 229

    Bibliography 230

    Index 237
    :

    PHOTO CREDITS
    David Allison: 2, 8, 11, 21, 23, 25, 27, 36, 50, 6, 10, 13, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 32,

    63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 74, 82, 95, 99, loi, 117, 33, 35, 37, 38, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58,
    119, 122, 123, 124, 126, 128, 129, 136, 138, 59, 60, 67, 68, 70, 71, 75, 76, 80, 81, 84, 85,
    142, 157, 158, 170. 171, i74> 176, i79;Geoffrey 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 98, 103, 105, 106, 109,
    Clements: 102; Peter Juley and Son: 77; Kate no, iii, 112, 113, 115, 116, 121, 125, 130,
    Keller: 34, 41, 104, 166, i77;James Mathews: 131, 134, 139, 141, 144, 145, 148, 169;
    I, 7, 12, 15, 19, 31, 39, 49, 114, 120, 132, 135, Malcolm Varon: 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 55, 56,
    154, 161, 162, 172, 173, 175; Rolf Petersen 62, 83, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 94, 100, 118, 143,
    4, 14, 53, 61, 72, 73, 79, 107, 108, 127, 133, 146, 150, 151, 152, 155, 156, 159, 160, 163,
    137, 140, 149, 153, 178; Sandak, Inc.: 147; 164, 165, 167, 168.
    Adolph Studly: 9, 78; Soichi Sunami: 3, 5,
    Introduction:
    I

    some nineteenth-century influences

    It has become traditional to begin of art of the twentieth


    a history
    century by discussing the various movements of thelast decades of the

    nineteenth. However, one must view many ideas developed in the last
    century as continuing, but constantly being altered by subsequent
    twentieth-century ideas and attitudes. The historical process is such
    that unexpected discoveries occur only to those who are prepared for :

    Braque and Picasso it was how Cezanne's paintings appeared to them


    in 1907 that impelled them toward Cubism, not how Cezanne painted
    in the 1880s. A continuum of development that shaped their minds
    prepared them to accept this influence over others.
    In the accelerated momentum that has characterized our own
    century, a remarkable artistic legacy has developed. The history of
    prints during the past eight and one half decades parallels that of other
    media. How different this century is from the last is found in the
    necessity now to refer to unique art and multiple art as genre terms;
    since the advent of collage in 1912 the terms 'painting' and 'sculpture'
    are no longer sufficiently inclusive. The printmaking media have also
    become m'ore diversified as photographic techniques have been
    introduced and accepted. Because of economic and technological
    considerations there is usually a time lag between the appearance of
    new developments in unique media and their evolvement
    stylistic
    in prints. Fewartists have been able to use the print media to

    inaugurate esthetic concepts. However, there is no question that these


    concepts have been modified and extended through the processes of
    printmaking.
    Those artists who were primarily concerned with making unique
    works of art turned to printmaking during the nineteenth and twen-
    tieth centuries for various reasons. Gifted entrepreneurs, convinced of
    the esthetic value of an artist's work, have played a dominant role in
    the translation of that quality into economic value. Most had little

    success at first, but without the tenacity of these visionaries the accept-
    ance of prints as significant art would not have occurred. Without the
    aid of such astute (but not always financially successful) patrons, few
    young whose primary struggle was to paint or sculpt would
    artists

    have felt the need to create prints. An outstanding example of this


    situation is Pablo Picasso's second attempt at etching, The Frugal
    Repast. Encouraged by his friend Ricardo Canals, a printmaker from
    Barcelona, Picasso took a large secondhand plate and etched into it a
    variation on a theme that had first concerned him three years before:
    a couple seated at a cate tabic. As it turned out, the etched conception
    was superior to many ot the painted ones, but as Picasso's audience was
    limited in 904, no one would undertake the printing of a large edition.
    1

    Most ot the first examples printed by Eugene Delatre, a particularly


    knowledgeable etching and aquatint printer, were given by Picasso
    to his friends. The example illustrated here is from the edition of 250
    commissioned in 1913 by France's foremost print and illustrated book
    impresario during the first tour decades of this century, Ambroise
    Vollard. Vollard's gitts were showmanship and undertaking im-
    possible tasks. He w^as nearly blind to the important strides toward
    abstraction that Picasso was making, and it was after the publicity
    given to the Cubist Picasso that Vollard issued his earlier, more gener-
    ally palatable, prints. Picasso's Cubist prints, commissioned by Daniel
    H. Kahnweiler, were almost unsalable when issued.
    The technological problems that surround an artist's entry into
    pnntmaking are considerable. If making prints has never been an
    integral part of an artist's creative life, to begin requires, at the very
    least, leaving the personal, isolated environment ot the studio. Few

    artists have had, as Picasso did, the dazzling ability to perform what

    made his appearance in a printing shop an inspiration to all who sur-


    rounded him, who in turn stimulated him to even more and finer
    work. Artists have continued to make prints in their studios, particu-
    larly if they subscribe to creative philosophies that require either
    continuous direct involvement with materials or with folk-craft tradi-
    tions. While the quantity of images created in the studio can be large,
    the number of each edition printed is determined most often by the
    amount of time the artist feels worthwhile spending on a labor of less
    than primary creative value. The variety of etfects within such editions,
    since they come directly from the artist's hand, is one of the qualities

    10
    lost in the larger printer's shop. As will be seen, the Expressionists in
    Germany felt that the making of prints was fundamental in represent-
    ing their esthetic and consequently used print technology at its most
    unsophisticated and variable level.
    The subject ot uniform versus variable editions of prints becomes
    an important part of the history ot twentieth-century printmaking.
    As more purely mechanical procedures have been introduced into the
    various techniques, an argument has developed that has created two
    persevering points of view. The technological revolution that charac-
    terizes this century has been accepted as beneficial and been exploited
    by the one camp. Personal gesture and 'feel' however,
    for materials,
    continue to represent significant factors to those who see prints in the
    same creative arena as painting and drawing. The two essentially
    diverging points of view continue to coexist in the last half of this
    century. (One might also study them in terms of action and reaction.)
    The advantage to artists who can avail themselves of the technically
    proficient workshop (albeit basically nineteenth century in structure)
    is that more of their works may be printed and therefore more widely

    distributed. In both cases, however, neither manual nor mechanical


    manufacture can destroy a good concept or redeem a poor one. It is
    the compatibility of technique and concept that has characterized
    quality in creative works, whatever the medium.
    The following survey of art as it developed in the print media during
    the twentieth century is oriented toward historical analysis and away
    from technical dissection. Descriptions of printmaking methods
    appear only in the context of esthetic developments, as they reflect an
    philosophical concerns or society's requirements. The surge in
    artist's

    popularity of prints during the last decade of the nineteenth century


    established conditions that have encouraged almost every major
    twentieth-century This circumstance allows a
    artist to create prints.

    more complete review of the history of art of this period through


    prints than is possible for any previous century.
    Some of the most significant prints of the twentieth century were
    made to illustrate books. This is particularly the case in Paris, where the
    livre illustre or livre was developed into an im.portant form.
    du peintre
    While a suitable match of artist and writer was generally judged by the
    publisher to be basic to the successful outcome of his venture, such
    special conjunctions were often troublesome. It became far simpler to
    deal with only the artist, so texts by Virgil, Ovid, La Fontaine,

    II
    Balzac, and other writers well in their graves became the norm. As the
    illustrated book evolved in the late 1920s, its pictorial matter became
    more conspicuous. Extra suites of plates were added to special copies
    of the books, and many found their separate ways into the single
    print market. One could not have a thorough understanding of the
    prints of Picasso, Chagall, or Rouault without consulting those made as
    book illustrations. It would be impossible to study the printed works
    ot the Fauves and the Cubists, much less those of the Surrealists,
    without delving into these special books.
    While the production of the Jivre illustre occurred largely in France
    and became an increasingly more luxurious and consequently more
    conservative form, one cannot ignore the myriad of printed images
    that were created for books elsewhere. As the perimeters of that art
    form known as printmaking have widened to include new media,
    much of this expansion occurred in works created in conjunction with
    literature. No longer confined to strictly commercial usage, the stencil
    became a viable tool for artists through its imaginative utilization in
    the illustration of books. Photo-offset processes have most recently
    emerged among the media selected by artists for printmaking, and a
    substantial number of their works made by these processes first
    appeared in books.
    Although the years between World War II and the late 1980s have
    been the most productive in the area of this study, the durability of
    works of this century's final half is still a matter of opinion. Con-
    temporary values and points of view insistently color and shade any
    historical analysis. If they are taken in the context of the times in which
    they were written, critiques of contemporary and often radically
    advanced art, formerly respected but now out of favor, are again
    respectable. It is hoped that this premature attempt to put the twentieth-
    century artist's prints in historical perspective will also be permitted
    the charity of being viewed as a modest document of its time.

    Most of the elements that characterized art of the 1890s were carried
    over into the early 1900s. While artistic involvement in printmaking
    did not stop abruptly and begin anew, there appears to have been a
    hiatus in French production after some exceptionally glorious years.
    The albums that contained the exquisite color lithographs of Henri de
    Toulouse-Lautrec, Pierre Bonnard and Edouard Vuillard were issued
    by 1899. The publishers of ambitious collections such as L'Estampe

    12
    'Bnint encore non eue.
    -5JB£-
    Je te -uetix prej'qm nue
    Stir nil canape noir

    'Dans iin jaiine houiloh.

    C'tjnnie en mil huit cent Innle.

    'Prt/qiie nue et non nue


    .A traters une nue

    °De dentelles montrant


    Ta chair on -va conrant

    Ala bouche ddirante.


    2 Pierre Bonnard ( 1 867-1 947),
    page 27 from Parallelement by
    Paul Verlaine. Pans, Vollard,
    1900. Lithograph, page iif X9^
    (29-5 X 24). Louis E. Stern
    Collection

    Originale, La Revue Blanche, and L' Album des Peintres-Graveurs either


    discontinued their programs or found it difficult to sell or to compile
    further albums of equal grandeur. Vollard had begun to introduce his
    the art of book illustration, and the milepost that marks the
    artists to

    beginning of the twentieth century is his publication in 1900 of Paul


    Verlaine's Parallelement with 108 enchanting illustrations by Pierre
    Bonnard. Bonnard's prints in Parallelement, unlike many of his earlier
    lithographs of patchwork-like color and pattern, were linear crayon
    lithographs. This simple manner, which emphasized the evocative
    value of line, was refmed to a rare degree of purity a few years later in
    the drawings and prints of Henri Matisse.
    In Germany as in Paris the creative mood of the 1 890s was pervasive.
    Edvard Munch, the Norwegian artist who produced most of his
    prints in Paris and Berlin, continued his personal and intensely emo-
    tional style into the 1900s. However, only a few twentieth-century
    prints by this artist have the passion and quality of his 1 890s lithographs

    13
    3 Edvard Munch (i 863-1944),
    The Kiss, 1897-1902. Woodcut,
    i8| X iS^ (46-7 46-5). Gift of
    .

    Abby Aldrich Rockefeller

    4 (below) Max Klinger (1857-


    1920), The Plague, 1903.
    Etching, 19^ .
    13I (49-3 y 34).
    Purchase Fund

    5 (right) Paul Klee (i 879-1940),


    Virgin in a Tree, 1903. Etching,
    9^^ iIto (23-6 - 29-7).
    Purchase Fund
    and woodcuts. The end of a love affair in 1902 began a difficult period
    for Munch, which culminated in his most severe nervous breakdown,
    in 1908. Munch began to carve his woodcut The Kiss in 1897 and re-

    vised the entire relationship of the monolithic lovers to their back-


    ground in 1902. The ruggedly simple central shape would be echoed
    in the work of the young German artists of Die Briicke in 1908.
    From the nineteenth century also came a strong current of fantasy
    that had a determined moralizing tone. Both Munch and the Munich
    Symbohst Franz von Stuck (at whose academy Paul Klee was to
    study in 1900) depicted voluptuous ladies and titled them Sin. A hint
    of doomsday was never absent from the Belgian James Ensor's work,
    and a romanticized form of fatalism became a peculiarity of the Munich
    school. Max Klinger created several series of etchings in the 1880s and
    1 890S that visually presented the dream fantasies that Sigmund Freud

    was to explain shortly thereafter. KHnger's The Plague of 1903 repre-


    sents the continuance of this tradition, which was to serve as a stepping-
    stone toward the metaphysically oriented works of de Chirico and
    Max Ernst.
    At the moment of Klinger's however, the young seemed
    Plague,
    more concerned with minutely examining glaring truths about the
    15
    human condition. Twenty-three-year-old Picasso accentuated the
    miserable nature of the poor and blind through exaggeration of pro-
    portion and light in The Frugal Repast. Twenty-four-year-old Paul
    3 Klee's Virgin in a Tree has a curious relationship to the grotesque
    political caricature of the time, but formal elements similar to those
    used, by Picasso characterize this youthful yet highly professional
    early work. The element of satire was basic to a great deal of Germanic
    art, and Klee was to prove himself its most imaginative exponent.

    The gently barbed humor of the French, particularly as it had found


    its pictorial form in the cartoons of Honore Daumier, led to a different

    sort of expression. Jacques Villon found his first job as a cartoonist for
    several of the humorous publications that were favored by a segment of
    Parisian society. His excellent skill as a printmaker, learned from his
    uncle, was soon put to good use depicting children and beautifully
    coiffed and hatted ladies. Although Villon's interest seemed to lie
    solely in depicting the bourgeois society of his time, he was unable to
    refrain altogether from allowing vestiges of his past associations with
    42 French humor to enter his compositions. The Game of Solitaire is a
    deft reflection of the trifling pastimes of the idle - the sweet irony of
    the woman deshabillee but still wearing her stylish hat! While Paul
    Helleu, James Tissot, and many others (including Villon himself)
    were executing charming 'Gibson Girl' drypoints, this color aquatint,
    which so astutely combines formal elements borrowed from the
    Nabis with the exaggeration of youthful expression, is another herald
    of twentieth-century developments.
    Two nutrient streams of representation flowed into the twentieth
    century, one romantic and expressionist, the other classical and har-
    monious. In France the Fauves and in Germany members of Die
    Briicke and Der Blaue Reiter were nurtured on the emotive and ex-
    pressive forms of late nineteenth-century art. Because the Germans
    saw their movement in terms of their already mentioned propensity
    toward moralizing and satire, they issued statements articulating their
    motivations. They derived an impetus toward printmaking from
    Munch, the precursor of Expressionism who made quantities of
    prints, and from their interest in primitive and folk wood-carvings.
    The French had to deal with the less pervasive influences of van Gogh
    and Gauguin. Their stronger direction was to be toward classicism,
    and this was to find its first form in Cubism.

    16
    2 Expressionism in France and
    Germany up to World War IFauves,
    :

    Die Briicke, Der Blaue Reiter

    Henri Matisse, Georges Rouault, Maurice de Vlaminck, Andre


    Derain, and Raoul Dufy were the main French artists to create prints in
    the Expressionist manner. These Fauves ('wild beasts', a name attached
    somewhat derisively to the group whose paintings were exhibited
    together in 1905 and 1906) were in revolt against the introverted
    eclecticism that restrained the vigorous development of Gauguin's
    and van Gogh's ideas. Violent color used independent of its normal
    descriptive role characterized their paintings. As did the German
    Expressionists, most of them preferred to use the gouge and wood-
    block as a means of conveying the energy that symbolized their revolt.
    Georges Rouault has generally been treated as a unique stylist, but
    the character of his art developed directly out of the Fauve period.
    Although he did not work extensively in print media until 1916, he
    did execute his Clown and Monkey in 19 10, which shows his Expres- 44
    sionist handling of color and surface. It is one of the few examples
    of prints in color by French artists who had been among the Fauves.
    More typical is Henri Matisse's lively Nude Study of 1906. Here the 6
    black line literally jolts the eye as it moves from the distorted figure to
    the waves of energy that activate the background while flattening
    perspective. It is as if the sinuous, languid patterns that typified the
    turn of the century had been given a shock treatment; the madly
    swirling brush strokes of van Gogh now became detached from the
    depiction of a state of nature. Matisse explained his attitude 'Expression:

    to my way of thinking does not consist of the passion mirrored upon a


    human face or betrayed by a violent gesture. The whole arrangement
    of my picture is expressive.' ^

    After more than a in which the color print (lithograph and


    decade
    aquatint) was brought extreme refinement in Paris, it was inevitable
    to
    that the newest ideas would find their printed form in black and white.

    17
    Picasso was not to make a multicolor print until 1939, and although a
    proof of The Frugal Repast and some of his small early woodcuts were
    printed in color, they were monochromatic. His Head of a Young
    Woman of 1906 (printed only once then, and in an edition in 1933) is
    one of the few instances in his work of the period that revealed his
    loose attachment to the ideas of the Fauves. This print as well as many
    of his drawings and paintings that led to Les Demoiselles d' Avignon
    (1907) were inspired by primitive carvings from Spain (Iberian stones
    from Osuna). He was to fmd masks and other sculpture from black
    Africa of even greater inspiration, and almost a decade later was to be
    characterized as 'The Bird of Benin' in Guillaume Apollinaire's novel
    Le Poete Assassine.
    Apollinaire was the major critic of the new art of the twentieth
    century as well as a close friend of many of the most gifted artists.
    He particularly admired Andre Derain, whom he chose to illustrate the
    first book he had published in Paris, L'Enchanteur Pourrissant (Kahn-
    weiler, 1909). Derain's woodcuts, more decorative than narrative,
    epitomize the Fauve manner. Before this time Gauguin used the gouge

    6 Henri Matisse (i 869-1954),


    Nude Study, 1906. Woodcut,
    i8| 15 (476 38). Gift of
    Mr. and Mrs. Kirk Askew, Jr.
    7 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Head of a
    Young Woman, 1906; printed 1933.
    Woodcut, 203 132 (514 343)- Abby
    Aldrich Rockefeller Fund

    to pick out his nudes from an exotic setting detailed by scratches and
    seemingly haphazard cutting, and Edouard Vallotton had no equal in
    balancing the areas of black and white in his woodcuts. Detain, using
    elements from both artists, created an overall pattern of black and
    white in which the forms that fulfill the function of creating depth
    relate so intimately to the figure that they crowd themselves and the
    stridingnude flat up against the picture plane.
    Another artist, among the Fauves early in his career, who colla-
    borated with Apolhnaire was Raoul Dufy. His illustrations for
    Apollinaire's Le Bestiare on Cortege d'Orphee (Paris, Deplanche, 191 1)

    were in an allover style similar to but more decorative than Derain's.


    Between 19 10 and 1912 Dufy created a series of larger woodcuts, one
    of which. Fishing, shows how the revolutionary character of the Fauve 10

    woodcut became harmonious, the disturbing brutalizing cuts of


    Matisse now faUing into regular rows and the contours of the bodies
    carefully shaped by parallel lines. This is almost a woodcut version of

    19
    8 Andre Derain (1880-1954), plate 2 from L'Enchanteur Pourrissant by Guillaume Apollinaire. Paris,
    Kahnweiler, 1909. Woodcut, page lo^ ^ 8 (266 x 20-3). Louis E. Stern Collection

    9 Maurice de Vlaminck (1876-1958), Head oj a Girl, c. 1906. Woodcut, I2| x 9 (31-4 x 229). Gift of Abby
    Aldrich Rockefeller (by exchange)

    10 Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), Fishing, 1912. Woodcut, iZj^ I'j,^ (32 40). Gift of Victor S. Riesenfeld
    Divisionist painting, in which each stroke (cut or painted) is an object
    in the composition.
    Maurice de Vlaminck was the last of the Fauves to have put into
    the woodblock the succinct expression of simpHfied form enlivened
    by the results of direct attack on a resistant material. The close friend
    of Derain, who had encouraged him to become an artist, Vlaminck
    was influenced more by the dynamism of van Gogh than the methodi-
    cal exploration of either Derain or Matisse. His Head of a Girl - surely
    executed around 1906, since Vlaminck fell under the spell of Cezanne's
    work in 1907 - is remarkable in its daring abstraction of physical form.
    This is not entirely due to distortion, but to thejuxtaposition of known
    forms minimally defmed. The irregular gouges in the background and
    on the model's dress disperse depth as well as create the passages of
    tone that balance the large white areas of face and neck.
    The German artists were naturally closer to the influences of artists
    w^ho had worked in their country. Although Munch had made prints
    in Paris, he continued to live most of each year in Germany. There was
    no single center of art, and so groups of artists would form and then
    disperse as the promise of teaching jobs or exhibitions called them
    elsewhere. Without the restrictions of a strong national art movement
    they were able to choose more freely among the influences of the past.
    Although they were vitally aware of the strength of French Post-
    Impressionism, they were also becoming more nationalistic. They
    searched out and vivified motifs and techniques that had been merely
    respected relics of the German cultural heritage. Simultaneously, they
    were at the center of a maelstrom of scientific exploration which
    opened up disturbing vistas within (Freud) and without (Einstein).
    They were inevitably bound to the social and political stresses that were
    to tear Central Europe apart. Their anxiety to create strong feelings of
    empathy is evident in the simplicity they chose for their compositions
    and the directness of their statements. Like the French, they were
    responsive to the primitive objects from Africa and Oceania that they
    found housed in ethnographic museums. The word 'expressionism'
    was French, not German, and it was well after the inception of the
    free, revolutionary style of Die Briicke that the term was apphed to
    German art.
    The group of four architectural students who in 1905 formed Die
    Briicke ('The Bridge') in Dresden were Ernst Ludwig Kirchner,
    Erich Heckel, Karl Schmidt-Rottluflf, and Fritz Bleyl. In their mani-

    21
    festo written by Kirchner in 1906, they called 'upon all youth to unite'
    and and spiritual freedom opposed to the values of
    'create ... a physical
    the comfortably estabUshed older generation.' 2 Kirchner had learned
    Unoleum-carving from Bleyl and had alternately studied architecture
    in Dresden and painting in Munich before the group was formed in his
    studio. In 1 906 Schmidt-Rottluff encouraged Emil Nolde, a much older
    artist, to join. In 1910, when several members exhibited in Berlin with

    II Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938), Three Women Conversing, 1907. Woodcut, 15I 13^ (39 ' 34'6)-

    Gift of Abby Aldnch Rockefeller

    '^c^!mi>U^^BfSliitSM
    12 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938), Nude Dancers, 1909. Woodcut, 14I ^ 2o| (36-5 -
    53).
    Purchase Fund

    the Neue Sezession, they became acquainted with Otto Miiller, who
    joined Die Briicke. Bleyl, who had not really participated in the pro-
    gram, returned to academic life in 1909. Nolde, essentially a solitary
    artist, remained a member for only one year. Miiller's association

    lasted until the group dispersed shortly before World War I.


    Two prints by Kirchner well illustrate the direction taken by Die
    Briicke. The color woodcut Three Women Conversing of 1906-07, 11

    with its large contoured masses, is part of that newer,more romantic-


    ally inclined balance that was forecast in Munch's woodcut The Kiss.
    The German form of Art Nouveau continued to contribute to this
    revolution, but as the new group sought inspiration elsewhere, a
    synthesis of many styles took place. The black and white Nude Dancers 12
    of 1909 is more immediate and insistently balanced in an altogether
    fresh way. It is perhaps one of the few German prints that links the
    German and French Expressionist movements. Kirchner was to go
    on, typically incorporating primitive and avant-garde influences, to
    create hundreds of prints. His color woodcuts, made after he assimi-

    23
    lated the superficialities of Cubist and Futurist planar elements, are
    particularly engaging.
    The was basic to the expression of Die Briicke
    use of color in prints
    and Printmaking was far better associated with their
    later groups.
    daily creations - and the tradition far stronger - in Germany than in
    France. The formation of organizations by the artists included facilities
    for printmaking as well as exhibiting. Experimentation within this
    community system allowed printmaking to exist at a more powerful
    level than in France, and from the beginning color played a definite

    43 role. Erich Heckel's Franzi Reclining of 1910 shows to what degree


    color could be used in defining flattened space. The figure, simplified
    and distorted, is a combination of sharp angles and sweeping curves
    against an irregular rectangle givenform by the black, slightly angled
    ground. In other instances Heckel distorts the expected by the in-
    clusion, in the Fauvist manner, of unnatural color. Perhaps the best
    known of these works is his Self Portrait of 191 9, in which he experi-
    mented with covering the face with various colors, particularly an
    olive green.
    Schmidt-Rottluff, the only other original member of Die Briicke
    to make prints during its existence, introduced lithography to the
    13> "4 others. His portrait of Heckel of 1909 and Max Pechstein's portrait of

    24
    13 (Jar left) Karl Schmidt-Rottluff
    (1884-1976), Erich Meckel, 1909.
    Lithograph, i^f x I2| (39-6 x 32). James
    Thrall Soby Fund

    14 (left) Max Pechstein (1881-1955),


    Erich Meckel I, 1908. Lithograph,
    17 X iijg- (43 - 32-8). Lent anonymously

    15 Emil Nolde (Emil Hansen) (1867-


    1956), The Prophet, 1912. Woodcut,
    I2| 8g (32 -22-5). Given anonymously

    Heckel of the previous year are examples of the experimental manner


    in which they approached lithography. While they appear technically
    undisciplined or naive, the effects are those that Kirchner, writing in
    the third person of his own style, described carefully: 'His method of
    etching with turpentine produced tonal effects on the stone which had
    never been seen before. His lithos are all hand-printed. He works his

    stones until the preparatory drawing has been made completely


    graphic. That is, the drawn lines vanish and are formed anew by
    etching. Deep blacks alternate with silky grays which are produced by
    the grain of the stone. The soft tonality, resulting from the gray
    portions distributed by the grain of the stone, functions as color and
    gives warmth to the print. In this way Kirchner developed a personal
    lithographic technique which is much richer than the woodcut.' ^ In
    both prints the loose line and gray tones are quite unlike the precise
    crayon-drawn Hthographs of the past. Pechstein's head particularly
    shows the emotionally motivated brush strokes of Expressionist
    painting.
    The foremost of however, were
    the Expressionist lithographs,
    created by Emil Nolde. His Die Briicke was minimal,
    association with
    but he did learn lithography and woodcutting with them. His wood-
    cuts are a skillful blend of deep spirituahty and technical mastery (he

    25
    i6 Otto Miiller (i 874-1930), Two Gypsy Girls in Living Room from Zigeunermappe, 1927. Lithograph,
    272 19I (698 - 50). Gift of Herbert Ziebolz

    17 Max Pechstein (1881-1955), Dialogue, 1920. Woodcut, i5|f / 12-^ (40 32). Gift of Paul J. Sachs

    15 had studied wood-carving during the 1880s). The Prophet of 1912 is a


    powerful example of what can be done with direct carving into a
    plank of wood, revealing a form, as in sculpture, without destroying
    the character of the material. Nolde's lithographs approached the
    brilliance of color characteristic of his watercolors and paintings. He
    demonstrated that there could be great freedom in that medium, and
    was continually fascinated with changing color combinations within
    43 a single composition. In the lithograph The Youn^ Couple of 191 3, the
    slightly swaying figures that seem to be as related to Indonesian dancers
    as to northern Gothic mannerisms are enveloped in sheets of color.

    There were more than sixty-eight variations of colors in the printings


    of this composition, all brilliant and harsh contrasts: blue and green,
    red and pink, yellow and violet, and so on.
    Otto Miiller, the last artist to join Die Briicke, began his association
    in 1 9 10 in Berlin when several of his new colleagues were exhibiting
    with the Neue Sezession. Pechstein was expelled from Die Briicke
    in 1 912 for showing once again with the Neue Sezession after the
    group had decided against exhibiting. In 191 3 Kirchner's Chronicle of

    26
    Die Bnicke appeared, and the remnants of the group disbanded -
    because of disagreement with Kirchner's interpretation of their history,
    it has been said. Miiller's prints, mostly Hthographs, had as their
    dominant subject an idylhc scene of female nudes bathing in a tropical
    setting. The bathers' long torsos and short hair as well as the spiky
    foliage indicate Miiller's interest in African motifs. His gestural crayon
    lines lend to his prints an animated atmosphere that counteracts some-
    what his narrow imagination. A portfolio of color lithographs 16
    depicting gypsies (1927) was his most successful printed work.
    The later prints by members of Die Briicke, executed after they had
    dispersed, were often laden with the diagonals and sharp angles that
    derived to some extent from Futurism and Cubism. At the end of
    World War Kirchner suffered from psychological disturbances. In
    I

    his retreat in theSwiss Alps he worked with compulsive energy,


    creating many jagged woodcuts. Among these is the haunting Winter
    Moonlight done in 191 8. Because he did his own printing, Kirchner 49
    controlled the overprintings of the now traditional unnatural color
    with considerable finesse. At almost the same moment Schmidt-
    Rottluffcut the very geometric Landscape at Dangast{igij). His wood-
    cuts tended toward a systematic angularity which often created a
    stronger impression of folk art than of a compelling expression of
    passion. At about the same time as this unusually serene composition,
    he was also cutting a series of the Stations of the Cross in which his
    leaning toward a Christian primitive tradition manifests itself He was

    18 Karl Schmidt-Rottluir
    (1884- 1 976), Landscape at
    Woodcut,
    Dangast, 19 17.
    1I2X i3i| (292 X 33-8). Gift
    of Mrs. Heinz Schultz
    to outlive every other member of Die whose work
    Briicke. Pechstein,
    was the first best-known woodcut in
    to gain acceptance, created his
    17 1920. The Dialogue is perhaps the most definitive work done by an
    early Expressionist that is motivated almost exclusively by the
    appearance of African sculpture. Unlike Schmidt-Rottluff, who
    executed many woodcuts in African style, Pechstein managed to
    integrate this element without entirely mimicking its superficial
    details.
    There were several artists who, in their mature years, became caught
    up in the Expressionist movement. Christian Rohlfs was already
    almost sixty years old when he began to create woodcuts. He was
    artist in residence at Karl Ernst Osthaus's museum in Hagen (Folk-
    wang Museum in Essen after 1923) until he was almost seventy, and
    it was there, in the midst of an extraordinary collection of van Gogh
    19 Christian Rohlfs (1849-1938), Two Dancers. c. 1913. Woodcut, II - ii|f (28 30-3). Mathew T. Mellon
    Foundation Fund
    20 Lovis Corinth (1858-1925), Death
    and the Artist from Totentanz. Berlin,
    Euphorion, 1921. Etching and drypoint,
    9| V 7 (23-8 X 17-8). Gift of J. B.
    Neumann

    and Gauguin paintings, that he found the inspiration that was to


    give to his compositions a unique quahty of expression. He made
    imaginative use of inks and paints when printing his woodblocks and
    stencils. The Two Dancers, which he cut around 191 3 (later published ^9

    in an edition in the Bauhaus Portfolio in 192 1), appears to derive


    fifth

    both from early German woodcuts of the Dance of Death and from
    imagined movements of primitive ceremonies.
    Lovis Corinth, one of the most proHfic printmakers of the twentieth
    century, was considered a major German Impressionist painter. His
    landscapes and narrative hthographs are generally placid, while many
    of the drypoints and etchings made after a serious illness around 191
    have some of the dramatic force of the best Expressionist art. He was
    part of the Sezession in Berhn, against which the members of Die
    Briicke joined with others in the Neue Sezession. The work of his
    late years consisted almost entirely of prints, and his compelling self
    portrait Death and the Artist (1921) is a merciless dissection of character.

    29
    Itseems to derive from an admiration of Rembrandt and a conscious-
    ness of the new objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) that had emerged
    among the disillusioned in war-torn Germany.
    It was not simply the war that destroyed for many their idealism

    and complacency. Social struggle was ever present, and where the
    illnessesof society pressed insistently against those who preferred to
    ignore them, graphic images aided in the assault. Kathe Kollwitz was

    the wife of a doctor in the slums of Berlin. In her Death and a Woman
    21 Struggling for a Child of 191 1 the excruciating pain of the subject is
    expressed in rounded, classic form. Kollwitz had studied sculpture
    at the Academie Julian in Paris. She continued to create sculpture and
    prints of great emotional power into the 1930s, but her execution
    and compositional structure never had the gestural force of the
    Expressionists.
    Ernst Barlach was a sculptor who used the imagery of northern
    Germany's peasant life, still medieval and laden with Christian

    21 Kathe Kollwitz (i 867-1 945), Death and a Woman Struj^linj^ for a Child, 191 1. Etching,
    i6| X 16^ (409 X 41 i). Gift of Mrs. Theodore Boettger
    22 Ernst Barlach (i 870-1938), The First Day from Metatnorphic Creations of God. Berlin, Paul Cassirer, 1921.
    Woodcut, 10^ 14^ (25-7 36). Gift of Victor S. Riesenfeld

    mysticism, of his unique contribution to Expressionist art.


    as the basis

    His work was almost entirely devoted to divulging a relationship


    between a higher being and man through a rugged and natural
    simplicity. He illustrated his and others' writings with many wood-
    cuts and hthographs. The seven woodcuts for his Metamorphic
    Creations of God {Die Wandlungen Gottes, 1921) are filled with the 22
    monumental power of his sculpture conveyed through figures that
    seem to be hewn from the solid rock of simple faith. Barlach was never
    alHed to a specific Expressionist movement. He was convinced that 'the
    vulgar, universally human, primeval racial feelings ... are great and
    timeless,''^ and like Kollwitz, who was his good friend, he remained
    loyal to the human form as the container of the spiritual in art.

    Having isolated the Expressionist tendencies of German artists, we


    can hardly continue their historical development without taking into
    account the evolution of Cubism and its related movements. At the
    time the exhibitions of the Neue Sezession were taking place in

    31
    Berlin, Munich was the site of two exhibitions of Picasso's paintings,
    in 1909 and 191 1, and the exhibition of the Neue Kiinstlervereinigung,
    from which Der Blaue Reiter sprang, included Cubist works by both
    Picasso and Braque. The art of the Munich artists August Macke,
    Franz Marc, and Wassily Kandinsky merged the vigorous emotional-
    ism that characterized the work of the Dresden and Berlin artists with
    the analytical exploration of form, color, and movement that was the
    basis for much of the new art throughout Europe. The German
    manifestation was, as is to be expected, more graphic than French
    Cubism or Italian Futurism. Thus, it is impossible to see the few
    Cubist prints as having had much influence on the woodcuts that
    continued to be produced by German-based artists.
    Wassily Kandinsky had studied law in Moscow but turned to
    painting at the age of thirty. He studied in Munich and formed a
    group there. Phalanx, which was oriented toward Art Nouveau as
    well as Post-Impressionist French art. After participating in the Munich
    Sezession, he was instrumental in founding the Neue Kiinstlervereini-
    gung, from which he broke in 191 1. With Franz Marc and Gabriele
    Miinter he formed the association Der Blaue Reiter. They envisioned
    and later published a periodical that reflected their ideas. As they
    brought together works and articles for the publication, they also
    organized two exhibitions. The second, during March-April 1912,
    was devoted exclusively to drawings and prints and included works
    by Die Briicke artists as well as Arp, Braque, Derain, Klee, Malevich,
    and Picasso. Probably for the first time outside of Kahnweiler's
    gallery in Paris, Picasso's earliest Cubist etchings (for Max Jacob's
    book Saint Matorel) were shown.
    Marc discussed the exhibition in the Almanack der Blaue Reiter
    (Munich, R. Piper Verlag, 191 2) and wrote about the 'savages' (the
    term equivalent to Fauves which he considered descriptive of himself
    and other German Expressionists) 'The young French and Russian
    :

    artists who exhibited with them as guests had a liberating effect.

    They made one think. One came to understand that art was concerned
    with the deepest things, that a true revival could not be a matter of
    form but had to be a spiritual rebirth. Mysticism awoke in their souls
    and with it the primeval elements of art. . . They have a different
    .

    goal: to create symbols for their age, symbols for the altars of a new
    spiritual religion. The artist as a technician will simply vanish behind
    such works.' This mysticism, which Kandinsky clarified in his book

    32
    23 Wassily Kandinsky (i 866-1944), plate 8 from Kliinge. Munich, R. Piper, 191 3. Woodcut, page 1 1-^ x 11
    (28-3 X 28). Louis E. Stern Collection

    Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1912), was a needed element in making


    art out of intellectual and emotional input.
    Kandinsky decorated both his own book and the Almanack der
    Blaue Reiter with woodcuts, but his most cogent and encompassing
    Expressionist prints appeared in his book of poetry, Kldnge (Munich, 23
    R. Piper Verlag, 191 These images range from Russian folk art and
    3).

    Jugendstil motifs to purely abstract compositions that are some of the


    foundation blocks for one wing of truly twentieth-century art.
    Throughout the stylistic changes in the illustrations there runs a
    naturalizing strain that links the abstract with a sense of life and the
    forms of reality.
    Franz Marc's prints developed from the of nature,
    idyllic depiction
    particularly animals in natural settings, to dynamic
    composi- abstract
    24 tions in which all elements are electrifyingly set into motion. Killed in
    the Battle of Verdun in 191 6, he had only a few years to move from
    Fauve-like sensitivity to the synthesis of science and mysticism that
    functioned tor him, as it did for Kandinsky, as the true foundation
    of reality. This allowed him to separate subject from realistic form,
    not only as Die Briicke artists did, by distortion and unnatural color,
    but by introducing compositional constructions that would expand
    the nature of experience and supersede empirical reality.

    24 Franz Marc (1880-1916), Riding School, 1913. Woodcut, lof ii| (27 29-8). Gift of Abby Aldnch
    Rockefeller
    25 Wilhelm Lehmbruck (1881-1919), Apparition, 1914. Drypoint, 7 9-^ (17-8 • 23-6). Gift of Samuel A.
    Berger

    August Macke, who died in 9 1 4, and Paul Klee were other members
    1

    of Der Blaue Reiter who made prints. Macke's few woodcuts hardly
    reflect his exceptional gifts or his successful assimilation, in his paintings,
    of Robert Delaunay's color theories (Orphism). Klee, though not yet
    sure of his direction, appears to have acquired freedom from the be-
    labored execution of his early etchings. Most of the early Expressionists
    made etchings or drypoints. Nolde's are the most assured, but they
    and those of Kirchner, Pechstein, and Schmidt-Rottluff have very
    little of the excitement generated by the woodcuts and Hthographs of

    the same artists.


    There was, during the early decades of this century, a now forgotten
    proHferation of sentimental but technically refmed etchings. In
    reaction to these almost mechanically made commodities, many of the
    Expressionist artists sought to create effects of spontaneity upon their
    copper or zinc plates, allowing mistakes and foul bitten areas to remain

    35
    part of their compositions. It was not unusual for an artist such as the

    sculptor Wilhelm Lehmbruck to fill a plate with figure sketches in


    which each line from which the forms grew remains. Most of Lehm-
    bruck's tenuous drypoints were created in Paris between 1910 and
    1914 and, hke the drypoints of the Cubists of the same period, have
    the quality of sketches wherein compositional problems are worked
    25 out directly. The trial proof of Apparition (1914) belonged to Heinrich
    Stinnes of Cologne, the first comprehensive collector of late nine-
    teenth- and twentieth-century prints.
    World War I was a major determinant in the future of all the artistic
    movements. Lehmbruck had to return to Germany at the beginning
    of hostilities. As has already been noted, several prominent German
    artists lost their hves in the war. Kandinsky and other Russian artists

    in both Germany and France went back to their homeland. In France


    the departure of many artists for army duty destroyed the continuity
    of their common creative goals. The deportation of German ahens
    and seizure of their property, as in the case of the art dealer and pub-
    hsher D.H. Kahnweiler, ruptured the commerce of art. Of his com-
    rade in the development of Cubism, Picasso remarked that after
    Braque left for the army, he never saw him again. While this was not
    actually the case, it was true that the two men never again shared the
    closely allied spirit that gave birth to the classical (as opposed to
    romantic) form of abstraction, Cubism.

    36
    Cubism and early abstract
    movements

    During the time that Expressionism expanded and matured in


    Germany it was intensely concerned with graphics. The flourishing
    of printmaking in the Expressionist movement was a positive contri-
    bution to a long tradition. Kirchner even based his inspiration on the
    actual appearance of Diirer's woodblocks, which he saw in Nurem-
    berg. There was, in addition, the appeal of folk art, which intensified
    the tendency toward a craftsman-like approach to the making of art
    works and particularly prints. In contrast, the vital expansion of
    lithography in France during the 1890s was attached to a workshop
    situation involving printers and specialists. Whereas the members of
    Die Briicke, for example, worked together for a few years as a com-
    mune and shared their printing facilities, the artists in Paris were more
    independent, at least during their working periods. Even the least
    salable graphics were printed by professional printers in Paris.
    It is no wonder that very few prints in the Analytical Cubist style

    developed by Braque and Picasso were printed during the period of the
    movement. The two artists devoted their energies to expanding a
    painterly mode which, having taken the work of Cezanne as a point of
    departure, was concerned with volume rather than line. There were,
    of course, attempts by the Cubists to translate the simultaneity of
    visual impressions of volume, which they depicted in shaded planes in
    their paintings, into hnear form. Picasso attempted the first prints in
    this style in his illustrations for Max Jacob's book Saint Matorel,
    pubhshed by Kahnweiler in 191 1.

    Before executing the four etchings for Saint Matorel in the Catalan
    village of Cadaques, where he spent the summer of 1910, Picasso made
    two small drypoints that begin to translate natural form into geometric
    form. Following the precepts of Cezanne, whose memorial retro-
    spective in Paris in October 1907 was of momentous import to the

    37
    c — ' ^fciii.\

    26 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973),


    Two Nude Figures, 1909.
    Drypoint, 5^ 4t| (i3
    • ' 1 1)-
    Purchase Fund

    future Cubists, Picasso in 1909 composed human and still life alike 'in
    terms of the cylinder, the sphere, the cone, all seen in perspective, so
    ^
    that each side of an object or plane is directed toward a central point.'
    26 From the experimental drypoint Tti'o Nude Figures to the plates of
    27 Saint Matorel was a giant step in expanding Cezanne's formal concept.
    The compositions are built from a series of planes that are centrally
    attached to a frame of lines following the basic formal structure of the
    subject: a human body, still life, or building. The subject is centrally
    oriented and, allowed large areas of the
    as in his paintings, Picasso has

    rectangular composition to remain unembellished. This adherence to


    the classical formula for portraiture and figure representation exem-
    plifies a fundamental difference between the Cubists and the work of

    the Fauves and other Expressionists who covered the picture plane as
    tightly as possible. In both cases, however, the artists were actively
    destroying the concept of the creation of an illusion of depth in their
    pictures. The idea of restricting the definition of form to bare

    38
    lyii.l^rypouu.
    lacob.Pans,Kahnvvciler,
    ^^'^'^
    ., Pablo P.casso (x88:-x973),
    plate
    1^^;^^^'^' ''
    Louis E. Stern Collection
    pige loi X 8| (26-7 X 22-2).
    28 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Still Life with
    Drypoint, ig^g^ x 12 (50 / 30-5).
    Bottle, 1912.
    Acquired through the Lilhe P. Bhss Bequest

    essentials, which was the abstracting tendency of the Expressionists,


    was carried into the realm of intellect by 'the Cubists. After defining
    the basic structure of their subjects, the Cubists examined simul-
    taneously the natural direction of each component and as many aspects
    as possible of these components seen sequentially.
    In 191 1 and 191 2 Picasso and Braque synthesized their increasingly
    complex, analytical pictorial approach by restricting their formerly
    simultaneous depiction of objects to one or two aspects only. This
    occurred most defmitively with their collages in 1912. A series of
    planes almost entirely parallel to the picture plane was created, texture
    and color creating the effect of some visual sequence. At about the
    28, 2g same moment they both executed drypoints that recorded the tran-
    sition then taking place. In both drypoints the introduction of lettering
    establishes the frontal and direct relationship of the subject, a still life.

    40
    29 Georges Braque (1882-1963), Fox,
    ~
    1912. Drypoint, 21^ y 15 (546 j8).
    Purchase Fund

    with the surface of the paper. These two drypoints, printed by Delatre
    in 1 912 for Kahnweiler, were published in editions of one hundred.
    One other drypoint by Braque was printed, and seven others were
    rejected by Kahnweiler. After the rejected plates were found by
    William S. Lieberman in 1948, they were published for the first time,
    in editions of fifty and thirty-five, by Aime Maeght.
    Picasso's primacy in the development of Cubism was known to very
    few. Except for the rare appearance of one of his Cubist paintings in
    Kahnweiler's gallery, Picasso remained for most the painter of
    acrobats. It was his colleague in Cubism, Braque, who had not en-
    joyed an earlier success as had Picasso, who showed his work and
    suffered the brunt of some of the critical outrage. (It was in Braque's
    saw 'little cubes' and to
    early blocklike landscapes that Henri Matisse
    which Louis Vauxcelles referred when he wrote in 1908, 'He is con-

    41
    temptuous of form, reduces everything, sites and figures and houses
    to geometric schemes, to cubes.' ^) Although he occasionally sent a
    painting to the Salons, not even Braque was at the center of the move-
    ment as far as the public knew. It was the exhibition of a group of
    Cubists at the 191 1 Salon des Independants that brought the new
    attitude toward objective painting to greater attention, and neither of
    its two initiators was included. Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri

    Le Fauconnier, Fernand Leger, and Robert Delaunay were allowed to


    show as a group, and Apollinaire labeled them 'Cubists' when they
    were invited to show in Brussels that June. In 191 2 Gleizes and Met-
    zinger, the first artists to explain this new art in their book Du Cubisme
    (19 1 2), met with Jacques Villon at his studio in Puteaux and decided
    to show together in an exhibition they were to call Section d'Or. Most
    of the artists included in that exhibition worked according to some
    version of the Cubist formula. Villon, his brothers Marcel Duchamp
    and Raymond Duchamp- Villon, Francis Picabia, Juan Gris, Louis
    Marcoussis, Leger, Alexander Archipenko, Andre Dunoyer de
    Segonzac, and many others exhibited. For the most part they were
    more science-oriented and less instinctive than Picasso and Braque.
    There is less evidence, too, of the influence of primitive art.
    It is at this point that we can again pick up the thread of printmaking,

    for Villon became the most prolific Cubist printmaker and Marcoussis
    executed one of the most important Cubist images in print. Villon,
    much older than his exhibiting colleagues, had worked in etching,
    as we have seen, for more than a dozen years. His distillation of the

    Cubist idiom was accompHshed in easy stages, from his laconic


    JO volumetric portrait Renee, three-quarters view (191 1) to the planar
    31 definition of his Portrait of a Young Woman and the nearly complete
    J2 abstraction of T/ieD/««er Table {igi}). He was to continue throughout
    his life to construct his compositions from the arcs, wedges and oblique
    geometric forms that he devised before World War I.
    The Polish Louis Marcoussis, another artist who, like Villon,
    started out as a cartoonist and found etching as viable an expressive

    JJ medium as painting, began in 1912 a portrait of Guillaume Apollinaire


    which was completed in 1920. Because of its classic pattern of mount-
    ing oblong planes and its subject, the foremost explicator of Cubism,
    this etching and its unique earlier version (Arensburg Collection,

    Philadelphia Museum of Art) embody the essence of Cubist print-


    making. In the hands of Villon and Marcoussis the Cubist-inspired

    42
    K^e» ~*>^

    30 lacques Villon (Gaston Duchamp) (1875-1963), Renee, three-quarters view, 191 1. Drypoint, 2i| 16^
    (55 41-4). Purchase Fund

    31 lacques Villon (Gaston Duchamp) (1875-1963), Portrait of a Yoiwg Woman, 1913- Drypoint, 21^ - 16^
    (547 41-3). Gift in memory of Peter H. Deitsch

    i2 Jacques Villon (Gaston Duchamp) (1875-1963), The Dinner Tahh\ 1913. Drypoint, ii| 15 (28-2 38).
    Purchase Fund

    '" '
    '
    lit
    .'3-'
    -^^
    ,'5*«.i '
    ^
    "*iiL,^ -

    fiR-
    33 Louis Marcoussis (1883-1941), Portrait of Guillaume
    Apollinaire, 1912-20. Etching and drypoint, 19^ / io-j|-
    (50 X 27-7). Given anonymously.

    34 Louis Marcoussis (1883-1941), Still Life: Zither and


    Seashell, 1922. Etching and aquatint, 203 /
    GUILLAiiAM XPOLLIN/mT 27I (52 / 70-
    Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Fund
    LACARTELETlffi

    35 Juan Gris (1887-1927), plate 2 from Ne


    coupez pas Mademoiselle ou Les crreurs de
    P.T.T. by Max Jacob. Paris, Galerie Simon,
    1921. Lithograph, page 123 x 8J (31-7 x 22-5).
    Louis E. Stern Collection

    printchanged from an enigmatic linear rendering of a painterly idiom,


    aspurveyed by Picasso and Braque, to a solid, geometricized depiction
    in balanced quantities of dark and light. As was to be expected, this
    refinement was to become more and more decorative. A synthetic
    etching and aquatint of subhme contrasts, Marcoussis's 5^/7/ Life: 34
    Zither and Seashell (1922) is, however, a noble parent to geometrical
    abstraction.
    The war interrupted the flourishing of the Cubist idiom among
    French artists. Juan Gris, like Picasso a Spanish national, was able to
    continue painting in France during the war. He, too, was associated
    with Kahnweiler, and while he made few attempts at printmaking in
    his short hfetime, he did illustrate several books. His lithographs for
    Ne coupez pas Mademoiselle (Galerie Simon, 1921), a poem in collage 35
    style by Max Jacob, are simplified and more readable than his prewar
    paintings. They are true illustrations, referring directly to the text.^
    The showcard lettering and flowery script which identify the illustra-
    tion are also important compositional forms.

    45
    36 Henri Laurens (i 885-1954), cover from

    by Raymond Radiguet. Paris,


    Les Pelican
    Galene Simon, 1921. Etching, page i2|
    816 (324 -zi-y). Louis E. Stem Collection

    37 Robert Delaunay (1885-1941), The Eiffel


    Tower, 1926. Transfer lithograph, 24^ ^175
    (6i-6 X 45). Purchase Fund

    Most Cubist-manner sculpture was executed quite late in the period


    of Cubism's development. Much of it was created by foreigners in
    Paris (Archipenko, Jacques Lipchitz, Max Weber), but Henri Laurens,
    deferred from military duty, was the only Frenchman who devoted
    his main energies to developing the Cubist idiom in sculpture. His
    36 etchings for Raymond Radiguet's book Les Pelican (Galerie Simon,
    192 1), though quite simply linear, allude to the sense of dimensional
    movement in Laurens's sculpture.
    While his few prints are composed after specific paintings and done
    sixteen years after them, Robert Delaunay's lithographs of buildings
    are among the most vital Cubist graphics. After the early proto-
    Cubist landscapes, the subjects which the Cubist artists preferred for
    their compositions were and figures (generally three-
    still lifes

    37 quarters and seated). The transfer lithograph of The Eiffel Tower


    (1926, after the paintings of 1910-11) is solely in black and white,
    clearly exposing the raw bones of Delaunay's fragmented approach.
    After 191 1 Delaunay moved very quickly away from the dynamic

    46
    vision of The EiffelTower to a purely abstract concept of simultaneous
    color relationships, which Apollinaire named 'Orphism.'
    Elsewhere, the effects of Delaunay's surging apocalyptic composi-
    tions helped to inspire two American-born artists, John Marin and
    Lyonel Feininger. Marin had been in Europe between 1905 and 191
    and was not only familiar with the artistic developments in Paris
    but was a member of Alfred Stieglitz's gallery in New York, where
    Picasso's Cubist work was seen before most of Paris knew about it.
    Marin's Woolworth Building {The Dance) (1913) combines etching with 38
    staccato drypoint, less solid in Cubist structure than the French
    its

    idiom and more allied to the usage made of Cubist effects by Der
    Blaue Reiter. Feininger spent most of his life in Germany, first work-
    ing as a cartoonist. Between 1906 and 1908 he used his whimsical
    imagination on the Parisian scene. He was intrigued by the work of
    his acquaintance Delaunay when he saw it during a visit to Paris in

    191 1 and made use of the new ideas. While Franz Marc went in the
    same Delaunay after seeing the latter's work in
    coloristic direction as
    Paris in 1912, Feininger was clearly more interested in intersection
    and fragmentation of planes in his etching and drypoint The Gate 39
    (19 1 2). Like Marin he contrasts the strength, size, and vibrancy of

    38 John Marin (1870-1953), Woolworth Building {The Dance), 1913. Etching, i3iVx lof {^3 27). Edward
    M. M. Warburg Fund

    39 Lyonel Feininger (1871-1956), The Gate, 1912. Etching and drypoint, io|^ 7^ {ij 19-8). Gift of Mrs.
    Donald B. Straus

    r
    buildings clashing with the sky with the minute and insignificant
    dwellers of such magnificent space.
    Generally, the other artists who lived in Paris during the years when
    Cubism was developing did not make prints that reflected their
    alignment with the basic Cubist forms. Leger made his first print
    in 1920, well after his interest in machines had entirely changed his
    methods of composition. However, this historical survey is primarily
    interested in the classical print as it was transformed in modern times,
    and for this reason Leger's designs for Blaise Cendrars's La Fin du
    40 Monde (Editions de la Sirene, 1919) are important. The use of letter
    forms and color in a simultaneous yet fugal manner is, like the literary
    calligrammes of Apollinaire, a collage formula emerging out of
    Cubism. After the Cubists put letters (not always in the recognizable
    form of words) into their compositions, it was not surprising that
    letters themselves should become primary compositional elements.
    The plates from La Fin du Monde combine line block for the black
    areas and watercolor applied by brush through stencils. Stencil, at
    the moment when Leger needed it, was exclusively a commercial
    process. {Pochoir, the French word for stencil, implies the method of
    hand application used for Leger's illustrations.) Stencil was to be
    developed later into a more directly acknowledged fme-print
    medium, but the early date of Leger's illustrations negatively pre-
    judiced attention toward them.
    Before World War I Paris was the indisputable meeting ground for
    artists. There was great mobility among the fervent adherents to

    home-developed art movements, so that it was quite natural for


    Futurists from Italy to seek recognition and ideas in Paris, distill
    what they found, and move it on to England and back to Italy.
    Artists from Russia and Central Europe moved back and forth.
    Frank Kupka (who lived with the Duchamp brothers at Puteaux)
    and Marc Chagall (who lived in Paris from 1910 to 1914) partook of
    Delaunay's ideas. In the meantime, the Russian artists who remained
    home were able to view the marvelous collections of Sergei Shchukin
    and Ivan Morosov, which contained Cezannes and even Picasso's
    paintings done after 1907. The creation of the purist abstraction, De
    Stijl, in Holland was spurred by the return of Piet Mondrian from

    Paris during the war.


    While there was considerable awareness of all the varieties of Cubist
    inspiration outside of Paris, therewas little motivation to make prints

    48
    40 Fernand Leger:(i88i-i955), page 41 from La Fin du Monde by Blaise Cendrars. Paris, La Sirene, 1919.
    Pochoir, page 125 x 9| (31-7 x 25). Louis E. Stern Collection
    on the part of those artists who were involved in the new esthetic.
    Lacking both the encouragement that Kahnweiler provided in Paris
    and the almost hereditary need that the Germans had to make prints,
    artists outside these two areas used their main energies to experiment

    and develop further paths toward abstraction. If artists in Paris had


    their difficulties coming to terms with the print media after the
    glorious 1 890s, the artists of Italy existed in a printmaking void. Of
    the artists who were to participate in the most dynamic (and voluble)
    of the early twentieth-century art movements, Futurism, only
    Boccioni, Carra, and Severini made prints. Boccioni's etchings
    precede exposure to the force of the Parisian Cubists in 191 1;
    his
    Carra's etchings were made after his involvement with de Chirico
    and Metaphysical painting; and Severini recapitulated and contem-
    porized his Futurist imagery in color lithographs after World War II.
    In England the Vorticist movement included two artistswho made
    outstanding prints: Charles Wadsworth, whose woodcuts are the
    purest examples of Vorticist abstraction, and C. R. W. Nevinson,
    whose best wartime etchings parallel Boccioni's and Severini's
    paintings of that period.
    An
    important concern became the creation of propaganda for the
    several abstractmovements. Changed ideas about the relative values
    of elements in picture composition quite radically affected the typo-
    graphy of their various manifestoes. Such attention to public design
    by those deeply involved in personal painting became, after World
    War I, of the motivation behind the Bauhaus. The
    a significant part
    characteristic tendency toward the geometrical in abstract form
    nearly obliterated for a short time the more Expressionistic method of
    abstraction.
    In Russia before the revolution of 191 7, the incHnation toward
    abstraction was considerable. In 191 3 the pubhcation in St. Petersburg
    of several pamphlets by the Russian Futurist poets gave Kasimir
    Malevich, NataHe Goncharova, and other artists the opportunity to
    create small Uthographic illustrations. These are the few prints to
    show the Russian interpretation of Cubist and Futurist influences.
    41 Malevich's Simultaneous Death of a Man in an Airplane and at the
    Railway (191 3) for the poem Vzorval (Explodity) by Alexei
    Kruchenyckh shows his assimilation of the contemporary iconology
    from which the Futurists derived their fresh and forceful imagery.
    Underlying the subject of simultaneity of experience in Malevich's

    50
    4 ffr'^^'"'^^^^

    41 Kasimir Malevich (1878-1935), Sinniltancous Death of a Man in an Airplane and at the Railway from Vzorval
    by Alexei Kruchenyckh. St. Petersburg, 19 13. Lithograph, 3-^ x 5^ (9 x 14). Gift of Celeste Bartos

    small lithograph is the structural strength of geometric form, which

    began to be distilled into the purity of Suprematism (a backdrop for


    Kruchenyckh's opera Victory over the Sun of 19 13 was a black and
    white square). After the revolution, aiming toward cultural activity
    for all people, the Russian artists worked in all areas: theater, environ-
    ment, propaganda. For a time, under Trotsky, ethnic revival was en-
    couraged, and both ChagaU and El Lissitzky worked on propagating a
    Jewish folk art through their painting and design. After Lenin's
    policies gained power, the artists became more restricted as to what
    activities they were allowed to participate in. As repression became
    suppression, they left Russia. They brought to their place of refuge,
    Germany for most, their well-established geometrical abstraction,
    which was to confront the adherents of Expressionism.
    Chagall, as he passed through Berlin, executed his first prints,

    drypoints to illustrate his folk autobiography My Life (Mein Leben)

    (1922). The text was not pubhshed until many years later, but the
    prints, which are a combination of incidents with character portraits,

    tell the story weU enough. Chagall's provincial fantasizing displays

    51
    42 Jacques Villon (Gaston Duchamp) (1875-1963), Game of Solitaire, 1903. Etching and aquatint,
    13! I7t (34'6 44). Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Fund

    43 Erich Heckel (1883-1970), Franzi Reclining, 1910. Woodcut, 8i| •


    16^ (22-7 42). Gift of Mr. and
    Mrs. Otto Gerson
    44 Georges Rouault (1871-1958), Clown ai)d
    Monkey, 1910. Monotype, 22f 153
    (575 38-7)- Gift of Mrs. Sam A. Lewisohn

    45 Emil Noldc (Emil Hansen) (1H67-1956),


    Youngs Couple, 191 3. Lithograph, 24-^
    •
    2O3
    (62 51). Purchase Fund
    46 Marc Chagall (1889-1985), The Grandfathers from Meiti Leben. Berlin, Paul
    Cassirer, 1923. Drypoint, io|x 8^ (276 x 21-6). A. Conger Goodyear Fund

    occasionally vestigial Cubist influences. However, his dreamlike


    visions aredependent upon a looser form of structure that developed
    46 into a manner unique to Chagall. The Grandfather<: from My Life
    represents as well as any print of the 1920s the dilution of Cubism's
    forms with narrative concerns.

    54
    4 Postwar Expressionism and
    nonobjective art in Germany

    As WE HAVE SEEN, there was


    diminution in the output of the
    little

    German Expressionist the war. Faced with disillusion,


    artists after

    they had even more reason to pour out their feelings through their
    art. Younger artists, far more bitter in their approach, participated in
    the nihilistic Dada Cologne or contri-
    manifestations in Ziirich and
    buted to on mankind's weaknesses. The latter group of
    a biting attack
    artists who evinced this 'new objectivity,' eager to rub the public

    nose in the moral decay of the times, made extensive use of graphic
    art. The most critical artists among them were George Grosz and

    Otto Dix. They represented in their prints not only the ugliness of the
    perpetrators of war but the vulgar decadence of those who wallowed

    47 Otto Dix (1891-1969), The War I, 6: Wounded {Fall igi6 Bepaume). Berlin, Nierendorf, 1924. Etching and
    ^ ii| (19-6 - 28-9). Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller
    aquatint, 7|
    48 George Grosz (1893-1959), plate 5 from Im Schatten. Berlin, Malek, 1921. Lithograph, 14I •
    lof (375
    27). Purchase
    49 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938), IVinler Moonlight, 1919. Woodcut, 12^ •
    iif (30-6 x 29-5). Purchase
    Fund

    in its aftermath. Grosz, in his portfolios Im Schatten and Gott mit uns, 48
    used his sharp wit to pinpoint the current immorahty through the
    confrontation of broadly caricatured participants. Dix created in his
    portfolio of fifty etchings War (Berlin, Karl Nierendorf, 1924) a 47
    twentieth-century and decidedly Germanic counterpart to Francisco
    Goya's Disasters of War (1810-20). Dix illustrated with caustic candor
    the horrors of a battlefield peopled with half-human figures wearing
    the distinctive helmets of the German army.
    57
    Max Beckmann was a successful artist before the war. Returning
    from the medical corps and deeply moved by the discouraging state
    of German society, he was able, partly through a greater sensitivity to
    his media, to convey a more generalized view of this frenetic period
    than Dix and Grosz. His compositions often rely on the simultaneous
    representation of several facets of a subject and have much in them
    that recalls early Expressionism. His portfolioof large lithographs.
    Die Holle (Hell) (1919), presents a panorama of the seamy Hfe of the
    time under excruciatingly sharp magnification. The sprawling
    50 angular figures in Night (a painting of the same composition was made
    in 1 91 8-1 9) from this portfolio are contained by
    segmented back-
    a
    ground that gives the effect of seeing many aspects of life as through a
    prism. Beckmann often used this compositional system to offer
    more visual information than would ordinarily appear within a
    classical framework.

    50 Max Beckmann (1884-1950), Night from Die Hoik, Berlin, J. B. Neumann, 1919. Lithograph,
    2i| y 27! (555 ' 70). Purchase Fund
    51 Max Beckmann (i 884-1950),
    Self Portrait with Bowler Hat, 1 92 1.

    Drypoint, 12^ 9f {31 , 24-4).


    Given anonymously

    The simple portrait was turned into a container of considerable


    psychological complexity by the Expressionist artists of this time.
    Beckmann's Self Portrait with Bowler Hat (i 921), in its first state, is a 51
    contrived, theatrical presentation of the subject. The strong diagonals
    of studio paraphernalia are carried over into the world-weary expres-
    sion of the artist's face. Even the bowler hat is formed from patches of
    angled lines made by the drypoint; the allover pattern of lines is used
    independent of the forms described. Oskar Kokoschka's tortured
    Self Portrait (1923) more brutal in its angularity. This Austrian
    is far 52
    artist, who began work in the Viennese Secession style, spent the
    to
    early years of Expressionism illustrating his own poems and plays and
    representing subjects that lent themselves to extremely passionate
    execution. His highly charged gestural line in the many Hthographs
    he made both in the early decades of this century and a half a century
    later, while ever at the service of a recognizable subject, was one of

    the links between the Expressionist movements of those two periods.

    59
    '-"*-> ^"""'' ""
    -r. ..... u-."P^. «^^ "*
    o... K„u„»... (.»-.,.o..
    ,

    ,
    53 Josef Albers (1888-1976), Self Portrait, 1917. Transfer lithograph,
    18^ X 12 (47 X 305). John B. Turner Fund

    An earlier portrait by an artist who was going to follow an entirely


    different path is Josef Albers's Self Portrait (1917)- This crayon Htho- 53
    graph, in which the surface broken up into facets, is a student's
    is

    attempt to construct human form from geometric elements. Like


    much of the regional reaction to Cubism, only the superficial ele-
    ments remain. However, Albers was to go on, first as a student and
    then as a master, at the Bauhaus, distilling the ideas he took from
    Cubism fragmentation and simultaneity. Although in the years of
    :

    his association with the Bauhaus he made few prints, his study of

    61
    light and color during his work in stained glass there played a major
    role in printmaking four decades later.
    Lyonel Feininger, Wassily Kandinsky, and Paul Klee were earlier
    masters at the Bauhaus. The architect Walter Gropius took over the
    Weimar Schools of Arts and Crafts in 1919 and combined them into
    the unique institution of the State Bauhaus. There, throwing together
    artists, craftsmen, and architects, he insisted that all should have

    practical experience and that all minds should be open to the rising
    idea that there was a 'universal unity in which all opposing forces
    exist in a state of balance.' ^ In practice this led to the integration of the
    visual and practical arts by dividing the teaching of each subject into
    form and craft. Since the substructure of the Bauhaus was architec-
    tural, it was to be expected that geometrical elements became more
    pronounced in the work of some of the mature artists. Feininger's
    woodcuts, which he cut in sharp rectangular forms or straight lines,
    were most often of architectural views. If they pictured landscape
    alone, it was generally of the sea, and the strong horizon became a
    foundation for the prismatic rendering of the effect of light in the
    sky and on water. His woodcut for the cover of the Bauhaus manifesto
    34 of 1919 combines a concern for structure (a cathedral) with the
    idealism of a new spiritual movement (Socialism).
    Paul Klee joined the Bauhaus in 1920. He had experienced many
    influences before the war, including that of Der Blaue Reiter and the
    romantic atmosphere of Tunisia, but he was able to clarify his attitude
    toward the creation of art only at the Bauhaus. There he was moti-
    vated to convey to the students the processes from which creative
    acts emerged. At the same moment as he was compiling his thoughts,
    he was exposed to the strong geometrical abstract forces from Holland
    (van Doesburg taught in Weimar, though not at the Bauhaus) and
    from Russia (Kandinsky joined the Bauhaus in 1922 after having
    purged his work of natural motifs under the influence of the Suprema-
    tists and Constructivists). However, Klee rarely discarded the human

    or naturalist element from his compositions. His fantasizing upon the


    observations he continually made of nature and human nature
    found form quite frequently in an imaginative childlike rendering.
    He often allowed his etching style to freely fmd an image on the
    plate. He made use of a technique similar to frottage (rubbing)
    by drawing his forms over wet ink, which produced a blotted and
    grainy monotype. (Gauguin had created a series of monotypes by

    62
    54 Lyonel Feininger (i 871-1956), Cathedral
    (Bauhaus program), 1919. Woodcut, 12 7^
    (30-4 19). Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller
    '

    this method in the early 1900s.) In Klee's Hthograph Tightrope


    Walker (1923) the black hnes are produced by this type of transfer. 55
    For all the rhythmic, straight, intersecting lines and abstract color
    planes, Klee's special sense of satire remains deftly balanced. During
    that same Kandinsky was to create his finest lithograph
    year, 1923, 56
    in the full geometric was to remain his until his death. He
    style that
    had, the year before, produced a portfoho of etchings, woodcuts,
    and hthographs {Kleine Welten, 1922) which are a visual survey of
    his formal progress from Expressionist abstraction after nature to a
    more rigid structuralization. Always more romantic than his Con-
    structivist contemporaries, Kandinsky continued to insinuate variable
    forms (such as the three double lumps on the right) which, with the
    mathematically impure arrangement of his compositional elements,
    promote a mystical interpretation.

    6i
    WiFTWW
    isi (406 Purchase Fund
    56 Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), Orange, 1923. Lithograph, 16 38-4).

    Paul Klee (1879-1940), Tightrope Walker, 1923. Transfer lithograph, 17^ ^ lof (435 ' 27)- Given
    55 {left)

    anonymously
    57 Lazlo Moholy-Nagy (i 895-1946), plate i from Konstmktionen, 1923. Hanover, Ludwig Ey, 1923.
    Lithograph, 235 / ly-jf- (60 .'
    455). Lent anonymously

    58 El Lissitzky (Lazar Markovitch) (1890-1941) plate I from Proun. Hanover, Ludwig Ey, 1923. Lithograph,
    14 •
    13^ (35-5 34-4)- Purchase Fund

    In 1923 the Bauhaus held its first exhibition, and a new faculty
    member was introduced, the Hungarian Lazlo Moholy-Nagy. Just
    two years before he had met El Lissitzky, the Russian Constructivist
    who, like Kandinsky, left his homeland for Germany in 1921. The
    57 lithographs made by the Hungarian innovator in the arts of design,
    s5 light, and motion, and those made in the same year by Lissitzky,
    who was the catalytic figure in the merging of the Russian, Dutch, and
    German ideas of nonobjective art, reveal not only similarities but the
    tentative emergence of a new graphic medium. Mechanically pro-
    duced tones, lines drawn with a ruler, the techniques and materials
    of the designer were used to create works of art made up of pure
    geometrical shapes. The Kestner-Gesellschaft in Hanover, set up in
    1 91 6, chose Lissitzky and Moholy-Nagy to create portfolios of
    prints for the organization's first publications of original works in
    1923. These photomechanical prints, like those of Kurt Sch witters
    of the same year, occupied a strange no-man's-land in relation to
    fine printmaking of the time, but their fundamental place in the
    evolution of the twentieth-century print is now well established.

    66
    5 Dada and Surrealism

    As World War I gained momentum, a group of artists and writers


    promoted an irreverent view of all human endeavor in their demon-
    strations, writings,and exhibitions in Zurich. From these first mani-
    festations at the Cafe Voltaire in 1916, which became known as
    Dada, arose the ideas that characterized the early work of Jean Arp,
    an Alsatian writer and artist in exile in Switzerland, and Max Ernst, a
    participant with Arp in the postwar Dadaist activities in Cologne.
    Basic to all forms of Dada-inspired work was anti-logic. Rather than
    use established forms of art for criticism or reflection, as the artists of
    the Neue Sachlichkeit did, the Dadaists wished to disencumber
    themselves of all tradition, since even the known structures of art
    were part of the virulent structure of society. Dada was a point of
    view, not a movement, and as such was vitally international. In New
    York Duchamp put the concept of a 'work of art' to test with his
    ready-mades. Francis Picabia had forecast as early as 19 12 the nonsense
    vein of Dada by the titles he invented for his paintings. He was also
    in New York during World War I and promoted the anarchistic
    and witty spirit that was a sort of Dada in Alfred Stieglitz's publica-
    tions Camera Work and 2gi. He joined the Zurich group in 1916 and
    later played a part in the Paris demonstrations. Although neither
    artist created prints in editions during this period, their personal

    contributions at the time of Dada to the roadways that were to be


    followed decades later will be seen to have been extremely significant.
    As the Dada nihilism and irreverence spread, those who participated
    began to create permanent objects (Richard Huelsenbeck, one of the
    poets in the group and the probable originator of the term 'Dada,'
    pubhshed Die Phantastische Gebete illustrated by Arp in 1916) and
    promote exhibitions of examples of art they felt were revolutionary
    (Kandinsky, Kokoschka, Marc, and Picasso). Huelsenbeck returned to

    67
    Lithograph,
    59 Max Ernst (i 891- 1976), plate from Fiat Modes. Pacat Ars. Cologne. Schlonnlch, 1919-
    1S4 X lol (40 X 26-3). Purchase ?vmA
    6o Jean (Hans) Arp (1887-1966), Navel Bottle
    from Arpadeti. Hanover, Merz, 1923.
    Lithograph, i6| 93 (41-6 24-7). Gift of
    J.B. Neumann

    Berlin in 191 7 and, with Grosz and Raoul Hausmann, among others,
    promoted the most important Dada exhibition in 1920. That year
    he wrote, 'Dada was to give the truth a new impetus. Dada was to be a
    rallying point for abstract energies and a lasting slingshot for the
    great international artisticmovements.'^
    After the war Max Ernst returned from the battlefields to Cologne.
    He was aware of Zurich Dada through his friend Arp, and was also
    drawn to the work of Alfred Kubin, Paul Klee, and Giorgio de
    Chirico. His first prints under these influences were contained in an
    album Let There Be Fashion, Down with Art {Fiat Modes, Pereat Ars) 59
    (191 9). Drafted with the care of a mechanical drawing incorporating
    the expected elements of perspective sightings and measurements,
    this transfer Hthograph from the album juxtaposes the anticipated
    with the impossible. As the title definitively explains, tradition is not
    to be venerated, up is down, in is out.
    In 191 5-16 Arp was creating automatic drawings, that is, allowing
    chance to define form. Although Klee had used a similar technique to
    discover later a subject within the unguided lines he set upon paper,

    69
    Arp's lines tended to create abstract compositions of ambiguous
    natural forms. For Arp this combination of chance with the irrational
    amalgamation of life forms (which appeared in his poetry as well as
    his visual art) eventually found form in the portfolio of prints known
    as Arpaden (1923). The single images are totally imaginary, and Navel
    60 Bottle is the most elaborate conjunction of the familiar placed outside
    nature. The stark contrast of black and white lifts the image away from
    the paper in the manner of Arp's jig-sawed wood reliefs of the time.
    Arpaden was a Merz publication, the review issued by the German
    Dadaist Kurt Schwitters, who promoted his idea of using cast-ofF
    materials to create his world view^o under the catchall title 'Merz'
    (from 'Kommerz,' a word in an advertisement used in one of his
    collages). Working in Hanover, where Lissitzky had settled,
    Schwitters published his Merz review from 1923 until 1932.
    Schwitters's Merz portfolio of his own prints was a photomechanical
    collage; like those of Lissitzky of the same year, a few examples had
    61 added collage elements. Schwitters oddly juxtaposed familiar images,
    but also introduced a structure of geometric forms and obliterated
    expected details by manipulating the transcription of the individual
    elements. Many of the prints incorporate lettering, the natural visual
    detritusof Schwitters's contemporary culture.
    The early years of the 1920s saw the migration of the Zurich
    Dadaists in several directions. Tristan Tzara, the spokesman, found his
    way to Paris in 1920, and with other young writers (Aragon, Breton,
    and Eluard) he participated in the earliest Parisian Dadaist manifesta-
    tions.By 1922 a struggle for philosophical primacy between Tzara
    and Breton heralded the end of the Dada petiod. Breton began his
    development of a specific Surrealist doctrine which culminated in a
    manifesto issued in 1924. His defmition included 'pure psychic auto-
    matism' and 'the future resolution of the states of dream and reality . . .

    into a sort of absolute reality, or surrealite. . .


    .'^^Taking Freud and
    certain areas of scientific thought as part of his foundation, Breton
    also revived interest in theSymbolist writers - those artists who made
    manifest in their poetry the very psychological aberrations from
    which Freud drew his theories.
    Among the artists who
    concerned themselves with Breton's
    authoritarian movement werethe former Dada artists Arp and Ernst;
    two young artists who had been involved with Cubism, Andre
    Masson and Joan Miro; a self-taught painter, Yves Tanguy; and the

    70
    Belgian Rene Magritte. It was not until the second period of Sur-

    realism, Breton's manifesto of 1929, that important prints


    after
    by any of the artists, other than book illustrations, were issued. The
    Surreal object began to dominate automatic abstraction, and artists
    such as Salvador DaH and
    Alberto Giacometti joined the movement.
    During the 1930s the elements within the styhstic code of Surreahsm
    began to coalesce. The movement, which essentially was synonymous
    with the close group surrounding Breton, continued to have a vital
    influence into the 1940s, although it was spasmodically ruptured by
    philosophical disagreements.
    During the early, mainly of Surrealism the field
    theoretical, period
    of fine prints lay outside Surrealist philosophy.A typical endeavor
    that turned aside from the established formulae for art forms was
    Max Ernst's album Histoire Naturelle (1926). This was a collection of
    collotypes of frottages, the technique of rubbing that Ernst developed
    as a method of removing his conscious self from the making of

    images. Une Semaine de Bonte ou Les Sept elements capitaux (five 63


    volumes, Paris, Jeanne Bucher, 1934) was a series of reproductions
    of collages made from wood-engravings of the late nineteenth
    century. The personal juxtaposition of persons, animals, and objects
    immediately conveys a sense of the frightening aspects of memory

    61 Kurt Schwitters (i 887-1948), plate 4


    from Merz portfolio. Hanover, Merz,
    1923. Photo-lithograph, 2I5 ' 173
    (53'6 43-8). Gift of J. B. Neumann
    ^'''"""^- ''''' E^^h-g -^d aquannt, 4.^x29 x 737). G.ft of Studebaker-
    Woi^o^, l;,',^^-'^'^)-
    (.04-3
    63 Max Ernst (1891-1976), plate
    25 from Une Semaine de Bonte,
    vol. 4. Paris, Bucher, 1934. Line
    J.
    block, io| X 8| (27-6 X 22). Louis
    E. Stern Collection

    and dream. Ernst described his concept of collage in 1936: 'A ready-
    made reality, whose naive destination has the air ot having been
    fixed, once and for all (a canoe), finding itself in the presence of
    another and hardly less absurd reality (a vacuum cleaner), in a place
    where both of them must feel displaced (a forest), will, by this very
    fact, escape to its naive destination and to its identity; it will pass from
    its through a series of relative values, into a new absolute
    false absolute,

    value, trueand poetic: canoe and vacuum cleaner will make love.
    The mechanism of collage, it seems to me, is revealed by this very
    simple example the coupling of two realities, irreconcilable in
    . . .

    appearance, upon a plane which apparently does not suit them.'^-


    The 175 collages in the five volumes are not interrupted by text and
    so form an extended visual experience considerably broader and more
    detailed than a single picture. By
    using visual material from a time in
    the past, Ernst seems to have introduced in this and several preceding

    73
    64 Andre Masson (1896-1987), plate 2
    from Soleih Bas by Georges Limbour.
    Paris, Galcric Simon, 1924. Dry point,
    page 93 X yf (24 x 19-3). Gift of Walter
    P. Chrysler, Jr.

    65 Andre Masson (1896-1987),


    (right)
    Rapie, 94 1. Drypoint, 125 x 16
    1

    (308 X 40-6). Lent anonymously

    books the element of nostalgia that pervaded much Surrealist imagery.


    Works created in the 1960s, particularly by Eduardo Paolozzi and
    R.B. Kitaj, utilized collage in the same disjointed narrative form that
    Ernst created in Une Semaitie de Bonte. While Ernst was to go on to
    create prints in the established and traditional media, his early use of
    the printed image was innovative.
    Like the Cubist prints, the earliest examples of the so-called
    first

    'fme-print' media that presented Surrealist imagery appeared as


    illustrations in books published by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler. The
    young Andre Masson had been a casualty of World War I, and after
    his confinement in a psychiatric hospital he spent several years
    exploring modern painting, from hnpressionism to Cubism. In 1922
    he became a member of Kahnweiler's Galerie Simon, and before his
    first exhibition there in 1923 he became acquainted with Breton and

    joined the group that was to become the Surrealists. His first prints
    64 were drypoints illustrating Georges Limbour's Soleils Bas (Galerie
    Simon, 1924), and as they date from the year of the first Surrealist

    74
    manifesto, they could be considered the first Surreahst prints. ^-^
    However, their formal structure is still too well defined to allow them
    to accurately reflect Breton's credo, 'pure psychic automatism, by
    which one intends to express ... the real functioning of the mind.' ^"^
    Subsequent illustrations for Robert Desnos's C'est les bottes dcs sept

    me vols' (Galerie Simon, 1926) show that Masson


    lieues cette phrase: 'Je

    was able to break his dependence upon Cubistic structure and give
    free rein to the intricate imagery of his subconscious.
    Masson's adherence to Surreahst tenets was broken in 1933.
    However, he returned to Breton's fold in 1937 and the next year
    contributed an etching to Paul Eluard's small portfolio Solidarite.

    Likemany of the artists and writers who fled to the U.S.A. during
    World War II, he used the rare moment of camaraderie among the
    Surrealists to begin a thorough exploration of automatism and sub-
    consciously derived imagery. Rape (1941). created in Masson's studio 63

    in Connecticut, is one of the few totally automatic prints. Although


    it was not printed until 1957, it is the purest expression of the Surrealist

    75
    philosophy that was to inspire American artists, unencumbered by
    contrived subject-matter. He became a prohfic maker of prints in
    New York, where Curt Valentin played Kahnweiler's role in the
    promotion of editions and illustrated books. Again, in 1943, Masson
    broke with Breton, and subsequent works began to show elements
    derived trom a confrontation w^ith reality rather than released from
    the subconscious. The strong calligraphic tendency arising from auto-
    matism becomes a linear network in the etching Chinese Actors
    (1957), while color quite often has the scintillating appearance of
    pure Impressionism, particularly in the forty lithographs for his
    reminiscence. Voyage a Venise (1952).
    It was Masson who introduced his neighbor Joan Miro to Andre

    Breton in 1924. Lacking the connection with Kahnweiler, Miro did


    not produce any prints during the early years of Surrealism. His first
    prints were small lithographs for Tristan Tzara's L'Arbre des Voyageurs
    (Paris, Montaigne, 1930). Three years later, he produced three etch-
    66 ings for Georges Hugnet's Enfances (Paris, Cahiers d'Art, 1933). These
    plates show biomorphic shapes in opposition to rigid horizontal
    lines. The appearance of soft, rather unstructured forms and indica-

    tions of a distant horizon lend a sense of the timeless and placeless that
    seems related only to the subconscious. Indeed, as late as 1948 Miro
    insisted that his subconscious gave the initial impetus to a composition,
    but itwas equally important to discipline these impulses and give
    them final structure. ^^ Miro had associated with the writers of the
    Surrealist movement from their Dadaist period, and Breton described
    him as 'the most surrealist of us all.' ^^ His work epitomized the visual
    possibilities of the Surrealist doctrine even though he did not go
    through the excessively exotic behavior that characterized Dali's
    concept of a totally Surrealist life. Miro was not a card-carrying
    Surrealist, and it was his independence from Breton's overwhelming
    dogmatism that allowed him to work so freely with his chosen
    imagery. After his tenuous book illustrations of the early 1930s,
    Miro was to develop into a major printmaker. His brief association
    with Louis Marcoussis, who had set up a print workshop in 1933,
    resulted in a number of vigorous drypoints including a series in red
    and black and a Self Portrait (1938), on which Marcoussis also worked.
    The Spanish Civil War had its effect upon the Spanish-born artists
    living in France, and Miro's art developed a fierce, angry character,
    which he modulated during his return to Spain during World War II.

    76
    66 Joan Miro (1893-1983), plate i from Enfances by Georges Hugnet. Paris, Cahiers d'art, 1933.
    Etching, page 1 1 x 8| {28 x 22). Louis E. Stern Collection.

    67 Joan Miro (1893-1983), Barcelona Series XXIII, 1944. Lithograph, 24I x 183% (62 x 47). Purchase
    Fund

    His transfer lithographs known as the Barcelona Series (drawn in 1939 67


    but not printed until 1944) show the manner in which his inherent
    sense of the wry has been modified by the presence ot elements
    denoting threat or impending danger. The Barcelona prints, fitty
    compositions in all, brought Miro face to face with the immense
    creative possibihties in printmaking. In 1947 he went to the U.S.A.,
    where he was to execute a mural for the Terrace Hilton Hotel in
    Cincinnati, Ohio, hi New York, where he painted the mural, he
    found Stanley William Hayter's displaced Ateher 17. In that work-
    shop Miro learned many new intaglio techniques as well as old ones,
    such as the reUef etching method pioneered by the nineteenth-century
    mystic artist and poet William Blake. Miro used this latter method for
    a few prints issued in America and for several series published by his
    dealer Aime Maeght in 1952-53. Series I, also known as The Family,

    in its eight variations of inking, one of Miro's most successful


    is

    prints. The composition is enhanced by the colors, which are used in


    an entirely new manner. Miro's work in ceramics during this period

    77
    seems to have influenced to some extent the complete separation of
    the figures and the incised nature of their outhnes and interior details.
    His imagery returns to a more joyful tone; the signs of stars, birds,
    suns, and physical parts so peculiar to Miro combine in harmonious
    accord.
    Miro's pictographic style utilizedwell-developed but function-
    a
    ally limited symbology which allowedfor a certain breadth of inter-
    pretation but also had the elements of exact meaning. The symbols
    were constantly at the mercy of compositional requirements and
    became transmogrified by variations in Miro's calligraphic rendering.
    He found an affinity with the Oriental letter symbols, which were so
    62 dependent on agile brushwork. In the monumental Equinox (1968)
    executed in his seventy-fifth year, Miro devised signs for the changing
    seasons and made of them a huge cipher containing within it the
    intimation of a human or godlike presence. Surrounded by stars and

    68 Joan Miro (1893-1983), Series I, plate IV {The Family), 1952. Etching and engraving Hff x 17^
    (38 X 45-4). Curt Valentin Bequest
    69 Salvador Dali (b. 1904),
    plateXIV from Les Chants de
    Maldoror by Comte de
    Lautreamont. Paris, Skira,
    1934. Etching, page 1 3| • io|
    (33'3 ^ 25-7). Louis E. Stern
    Collection

    suns, this monolithic form holds the terrific force of the unknown.
    While there is a pleasurable character to Miro's work in general,
    most of it includes a degree of mystery that seems related not only to
    Surrealism but also to the unique personality of the Spanish.
    The art of the Surrealists began to fmd acceptance in the 1930s and
    consequently more luxurious and less experimental works were put
    into production. A book by one of the father-figures of the move-
    ment, Isadore Ducasse, known as Comte de Lautreamont, was
    illustrated by Salvador Dali. The forty-two etchings for Les Chants de 69
    Maldoror (Paris, Albert Skira, 1934), while not Dali's first, do epito-
    mize the Surrealist concepts as they found visual form. For Dali,
    drawing and etching were almost identical tasks. He saw nothing
    unique in the print media and so did not exploit their potential. He
    created his work through 'paranoic-cntical activity,' which he

    79
    described as a 'spontaneous method of ''irrational knowledge,'''' based
    on the critical and systematic objectification of deUrious associations
    and interpretations.' ^^ Most of the etchings mclude famihar Daliesque
    motifs: distant perspectives, soft shapes held by crutches, bones,
    long shadows, and so on. He wrote in Conquest of the Irrational (New
    York, Julien Levy, 1935), '.
    be persuaded that Salvador Dali's
    . .

    famous limp watches are nothing else than the tender, extravagant
    and solitary paranoic-critical camembert of time and space,' which
    James Thrall Soby interpreted as 'a clue to one of the painter's most
    fervid obsessions - his pre-occupation with malleability which . . .

    leads him to convert hard objects, like watches, into substances soft as
    camembert.' ^^ One plate shows a hydrocephalic head, supported by a
    crutch, biting into awoman's breast while her head is held under the
    needle of a sewing machine. Draped over the soft head is a soft watch
    indicating twelve o'clock, while lines of perspective shoot off into a
    mysterious landscape populated by skulls, bones, and figures casting
    long shadows.
    Dali was cast out of the Surrealist circle several times for various
    reasons, such as his interest in Nazism and
    tendency towards
    his
    conscious self-glorification. It is certain that during the
    1940s he
    proceeded to paint on a monumental scale and produce works that
    attracted rather than alienated a wider public. His prints, too, appealed
    to that part of the population that found the strange conjunction of
    images and well-known subjects {Don Quixote, Alice in Wonderland,
    to name only two of the suites published in the 1960s) titillating and as
    imaginative as a Hollywood Technicolor dream. While few of his
    prints of mid-century are much more than reproductions of drawings
    and watercolors, Dali, for all his romanticism and narcissism, created a
    unique visual language which he has continued to brandish in
    provocative ways (as in his hologram of 1973).
    An event in the history of twentieth-century printmaking that
    was to have repercussions in the future of painting was the entry of the
    British geologist Stanley William Hayter into the field of art. After a
    short scientific career, he set up a studio in Paris and became acquainted
    with several members of the Surrealist group, with whom he ex-
    hibited in 1933. In that year he moved to 17 rue Campagne-Premiere,
    where his print workshop first acquired its name. Atelier 17. He had
    been experimenting with the various intaglio techniques (drypoint,
    engraving, etching, and so forth) since 1926. His innovations in the

    80
    medium drew many artists to his studio, where they too found the
    many new possibihties of nitagho both intriguing and inspiring.
    Hayter's method was based on the theory of automatism he would :

    allow his graver (burin) to cut freely into the plate, propelled only
    by the undirected movements of his one hand while his other, also
    undirected, moved the plate around. Upon the unconscious linear
    pattern thus obtained, Hayter added areas of tone, reinforced and
    elaborated upon the lines, and created from these mechanical work-
    ings his compositions, which generally incorporated one or more
    human figures as their subject.
    Automatism was not considered an important concern during the
    second period of Surrealism (after 1929), but through Hayter's
    particular usage it became one of the last remnants of Surrealist
    influence when he set up his Ateher in New York during World War
    II.In New York he created Amazon (1945), which illustrates several 70
    of the complex technical devices he used. The sweeping original
    automatic hues are still apparent as the basic structure of the composi-
    tion, which is made from different
    overlaid with soft-ground etching
    fabrics. The hues have been deepened and occasionally cut so
    in places
    deeply that, printed without ink, they remain in white relief
    Hayter's influence upon American art during and shortly after the
    war will be discussed later. During the early years of his career as
    doyen of a print workshop, however, he did encourage some of his
    friends to make prints. The earliest prints of the sculptor Alberto
    Giacometti, Hayter's first neighbor in Paris, were made at Ateher 17
    shortly after Hayter moved there. Between 1929 and 1935 Giacometti
    was a formal participant in the Surrealist movement, and generally
    his sculptures consisted of disturbing spatial constructions that arose
    from imagination or dream rather than reality. He developed a
    cagelike structure that contained and restrained disconcerting
    objects. Conveyed in these works was a sense of both mystery and
    frustration. At the time that he sculpted the rigidly frontalized
    Invisible Object (Hands Holding the Void) (1934-35), which was 71
    simultaneously the subject of one of his first prints, Giacometti was
    turning away from the Surrealist's dependence upon the subconscious
    derivation of subject and form and returning to the exploration of
    nature. The frame-throne and the board that confines the legs (per-
    haps a reference to a prie-dieu) act as less of a mysterious enclosure,
    and the recognizably female form itself presents the human dilemma.

    81
    Giacometti never delved into the diverse processes of printmaking to
    any degree, although he created many prints in his Hfetime. Most of
    his etchings and hthographs were part of the agonizing struggle to
    discover an inner truth in human form that occupied him between
    1945 and his death in 1966.
    Giorgio de Chirico, whose Metaphysical paintings of the period
    during World War I formed a historic steppingstone for the Sur-
    realists, was rejected by Breton and other Surrealists in 1928. All his

    prints appeared after this moment and lack the qualities for which his
    work was admired during the 1920s. However, one artist whose
    artistic career was ignited by his admiration for de Chirico was

    Yves Tanguy. Self-taught, he gravitated toward the Surrealists,


    who recognized him officially in 1926. It was during the 1930s that
    he invented for his paintings a rather limited vocabulary, to which he
    persistently clung until his death in 1955. The etching of about 1938,

    J2 The Island of a Day, is one of his few prints. The cumulative bone and
    ribbon formation against an unconfirmed and mysterious space
    creates a disturbingly unstable sense. Basic to Tanguy's imagery is the
    possibility that the object is real rather than transformed, so the viewer

    70 Stanley William Hayter (b. 1901), Amazon, 1945. Engraving and etching, 24^ 15I (622 x 403).
    Philip C.Johnson Fund

    71 Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), Hands Holdi)^^ the I'oid, 1934-35. Engraving, 12 9| (30-4 24-5). Gift of
    Victor S. Riesenfeld
    strives to discover its true identity. He illustrated three books during
    the 1930s, thus fulfilling what seems to have been a duty on the part of
    SurreaHst artists to collaborate with Surrealist authors. He was one of
    the few exiled artists to remain m the U.S.A. after World War II and
    continue work in the Surrealist idiom.
    The fmal period of direct esthetic influence of the members of the
    group occurred during World War II
    original Surrealist in New
    York. The youngest Surrealist was Matta, who had studied architec-
    ture before leaving his native Chile for Paris. His commitment to
    painting took place only two years before he fled to New York in
    1939. In the U.S.A. his personal style moved away from the early
    inspiration of Tanguy as he developed a species of humanoids and
    spinning planes that replaced relatively impersonal forms. He made
    his first prints in New York, contributing an etching to Breton's book
    Arcane ly (New York, Brentano's, 1944) and participating with
    Ernst,Masson, Tanguy, and others in the Brutiidor Portfolio (1947), a
    group of etchings and lithographs with an introduction by Nicolas
    Galas. Of Matta's print, / Want to See It to Believe It, Galas wrote, 'It yj
    is the story-portrait of the narcissist wounded in his pride, of the
    72 Yves Tanguy (1900-1955), The Island oj a Day, c. 1938. Etching, j^ •
    3|^ (ly? •
    9-4)-
    Given anonymously

    73 Matta (Sebastian Antonio Matta Echaurren) (b. 191 2), / Want to See It to Belieue It from Brunidor
    Portfolio No. I. New York, Brunidor, 1947. Lithograph, I2g I2| (308 x 32-7). Purchase
    dandy admiring his wound; it is the drama of isolation portrayed on a
    cross, now situated in the stratosphere. '^^
    Matta became a more than occasional printmaker, and his personal
    method of making soft-ground color etchings resulted in some of the
    most vibrant Surrealist prints. One of his best friends in New York
    had been the American painter and critic Robert Motherwell, who
    was to become one of the vital links between the older movement and
    the incipient New York school of Abstract Expressionism. Another
    late Surrealist, the Swiss painter and printmaker Kurt Seligmann,
    taught Motherwell engraving. Seligmann made several albums of
    engravings and with the Cuban Wifredo Lam, who was probably
    the last to join the Paris group before it was driven away by the war,
    contributed to the Bmnidor Portfolio devoted to the Surrealists.
    After the war, when most of these artists returned to Paris, they
    continued on their individual ways, illustrating books and eventually
    participating in the print boom of the 1960s. Activity in the field of
    printmaking became so potent that even those few Surrealists who
    had never attempted work in the print media were induced to create
    74 editions. Among
    the debutants was Hans Bellmer, who made his
    first end of the war (1944) and re-created his erotic girl-
    prints at the
    puppets in sensitive engravings made by his own hand, most often
    after his drawings. Later Rene Magritte and Paul Delvaux, the Belgian
    Surrealists, made their first prints, but Magritte died before creating
    more than etched souvenirs, and Delvaux sought to find his special
    equilibrium in lithography only after his seventieth year.

    74 Hans Bellmer (1902-1975), Rose ou verte la nuit, 1966.


    Etching, 1 1| X 7I (29-8 X 20). Mrs. Alfred R. Stern Fund
    Independent directions
    6
    the School of Paris and the revival
    of lithography

    While tracing the birth and growth of the major European move-
    ments it has been impossible to introduce the simultaneous evolution
    of those artists who grew beyond their early stylistic allegiances into
    unique and not neatly classifiable personalities. Foremost among
    them were Rouault, Matisse, Braque, and Picasso. In France there
    were, in addition, many other gifted painters who made prints and
    belonged to no specific school. Throughout Europe during the
    decades between the two World Wars many fine prints took forms
    that were traditional studio subjects or otherwise removed from the
    mainstreams of communal artistic purpose.
    Almost exclusively concerned with religious or moral themes,
    Georges Rouault began his serious work as a maker of prints in 1916.
    His paintings and gouaches were executed in a stained-glass style that
    he had learned as a youth while studying the restoration of windows.
    Broad black lines, like leading, enclosed heavily shaded and colored
    forms. Since 191 3 Ambroise Vollard had admired his paintings, and
    in 1916 he commissioned Rouault to create for him several series of

    prints. Rouault's ink drawings and paintings made for this purpose
    were photoengraved onto copper plates. He would then rework
    these mechanically made plates with a multitude of classic and unusual
    tools, and add freely drawn plates (usually in aquatint) which pro-
    vided the dramatic heavy black outlines for the composition. In the
    mid-i930s the printer Roger Lacouriere showed Rouault how color
    could be added to his prints by means of aquatint, and many of his
    earlier black and white subjects were revised and made into color
    prints. Rouault's foremost printed work was the great series of fifty-
    eight etchings. Miserere (commissioned by Vollard but pubUshed by
    L'Etoile Filante [Rouault] in 1948). These fifty-eight plates were
    part of what was proposed to be a larger two-volume work titled

    85
    75 Georges Rouault (1871-1958), Who
    does not paint ajace for himself?, plate 8
    from Miserere, 1922; published 1948.
    Etching, aquatint and heliogravure,
    22^ y 16^ (567 X 43). Gift of the artist

    76 (right) Georges Rouault (i 871-1958),


    Autumn, 1933. Lithograph, I72.- 23
    (44-5 58-4). Gift of the artist

    Miserere et Guerre. The plates that were uhimately pubHshed concern


    both mercy and war, of course, and are a highly dramatic portrayal of
    Christian subjects juxtaposed with satirical and scathingly bitter
    representations of human nature.
    While the series contains several representations of the Crucifixion,
    death in various guises, devastated landscapes, and mocking portraits
    of the once-powerful, the themes are brought together in the resigned
    expression of a clown: 'Who does not paint a face for himself?'
    73 (Miserere, plate 8, c. 1922, pubhshed in 1948). From the time of his
    monotype in 19 10 Rouault's bittersweet attitude toward
    life could be

    best summed up in the personage of a clown. Rouault alluded to


    himself clown in his self portraits and it has often been assumed
    as a
    from Miserere is also a portrait of the artist.
    that this plate
    Although Rouault produced a quantity of lithographs, mostly
    published in the late 1920s by E. Frapier's Galerie des Peintres-
    Graveurs (Souvenirs Intimes, Demagogic, Cirque Forain) and Editions
    des Quatre Chemins (Petite Banlieue), his most famous works were
    those undertaken for Vollard. The large black and white lithograph
    76 Autumn (1933) was the major work in this medium. More popular,
    however, have been the color aquatints that appeared in the several
    illustrated books Rouault labored over for years. To most they best
    evoke the mood of Rouault's paintings. However, he did not work
    on the color plates themselves. They are, in the longer tradition of fine

    86
    printmaking, the result of the incredible skill of a master craftsman,
    Roger Lacouriere. After Rouault drew the black plates (usually
    sugar-lift aquatint), Lacouriere would make the color plates with the
    same subtlety as he obtained in reproducing a watercolor. In this
    manner were produced two large plates, Christ on the Cross and
    Autumn, illustrations for Cirque de I'Etoile Filante (Paris, Vollard, 83
    1938) and Andre Suares's Passion (Paris, Vollard, 1939), as well as the
    suites of color prints. Cirque and Les Fleurs du Mai (1938).
    Henri Matisse followed his Fauve prints of 1906 with some ex-
    quisitely pure, linear lithographs, etchings, and monotypes of nudes,
    portraits, and still lifes in 191 4. His sure and sensitive line distinguishes
    the best of his printed works, but his artistry as a painter and sculptor
    occasionally led to quite elaborate lithographic compositions wherein
    modeling and considerable detail add the dimension to which Hne
    only alludes. Perhaps the most imposing print of this sort is the large
    lithograph Odalisque in Striped Pantaloons (1925). This is the last in a 77
    set of three compositions based on a model seated in a draped arm-
    chair. A fireplace in the background has been eliminated in this ver-
    sion, and the chair w^ith its floral pattern is nearly en face, in opposition
    to the oblique pose of the model. The clashing patterns of the panta-
    loons and chair cover are mediated by the softly shaded contours of
    the flesh. All Matisse's lithographs were executed with crayon, either
    on transfer paper or directly upon the stone. Because the art of draw-

    87
    ing from the model was so basic to his creative Hfe, it appears that
    Matisse saw printmaking as only another outlet for his need to express
    himself by this means.

    Because of his sublime sense of the value and optic weight of line,
    Matisse was able to create one of the most beautiful illustrated books
    of the first half of this century. The delicate balance between text
    and illustration is nowhere better achieved than in the volume of
    78 Stephane Mallarme's Poesies (Lausanne, Albert Skira, 1932). Matisse
    wrote, 'The problem was to balance each pair of facing pages - the
    one with the etching white, the other with the typography relatively
    black. I achieved this by modifying my arabesques in such a way that
    the spectator's attention would be interested as much by the entire
    page as by the promise of reading the text.' 20 The uniformly thin,
    etched lines fall upon the page in rhythmic patterns in a sort of
    extended echo of the cadence of the type forms and the inner meter
    of the poems themselves. The use of plates larger than the sheet size of
    the book allows the etched lines complete freedom of the page. This
    disrespect for margins dates back to Matisse's earliest lithographs and
    confirms his attitude toward printmaking as an extension of drawing.

    IHIIHHI
    1
    ^H
    I^^^H
    |y^^^^^'''x^^P^H
    Hj!!\/ti ^*t^^^H
    JH^^^BkBL -' '-''4:<^K<'. T^mm M l^^^^k ^T^^^H

    1^jpSiMM 77 Henri Matisse (1869-1954),


    Odalisque in Striped Pantaloons,
    1925. Lithograph, 21^ x 17I
    (54-6 X 44). Nelson A.
    Rockefeller Bequest

    Nil^^l
    78 Henri Matisse (i 869-1954), plate 24 from

    Poesies by Stephane Mallarme. Lausanne, Skira,


    1932. Etching, page 13 ^
    9^ (33 24-7). Louis E.
    Stern Collection

    Matisse returned to relief printmaking in the late 1930s with his


    linoleum-cut illustrations to Henry de Montherlant's Pasiphae -
    Chant de Minos {Les Cretois) (Paris, Martin Fabiani, 1944). In these,
    as in his monotypes of 19 14, the subjects are depicted in white line
    against black. Except for the dramatic shock of large black plates with
    thinly gouged lines, Matisse's approach to this medium is identical
    with his treatment of intaglio.
    It until he became a partial invahd in 1941 that he produced
    was not
    a freshapproach to the printed image, and again this occurred not in
    the print workshop but in his studio, where it was an offshoot of his
    primary artistic endeavor. Matisse's use of cut and collaged colored
    paper began with the designs he made in 193 1 for the three bays of
    Dr. Albert C. Barnes's art gallery in Merion, Pennsylvania. Several
    years later he executed a cover in this manner for Verve (Summer
    1940), whose publisher, Efstratios Teriade, found the brilliance and
    ebulhence of the colored paper collage extremely enchanting.
    During World War II he asked Matisse for more of these collages for
    an album in which Matisse was to write some of his thoughts.
    Although the illustrations for Jazz (Paris, Teriade, I947)> like many

    89
    prints before and have been considered reproductions, they were
    since,
    printed under the supervision by the stencil method, with the
    artist's

    same paints Matisse had used to color the paper for the maquette
    collages. The method, how^ever, is less important in this case than the
    result. The Jazz plates were the most brightly hued prints executed

    up to that time - the hard edges of each form abutting each other in an
    astonishing clash of colors. The prototype cover for Verve, which
    was created from cut-out printer's ink samples, appears pale and
    ephemeral compared with the fully saturated paint-box colors of
    Jazz. Most of the compositions have decorative borders, and each
    figure is given a generalized form that further emphasizes the positive
    86 nature of the two-dimensional space. Horse, Rider and Clown per-
    fectly embodies Matisse's description of Jazz, 'The images in vivid
    and violent tones have resulted from crystallizations of memories of
    the circus, popular tales, or of travel. '^^
    Matisse found the formula by which he was able to translate the
    cut-outs of his studio into prints with all the desired properties:
    stunning and dense color, sharply defined shapes. The stencil process
    (pochoir in French, usually utilizing a brush rather than a spraygun
    or roller) which, until this time, was almost exclusively used for com-
    mercial art, became one of the favorite printing processes of the artists
    of the late 1960s in its more sophisticated form, silkscreen (serigraphy
    or screen printing).
    Georges Braque, who was in the army during World War I, never
    resumed his close association with Picasso and their common Cubist
    explorations. Like Picasso he was eventually to find inspiration in
    ancient classical forms. In the early 1930s he evolved from the styliza-
    tions of Greek vase painting a linear style of figuration which he used
    in incised plaster and etchings. The subject of his suite of etchings of

    79 1932, another of Vollard's unfinished projects, was Hesiod's Theogony.


    It was not issued as a book with text until 1955, but sixteen of the

    plates were printed in the 1930s. Meandering lines detail the archaic-
    appearing figures of the gods and the symbolic borders. There re-
    mains from his Cubist experience a tendency toward obscuring spatial
    definition that might create an illusion of depth, although the con-
    fining border is introduced as a boxlike container and becomes
    increasingly important as a compositional element in his later work.
    When the Theogony plates finally were about to be printed in book
    form, two plates were found to be missing, so Braque had, in his late

    90
    'I ^' '• -'•
    lk\'' '

    79 Georges Braque (i 882-1963),


    plate 3 from Hesiod: Theogony,
    1932. Etching, 14^ III
    (36-5 29-8). Purchase Fund

    sixties, toreturn to this subject of twenty years earlier. This led to


    further works on Greek mythological themes. Foremost among them
    was the depiction of the Helios myth. The first prints representing this
    subject were executed in 1946-48, and transcribe almost line for line
    a color lithograph of Athena and her chariot that Braque had made in

    1932. The most dramatic versions of the Helios myth, however, are
    the prints titled Chariot, the first of which was printed in 1945 and is
    also titled Phaedon. In these hthographs the son of Helios is pulled in
    his father's chariot across the sky. The literal scene is set within a dark
    border which, in the last version (The Varnished Chariot, or Chariot III), S?
    becomes a highly varnished, Hthographic shadow box.
    These prints and the many still hfes as well as flower and bird illustra-
    tions for Braque's books were part of the significant revival of
    hthography that took place in Paris after World War II. There was a ten-
    dency in the late 1930s to introduce more color into prints, and through
    the learned encouragement of Roger Lacouriere, both Rouault and

    91
    Picasso created brightly colored aquatints. However, during the period
    between the early years of the twentieth century and the end of World
    War II Paris saw very little in the area of color printmaking. The old
    workshops, where the colorful lithographs of the 1890s were created,
    had closed or were unable to stimulate interest among the great
    twentieth-century painters. The commercial lithography shop of
    Mourlot Freres concentrated on the production of wine labels,
    posters, and reproductions ot paintings. The finely developed skills of
    its lithographic craftsmen combined with the subtle chemistry of litho-

    graphy could do what the camera could not, and after World War II
    this catalytic mixture was to be placed at the service of Braque,

    Chagall, and Picasso. Those artists, finding the shop, its patron, and its
    craftsmen all willing and able to support and sustain their creative
    efforts, went beyond the mere repetition of their studio work and

    thereby revived a medium too long dormant.


    The postwar interest in these three artists by members of the
    educated middle class and the economic situation that gave them extra
    money for luxuries opened the market for artist's prints to an extent
    never before experienced. The lithographs printed at Mourlot in their
    inexpensive version as exhibition posters and in the more costly signed
    and limited editions were available for purchase in America as well as
    Europe. As the number of collectors of modern prints grew after the
    war so the number ot artists who turned to printmaking increased.
    The artist whose appeal carried beyond the aficiotiados of French
    modern prints was Marc Chagall.
    Atter his short stay in 1922-23 in Germany, where he created his
    first prints, Chagall moved back to Paris. (He had lived in Paris from

    1910 to 1914, returning to Russia to participate in various cultural


    undertakings by the new government after 1917 and leaving in 1922.)
    In Paris he painted prodigiously and produced many prints, mostly
    80 for Vollard's book-publishing ventures. His Self Portrait with Grimace
    (1924-25) shows the style of etching and aquatint that he utilized for
    hishundreds of plates for Dead Souls, The Fables of La Fontaine, and
    The Vollard had attempted in 1927 to have Chagall work on
    Bible.
    plates photocngraved from his gouaches, particularly toward the
    end of making color prints. Although this method served Rouault well
    (even though he complained that more work was expended on
    obliterating the photoengraving than in using it), Chagall's work did
    not photograph properly, and he ended up transcribing the essentials

    92
    8o Marc Chagall (1889- 98 5), Self Portrait with
    1

    Crimace, 1924-25. Etching and aquatint,


    I4|^ X io| (37 X 27-3). Gift of the artist

    ot each composition to plates and working freely upon them. The


    enormous quantity ot etchings of the 1930s, whose literal scenes have
    been made more palpable by Chagall's original inventiveness, are very
    deft and direct narrative renderings. Chagall used aquatint as a pale
    wash underlying and otten disappearing behind myriads of rapid
    strokes of the etching needle. However immediate the result appears,
    Chagall's etchings are the culmination of many trials which prepared
    the plate for its ingenuous appearance in print.
    final
    Chagall made only a few lithographs and woodcuts during the

    1920s and none during the 1930s. Like his etchings (and most of the
    prints created in the 1920s) they were black and white. Not until
    Chagall's exile in the U.S.A. during World War II did he have the right
    conjunction of commission, craftsman, and time to produce color
    prints. While the illustrations to four tales from the Arabian Nights
    (New York, Pantheon, 1948) are brilliant in color and contain much
    of the fanciful mystery of Chagall's paintings, they are basically
    translations of gouaches made by a technically superb craftsman,
    Albert Carman. The tones are built up in the manner of photographic
    color process, using a set of basic tones to which Chagall added a few
    accents of strong color. More important than the rather impersonal

    93
    "^^^'^'^

    technique, however, was the appearance at long last of color prints by


    an artist whose work was attaining the dazzle of a mythical mountain of
    jewels. The appeal of both his unbridled use of color and his widely
    accepted subject-matter insured for Chagall an audience far beyond
    thatof any of his contemporaries. He returned to Paris in 1948. Two
    began to work with Charles Sorlier at the workshop of
    years later he
    Fernand Mourlot. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Chagall's litho-
    graphs poured from Mourlot's shop Paris was deluged with bouquets,
    ;

    New Testament
    the circus merrily rang, and representations of Old and
    subjects became, in their printed form, icons in the homes and offices
    of the postwar bourgeoisie.
    Chagall, of course, was not the only former avant-garde artist to
    fmd enthusiastic acceptance by the establishment. As his subject-
    matter became increasingly intelligible to those who sought romantic
    impact from what they viewed, so Chagall's work prevailed. The
    scintillating harbor and race-course scenes with which Raoul Dufy

    94
    8i (/e/?) Raoul Dufy (i 877-1953),
    plate 4 from La Met.
    Paris, L'Etoile,
    1925. Lithograph, 14^ - igi
    (358 A 47). Purchase Fund

    82 Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947),


    plate 13from Dingo. Pans, Vollard,
    1924. Etchmg, page I4f 11 -

    (37 ' 28). Louis E. Stern Collection

    replaced his heavier folk-art style also eventually appealed to those


    segments of French society who liked to see the places they frequented
    become glorified m art. Dufy's series of view^s of the Marseilles harbor
    of 1925 are among the few color Uthographs of the 1920s. They share
    with Matisse's work of the period a quick-sketch quality primarily
    achieved by the deft management of the lithographic crayon. How-
    ever, the decorative nature of the style of execution is further em-
    belhshed by Dufy with an inevitable whimsy that compromises the
    daringly free action of his hne and color.
    Andre Derain, another of the former Fauves, turned, as did Picasso
    and Braque, to classical art after World War I. His series of lithographic
    portraits of the late 1920s appear monumental in scale because of their
    strong sculptural structure. They also have the languorous disposition
    of Matisse's nudes of a few years earlier. Completely separate from this
    later tendency of Derain were his illustrations for Rabelais's Pantagruel 91
    (Paris, Albert Skira, 1943) consisting of 179 color woodcuts. Returning

    95
    to motifs derived from folk art or European primitive sources,
    Derain created a volume illuminated with flat, simplified forms that
    were composed into playing-card figures, landscapes, flowers, and
    other embellishments. Derain worked with Roger Lacouriere (the
    latter's first venture away from the etching and engraving procedures)
    for several years, carving the wood blocks and evolving the color
    selections which were used to print each composition with one inking
    only. The uneven coverage of the color was due to the hand applica-
    tion of each tone. Derain had wished to model his illustrations after
    some of the earliest woodcuts, those used for playing cards in the
    fifteenth century. Instead of coloring the finished print by hand, as was
    customary with the earliest woodcuts, Derain quixotically colored the
    blocks before printing.
    Pierre Bonnard, whose lithographs for Parallelement began this
    history of twentieth-century printmaking, continued to illustrate
    books with prints well into the 1940s. His first etchings, for Octave
    82 Mirbeau's Dingo (Paris, Ambroise VoUard, 1924), charmingly
    delineate the rather pedestrian tale of a dog's life. Throughout the
    book the illustrations mirror the community
    approved of andthat
    acquired the sunny, lighthearted paintings by Bonnard and older
    French artists.

    Another, but younger, artist whose work appealed in the same way
    was the Bulgarian Jules Pascin, who arrived in Paris around 1905.
    Like Bonnard's, his work had a personal style that, remaining repre-
    sentational, did not repel or cause the confusion engendered by the
    creations of the avant-garde. His color etchings for Charles Perrault's
    g2 Cinderella (Cendrillon, Paris, M.-P. Tremois, 1929) are among the
    most delicateand ethereal prints of this century. Pascin's line-and-
    smudge technique is sensitively adapted by the utilization of soft-
    ground, which disperses all sharp edges and retains the effect of pastel
    and soft pencil. Pascin created many etchings and lithographs, mainly
    of nude figures, but never surpassed his magical Cinderella before his
    suicide in 1930.
    The sculptor Aristide Maillol was the master of the nude figure.
    His career, like Bonnard's, began in the 1890s with the Nabis and
    continued into the 1940s. His twentieth-century work in prints was
    also mainly book illustration. His first works were for Count Harry
    Kessler, who had established his own press in Weimar in 191 3. The
    books, designed by Englishmen, were based upon the ideas of the

    96
    83 Georges Rouault (1871-1958), 77;? Little Dwarf, plate 4 from Cirque de I'Etoile Filaiite. Pans, Vollard, 1938.
    Aquatint, 12^ x 8-j% (30.8 x 21). Gift of the artist
    :

    nineteenth-century reviver of book art, William Morris. Maillol


    84 began his woodcuts for Kessler's Virgil in 191 2, but because of delays
    caused by the war, the first volume did not appear until 1926. Maillol

    and his nephew, Gaspard, developed the paper for this volume in
    Montval. The simple woodcuts, which Maillol cut himself, are
    extremely harmonious with the text, and still embody the plastic
    strength and tension of a sculptor's work. Maillol continued to make
    woodcuts for classical texts until his death in 1944.
    If one were to examine only French references to prints of this
    period, one would have to accept Andre Dunoyer de Segonzac as the
    most prominent etcher of his time. He began with a tendency to
    emulate the mannerisms of the lesser Cubists in his etched illustrations
    to Tristan Bernard's Tableau de Boxe (Paris, Nouvelle Revue, 1922),

    aha serpullumque herbas contundit olentis,


    at mecum raucis, tua dum vestigia lustro,
    sole sub ardenti resonant arbusta cicadis.
    nonne Amaryllidos iras
    fuit satius trisns
    atque superba pati fastidia, nonne Menalcan,
    84 Aristide Maillol (i 861-1944),
    quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu candidus esses ? page 16 from Eclogues hy Virgil.
    o formose puer nimium ne crede colon! London, Walker for Cranach
    Press, 1927. Woodcut, page
    alba liguscra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur.
    i2| ^9s (324^ 25)- Henry
    despedtus sum, nee qui sim quaeris Alexi,
    tibi
    Church Fund
    quam dives pecoris, nivei quam lacftis abundans
    millemeae Siculis errant in monnbus agnae;
    lacmihi non aestate novom, non frigore defit.
    canto, quae solitus, siquando armenta vocabat»
    16
    ^

    85 Andre Dunoyer de Segonzac


    (1884-1974), Portrait of Colette,
    1932. Etching, 9| 8^ (23 x 21).
    Gift of Peter H. Deitsch m-mt^mif^imm*

    which have much in common with Jacques Villon's figurative prints


    of 1909. Like Villon, Segonzac was an exceptionally talented maker of
    prints, and his understanding of what etched lines can do is nowhere
    more apparent than in his portrait of the author who depicted French
    society of the period so succinctly, Colette (1932). Segonzac, too, was a 85
    servant to the zeal of Ambroise Vollard, and devoted nearly twenty
    years to etching 300 plates, 119 of which were to decorate The
    Georgics of Virgil (Paris, the artist, I944[47]), pubhshed after Vollard's

    death. It was Vollard's attraction to Segonzac's illustrations for a book


    by Colette that inspired him to ask for another of the same combina-
    tion. The artist preferred to reveal his childhood love of the French
    countryside beside the text of Virgil. The period was a fruitful one
    for reminiscence was the height of provinciaHsm in countries where
    (it

    art had not yet fully blossomed), and Segonzac's return to landscape
    and particularly man's use of the open land was only typical of a world-
    wide trend. During the 1920s both Maurice de Vlaminck and Maurice
    Utrillo savored the rewards of their earlier notoriety by producing
    landscapes and cityscapes, mostly in the form of transfer lithographs.
    Vlaminck had shown both verve and skill in his earher expressive
    99
    ^ ^•^

    ^ ^3j«
    88 Marc Chagall (1889-1985), plate XII from Arabian Nights. New York, Pantheon, 1948. Lithograph,
    Hi X 1
    1| (37.8 X 28-9). Louis E. Stern Collection

    86 {top left) Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Horse, Rider and Clown from Jazz. Paris, Teriade, 1947. Pochoir,
    sheet i6| 25! (41-2 64). Gift of the artist
    -

    87 (left) Georges Braque (1882-1963), Varnished Chariot (Chariot III), 1955. Embossed lithograph, I2f i6f
    (32 •
    42-2). Gift in honor of Rene d'Harnoncourt
    woodcuts, while Utrillo had never evinced an interest in printmaking
    before he achieved fame. The raison d'etre of the later prints by these
    two artists became the basis for the many arguments that arose from
    those who decried the commercialism of printmaking.
    How sensitive and remarkable an artist's print could be, and yet
    have the most ordinary subject-matter, can be seen in the etchings of
    the Italian painter Giorgio Morandi. Morandi concentrated exclusively
    on two subjects: the landscape around his native Bologna and the still
    life. Early in his artistic career, he had been an admirer of de Chirico

    and Carra, and at that time produced still hfes with unexpected
    accumulations of objects and implausible shadows emanating from
    them. In the 1920s he dropped this pseudoreality for a far more sensi-
    tive examination of form, turning boxes, vases, and other containers
    this way and that to fmd the myriad possibihties in still life. His still
    lifes have been compared to Renaissance paintings depicting the

    towers of San Gimignano, and it is evident that artists like Piero


    della Francesca and Paolo Uccello contributed to Morandi's develop-

    89 Giorgio Morandi (1890-1964), Still Life with Coffee Pot, 1933. Etching, 1 1^^^ v 15I (297 y 39). Louise
    R. Smith Fund

    5^r>-
    90 Fernand Leger (1881-1955), The
    Vase, 1927. Lithograph, 20 j|- 17^
    (53 "^ 43'3)- Gift of Abby Aldrich
    Rockefeller

    ment. His landscapes also partake of a strong sense of planar activity,


    while still representational to the point of exact identification. As an
    etcher, Morandi was the modern equivalent of the earliest Italian
    etcher, Parmigiano, and like him used the etching needle to produce
    networks of tones and shadows that trapped the sharp white of the
    paper, filtering it or heightening it as he desired.
    To return to the French artists of the earliest generation of twentieth-
    century moderns, Fernand Leger was the carrier of the Cubist strain
    as it developed into objectively composed abstract art. His tubular
    human formations in the teens and early 1920s and his predominantly
    geometrical compositions in the late 1920s inspired many younger
    artists. They were to combine his sense of sohd form with the archi-

    tectural structurahsm of the De Stijl and Bauhaus artists, and become


    the dominant school of painting during the 1930s. Leger's earliest
    color lithograph. The Vase {Abstraction Still Life, 1927), is the corner- 90
    stone for an entire decade of art that wavered between objective
    abstraction and subjective Surrealism. In Leger's print a rigid pattern

    103
    91 Andre Derain (1880-
    1954). page 24 from
    Pantagruel by Rabelais.
    Paris, Skira, 1943.
    Woodcut, page 13-^ x 11
    (344 28). Louis E. Stem
    '

    Collection

    of straight lines is softened by the curved outHnes of the vase and the
    abstracted form of a filmstrip.
    In 193 1Leger made his first visit to the U.S.A., reporting his
    impressions to his French colleagues in the magazine Cahiers d'Art.
    During the war he spent a very fertile period in the U.S.A., w^here he
    traveled widely and painted 'better than I had ever painted before.' 22
    After he returned to Paris in 1946, he commenced his most important
    94 printed project, the vibrant lithographs and text of Cirque (Paris,
    memories of the great American circus
    Teriade, 1950). Distilling his
    of Barnum and Bailey, Leger wrote in Cirque, 'In the "Barnum" with

    104
    \- ^

    N ,

    92. Jules Pascin ([ulius

    Pincas) (i 885-1 930),


    plate I from Cendrillon by
    Charles Perrault. Paris,
    Tremois, 1929. Etching,
    page i8xi2i (45-7 X 38).
    Louis E. Stern Collection

    Its three rings at


    Madison Square Garden, forty acrobats go through
    their act forty
    metres up. If one falls the music gets louder, making it
    more intense, the hghts are moved, and while he tumbles down into
    the void, you are already looking at the following attraction in
    another ring.' xhe hthograph illustrating this text is not the most
    23

    vivid in color but does show the manner in which Leger


    floated patches
    of color behind his hnes and shapes of black, disassociating them
    from
    any previously meaningful function and allowing the viewer to
    determine their relationship to the recognizable shapes outlined in
    black.

    105
    Because of his attitude toward his twentieth-century environment
    and his decision to select many of his subjects and forms from the
    industrial world, Leger's post-Cubist work had a vital effect on
    younger artists. He had a profound understanding of the new visual
    properties of film and was able to utilize film, both in creating a
    cinema {Ballet Mecanique and others) which examined objects in
    specific time sequences and in creating compositions that were seg-
    mented into film frames or emphasized the concept of camera focus,
    especially the close-up. Leger's work appealed to several American
    artists who sought the ephemeral infusion of inspiration in Paris.
    Foremost among these was Stuart Davis, who had matured in the
    aftermath of the influential Armory Show (1913) in New York (see
    p. 122). He was to call Leger 'the most American painter painting
    today' 24 and Davis's own work depends on the way Leger interpreted
    93 the machine-made urban scene. In Sixth Avenue El (193 1) Davis sets
    forth the manifold incidents and objects of the city streets within an
    abstract format. Davis, and later artists v^\\o chose this area of objective
    abstraction, were not only indebted to Leger, but could not escape
    the influence of Pablo Picasso.

    93 Stuart Davis (1894-1964), Sixth Avenue El, 1931. Lithograph, 12 • 18 (30-4 45-7). Gift of Abby Aldrich
    Rockefeller
    7 Picasso after Cubism

    Until the late 1920s Picasso was, at best, a spasmodic printmaker.


    After his Cubist prints, most of which were book illustrations, pro-
    jects that intruded upon the time he could devote to painting became
    many and varied. He designed scenery for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes,
    executed many portraits of his friends in an exaggerated realistic style,
    married and had a son, made his first lithograph (for an exhibition
    invitation at Paul Rosenberg's gallery in Paris), and began the annual
    sojourns at the seaside that characterized his life until 1948.
    Apollinaire, who had been the first to use the term 'Surrealism,'
    died two days before the Armistice was declared (9 November 191 8).
    The writers of the Surrealist movement that emerged in Paris around
    1924 embraced several aspects of Picasso's earlier work that particu-
    larlyappealed to them. Andre Breton rediscovered the momentous
    painting of 1907, Les Demoiselles d' Avignon, and published it for the
    firsttime in 1925 in La Revolution Surrealiste?^ While the Surrealists
    sought to reveal the subconscious in their writings and paintings, they
    also believed that Picasso's Cubist works hkewise revealed an un-
    exposed part of life. This acceptance eventually led to a rather unde-
    fined relationship between Picasso and the SurreaHst writers during
    the 1930s. One of the most important decisions during this relation-
    ship was the selection of the Minotaur as the symbol for a SurreaHst
    publication and Picasso's illustration of this man-beast for the cover
    {Minotaur, 1933).
    Picasso's work of the 1920s included still lifes that evolved from
    Cubism and human representations in a massive but refined classical
    mode. His feehng of being fettered to his increasingly bourgeois-like
    marriage erupted in violent and distorted forms at the end of the
    decade. The variety of subjects and techniques Picasso brought to his
    art in these years eventually took the form of prints. Classical motifs

    107
    94 Fernand Leger (1881-1955), page 51 from Cirque. Pans, Tenade, 1950. Lithograph, page i6f
    (422 ' 22). Louis E. Stern Collection

    dominated the album of four


    prints of this period, beginning with an
    transfer Hthographs in 1924 and continuing with two volumes
    95 illustrated with etchings: Honore de Balzac's Le Chef d'ceuvre
    inconnu and Ovid's Metamorphoses. The young Albert Skira, who hoped
    to emulate the brilliant publisher Ambroise Vollard, commissioned
    the Ovid. The subjects allowed Picasso to run the classical gamut from
    divine nudes to raging horses. Vollard's cl\oice of Balzac's tale about a
    painter's quest for the absolute gave Picasso the opportunity to relate
    the subject to his owndilemma. The artist works at his easel, creating
    in front of reality an image that, in its thorough confusion, is all reality.
    In debt to Vollard for several paintings he had acquired, Picasso
    agreed to pay him with 100 of a group of etchings on which he was
    working. The so-called 'Vollard suite' was based on a combination
    of the two subjects of the previous illustrated books: mythology and
    the artist in his studio. As it was during this period (1931-35) that
    Picasso worked as a sculptor in Boisgeloup, his choice of subject was

    108
    the sculptor in his studio surrounded
    by models and statuary, generally
    of a classical nature. The revels in the studio included Minotaurs,
    and
    as the fertile subject evolved into dozens of plates, the
    amorous
    adventures of the sculptor became orgiastic. Then, abruptly, the bull-
    fight and other potent Mediterranean symbolic elements erupted into
    an idylhc sequence: the Minotaur falls in ritualistic battle, a child leads
    the Winded Minotaur, a woman bullfighter is thrown over the back
    of a gored horse. The culminating print of this explosion of terror was
    not part of the loo etchings, but is the most important plate Picasso
    ever executed, the Minotamomachy. Here the Minotaur is confronted
    96
    by the child who now holds a candle to blind rather than lead the man-
    beast. They are separated by the cruel spectacle of a woman bullfighter
    tossed by a disemboweled horse. To the left is a man escaping up a lad-
    der, while, above, the scene is viewed by two women at a window
    ledge upon which two doves are strutting. In the far distance there is a
    boat - the escaping Theseus of the original tale of the Minotaur,
    perhaps. The entire composition brings together so much of Picasso's
    iconography that, more than any other of his works except the

    95 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), plate 4 from Le Chejd'ceuvre inconnu by Honore de Balzac. Paris,
    Vollard, 193 1. Etching, yf-ii| (194 29). Louis E. Stern Collection
    .
    Guernica painting (1937), which was so closely based upon it, Mino-
    tauromachy has been subjected to considerable interpretation. While the
    Surrealists,by introducing dream symbols into their art, revived the
    of conjecture, Picasso was to concentrate upon mythological
    critical art

    and historical subjects, selecting those that inspired him to manipulate


    them for his own fulfillment.
    The last prints of Picasso's indebtedness to Vollard include one
    gy composition, a Faun Unveiling a Sleeping Woman, that welds the myth-
    ology of Greeks with the Christian formalism of a Renaissance
    Annunciation. The faun enters a loggia, the light streaming in behind
    him. He raises the curtain with one hand allowing the light to fall
    upon the unsuspecting sleeper, thus creating a scene of great dramatic
    effect.

    It was Roger Lacouriere and his gifted associate Jacques Frelaut


    who introduced Picasso to some of the intricacies of intaglio print-
    making in 1936. The sugar-lift process was the most painterly method,
    outside of lithography, of executing a print, and Picasso used this
    method for the last Vollard plates, as well as for thirty-one plates

    96 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Minotauromachy, 1935. Etching, 19^ v 27^ (495 '69-7). Purchase Fund
    97 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Faun Utu'eilitij^ a Sleepiriji Woman, 1936. Etching and aquatint, 12^ x i6-^
    (31-6 41-7). Purchase
    •

    illustrating selectionsfrom Buffon's Histoire Naturelle (published by


    Martin Fabiani in 1 942 but commissioned by Vollard before his death)
    With a brush and a liquid containing sugar, Picasso drew on a copper
    plate, which was then covered with an impervious thin varnish or
    asphalt ground that, during the etching period, would prevent acid
    attacking portions of the plate not to be etched. After immersion in
    water the sugar would dislodge the ground over it, allowing those
    drawn areas to be etched. For the most part, resin was sprinkled over the
    open areas in order to obtain an aquatint texture rather than the harsher
    tone of simple open-bite etching.
    It was with the sugar-lift method that Picasso created in 1939 his
    first color prints, portraits of Dora Maar that exist in only one or two
    examples. Work on these prints, which were to illustrate an auto-
    biography, ended abruptly when Picasso found he could paint with

    III
    the printing inks. He did, however, execute his largest print up to
    98 that time, Dancer with Tambourine (1938). This was one of the few
    prints that included Picasso's unique rearrangement and simultaneity
    of focus on anatomical relationships that characterized his work of
    the late 1930s. The three-quarters turn of the body in space, accom-
    plished through depiction of several views containing famihar
    contours, is given additional impetus by the ribbon-like execution
    of the arms. Distortion and invention combine effectively to create the
    appearance of rhythmic movement.

    58 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Dancer with Tambourine, 1938. Etching and aquatint,
    26^ 2oi (66- 7 -51). Acquired through the Lilhe P. Bhss Bequest
    99 Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), H^omiijh in an
    Armchair No. I, 1949. Lithograph, 27^ x 20g
    (69 X 51). Curt Valentin Bequest

    As he grew older the portraits of his mistresses, children, and friends


    were often transformed by ancient costumes and classical poses. This
    superimposition of the past upon contemporary lives lent a fictional
    quality to Picasso's work. In the style of a royal portrait of the seven-
    teenth century, Picasso's lithographed Woman in an Armchair (1949) 99
    is of Fran^oise Gilot in a Polish coat with embroidery
    a representation
    on the arms. Executed the same year as his first color lithographs,
    this work was to have been in color. The fact that in order to make a
    lithograph in more than one color a separate stone is needed for each
    additional color led Picasso to redraw the subject several times.
    Eventually the artist found the additional stones more interesting in
    black than in a mix of color. It is quite likely that the few color litho-
    graphs he did finish were left more in the competent hands of Fernand
    Mourlot and his printers than produced from the very tedious process
    followed by printmakers.
    Picasso's association with Mourlot after World War II marked a
    major moment in the revival of a medium. Before World War II
    Picasso's encounters with lithography had been minimal, usually in
    transfer drawings that barely touched the potential of the medium.

    113
    Indeed, lithography, which had flourished in full color during the

    1 remained the printing medium of those of an older tradition


    890s,
    (Bonnard and Matisse) and of those whose utilization of free gesture
    encouraged the use of crayon and tusche (the German Expressionists).
    Nevertheless, the medium, far younger and therefore considered more
    commercial than engraving and etching, had rarely been exploited
    for its potential subtleties since the 1890s. Picasso was to challenge
    lithography with his intense and constant probing. He demanded that
    the stones carry his images exactly as he wanted them, so ways were
    found to manipulate the entire chemical and printing processes.
    Although the images no longer challenged so fiercely the credence
    of the lay public, they continued to turn life this way and that, to
    discover for those who deigned to look (and for the first time, perhaps,
    there were more who wanted to possess these prints than there were
    prints available) the infinite ways of representing life.
    One of the possibilities in Hthography that Picasso found most
    enticing was the retention of the successive stages of his compositions.
    For those whose curiosity or scholarship begs to know how a work of
    art has evolved, no other process but printmaking requires that a
    record in the form of trial proofs be taken of each stage in the develop-
    ment of a composition. In lithography Picasso found that his crayon
    drawings on stone could be changed radically. His eleven variations of
    The Bull, beginning with a realistically rendered animal and ending
    with a linear one, and his Tipo Nude Figures, in which the watching
    and sleeping women exchanged identities as Picasso changed mis-
    tresses during the period he drew the eighteen states, are examples of
    Picasso's prodigious manner of creating images. In later years he was
    to retain every line and even cover mistakes with the scratched lines
    of frustration when moving from one composition to the next. Only
    in his early postwar lithographs did he reveal the complex decision-
    making process of the most artistically creative mind of the twentieth
    century.
    After moving to the south of France Picasso found it increasingly
    difficult to continue making lithographs. Without a press at hand he
    had to wait for proofs to be sent from Paris. Ever the impetuous
    worker, these delays required a patience he did not possess. Then,
    having begun to make pottery in Vallauris, he was asked to make a
    poster by a local printer, Arnera. Arnera printed linoleum cuts, and
    Picasso made several linocut posters before he trapped himself into

    114
    attacking the medium with more seriousness. His Portrait of a Girl
    {after Cranach the Younger) (1958) was an attempt to produce a multi-
    color print in the normal manner - one block for each color - but the
    colors did not print precisely. Picasso did not have the temperament
    for this tedious procedure. He therefore set out to make multicolor
    prints by using only one block, printing each color he cut away as
    more of the block. (It is possible that Arnera utihzed this system for
    its inherent economy in his own commercial linoleum cuts.) From

    the artist's point of view, this was naturally a far more challenging
    and risky manner of working.
    Still Life under a Lamp (1962) is the most brilHant example of
    Picasso's one-block linoleum cuts. It represents well, too, the highly
    decorative turn his vision took in his last decade. This print, created
    when he was eighty years old, combines a youthful energetic sweep of
    line and color with an older nostalgia for quaint patterns. It is,
    altogether, a satisfying blend. This exceptional use of the rather lifeless
    linoleum vivifies the layers of flat unmodulated color and allows the
    exposed paper to become the source of light.
    Throughout his career, Picasso's superb draftsmanship served many
    subjects. His father taught him the importance of drawing, which
    thereafter was the dominant occupation of his life. From his earliest
    years he filled all There are
    available surfaces with instant sketches.
    thousands who possess menus, paper money, cafe napkins, and books
    of every sort with the special sketches that Picasso made within a
    matter of seconds especially for them. For Picasso drawing was a
    natural function that only death could halt. In his later years, after he
    had moved to the south of France and had fewer diversions, he filled
    hours between painting, sculpting, and pottery-making with drawing.
    Long series of compositions such as the 180 drawings he did in 1953—
    54, published as 'Picasso and the Human Comedy,' became an integral
    part of his later life. Almost entirely devoted to his now traditional
    subjects - the artist at work and play, the circus, the bullfight, and
    woman - Picasso drew with pencil, pen, felt pen, and the tools of the
    etcher and engraver.
    In the late 1960s the artist could often be found in the middle of a
    maelstrom of copper plates and two concerned printers, the Crom-
    melynck brothers. Emotional crises and loneliness had many times in
    the past forced Picasso to embark on projects that required highly
    concentrated effort and produced an exceptional quantity of works.

    115
    100 Pablo Picasso (i 881-1973), Still Life under a Lamp, 1962. Linoleum cut, 2o| 255 (53 , 64). Gift of
    Mrs. Donald B. Straus

    Periodically, as he aged, traumatic events caused him to produce yet


    another large of drawings. Certainly the death in 1968 of one
    series
    of his closest and oldest friends, Jaime Sabartes, affected him pro-
    foundly, and the result of this emotional event v\^as a series of 347
    plates, etched, engraved and aquatinted from March to October.
    Picasso's traditional subjects prevail, although the disguises of the
    participants change. Swashbuckling, plume-hatted gentlemen of the
    period of Velazquez, playing sexually aggressive roles, seem to be an
    extremely sympathetic disguise for the aged Picasso. He devised
    ways for younger, rather dilettante, noblemen to participate with
    voluptuously nude women in explicitly detailed sexual acts while
    the old king, deprived of his own prowess, appeared as a voyeur.

    116
    While the sex-act prints of the '347' series assured its notoriety, they
    were neither Picasso's first nor last erotic compositions. How could
    the foremost observer of women in his time fail to show as many
    aspects of her being as he could record? In his prints alone, women are
    not only shown being admired and fondled, but also chased and bedded.
    The public nature of prints undoubtedly contributed, in the earlier
    works, to a disingenuous approach to the erotic. In his last prints his

    humorous vision of the sexual act was a sly wink at the broadening
    public attitude toward the erotic during the late 1960s.
    Typical of the great quantity of etchings Picasso executed in the
    final decade of his life are the illustrations to the play Le Cocu Magni- 101
    fique (Paris, Crommelynck, 1968) by Fernand Crommelynck. The
    plates were made about a year before the '347,' and many of the sub-
    jects are identical. Whereas in the '347' the pursuer of ladies is most
    often a mustachioed Spanish grandee, the male figure in this illustra-
    tion one of the most sensitively modeled and sympathetic characters
    is

    in Picasso's late work. The female nude is rendered in the rushed


    scrapes that not only express the distressed flight of the pursued, but
    also give her the vaguely defined appearance of the intangible.

    loi Pablo Picasso (i 881-1973), plate 12 from Le Cocu Magnifiqiie by Fernand Crommelynck. Paris,
    Crommelynck, 1968. Etching, 83 ^ I2| (222 •
    32). Monroe Wheeler Fund
    Picasso's placement of twentieth-century art depends
    in the history
    entirely upon view
    the point of taken. There is no argument that the
    development of Cubism was his fundamental contribution that
    permanently affected future artistic expression. His imaginative use
    of materials, particularly in sculpture, not only broadened his impact
    upon the artistic community but encouraged a freer mode of approach-
    ing all media. After his Surrealist experiments, Picasso's imagery
    became, for some, mere embellishment upon earlier innovations. It
    is apparent that he did not communicate in his work any recognition

    of the changed environment of mid-twentieth-century France,


    nor any effect of the several new philosophical attitudes that were
    prevalent. His attachment to the Communist Party after the war was
    a position that, although Picasso felt sincerely sympathetic to its

    causes and goals, could not be resolved in his art. And yet his notoriety
    asan innovator continued throughout his life, his name was a house-
    hold word in countries where his work had never been exhibited,
    and even the young, experimental artist could not and would not
    pretend to ignore Picasso.
    In the area of his printmaking, Picasso followed a more conservative
    path than in other media, but his attitude toward the making of
    prints was exceptionally important to the future of the printed image.
    In the 1940s he took photoengravings of his own drawings and etched
    into them new elements, later printing them as both relief and intaglio
    prints. Rather than consciously search for new ways to make prints,
    he created images that expanded the of the print media.
    possibilities
    The quantity of these printed images (more than 1,900 compositions
    in editions from 25 to 1 50) substantiate the importance of printmaking
    in Picasso's creative life and should be seen as perhaps the most
    consequential production by any fme artist, whatever the medium.
    While Daumier created more prints, they did not have the breadth
    of imagery of Picasso's work, nor were they executed concurrently
    with an exceptional number of paintings and sculptures. Lastly,
    and as with the best artist-printmakers of the past, Picasso's prints
    have had considerable influence upon the artists of his time. The
    easy availability of prints has made them subjects of constant study
    and discussion, even from the time of Rembrandt. Through his prints
    Picasso has encouraged access to the print media by artists of all
    esthetic persuasions, thus further expanding their own potential
    influence.

    118
    8 Between the wars: Mexico,
    the United States, Japan

    As HAS BEEN NOTED above, French art during the 1920s and 1930s was
    divided between the avant-garde and the estabhshment. The ideas of
    the avant-garde in Europe - from Moscow to Paris - were embraced
    by the more courageous young artists who fled from the relatively
    conservative tastes of their own countries, particularly those in the
    Western Hemisphere and other isolated areas. The artists who re-
    turned to their native lands after their experiences in the European
    maelstrom of unfettered creative freedom were often unable to
    sustain their commitment to avant-garde ideals. They had to deal
    with the reaUties of their own societies which, more often than not,
    were in political and economic turmoil, or lacked the combination
    of maturity and intellectual curiosity to sustain an advanced artistic
    movement.
    A typical situation occurred in Mexico in the beginning of the
    1920s. Diego Rivera had been working in Europe when he and other
    Mexican artists were recalled by their government to participate in
    the educational and cultural activities that would lead to an increase
    in national pride based on awareness of the virtues of the people
    and their past. The indigenous movement in Mexico had its equiva-
    lents in the regional art of the U.S.A. and the Social Realism of the
    Soviet Union. In each of these cases the pictorial works that were
    produced were meant to be seen and appreciated by the masses.
    Naturally, one of the foremost means of accomplishing the widest
    distribution of the social message in art was through the print media.
    The vast numbers of posters created by artists cannot be treated here,
    but some of their prints did have the staying power found in Daumier's
    pungent lithographs.
    In Mexico the progenitor of the indigenous movement was the
    popular graphic artist Jose Guadalupe Posada. In his metal cuts and

    119
    '• •
    r.i,
    RocS,,!?t"„r'«-'''>*^"''''D'»'..«.. Sengraph, hand-colored
    M 21 (74- 53-3). AbbyAldnch
    103 Diego Rivera (1886-1957), Zapata, 1932. Lithograph, 16^ 13! (41 •
    33-3). Gift of Abby Aldnch
    Rockefeller

    104 David Altaro Siqueiros (1898-1974), Moises Saenz, 1931. Lithograph, 2i| 16^ (543 •
    41)-
    Inter-American Fund

    relief etchings for political and religious broadsides of the early 1900s
    he combined centuries-old Spanish influences with hidian traditions
    that had been altered but not eradicated by European domination.
    The self-taught artist, whose haunting Calaveras (spirits of the dead
    depicted to celebrate All Souls Day) and amusing city folk set the
    more serious response to culture, was a significant influence
    stage for a
    on two of Mexico's three great masters of the first third of the cen-
    tury, Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro
    Siqueiros. All three made lithographs that recapitulated the subjects
    of their major artistic contribution, the creation of mammoth murals.
    The revolution that was to politicize Mexicans tor several de^des
    came in 1910, shortly before Posada's death. Thereafter, art was
    devoted to the struggles and achievements of the peasants and the
    unprivileged. One of the leaders of the peasants during the revolution,
    Emiliano Zapata, appears prominently in the works of most Mexican
    artists, and Rivera's lithograph depicting him is perhaps the best- lOJ
    known print to emanate from Mexico. Rivera's European training is
    only vaguely apparent, and in his arrangement of figures he blends

    121
    incompletely digested modern spatial concepts with a personal inter-
    pretation of Pre-Columbian plastic representation.
    Closer to the indigenous ancient forms is Siqueiros's portrait of the
    104 Mexican educator Moises Saenz (193 1). His monumental head rests
    on the page in much the same manner as the large stone Olmec
    heads sit upon the ground. Siqueiros was the most politically active of
    the three artists, spending several periods in prison, and he lived the
    longest. He spent his last years executing a mural with large areas of
    high relief, and he also created some extremely lyrical lithographs for
    an elephantine volume of Pablo Neruda's Poems from the Canto
    General (New York, Racolin Press, 1968).
    Orozco was more moderate politically than either Rivera or
    Siqueiros, and seems to have comprehended more sensitively the
    nature of the peasant's life. The character of his murals in the eastern
    U.S.A. had a telling influence upon American artists, who had little
    experience of such grandiose forms of representation. Orozco
    executed many of his lithographs in New York, and their availability
    there as well as the enthusiastic acceptance of the Mexican artists in
    New York appears to have helped set the stage for American artists
    with similar and social goals.
    artistic

    The 'Ashcan' school of painting in New York of the early 1900s


    included one artist who put his ideas of depicting real life into prints:
    1 03 John Sloan. His etchings of city folk living out their lives in tene-
    ments, bars, and rainy streets were a continuation of a national genre
    tradition with a slightly ironic twinge. The influential Armory Show
    in New York, which introduced a larger public to the then current
    European styles, took place in 191 3. This event marked a certain
    degree of polarization between those artists who felt strongly that the
    various currents of European avant-gardism flowed in the right
    direction, and those who felt they could develop a more suitably
    American art. Realism for a fanatically realistic people became the
    stronger direction. Sloan, Bellows, Burchfield, Marsh, and many
    others explored the subject of man in the unfriendly environment of
    the city. Another form of realism was one that had its antecedents in
    106 European art. Edward Hopper was perhaps the strongest American
    painter to create etchings of the peculiarly vast and lonely American
    scene, in his representations of both the land and the people. The low
    horizon that he chose and even his etching manner were conscious
    evocations of Rembrandt. However, the result was unmistakably

    122
    105 John Sloan (1871-1951), Night IViiidows, 1910. Etching, s\ 6| (13-3 17-5). Gift
    of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller

    106 Edward Hopper (1882-1967), Night Shadows, 1921. Etching, 6{| 8^ (17-6 x 20-
    Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller
    American, and though he admired 'the quahty of a brooding silent
    interior in this vast city'^^ that Sloan obtained, it was Hopper who best

    caught the kernel of that mood in his prints in the early 1920s.
    As the Depression hardened in the mid-i930s, regional art tended to
    dominate. Two artists of mid-America, Thomas Hart Benton and
    Grant Wood, were among many who focused a magnifying glass
    upon their country and its less sophisticated inhabitants. Like most of
    the 1930s artists who made prints, they utilized black and white
    lithography, and between them they sought an acceptable way to
    extol the virtues of 'the people' while, occasionally, cheerfully mock-
    ing them. Significantly, both were influential teachers who, with the
    far more propagandistic Mexican muralists, set the form for younger
    artists.

    To some of the effects of the Depression the United


    alleviate
    States government established the Works Progress Administration
    in 1935. Under the W.P.A., the Federal Art Project provided work
    for many artists, who in the course of their association with the project
    created myriads of prints and many murals for public buildings. The
    Social Realists were thrown together with abstract artists, and some
    of the younger painters who had received their training from the
    regionalist artists were awakened to the possibilities of abstract art
    through their contacts with such artists as Stuart Davis and Hans
    Hofmann. Among the less mature Project artists were Jackson Pollock
    and Willem de Kooning, who were to become the first internationally
    acclaimed American painters. The actual work done on the Project,
    as in the case of most institutionalized art, was secondary to its long-

    range influences upon the later work of many of the artists who were
    able to continue their artistic careers because of it.
    Ot the Social Realists in the Federal Art Project, Ben Shahn was to
    become the best known. He had assisted Diego Rivera with the latter's
    controversial murals for Rockefeller Center in New York (1932-33),
    and went on to create murals in post offices throughout New York
    City. His realism was militant, in the Mexican
    and he tradition,
    rebelled against both the less politicaMy d regionalists and
    > jp]i!:>L;-c.i

    the nonpolitical Abstractionists. Tne economic strain of the Depres-


    sion had vitalized the political left, and Shahn was to use his art as a
    spotlight on the social injustice of his time. His combination of a
    unique calligraphic style with flat, poster-paint technique lent itself
    well to printmaking once the development of silkscreen as a medium

    124
    took place. Shahn's first silkscreens (or 'serigraphs,' as they were called
    in an attempt to bring the commercial technique into the realm of
    art)^^ were made and depicted poor immigrants and puppet-
    in 1941
    like politicians. His prints became wellknown after the war, when he
    had left his more volatile political themes behind and began to
    incorporate elements derived from the work of Paul Klee.
    Shahn was the first artist to use silkscreen extensively. He began by
    trying to imitate the progressive building up of tone and volume that
    was characteristic of painting. Silkscreen was the one medium where
    this could be rather successfully accomplished, so it was inevitable

    that the early 1940s was also a period when many paintings by con-
    temporary artists were reproduced in silkscreen. Silkscreen had many
    advantages which had developed through its demanding use as a
    commercial tool. Many colors could be laid down on paper in perfect
    alignment (registration). Because there were several methods of
    creating the image on the screen (with glue, cutting gelatin patterns,
    and various photographic techniques), these images could have the
    variety found in painting as well as an entirely new appearance.
    Shahn was to drop the painterly approach he first used and to retain
    only linear elements, which he often hand-colored. Typical of these
    prints in which the black linear image is drawn directly upon the
    silkscreen and the color applied by hand to the sheet before the black
    is printed is Triple Dip (1952). Shahn complained that he could not 102

    obtain the richness he wanted through color printing, and although


    later artists were to achieve brilliantly colored prints with silkscreen,
    the glue-based paint tends to be extremely homogeneous and absorbs
    light to a great degree. The more transparent color that Shahn applied
    by brush had a greater vibrancy.
    The developed by a small group of artists who were
    silkscreen,
    hardly in the mainstream of major artistic creation, was to become
    an important tool in art twenty-five years later. However, other
    seemingly unimportant occurrences in regional art all over the world
    hkewise had later repercussions. The 1920s and 1930s were, after all,
    periods during which giant steps in international communication took
    place. In the face of so much more information about the rest of the
    world it now seems inevitable that even the artists in remote Japan
    would seek a way to express a new sensitivity to their own past.
    The woodcut appears to have lost its status in Japan as a major form
    of artistic expression upon the death of the famous Ukiyo-e artist

    125
    Hiroshige in 1858. Today the aniline colors used in many of the
    printsmade during Emperor Meiji's reign (i 868-1912) have a gaudy
    character that makes one yearn for the comparatively subtle tones of
    the woodcuts of only a few decades earlier. It was the latter style that
    received such a warm welcome by artists in Paris in the second half
    of the nineteenth century. The woodcut became transformed from
    an artistic and sensitive depiction of fading tradition into a journalistic
    and commercial tool. The hiatus between the old and contemporary
    cultures created artistic chaos, for the new ways were Occidental and
    stressed a different hierarchy for art forms. Painting in the Western
    style became important, whereas the socially integrated forms like
    woodcuts, which depended on a complex scheme of artist and artisans
    filling a community's demands, fell completely outside the realm of

    the artist.

    A few sought to place the woodcut in the mainstream of


    artists

    artistic Kanae Yamamoto and Koshiro Onchi were fore-


    expression.
    most among those who took European woodcutting as a model in
    the early decades of the twentieth century. One of the artists who
    revived interest in ancient Japanese forms, particularly early Buddhist
    prints, was Un'ichi Hiratsuka. In the late 1920s he was among the
    first to combine the Western technique of direct cutting with a
    One of his students was Shiko Munakata
    traditional Japanese spirit.
    from Northern Honshu province, who was to go beyond earlier
    attempts to keep a tradition alive. In 1936 he became associated with
    the 'mingei' movement, which could be equated with the somewhat
    earlier regional movements in the West. 'Mingei' was an attempt to
    return to craftsmanship as practiced in the countryside, free of the
    commercial taint that had compromised the more sophisticated
    artists. The leader of the movement, Dr. Yanagi, recognized in
    Munakata's work the full meaning of 'mingei' he sought to instill in
    107 the young. Munakata's prints, filled with Japanese legend, Buddhist
    figures, and traditional images, are, like their counterparts in Mexico,
    hybrids of modern European influences and older national expres-
    sion taken predominantly from folk and archaic sources. His forth-
    right directness in attacking the wood block with the simple chisels
    used by children is similar to the approach of the German Expres-
    sionists, who sought not only to convey the emotion they felt when

    they carved their forms, but also to retain the character of the wood
    itself This concept is in direct opposition to the Japanese tradition of

    126
    woodcut production, in which one person draws the composition,
    another cuts it from the block or blocks, and a third prints
    it. Muna-
    kata's method was characteristic, however, of peasant craftsmanship
    and carried with it a refreshing frankness long missing from the
    woodcut.
    traditional

    107 Shiko Munakata (1903-1975), Flower Hunting Mural I954- Woodcut, -


    (ni-7v i<o-7^
    62?i\i
    <,\l iV /;
    Giftofthe Felix and Helen Tuda Foundation /
    9 Printmaking after World War II
    the persistence of Expressionism and
    Surrealism

    A POLITICAL DISPLACEMENT of artists began some years before World


    War II and the actual outbreak of hostilities. Hitler's determination
    to unify his people through mass hatred of minorities, particularly
    those involved in intellectual and creative pursuits, forced the closing
    of the Bauhaus its artists into exile. Josef Albers was
    in 1933, sending
    the first from the Bauhaus go to the U.S.A. in 193 1, and there he
    to
    participated in an innovative form of education at Black Mountain
    College, North Carolina. Feininger returned to the U.S.A. in 1937.
    Klee moved to Switzerland and Kandinsky to Paris. All the German
    Expressionists and artists of the Neue Sachlichkeit found themselves
    considered degenerate by the Nazis. Beckmann spent the war years in
    Holland while Grosz went to the U.S.A. and even became a citizen
    (renouncing his citizenship upon his return to Germany shortly before
    his death in 1959). Kokoschka and Schwitters found refuge in Great
    Britain, where Schwitters died in 1948. By far the largest exodus,
    however, occurred when Hitler's army occupied France. It then be-
    came necessary for Marc Chagall, Jacques Lipchitz, and other Jewish
    artists to escape to a place where religious persecution would be less

    likely to occur. With Max Ernst, Fernand Leger, Andre Masson,


    Matta, and the major Surrealist writer, Andre Breton, they fled to
    New York. Miro returned to Spain. Only Braque, Matisse, and
    Picasso were able to remain in France with little disturbance from the
    occupying enemy.
    While some illustrations by Picasso were published during the war,
    very few artists made prints during the occupation because ot the
    lack of materials and skilled craftsmen. Perhaps the most seminal event
    in the history of twentieth-century printmaking was Stanley William

    Hayter's removal of his Atelier 17 from Paris to New York. As he


    considered himself a Surrealist (because he utilized automatism to

    128
    create the basis of his compositions), his shop drew many of the
    Surreahst group to it. As they discussed their common problems
    (most felt extremely dislocated in the English-speaking community,
    where they could barely communicate), some of them executed a few
    prints. A few American artists joined in the discussions or were
    attracted to try their hand at Hayter's methods of intaglio print-
    making.
    One of the Americans was Jackson Pollock. Before the war both he
    and his brother had made lithographs under the influence of the
    American regional artist Thomas Hart Benton. Pollock had already

    been introduced to the concept of automatism in the provocative


    paintings of Masson and Ernst shown in New York in 1942. It was
    noted that even Pollock's painting in 1942 'resembles Hayter in
    general whirling figures.' ^s In 1944 Pollock went to AteHer 17 and
    achieved through the method of automatism some of the first dynamic
    and expressive compositions that were to characterize the early mode
    ot American Abstract Expressionism. In his etchings there are ele- 108
    ments derived trom the prewar compositions of Picasso, whose
    Guernica was a magnetic attraction at New York's Museum of
    Modern Art.
    unknown until William S.
    Pollock's Atelier 17 etchings remained
    Lieberman and Pollock's widow found them in a warehouse. In 1967
    six were posthumously published by his estate and Marlborough

    Galleries, New York. A proof of one of the larger plates communi-

    108 Jackson Pollock (1912-


    1956), Untitled 4, 1945.
    Engraving and drypoint,
    143 X 17I (37-5 <
    45-4). Gift
    of Mrs. Lee Krasner Pollock
    1

    cates the frenzy and pent-up emotion that so eloquently emerged in


    Pollock's drip pamtings. Except for these few early proofs there are
    no significant prints by the major American artists working in the
    energetic abstract style during the 1940s and 1950s. Franz Kline had a
    drawing reproduced as an etching in 21 Etchings and Poems, published
    in i960; Willem de Kooning also had an etching in the same publica-
    tion, which had been conceived in 1951 by members of New York's
    Atelier 17 and combined in each composition the poet's words and the
    artist's embellishment. Gorky, Hofmann, Rothko, and Still never

    created original prints in their mature styles.


    Because the most vital Abstract Expressionist period, during the
    late1940s and 1950s, was spent by artists in their studios or at places
    like the in New York expounding their theories, it was unlikely
    Club
    would be any movement to create prints. Hayter's methods
    that there
    encouraged artists to become printmakers, thus removing them some-
    what from the dynamism of the new, fresh undertakings of the
    painters. Several artists who responded well to the craftsman orienta-
    tion of Hayter's workshop created major works within the limitations
    of the intaglio medium. Three of the most important, Gabor Peterdi,
    Mauricio Lasansky, and Karl Schrag, all immigrants, dominated the
    field of printmaking in the U.S.A. throughout the 1950s.

    All three were mature artists who utilized some, but not all, of
    Hayter's methods. Peterdi, a Hungarian, was profoundly interested
    i og in the landscape and its nonhuman inhabitants. His Germination (1952),
    with its strata of hving matter, is an excellent example of the com-
    plexity of intaglio technology of the period it combines soft- and
    :

    hard-ground etching, engraving, aquatint, and offset color. The


    overall patterning of the composition reflects the concurrent ten-
    dency in painting, but as in most of the printmaking in the U.S.A.
    during this period, the image seems of less importance than the means
    110 used to obtain it. Schrag, from Karlsruhe, Germany, also made
    exceptional use of the materials at Ateher 17, which he led
    hand in
    after Hayter's return to Paris in 1950. Schrag brought to his plates an
    emotional approach that he shared with several other printmakers
    who worked primarily in wood, a particularly popular medium
    during the postwar revival of interest in the prints of the former
    1 1 adversaries, Germany and Japan. Mauricio Lasansky never abandoned
    his interest in the figurative, already well developed before he left
    his home in Argentina in 1943. Hayter's fluid use of the burin was the

    130
    109 Gabor Peterdi (b.

    1915), Germination, 1952.


    Aquatint, etching and
    engraving, i9|v 23 |i
    (50 y 60-5). Gift of
    Walter Bareiss

    no Karl Schrag (b. 1912), Falling Night, 1949. Etching and engraving,
    17I
    •
    12 (45-4 k 30-5).
    Purchase Fund

    III Mauricio Lasansky (b. 1914), Self Portrait, 1957. Engraving, drypoint, roulette and
    etching, 35f y 20^ (90' 5 ^ 52). hiter-American Fund
    basis for Lasansky's engraving technique, which allowed him to
    create intaglio prints on a larger scale. Figurative artists in the U.S.A.
    had a much wideraudience than their abstract colleagues, and there
    was group of collectors who supported the efforts of those
    a loyal
    artists who found human representation basic to their visions of life

    in the post-atomic age. While Lasansky's presentation of the tor-

    mented human has its roots in a Hispanic tradition, one that formed a
    part of the foundation for Picasso's prints of the late 1930s, his new
    use of expanded scale reflected the emphasis on size in American
    painting. The presence in the U.S.A. of the major monumental
    painting of the twentieth century, the twenty-five-foot, eight-inch-
    wide Guernica, undoubtedly had some effect.
    In printmaking one American artist made works that reached the
    size of most vertical paintings of the 1950s, Leonard Baskin. To do this

    he used large sheets of plywood to create giant figurative woodcuts.


    Baskin has an absolute sense of monumental scale which he has
    imposed upon grotesquely formed figures that consist of highly
    112 complex tangles of virtuoso woodcutting. Man of Peace (1952), a
    monument related to the Korean War, while not the largest of
    Baskin's woodcuts of this period (they won for him a first prize in the
    Sao Paulo Bienal in 1961), is the most successful manifestation of his
    and many other artists' attitudes toward both the formal and the
    philosophical problems of art in the 1950s.
    Baskin was not, however, the only artist to work with the wood-
    block in the U.S.A. during the postwar decades. Among many
    competent woodcutters, the Uruguayan Antonio Frasconi has had
    few peers in this medium (one can think only of H. A. P. Grieshaber in
    Germany). By using the gouge in an Expressionist manner and
    iij retaining the texture of the woodblock, Frasconi has been able to
    capture an intensity in his subjects. Like many of the printmakers at
    the very political Taller de Grafica in Mexico City, Frasconi often
    woodcut for social comment.
    uses the
    One younger American printmaker carried the art of the woodcut
    114 into new realms during the 1950s. Carol Summers, also using ply-
    wood sheets for his larger forms, created dynamic landscapes of
    unusual impact. By applying ink to the paper directly, using the cut
    wood as a limiting surface beneath. Summers obtained some of the
    brilliantly colored and liquid quality of watercolor, yet the total
    effect is and mysterious in its own right.
    entirely unique

    132
    113 Antonio Frasconi (b. lyiy), The Slorm is

    Coming, 1950. Woodcut, 22 •


    15^ (55'8 -
    39-3)
    Inter-American Fund

    112 Leonard Baskin (b. 1922), Man of Peace,


    1952. Woodcut, 592 ^3of (151 •
    V??)-
    Purchase Fund

    114 Carol Summers (b. 1925), Monte


    Amiata, 1958. Woodcut, 443 353
    •

    (113 90-8). CTJtt of Mr. and Mrs.


    Peter A. Riibel
    The between painter and printmaker, perhaps precipitated by
    split

    Hayter's students, who placed inordinate emphasis on the ingredients


    of printmaking, did not appear important until the American painters
    began to make prints. There was, after all, no market for these
    painters' prints, for beyond the interest in the very hmited, hand-
    made prints by the intaglio and woodcut artists, the only prints
    worth owning came from the School of Paris in general, and Picasso
    in particular. Having been cut off so long from the heart of the art
    world, by both the war and the Depression, Americans were eager to
    use their new money and confidence in the formation of collections
    of European art. In such a climate the American abstract painters and
    sculptors found an adversary worth battling with their best efforts.
    Eventually their work found an international audience, too, and was
    recognized as a major artistic flowering. By the early 1960s a few
    American artists were invited to make lithographs in European print
    workshops, and the formula that created the print 'boom' of the
    1960s was established.*
    Sam Francis, a younger abstract painter from California, was the
    first to produce a significant group of prints in the Expressionist, or

    action, style of the American school. Since he spent most of the 1950s
    in Paris, he had some indication of how prints by major painters
    were accepted. His visit to Japan in 1957 accentuated his affinity with
    the haboku, or 'flung ink,' style of the Japanese. He began his first
    attempts in lithography in 1959 at Universal Limited Art Editions
    near New York City, but did not complete those prints until 1968.
    In i960, in conjunction with creating a poster for an exhibition in
    Europe, he made a series of color lithographs with the Swiss printer
    143 Emil Matthieu. The White Line (i960) is one of the first prints that
    emphasize the differences between the American and European
    postwar abstract schools, for the latter artists either submitted their
    seemingly free gestural lines to a rigorous refining process {i.e.,

    Hartung and Soulages) or entrapped figurative elements in

    * It was during the 1950s order to protect the print buyer, the question of
    that, in
    originahty judging the quahty of a print was answered with a
    as a criterion for

    definition promulgated by the Print Council of America in What Is an Original


    Print? (1961). Not only did the definition aid the consumer, but it also tended to
    question the artist's integrity and his right to free expression. Inevitably many of the
    prints of the 1960s failed to conform to the definition and were considered repro-
    ductions.
    Plr Json
    " '' ^°°"'"^ (' '^°^^- ^--l'^'^- '9^- L.thograph,
    4.^ x 30. (.08-6 x 78). G.ft of Mrs. Bl.ss
    ii6 Robert Motherwell (b. 1915), In Black with Yellow Ochre, 1963. Lithograph, 185 •
    135 (46 x 35-2)
    Gift of the Celeste and Armand Bartos Foundation

    117 Barnett Newman (1905-1970), Untitled, 1961. Lithograph, 135 98 (35 •


    25). Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
    Barnett Newman in honor of Rene d'Harnoncourt

    emotionally activated linear webs (COBRAs), while Francis com-


    posed without preconceptions or restrictions. Here the flung drops of
    ink and amorphous squares compose themselves from the super-
    imposition of five independently executed lithographic stones upon
    which Francis applied his drips and daubs. The resultant print has an
    excitement of immediacy unhampered by subject - other than the
    instantly apparent theme ot color, movement, and surface.
    The second artist to work in lithography, which appeared to be the
    ideal medium for the action painter, was Willem de Kooning. In
    California there were several artists who were interested in litho-

    graphy and taught it at the University of California at Berkeley.


    One evening de Kooning was persuaded by them to make two prints
    11 S in the University's workshop. His large black and white untitled
    lithograph of i960 successfully 'freezes' the bravado of the artist's
    stroke, the visualization in permanent form of the emotional core of
    action. While Francis periodically turned to lithography during the
    1960S as a form of expression, de Kooning waited another decade

    136
    ii8 Adolph Gottlieb (1903-1974), Black Ground - Red Di. 1966. Scrigraph, 2»\ < 20 (71-7 -^
    50-8). Gift of
    Marlborough-Gerson Ciallcry

    119 Helen Frankenthaier (b. 1928), White Portal, 1967. Lithograph, 19^ 14I (487 •
    37). Gift of the Celeste
    and Armand Bartos Foundation

    before he put any amount of time into the creation of prmts. By the
    1970s he had again returned to figurative elements. The more than
    twenty Uthographs issued in 1970 are vibrant with Hvely brush
    strokes that appear scattered haphazardly but evolve into landscapes
    and figures.
    Robert Motherwell, during the war years, became a close associate
    of the European Surrealist refugees. He was one of the few Americans
    who exhibited with the Surrealists and, like Jackson Pollock, had his
    first one-man show at Peggy Guggenheim's Art of This Century

    Gallery, the center of avant-garde activity. He contributed a water-


    color to the Surrealist album VVV (1942), which also contained
    prints by Chagall, Masson, and Tanguy. Although he began to make
    etchings at Atelier 17 around 1942, and occasionally made a print
    during the 1950s, his direct Expressionist attack was most successfully
    applied in Hthography. Motherwell made his first hthographs at
    Universal Limited Art Editions in 1961. In Black with Yellow Ochre 116
    (1963) IS a variation in print form on his most deeply felt theme, the

    137
    Spanish Civil War, upon which he has based many paintings, gener-
    ally titled Spanish Elegies. Motherwell's broad and intense patches
    of black appear rarely in his prints, since during the 1960s his pre-
    occupation was more directly with collage, economical attenuated
    lines, and large fields of color. The collages incorporating Gauloise

    cigarette packages were eventually introduced by Motherwell into


    etchings and serigraphs.
    Other artists who have been categorized as Abstract Expressionists
    made prints during the 1960s. Barnett Newman, who was among the
    last of his generation to gain acceptance, made only a few prints. His
    117 first works in 1961 at the Pratt Graphics Workshop in New York

    were black and white Hthographs in his characteristic style of a mono-


    chromatic, relatively homogeneous plane interrupted by a single
    vertical strip or 'zip,' as Newman named this active element. His only
    prints that incorporated his special color sense formed part of an
    album titled 18 Cantos (New York, Universal Limited Art Editions,
    1964). These lithographs were meant to be seen together despite
    the dramatic changes of paper size (Newman attempted to resolve the
    conflict between the edge of the print and the margin by altering
    the spatial relationships between the printed area and the edge of the
    paper). Before his death in 1970 Newman made two black and white
    etchings almost entirely devoid of personal gesture and thus more
    118 closely allied to Minimalist work of the period. Adolph Gottlieb
    worked in both lithography and silkscreen, but his characteristic
    theme of the period, two opposing forms, one above the other and
    generally calligraphic in form, called for a more creative use of the
    processes than he was willing to undertake. More successful, perhaps,
    than any other of the gestural painters who turned to printmaking in
    the 1960s was Helen Frankenthaler, whose unique contribution to
    painting was in the form of the stained canvas which she punctuated
    iig with thin strokes of brilliant color. In her prints, mostly made at
    Universal Limited Art Editions, she has worked in lithography,
    etching, aquatint, and woodcut. She has created some of the most
    important prints in the mode of the action painters, notably because
    she has been able to translate into the print media the spirit of her
    style without trying to imitate the means she used to capture it on
    canvas.
    Interest in collage or almost any manipulation of found objects was
    brought to an unusual degree of refinement during the 1950s in the

    138
    120 Louise Nevelson (b. 1900),
    Untitled, 1963. Lithograph,
    3i| < 22 (80 X 5 5- 8). Gift of
    Kleiner, Bell and Co.

    Surreal, magic boxes of Joseph Cornell and the wall sculptures of


    Louise Nevelson. Cornell, an eccentric recluse, made only three
    prints in all, and those of his death, 1973. Nevelson made
    in the year
    quite a few etchings in the New York Atelier 17 in the 1950s and
    many hthographs throughout the 1960s at Tamarind Lithography 120
    Workshop m Los Angeles. They bear little resemblance to her
    monumental sculptures of stacked boxes containing dowels, balusters,
    and other manufactured wood shapes. Rather, the prints are filled
    with remarkably free, figurative and abstract jottings within confining
    lines or forms. Later Nevelson turned to embossed lead adhered to

    paper (the Italian Roberto Crippa used the technique in 1966) to


    produce images more closely resembling her sculptures.

    In Europe after World War II the art situation was quite different
    from that in New York. The first decade found the center of the art
    world, Paris, more Uke a botanical garden in spring: the same plants
    with new flowers. However, artists whose work tended to be at
    cross-purposes with the French Cubist tradition before the war

    139
    found after it that their more emotional approach to Abstraction had
    attracted an interested audience. Some of the younger traditional
    Abstractionists had exhibited their work during the war. Because their
    interpretations of the late styles of Klee and Kandinsky appeared to
    continue an acceptable form of art, they were appreciated even more.
    Both groups ot abstract artists had the formidable and omnipresent
    example of several local old masters (Braque, Chagall, Leger, Matisse,
    and Picasso) with whom to compete for the growing audience for
    art. The printmaking projects of these older artists proliferated, and as

    facilities for printing were revived or established several of the

    younger artists began to devote a good part of their time to litho-


    graphy and etching.
    The prints of the younger traditionalists, such as Alfred Manessier,
    who followed the path of Roger Bissiere, and Serge Poliakoff, were
    among the first color lithographs to show the tendency among post-
    war Abstractionists to create compositions with an overall rhythm
    of related forms that scattered the points of focus and demanded
    from the viewer attention to the entire picture plane. These and other
    artists working in this mode have produced many lithographs. One

    of the most talented of the painters who could have been characterized
    146 as a true School of Paris Abstractionist was Nicolas de Stael. In his
    few prints - lithographs and woodcuts - he revealed a fresher,
    released character to the tiers of square and rectangular forms that
    populated his compositions. They were done during the last several
    years of his life when he used banner-bright colors in staccato rhythms.
    As with many of his landscape-related paintings, there is a strong
    horizontal flow to them.

    121 Pierre Courtin (b. 1921),


    Composition, 1956. Engraving, 8{f g\^
    (22-4 > 25). Gift of Theodore Schempp
    - " - .....„.„
    ::','
    .„„,
    p ' :r

    ,..,0,. „„^^0.,. • .,^.,.™..^,

    122 Etienne Hajdu (b. 1907), folio 9 from Heraclite. Paris, 1965. Inkless intaglio, page lyf 132
    (44 7 35). Monroe Wheeler Fund

    A similar propensity to build compositions from irregular blocks


    is also found in the engraved reliefs of Pierre Courtin. During the 121
    late 1950s he used jewelers' tools to transform his zinc plates into a
    sculptural relief which he then used to print, deeply embossing the
    thick paper and miparting a single earth tone overall. Because of the
    diiTiculty of retaining the shapes within the plate, which has to with-
    stand extreme pressure during printing, Courtin's editions are small.
    It was inevitable that there would be sculptors who would work in a
    when
    similar direction it became possible for them to make prints.
    Henri-Georges Adam, the son of a goldsmith, created abstract
    etchings made of large cut-out plates filled with networks of lines.

    Etienne Hajdu utilized the deep embossing of intaglio, and his 122
    several books of embossed prints, done in collaboration with the
    designer and poet Pierre Lecuire, are examples of the degree of
    refinement that the French livre du peintre had attained. The brilliant
    conjunction of type and image that Bonnard and Vollard had achieved
    in 1900, and which subsequent artists and publishers had sought to
    emulate or improve, Hajdu extends through the use of embossing
    to create images on both sides of the page that simultaneously forecast
    and abstractly illustrate the text.

    141
    123 Wols (Wolfgang Schulze)
    (1913-1951), plate 3 from
    Nourritures by Jean-Paul Sartre.
    Pans, J. Demase, 1949. Drypoint,
    page yi x sh (i9 U)- Gift of
    -^

    Mrs. Bertha M. Slattery

    The familial ties of these Parisian artists with the prewar Abstrac-
    tion-Creation group (Arp and the Uruguayan Torres-Garcia most
    notably) virtually erase World War II in the natural evolution of this
    particular combination of influences. On the other hand, the war
    engendered a higher tolerance for more Expressionist and forceful
    presentation. Existentialism found its adherents among those young
    enough to associate themselves directly with extreme change, old
    enough to have been aware of the horror of the war years. The small
    group that surrounded Jean-Paul Sartre in the early postwar years
    transmitted in their own creations some of the same anguish that
    emanated from the New York painters, Pollock in particular. The
    work of Wols (Wolfgang Schulze) was the first of this genre to be
    shown in postwar Paris. Under the constant influence of alcohol,
    Wols composed unconsciously, revealing through his scratches and
    barbed lines the abstract imagery of a tortured life. Sartre occasionally
    123 supported him, and for Sartre's short story Nourritures (Paris, Jacques
    Demase, 1949) Wols produced three drypoint illustrations. Most of
    Wols's prints were made to illustrate books during the late 1940s, in
    the traditional Parisian collaboration of the most progressive artists
    and writers. 'L'art informel,' the name given to the abstract gestural
    art of the European artists, encompassed artists like Wols, who had

    142
    not seriously painted before the war broke out, and Hans Hartung,
    who had been working in the Expressionist mode for decades.
    Hartung's style of painting grew out of his tendency to do away
    with figurative elements in the models he chose to emulate Nolde and :

    Kokoschka in his youth, Julio Gonzalez just before World War II. It
    was during the period that he worked with Gonzalez that he made his
    first At that moment his style of abstract
    prints since his schooldays.
    improvisation took unique direction, and after the war it gained
    its

    strength and confidence. Hartung's vigorous strokes appear at first to


    be quite freely executed, but, unlike those of Wols or Pollock,
    they are the result of the same sort of refined calculation as the pitcher's
    curve ball in baseball. Hartung's forays into Uthography and etching 124
    have been frequent and intense. His first hthographs appeared in
    1946. Hartung's final triumph occurred in i960 with his acquisition
    of the Grand Prize of the Venice Biennale. That year, in which the
    public door to gestural painting was opened, also gave both European
    and American artists access to a larger audience through printmaking.
    Throughout the 1960s Hartung created lithographs in which his
    freedom increased in direct proportion to his ability to control
    linear
    each stroke. The tracks of his crayon or brush generally begin and
    124 Hans Hartung (b. 1904), Sheaf, 1953. Etching and aquatint, 2of x 15^ (523 ''
    38-7). Larry Aldrich Fund

    125 Pierre Soulages (b. 1919), Composition IV, 1957. Etching, 2i| / 15I (543 ^ 38-7). Gift of Mr. and Mrs.
    Armand P. Bartos
    end within the rectangular barriers of the Hthographic stone or
    etching plate, but when the outline is not included as part of the
    composition, the character of the space represented changes. The
    lines cross each other in a deep but undefined space and appear related
    to light shows and fireworks displays.
    Caught more permanently on the picture plane even though no
    boundary restricts the eye are the etchings of Pierre Soulages. His
    large calligraphic signs are made up of wide sweeps of the brush,
    generally in vertical and horizontal directions. In order to capture
    the power and unity of this image in print, Soulages etches away the
    vacant portion of his plate so that the strokes, made by a scraper, alone
    remain. The monumental sign emerged in Soulages's work in
    single
    123 the mid-1950s, after a more linear period. Intense blacks that sur-
    round and are illuminated by nature's colors are the backbone of any
    Soulages composition. The appellation 'gestural art' does not com-
    pletely describe Soulages's compositions, which are highly refined,
    stable structures.
    The informality of the facture in this area of European art had many
    degrees of concept and interpretation. Soulages and Hartung created
    determined constructs ot gestural line, while the Spaniard Antoni
    Tapies conceived in his art a relationship between the uncontrollable
    traces of time and premeditated gestural lines, or gratfiti. He began
    his career as a Surrealist painter, well aware of the heritage he shared
    with his fellow Catalan, Miro, but even more inclined to emulate the
    younger Parisian painters. Around 1954 he became deeply concerned
    with the physical remains of man's journey through his environment.
    He began painting these time-worn and defaced doors and walls,
    using sand and plaster to emulate the strata of their histories. He
    126 began to make lithographs in 1959, embossing them to obtain a
    similar tactile effect. Later he was to tear his prints and layer the printed
    sheets. More and more the element of graffiti encroaches upon the
    already brutalized surfaces, and while there are occasional recog-
    nizable letters and words, the lines cohere and, like true graffiti,
    entangle and depersonalize themselves. During the late 1960s Tapies
    added etching to his repertoire, and during the student protests ot
    1968 he often depicted the walls of social struggle, covered with
    bloodied handprints and militant Xs. Most of Tapies's prints have
    been published by Galerie Maeght in Paris or Sala Caspar in Barcelona.
    There are often many points of similarity between Tapies's spirited

    144
    evocations of decay and defacement and Miro's pnnts
    of the late
    1960s, also issued by the same publishers. Tapies has
    also illustrated
    many books, in which the prints are occasionally folded, torn, or
    collaged.
    In other European countries there was a similar striking out into
    new modes of expression. Most prominent of the Italian whose artists
    propensities were toward the destruction of older formalisms was
    Lucio Fontana. His postwar work concerned itself with space;
    he
    created a spatial environment with light in 1948 and formed
    a group
    of artists who subscribed to the tenets of his Manifesto Blanco, issued
    in Buenos Aires in 1946, 'Color, the element of space, sound, the ele-
    ment of time, and movement, which is extended in time and in
    space, are the fundamental forces of the new art, which
    embraces the
    four dimensions of existence-time-space.' Fontana began to puncture
    his canvases in 1948 and to slash them ten years later.
    The emblematic
    disposition ot the holes within the rectangular monochromatic
    canvas or a confining irregular oval is related to the similarly mono-
    hthic sign of Soulages. Theof creating an unknown area or space
    idea
    by opening up the picture plane was also taken up by Tapies. How-

    145
    ever, the added element of a monochromatic plane disturbed so
    violently by the intrusion of holes is Fontana's own. It is, therefore,
    not surprising that there was little popular appeal to his work, and
    not until the 1960s was he commissioned to make prints. Fontana's
    spatial concepts transferred well into intaglio, where the deep etching
    technique had already attracted lesser talents. Rupturing paper during
    printing, however, was an undesirable and ultimately painful
    occurrence - something to be avoided at all costs. But Fontana re-
    quired this taboo process, and among the few prints that he made
    which best represent his intentions are those that have been punctured
    12^ in a definite and orderly pattern, each hole marked by the torn edges
    of paper forced beyond its possible elastic properties.
    There were many artists in Europe who worked in a totally non-
    objective gestural manner, and most of them produced some prints.
    In Germany the most prominent of the free Abstractionist painters
    who also made prints has been Ernst Wilhelm Nay. In the late 1950s
    he began to make color aquatints in which puffs of diluted color
    crowd each other. More dynamic and in the path of Hartung is the
    work of another German who has worked in Paris, K.R. H. Sonder-
    borg. His flashing etchings of the late 195GS consist of strong diagonals

    127 Lucio Fontana (1899-1968), plate 5 from Sei Acquaforti Originali. Rome, Marlborough, 1964.
    Etching, 13^ i6| (iys
    ' 42-5). Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Fund
    and arcs which seem to capture the essence of motion. Other Ger-
    mans who began their work in printmaking in this area of abstraction
    include Fritz Winter and Hann Trier.
    As recognition came to the abstract artist, publishers saw a rising
    demand for their prints, and painters who were so inclined began to
    meet that demand. Until the advent of Pop art, when graphic expres-
    sion became an exceptionally large portion of artistic output, it
    was primarily the prints of European Abstractionists of both the
    above-noted tendencies that were available. The Italian painters
    Capogrossi, Severini, and Vedova, the Chinese Zao Wou-ki, the
    Dutch Bram van Velde, and the Belgian-born Gustave Singier all
    found their way
    to the Hthographic studios during the 1950s. While
    their efforts have contributed little to the growth of the medium
    during a period when Braque, Miro, and Picasso were creating some
    of their best prints, they do represent the increasing awareness of the
    importance of prints as authentic and direct artistic expressions.
    There were at the same time artists who introduced into their work
    recognizable imagery in a new form, divorced from Surreahsm but
    sharing with it a dependence on psychological factors that contributed
    a disturbingly unstable effect. The postwar figurative artists in Europe
    were products of the war, and like the practitioners of I'art informel,
    they could no longer create peaceful compositions in which objec-
    tivity and formal analysis were the primary motivations.
    In 1948 a group of artists from Scandinavia and the Lowlands
    joined together in Paris to form the group COBRA (the name com-
    posed from their capital cities, Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amster-
    dam). The eldest and most experienced of the group was the Danish
    artist Asger Jorn, but the Dutch artists Karel Appel, Cornelis Corneille,

    and George Constant were the nucleus of the Experimental Group


    from which COBRA grew. The Belgian Pierre Alechinsky became
    the youngest member when he joined his friend, the poet Christian
    Dotrement, who had acted as the catalyst in consolidating and form-
    ing COBRA.
    COBRA as a common effort was short-lived (1948-5 1), but most of
    its members adhered to its Expressionist and mythological bases
    throughout their artistic careers. Taking the particular iconography
    of the folklore of their countries, they combined animate imagery
    with turbulent execution. The subject of their compositions, including
    the obvious representation of a cobra or snakelike creature, emulate

    147
    to some extent tales. While Sur-
    the terrifying possibilities of fairy
    realists created pictures that alluded to complex and deep-seated
    fears, the COBRA artists put into their work the fascination of self-

    provoked fear. Goblins, creatures of strange, threatening shapes,


    and all manner of magical objects fill the works ofjorn and Appel.
    Before his association with COBRA, Jorn had worked in Paris
    with Leger and Le Corbusier, conducted underground activities
    during the Nazi occupation of Denmark, and already had produced a
    considerable number of woodcuts, lithographs, and etchings. More
    than any of the others, Jorn was compelled to reveal in his work the
    dire effects of war consciousness. He was also suffering from tuber-
    culosis during the COBRA period and in 195 1 entered a sanatorium.
    Throughout his adult life he was a prolific writer and participated
    in many activities (including another short-lived art movement, the
    International Situationists, during 1957-61). His involvement with
    the Museum in Silkeborg, Denmark, established its prominent
    position in the exhibition of Wols, Michaux, and Dubuffet. In print-
    128 making Jorn was certainly the most dedicated among his tempera-
    mental colleagues in COBRA, who all made prints. During the
    early 1960s he and Appel created quantities of lithographs in which
    color surges across the page in broad swaths, occasionally massing to

    128 Asgerjorn (1914-1973),


    Masculine Resistance, 1953. Etching
    4I 4f (12-4 I ry). Gift of Mr.
    and Mrs. Peter A. Riibel

    129 {right) Pierre Alechinsky


    (b. 1927), pages 148-149 from
    / i Life by Walasse Ting. Berne,
    Kornfela, 1964. Lithograph,
    i6i 23 (409
    •
    58-4). Gift of
    •

    Walasse Ting, Sam Francis and


    E.W. Kornfeld
    divulge a wide-eyed monster. Appel later removed from his color
    patches the activating, Expressionist tracings which had bound his
    work to Jorn's, and created from these unmodulated and brilliant
    color masses a race of carnival creatures.
    Adhering more to Jorn's linear, emotion-driven composition,
    Pierre Alechmsky has probably been more directly concerned with
    printmaking than any of the COBRAs except Jorn. After the move-
    ment was disbanded, Alechinsky began to work in Hayter's re-estab-
    Hshed Ateher 17 in Paris. Alechmsky often collaborated with his
    friend Dotrement, combining verse and illustration in the same print
    (they contributed an etching to the portfolio 21 Etchings and Poems,
    mentioned earlier). Oriental calligraphy influenced Alechinsky's
    execution, and his forms emerge from complex tangles of line.
    During the 1960s he worked on several projects with the Chinese
    poet-painter Walasse Ting. With Sam Francis, whose work was also
    partly activated by Oriental methods. Ting created the foremost
    book of the early 1960s, 1^ Life (Berne, Kornfeld, 1964),
    illustrated i2g
    for which Alechinsky, Jorn, and Appel created several color litho-
    graphs. The volume provides the sole example of the conjunction of
    European and American gestural art and its American successor,
    Pop art.
    :

    The most important figurative artist to emerge directly after the


    war was Jean Dubuffet. The former wine merchant who had left his
    artistic aspirations behind in the early 1920s turned again to art when
    the war made commerce difficult, if not impossible. His first exhibi-
    tion came in 1944, the same year he created his first book of litho-
    graphs Matiere et Memoire (Paris, F. Mourlot, 1945). His intense
    interest in the art of the insane, children, and primitive peoples was
    the basis for his formulation of an expressive style. Unlike his friend
    Jorn, who struggled with contemporary social concerns, Dubuffet
    preferred to depict the most ordinary and timeless situations of life

    being oneself (portraiture), and so on. Throughout the


    birth, eating,
    decade and a half after the war Dubuffet created a great number of
    prints, mainly lithographs, which were often grouped together in
    albums for which he occasionally provided text. He was, for a time,
    fascinated with natural materials, which he would use to create
    paintings, sculpture, and collages as well as to transfer their images
    and make drawings and lithographs from these imprints. From leaves,
    stones, dirt, and other unlikely found matter, Dubuffet created com-
    positions populated by grotesque human and animal figures in
    imaginary settings. The fairy-tale aspect of postwar figurative Expres-
    130 sionism is most comfortable in Dubuffet's creations. Work and Play
    (1953) is typical of the imprint lithographs in which figurative
    elements have been found and outlined in a relatively chance-
    produced composition. The three floating figures have neither contact
    nor any definable relationship to each other. There are elements of
    humor and fear in Dubuffet's work which he offers in the most
    ingenuous manner by means of extreme simplification of execution
    and content.
    Dubuffet's romance with lithography in the late 1950s is one of the
    important milestones in the history of the dedication painters have
    shown to printmaking in the twentieth century. Exploring the
    infinite possibilities of producing texture on a lithographic stone or
    plate, Dubuffet transferred natural materials of every kind to the
    stone as well as placing liquids of several sorts on their surfaces,
    blotting, or burning them. Two hundred and thirty-four black and
    white lithographs emerged as a basic set for further experimentation.
    These prints made up the first thirteen of the albums generally titled
    Phenomena (1959). Certain lithographs of this artist's palette of tex-
    tures were combined and printed in color, sometimes as many as ten

    150
    ijo Jean Dubuffet (1901-1985),
    Work and Play, 1953. Lithograph,
    25I X i9|f (65-4 X 50-3). Gift of
    Mr. and Mrs. Ralph F. CoHn

    for a single print. Serge Lozingot was the master printer who worked
    on Dubuffet's own press to accompHsh the Phenomena prints, as well as
    additional color trial proofs using the key Phenomena plates. The latter,

    with the key black and white prints and published color prints,
    brought the total of possible textures and color combinations that the
    artist was ultimately to use for his future compositions up to nearly

    two thousand.
    A group of figurative lithographs was created out of the Phenomena
    project. For each of these color prints Dubuffet made a collage of
    cut-out proofs, added linear elements in ink on acetate and trans-
    trial

    lucent whites with cut-out drafting paper. The finished maquette was
    given to Lozingot to use as a guide for making the lithograph from
    the Phenomena plates that combined to make up the various color trial
    proofs. This complex and technically exhausting method was used to 147
    create portraits and scenes of a fresh, childhke nature.

    151
    DubufFet's work of the 1960s continued to examine people, objects,
    and structures in a naive, slightly insane, or primitive fashion. The
    'Hourloupe' (a word created by Dubuffet) paintings, sculpture, and
    prints consist of extended networks of lines which join to form the
    outlines of the subject. In the early 1960s the lines were predominantly
    red and blue on a white ground. Grays and blacks were added, and the
    holes of the network were occasionally filled in to show depth. In
    the 1970s many works were simply black and white sculpture made
    of epoxy. Prints made during this period were chiefly silkscreens in
    the limited bright, flat colors of the 'Hourloupe' style, often grouped
    together in books or printed on plastic (vacuum-formed or contoured
    panels) as objects produced in editions ('multiples').
    Few of the major postwar European painters of the figurative
    Expressionist persuasion have neglected the area of printmaking.
    The most notable exception has been Francis Bacon, the British artist
    whose writhing, screaming figures personify the trauma of a genera-
    tion caught in an irremediable destiny. There were
    however,
    others,
    who manifested in their prints the helpless, threatened of life in
    state
    the post-atomic age. While not in conscious reaction to the world
    situation, the late, postwar work of Alberto Giacometti encompasses
    I ji this condition. The drawn lithographs and etchings of Giacometti

    show his style of paring down the human form to its essential struc-
    ture, its inner being or, more mystically, its soul. Quite unprotected
    by the controlled mask of experience, Giacometti's faces reveal the
    reality within. In the mid-i940s the meaning of what he was sculpting
    dawned upon him, 'This was no longer a living head but a thing I
    looked at like any other thing .like something that was alive as well
    . .

    as dead. 1 uttered a cry of terror. .'^9 . .

    In Great Britain two artists of Giacometti's generation, Henry Moore


    and Graham Sutherland, had spent the early 1940s as official war
    artists, documenting the Battle of Britain and its effect on its people.

    They were both committed to Surrealism as the basis of their imagery,


    but after their experiences in the war years, it was inevitable that the
    frustratingly immutable nature of reality be expressed through a more
    emotionally driven line and choice ot subject. Moore's earliest work
    in printmaking was an extension of his drawing during the war. His
    first group of lithographs were illustrations to Goethe's text of the

    Prometheus legend, translated by Andre Gide {Promethee, Paris,


    Jonquieres et Nicaise, 195 1). The plates, which were made from

    152
    13 I Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), Bust, 1952. Lithograph, 14! '
    2of (48-7 -
    5:
    Larry Aldnch Fund

    drawings on acetate, show figures constructed of fragmented stone


    moving through an undefined space. Moore, like Giacometti, had
    no real commitment to the art of printmaking, so there is little con-
    of his vision as it relieved
    tinuity in his prints to divulge the progress
    of the memories of conflict. At the age of seventy-one Moore
    Itself

    created etchings for an album entitled Elephant Skull (Geneva, 1^2


    Cramer, 1970) which return to the mystery of form itself without
    evoking any sensation of the provocative nature of the beast from
    which the form is derived.
    Sutherland, who had made etchings in a conservative manner
    during the 1920s, divided his time after the war between portraiture
    and the depiction of natural objects in the Surreahst's indefinite space.
    Neutral relationships between plants and animals in Sutherland's
    compositions are compromised by their threatening forms. Thorns,
    night creatures and other mysterious and menacing hving things ijj

    153
    were brought together in several color lithographs published in the
    1950s. In color and freely brushed contours Sutherland exhibited an
    indebtedness to the German Expressionists, particularly Nolde. His
    most extensive work in printmaking was a Bestiary (1968) consist-
    ing of twenty-five color lithographs of insects, reptiles, birds, and
    animals.
    A true heir of the German Expressionist tradition which was
    intrinsically printerly, Rolf Nesch had received his inspiration during
    a six-week visit with Kirchner. Nesch's first important prints were
    views of the bridges of Hamburg (1932) printed from collages of
    industrial metal materials (screening, die-stamped metal, and so forth).
    The Hamburg Sezession, to which he belonged, was dissolved in
    1933, and Nesch moved to Norway. There he continued to work,
    coming under the spell of Munch and the awesome appearance of the
    northern landscape. His plates became increasingly complex, and as
    he could not vary their size on his own small press, he combined several
    1J4 prints into the larger format of triptychs and polyptychs. The Herring
    Catch (1938), the first of these, contains six panels. Nesch made further
    use of his plates and their various elements in metal reliefs, and in-
    creasingly his entire work evolved from his unique printing medium.
    Nesch's imagery became more dreamlike after a serious accident
    he suffered during World War II. Additional figurative elements
    appeared in which wit, humor, and terror were combined. Nesch's
    postwar work was widely exhibited in the 1950s and was one of the
    influences that brought a strong emphasis on material and technique
    into the field of printmaking. The assemblage of junk, particularly
    machine-made materials, became a major artistic concern after World
    War II, and Nesch's early explorations in this area, on a purely
    emotional rather than rational basis, were prophetic.
    Other artists who have worked in the Expressionist figurative style
    and produced prints that successfully recapitulated their painterly
    concerns are the Spaniard Antonio Saura, the Polish-born Maryan,
    the Mexican Rufino Tamayo, and the Americans Leon Golub and
    Jack Levine. Some sculptors, too, such as the late Reg Butler, Marino
    Marini, and Jacques Lipchitz, augmented their postwar creative
    efforts with a few prints. It was left to younger artists who had grown
    to adulthood during the war to reveal through their choices of
    imagery and execution the paralysis of spirit that arose from that
    disaster. Like those of Bacon, Giacometti, and Sutherland, their

    154
    132 {right) Henry Moore (1898-1986), plate
    10 from Elephant Geneva, Cramer,
    Skull.
    1970. Etching, iii^xyH (29-4 x 19-8). Gift
    of the artist and Galerie Gerald Cramer

    133 {below) Graham Sutherland (1903-1980),


    Crown of Thorns, 1955. Lithograph, 18^x25^
    (47 X 64-7). Purchase
    compositions were most often amalgams of Surrealist form and
    Expressionist execution. To this, many added a particularly eccentric
    vocabulary acquired for the most part from mystically oriented art
    of the past.
    The most extreme examples of this synthesis developed in Vienna,
    where Ernst Fuchs and Friedrich Hundertwasser (Friedrich Stowasser)
    represented the two poles of fantastic art as it wavered between the
    Surreal and the Expressionist. Both artists could be classified as

    obsessed, Fuchs with religious mysticism, Hundertwasser with his


    environment. Fuchs has emulated an obsessed artist of another place
    and century, William Blake, in his skillful and tireless dedication to
    etching. Technically, Fuchs has no peer in the compulsively precise
    execution of his plates. While his subjects are nearly always without
    contemporary motifs, they have a symbolic relevance to contempor-
    ^35 ary conditions. Fuchs consistently turns to ancient religious (Christian,
    Hindu, and other) representation for his forms, while Hundertwasser
    is influenced by the decorative effects obtained by Klimt and other

    Jugendstil artists at the turn of the century. He has extended their


    spiraling motifs, turning them into convulsive environments in which
    1 Si brilliant colors add to the effect of hysteria. Hundertwasser's prints,
    generally color lithographs and silkscreens, recapitulate the subjects
    of his paintings. Several silkscreens have been published in extremely
    large editions (ten thousand) in an effort to distribute his images

    156
    . i^sJt

    134 Rolf Nesch (i893-1 975), The Herring Catch, 1938. Metal print in 6 panels, each plate
    23! ' i6\ (60 42). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Jaretzki, Jr.

    widely and directly combat the commercial emphasis on limitation.


    He has endeavored, through his art as well as in his lifestyle, to fight
    functionalism and other signs of depersonalization.
    It was this concern about the future of humanity, shared by many

    younger postwar artists during the 1950s, that compelled them to


    become increasingly concerned with man's image. The work of three
    Germans, Horst Antes, Horst Janssen, and Paul WunderHch, all of
    whom spent their youth under the swastika banner ot the Nazis,
    represents this direction in a way quite different from that expressed
    in Germany after World War I. Rather than depict man's conscious
    transgressions, they placed man at the mercy of his subconscious or
    elemental drives. Years of Surrealist philosophy and Freudian
    psychology influenced these three artists who matured in an occupied
    land that allowed them every creative opportunity but constantly
    teased them with their communal guilt.
    The eldest, Paul WunderHch, derived his figurative style from
    biological charts, and his early subjects were often renderings of the
    physical details of human
    beings metamorphosed into fantastic
    creatures. He his artistic career as a lithographer, studying at
    began
    the Landeskunstschule in Hamburg, and printed more than one
    hundred of his own editions. His technique, particularly using tusche
    - the greasy ink used in drawing on the stone - is impressive and en-
    Uvens each image. Wunderlich inserts into almost all his work an

    157
    135 Ernst Fuchs (b. 1930), St.
    George, 1958. Etching, 9J x 6^
    (24 y 16-3). Lent anonymously

    aura of spatial or subject disorientation. He will duplicate his main


    subject, reversing the second image or placing it above or below the
    ij6 first. While many of his compositions of the 1950s and early 1960s
    were explicitly provocative, either because of their Surreal depiction
    of sexual acts or their political antagonism, Wunderlich increasingly
    found the decadent curves of Art Nouveau expressive of postwar
    opulence. His subsequent prints and paintings are filled with languid
    females lying on zebra skins or leaning on cabriole-legged chairs,
    in mauve and other smoke-obscured tones.
    Horst Janssen, also from Hamburg, studied there and afterward
    opened a drinking club. His earliest etchings were done in 1957, and
    some of them parody Rembrandt paintings by distorting the respect-
    able burghers ot Rotterdam into insect-like beings. He shares with
    Klee and Ensor a sardonic streak of humor that is always more than
    cynicism. In his landscapes there is a portent of disaster among the
    broken branches and jagged hills. However, in the way of his genera-
    tion, he is preoccupied with man, and, in his case, with himself, as the

    158
    repository of society's ills. His self-portraits and the decomposing ijy
    heads he etched for Hannos Tod (Rome, Pantheon, 1973) sum up in
    expressive form this artist's search for humanity.
    The helmet-headed homunculus that Horst Antes created to be the ij8
    vessel of his appraisal of mankind's aimless journey through life has
    undergone several transformations since it first appeared in his
    pamtings and prints in the early 1960s. At first, influenced by the
    COBRA artists, the figure merged with gestural traces that made up
    its environment. Progressively, the figure was moved away from its

    surroundings and became either made up of the selected subject-


    matter (flags, roosters, and other popular devices) or moved through a
    completely hostile environment filled with more or less symbolic
    objects. The figure itself often has displayed stigmata or other
    references to suffering. Antes's prints in both etching and lithography
    display this archetypal human being as a timeless sign in contrast to

    thecontemporaneous imagery of the Pop artist.


    Naturally, the Expressionist influence was felt wherever European
    and American art was exhibited or reproduced. The paintings of

    136 Paul Wunderlich (b. 1927), Rendez-vons Technic II, 1962. Lithograph, 241^ 15^ (61 •
    39-5).
    Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Peter A. Riibel

    137 Horst Janssen (b. 1929), Mchmcholy Self Portrait, 1965. Etching, 19 15^ (48 393). Mr. and Mrs.
    Peter A. Rubcl Fund

    '%^
    women by Willem de Kooning directly affected the Japanese print-
    ijg maker Masuo Ikeda, one of whose prints names of other
    includes the
    artistshe felt contributed to his formation Wols, Klee, Giacometti,
    :

    Dubuffet, and Pollock. Ikeda modified his early gestural style into a
    stylized figurative form, the Oriental equivalent in some ways to
    what Antes was doing. He, too, found Surrealism and the spatial
    mystery of Magritte, in particular, an important addition to his com-
    position. Since his visits to Europe and the U.S.A. in the mid-1960s
    he has used his superb technique, mainly drypoint and mezzotint, to
    create prints depicting women in Surreal settings dominated by cubes
    of sky.
    One postwar figurative artist, the Italian Enrico Baj, ambiguously
    performs somewhere in the area between Expressionist satire and
    1^2 playtime Dada. His portraits of generals and other personifications
    of authority are obfuscated with nonsensical or kitsch embellish-
    ments. Color is an important element in the rendering of Baj's carnival
    figures (they often resemble the stuffed dolls used as targets in ball-
    throwing games of skill), and during the 1960s a considerable number
    of his lithographs and aquatints in brilliant tones found a receptive
    audience. Unlike American Pop art, which also had powerful Dada
    antecedents, Baj's work appears to involve itself almost exclusively
    with satire aimed at the estabhshment. Relief prints of the same period
    by the Argentine Antonio Berni have similar subjects, while the Mexi-

    138 Horst Antes (b. 1936), Figure with


    Red P-Hat with F/115, 1967. Lithograph,
    2i| •
    i6| (55-5 42-2). Mrs. John D.
    Rockefeller 3rd Fund
    139 Masuo Ikeda (b. 1934), Romantic Scene, 1965. Drypoint, roulette and etching, 14^ *
    13^ (36-3 ' 33-6).
    Gift ot the Felix and Helen juda Foundation

    140 M. C. Escher (1898-1972), Other World, 1947. Wood engraving, 12^ 10^ {31-6 -
    26). Purchase Fund

    can Jose Luis Cuevas utilizes in his lithographs, as does Baj, many
    literary references of a very personal, jaundiced view of society.
    There are two printmakers of the postwar period whose imagery
    gives the impression of Surrealist influence but who are, rather, unique
    stylists of inimitable technical facility. Yozo Hamaguchi, a Japanese

    who settled in Paris after the war (he had been a student there during
    the 1930s), is the master of mezzotint. His mysterious still lifes, in
    which a single walnut or bunch of asparagus, placed in a limitless 141
    setting, activates the total picture plane, capture the precious quality of
    a Japanese household ceremony in fmite form. The velvety surface

    of Hamaguchi's mezzotints is endlessly seductive, and the minimal


    subject-matter in such a form has appealed to those who search for that
    illusory perfection worthy of spiritual meditation.
    Maurits Cornelius Escher, a Dutch printmaker who lived mainly
    in Italybefore the war, developed into a master craftsman very early
    in his career. His ability to cut and engrave wood precisely was an
    important adjunct to his obsessive attempt to confront 'the enigmas
    '^0
    that surround us', bringing him into 'the domain of mathematics.
    Escher's work generally concerns distortion, sometimes through
    breaking up the picture plane into regular, infinitely repetitive

    161
    patterns, through metamorphosis by the interaction of repetitive
    forms, by means of fraction through the imposition of geometric
    figures, and through simultaneous representation of conflicting spatial
    140 concepts. This latter means is seen in his wood-engraving Other World
    (1947), in which an impossible triple view of architectural and astro-
    nomical space is populated by three human-headed birds. During the
    1960s young people looking for 'mind-expanding' experiences
    through the use of LSD found that Escher's images complemented the
    visions they had during their drugged periods. The precision of his
    line, the simultaneity of different perspectives, and the extended pat-

    tern-making and distortion put Escher's work at the unusual juncture


    where the opposed sensitivities of scientist and mentally disturbed
    meet.
    The art of the mentally disturbed was of particular interest to
    Dubuffet, as we have seen. One cannot honestly categorize Escher's
    visionary prints as the result of mental aberration, but an obsessive
    schematism does have a different interpretation when appHed
    interest in
    to the printsof another Dutch printmaker, Anton Heyboer. Born in
    Indonesia and having led a peripatetic childhood, Heyboer was left
    for dead in a Nazi work camp when he was nineteen. He made his

    141 Yozo Hamaguchi (b. 1909), Asparagus and Lemon, 1957. Mezzotint, ii| lyi (29-8 •
    44-5). Gift of Heinz
    Berggruen
    142 Anton Heyboer (b. 1924), The System ii'ith Figure, 1957. Etching, 8^ 10^ (208 27-3). Gift of Mr.
    and Mrs. Armand P. Bartos

    first etchings after he had been confined in a mental sanatorium in 195 1


    His subsequent experiences with the Amsterdam artists' circle in the
    mid-1950s, alcoholism, and broken marriages determined for him
    the form and content of his artistic expression. Heyboer's unusual 142
    etchings are diagrams that simultaneously put his warped Hfe ex-
    periences in a systematic order and solve daily problems for him and
    his household. The plates, made of roofing zinc, are etched in a primi-
    tive manner and are covered with statements, numbered diagrams,
    and occasional styHzed human figures. The plates are often printed by
    Heyboer's wife or companion in earth tones in the hut they occupy
    in the northern Dutch marshes.
    During the 1950s younger artists were given the means to achieve
    some pubHc recognition through the institution of international

    163
    prizes and exhibitions. One of the eadiest exhibitions to recognize
    the artistic value of prints was the International Biennial of Graphics
    in Ljubljana, Yugoslavia. By 1955, the year Ljubljana's competition
    was inaugurated, communications among countries had been con-
    siderably iinproved. There is no question that many of the inter-
    national print exhibitions were established for political and economic
    gain. Yugoslavia independently straddled the Eastern European
    nations dominated by the Soviet Union and the Western nations with
    which it was eager to promote trade and tourism. Having found that
    art was an exportable commodity, the government of Yugoslavia
    sanctioned the Ljubljana exhibition with the intention of not only
    showing the work of its own artists but bringing to them the best
    examples of printmaking from all over the world. The variety in
    concept and quality with which the Yugoslav artists were bombarded
    has led to their development as international artists.
    Of course, there were many other countries with similar goals,
    whether fundamentally cultural, political, or economic, and large
    international biennial exhibitions of prints have taken place for over a
    decade in Tokyo, Grenchen, and Lugano, and for a shorter period in
    Krakow, Florence, and Bradford. Regional (by continent or groups
    of countries) competitions have also proliferated, particularly in Latin
    America. The most important prizes for prints during this twenty-
    year period were given, however, at the large multi-media biennials
    in Venice and Sao Paulo. Miro was the winner in Venice in 1954 and
    not in Ljubljana until 1965. Few unestablished artists have gained the
    first or grand awards. Local artists won more important prizes as their

    biennials aged, and the organizers have tended to promote their


    nation's artists in each other's biennials. Among the talented Yugo-
    slavs and Japanese who have triumphed in the two most important
    biennials arejanez Bernik, Riko Debenjak, Andrej Jemec, Miroslav
    Sutej, Tetsuya Noda, Kosuke Kimura, and Jiro Takamatsu. Regret-
    tably, the roster of biennial prizewinners seems to be less a record of
    lasting contributions to the art of the print than a somewhat limited
    chronicle of the taste of the period.

    164
    10 The flourishing of Hthography in
    the U.S.A. the prints of Pop art
    :

    In the late 1950s excellent conditions for the widespread acceptance


    of American artists existed. In addition, a small part of the more cul-
    turally aware and affluent American pubhc, which had already
    patronized the lithographs and etchings of Chagall and Picasso,
    seemed prepared to support the market for its own contemporary art.
    Several astute persons who were enthusiastic about the new importance
    of American art saw was ripe for these painters and sculp-
    that the time
    tors to make prints. Calling upon the American foundation system,
    which provided great quantities of money for social and cultural
    purposes, June Wayne Tamarind Lithography Workshop
    established
    in Los Angeles in i960. June Wayne's experiences as an artist in search
    of a place to make prints had brought her to the conclusion that the
    U.S.A. needed not only one shop such as Mourlot's, but several.
    She received a grant from the Ford Foundation to set up a workshop
    where experienced lithography printers would work with students,
    already trained in an art school or university, in a master-and-
    apprentice system. The students would progress as they mastered
    successively more complex techniques until they became master
    lithographers, at which time they either succeeded the shop master,
    set up their own shops, or became teachers of lithography.

    The program that made Tamarind more than a school for litho-
    graphers, however, was the introduction of practicing artists to
    lithography. Coincidentally, as the artists used the workshop facility,
    they provided the problems and work for the students. This essential
    interdependence was a positive benefit to the students, for it taught
    them some of the psychology necessary in working well with artists.
    Such a creative collaboration was fairly simple to achieve at Tamarind
    since most of the students had, unlike commercial printers, started as
    art students. For most of the 104 artists who came to Tamarind during

    165
    the decade of its existence, their two-month fellowships at Tamarind
    Workshop introduced them to a new medium. The program drew
    them away from the solitude of their studios and into a more struc-
    tured work situation which, for many, did not allow the latitude of
    time, space, and contemplation for the development of masterpieces.
    Those artists who were already were better
    familiar with lithography
    able to accomplish what they planned at Tamarind, though they were
    often hampered by the necessity of working with student printers who
    were not experienced enough to give technical advice. What basically
    shaped most Tamarind-printed lithographs, however, was the fact
    that the artist was encouraged to continue producing rather than sub-
    work to his own critical evaluation over a period of time. This
    ject each
    mode of working was the reverse of what had become habitual to
    American artists. The stringent rules of European academies, which
    fostered the concept that artists be prepared to produce on demand,
    were unknown in American fme-art schools, though this attitude

    prevailed in commercial-art schools. The efficient production of


    advertising art was only compromised by artists who were
    slightly
    considered very creative and thus liable to some deviation from the
    rules. Even so, a successful commercial artist like Andy Warhol was
    expected to produce on demand, and did. Thus, at Tamarind, it was
    the artists who were commercially trained or already acquainted with
    the workshop situation who created the best prints. Among the latter
    were Sam Francis and Louise Nevelson. As the second or California
    wave of Pop artists appeared (and although they only occasionally
    shared Warhol's commercial background, they were committed to
    the more rigid production methods of modern technology), some of
    them, such as Ed Ruscha and Billy Al Bengston, were successful at
    Tamarind. The ultimate value of the Tamarind experiment was in
    the proliferation of lithographic shops it fostered in North America.
    By the mid-1960s there were several in California, and Tamarind
    printers were staffmg new shops in the Midwest and on the East Coast.
    At almost the same moment that Tamarind was established, Mrs.
    Tatyana Grosman, in her home outside New York City, was taking
    an altogether different approach to lithography. Her Universal
    Limited Art Editions succeeded her husband's efforts to supplement
    theirincome from his painting by producing serigraph reproductions.
    After he became ill, Mrs. Grosman was encouraged by the American
    sculptress Mary Callery in her desire to provide a place for artists to

    166
    make lithographs. Mrs. Grosman offered her Hthograph press at first
    totwo friends, Larry Rivers and Fritz Glarner. In i960 she invited a
    younger painter, Jasper Johns, to her shop, and in 1962 Robert
    Rauschenberg began to work there. The Hthographs they made at
    Universal were to fully demonstrate for the first time in prints the
    vitality of the new American art. By 1963 Rauschenberg was able to
    create a print, Accident, that was to win the First Prize at the Fifth
    International Biennial of Graphics in Ljubljana, a year before he was
    recognized as worthy of the Grand Prize at the Venice Biennale.
    While printmaking played a seminal role in the development of
    the painter Jackson Pollock, this art form was never a major concern of
    the Abstract Expressionists. It took the active encouragement of Mrs.
    Grosman, her long experience of the work patterns of the New York
    School of painters, her incredible patience and determination that
    only the best of an artist's work be published, to enable artists to

    produce prints equal in quality to their paintings. One other sub-


    stantial contribution made by Mrs. Grosman to the art of printmaking
    was her feeling for the materials of her craft. She recognized that
    artists who chose materials for assemblages and took such an interest
    in the craft would demand equal care in the choice of
    of creating art
    materials for their prints.She commissioned handmade papers and
    continually offered choices through which the artist could extend
    and refine his concept. While there were cases where this search for
    perfection led to annoying delays, collaboration was always seen as

    more important than compromise. The physical Umitations of the


    Grosmans' shop (which was set up in the garage of their home)
    necessitated the restriction to invited artists only. In addition, Mrs.
    Grosman felt that working with artists with whom she had httle or no
    rapport would be unproductive. The American artists who made
    lithographs at Universal during the 1960s were Lee Bontecou, Jim
    Dine, Helen Frankenthaler, Fritz Glarner, Robert Goodnough, Grace
    Hartigan, Jasper Johns, Robert Motherwell, Robert Rauschenberg,
    Larry Rivers, and James Rosenquist. The Venezuelan sculptor who
    was part of the New York Pop movement, Marisol, also worked at

    Universal. With the exception of Goodnough and Hartigan, these


    artists continued to create prints at Universal over many years, and

    most into the 1970s.


    The Tamarind and Universal workshops provided the technological
    possibihties for the production of prints. They served some artists

    167
    who had already presented in their paintings and sculptures the essen-
    tials of a new visual experience which found form under two historical

    influences: the part of Surrealism that had engendered Abstract


    Expressionism and Dada. The freedom of action painting emphasized
    the surface of the pigment applied through dripping or swabbing with
    large brushes. A fresh feeling for the materials of painting evolved and
    opened the way for further experimentation with other materials,
    such as newspapers, photographs and, ultimately, trash. The assem-
    blage of discarded objects was a connection that an artist like Robert
    Rauschenberg had with the German exponent of Dada, Kurt Sch wit-
    ters. Schwitters organized his collage compositions by adding forms

    or areas of solid color; Rauschenberg drew his photoimages together


    with vigorous brush work. Both sought to disrupt the equilibrium of
    the spectator by preventing a systematic reading of the pictorial or
    lettered elements through the disturbance of disparate subjects or
    concealed forms. As Rauschenberg worked away from the Abstract
    Expressionist formulae, he concentrated more upon found objects,
    the photographic images he selected from magazines predominating
    in his prints. While the images he chose often focused on a particular
    subject, they were rarely combined in a narrative fashion. His com-
    positions were stroboscopically choreographed so that the portions of
    representative material would be sensed in the same manner as the
    eye senses the total environment. Rauschenberg allows the viewer
    the same visual choices that are made in life, away from art, in which
    accumulations of miscellaneous, disparate materials are taken in by
    the eye on the basis of form, then ordered by the mind into learned
    sequences. It is the latter stage that Rauschenberg sabotages by eliminat-
    ing conjunctive pictorial elements that would allow the photoimages
    or accumulations of trash to make sense.
    144 The lithograph Accident of 1963 is typical of the transition that
    marked the end of purely action art. Almost the entire composition
    is filled with broad brush work, nearly concealing the photographic

    plates that were later to dominate in Rauschenberg's prints. The large


    lithographic stone broke during proofing, and this unexpected event
    added a dynamic diagonal element to the composition which, in
    terms of Abstract Expressionism, would have been characterized as
    fortuitous. Beyond welcoming that diagonal, however, Rauschen-
    berg decided to retain the bits of broken stone by incorporating them
    into what had been the lower margin - thus asserting that the process

    168
    143 Sam Francis (b. 1923), The White Line, i960. Lithograph, 35^^ x 24I (90-6 x 63). Gift of E. W. Kornfeld
    144 Robert Rauschenberg (b. 1925), Accident,
    1963. Lithograph, 38J x 27^ (97-8 x 69). Gift
    of the Celeste and Armand Bartos Foundation

    by which art is created is important in itself. Process would become a


    major characteristic of the next decade's art, with the use of silkscreen
    and photographic manipulation dominating and redefining the fields
    of painting and printmaking.
    The problematic decision to return to the object by artists weaned on
    totally abstract art is dealt with best in the work ofJasper Johns. While
    he retained a persuasive personal application in creating the surface
    ofhis pamtings and prints, technique was at the service ofa diametrically
    opposed concept: rather than take as his subject the revelation of an
    object through the interpretation of a series of abstract markings,
    Johns chose to take an object which was superficially an abstract
    two-dimensional pattern. While his choice to use the series of con-
    centric circles of a target alone did not reveal an altogether new direc-
    tion, the selection of the American flag added an emotionally charged
    dimension to what was essentially an artist's determination to main-
    '45 tain the stability of a two-dimensional surface. The Hthograph Flag I
    was one of Johns's earHest prints, done at Universal Limited Art

    170
    Editions in i960. This print, like the paintings that preceded it in the
    late 1950s, was one of the first promulgate the newly ambiguous
    to
    aspect of the object in art. The earlier abstract art of the 1930s had only
    occasionally incorporated objects of the contemporary environment
    and then exclusively as part of a composition. By contrast, Johns used
    an object so totally integrated into his own culture that it was simul-
    taneously too familiar to be visualized as art and too representative
    of a highly emotional patriotic fervor to be treated as nothing more
    than its physical entity. While Johns's purpose was to subject the object
    to the rule of the medium, inevitably the treatment of the medium
    itself changed. He has consistently formed his work on the basis of

    superb draftsmanship and consummate work with brush and palette


    knife. Within these broadly classical hmitations Johns has created
    works of unique quahty. His most compelling Hthograph was Ale
    Cans, of 1964, in which he portrayed his sculpture of two Ballantine 155
    ale cans, a painted bronze piece in which one of the cans appears to be
    punctured. The sculpture, as is to be expected, was after the beer cans,
    not o/them (that is, not cast from original cans), and was meant to
    induce the enigma of reality confused with art by the introduction of a
    reaUstic situation (the canopened for drinking) in a facsimile object.
    Going one and also commenting on the function of
    step further,
    prints carrying information, Johns created a portrait of his sculpture
    in hthography, carefully drawing it on the stone in perspective and
    just as carefully removing the enclosing space that surrounded it and
    defining the true two-dimensionality of his picture by framing the
    blackened background with crayon lines.

    «.w^*M>'*2

    145 Jasper Johns y-ri


    (b.1930), Flag I, i960.
    Lithograph, ly^ 26|
    (44-5x68). Gift of
    Mr. and Mrs.
    Armand P. Bartos
    '^^Cr^
    r r IT * ^ tiiVk A • • • • f •:::!;

    ' 9 "m »V.

    146 Nicolas de Stael (1914-1955), The Wall (Study in Color No. I), 1951. Lithograph, sheet 19^ x 252
    (505 65-4). Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Fund
    •

    Johns continued to make lithographs throughout the 1960s and into


    the 1970s both at Universaland at Gemini G.E.L., a shop in Los Angeles
    opened by a former Tamarind printer, Ken Tyler. Tyler was enthusias-
    tic about the prospects of expanding the medium of lithography by

    encouraging the foremost American artists to work freely at his shop.


    He created new machinery and brought the known techniques to a
    high degree of efficiency, thus inducing artists to give free rein to their
    demands for new and better ways of achieving their concepts. For
    Johns, Gemini developed a means of producing a spectrum (or rain-
    bow) effect over a large surface (the series Colored Numerals of 1969).
    For Rauschenberg, who was then creating compositions almost
    exclusively from newspaper and magazine photographs, Tyler pro-
    duced the largest lithograph ever made. Sky Garden (1969). Both
    artists continue to explore the infinite possibilities of the print media:

    Johns has worked in an altogether fresh manner on Hthographic plates


    printed on an offset press; Rauschenberg has combined the art of

    172
    mLX? rS^'"^'''^^' ""'''" ^^^^- ''^''- ^•''^"^"Ph,
    .3iix X4| (60-5 X 37-7). G.ft of Mr. and
    making prints with that of making paper, thereby creating a totally
    new artistic unity of two ancient crafts. However exploratory and
    imaginative their approach to printmaking has been, the value of
    Johns's and Rauschenberg's work rests on the imagery with which
    they turned around a two-decade habit of dependence on nonobjective
    art.Whereas the main swing in painting during the 1940s and 1950s
    was away from the object, much of the art of the 1960s evolved from a
    nearly desperate search for the most banal and unseemly objects in a
    posttechnological environment.
    Emerging at the same moment as Rauschenberg and Johns were two
    American artists who continued to emphasize the romantic and sub-
    jective in their works. Like their contemporaries, both Larry Rivers
    and Jim Dine had a strong attachment to the physical activity of
    painting. They, too, surrounded or embellished the real objects they
    selected with sweeping brush strokes and drips of paint. Rivers,
    essentially a figurative painter tied to the same tradition, one might
    say, that made de Kooning return to painting women in the early
    1950s, dwelt on the human aspects of his subjects. His paintings and

    148 Larry Rivers (b. 1923), Lucky Strike in the Mirror II, 1960-63. Lithograph, 263 183 (66-6 x 463). Gift of
    the Celeste and Armand Bartos Foundation

    149 Jim Dine (b. 1935), Eleven Part Self Portrait {Red Pony), 1965. Lithograph, 39|x 29! (loi x 75). Gift of the
    Celeste and Armand Bartos Foundation
    150 Richard Hamilton
    (b. 1922), Interior, 1964.
    Serigraph, I9^>'2Sh
    (49 - 63-8). Gift of Mrs.
    Joseph M. Edinburg

    prints during the 1960s, while often inspired by common objects


    such as money and from his
    cigar boxes, never released the viewer
    subjective involvement, which was considered inessential in Pop art.
    Unlike the Pop artists who froze and made absolutely inert any vestige
    of lifelikeness in their subjects. Rivers tended to humanize the most
    inanimate object.
    Jim Dine, twelve years younger than Rivers, was captivated by the
    manufactured object. He knew that objects had considerable power
    within themselves to control and change lives. In the 1950s Dine was
    one of the first creators of 'Happenings,' the form of participation
    theater in which visual elements and their manipulation took pre-
    cedence over dialogue. In his Car Crash happening, rolls of bandages,
    headlights and other symbolic objects became the chorus to a tragedy
    in which the human participants assumed the roles of the destructive
    objects. In his print Eleven Part Self Portrait {Red Pony) (1965), executed 149
    at Universal Limited Art Editions, a bathrobe becomes the personality

    of the artist, its various parts numbered to expand the object beyond its
    discrete form. Dine's penchant for watercolor and its seductive
    quality is apparent in the use of tusche in this lithograph. It is perhaps
    because Dine is also a poet that even the most banal objects (his sub-
    jects have included awls, false teeth, striped ties, hammers, and chisels)
    are imbued with a humanistic sympathy quite unlike the cool detach-
    ment of most Pop art.

    175
    The objectives of Pop art were most clearly set forth by the British
    artist,Richard Hamilton, both in his writings and in his paintings
    and prints. While the artistic situation in Great Britain was quite
    different from that in America, the awakening to mid-twentieth-
    century culture was nearly simultaneous in the two countries.
    Hamilton looked to the glossy pages of American movie and health-
    fad magazines, the sensuous hard-sell advertisements aimed at a newly
    affluent middle-class society, and the heavy-handed sexuality of all the
    popular media. In 1957 he put together a list of characteristics that
    underlie the philosophy of Pop art and that tended to be manifest in
    his own work as well as that of Lichtenstein and Warhol: 'Popular
    (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-term solution),
    expendable (easily forgotten), low cost, mass-produced, young (aimed
    at youth), witty, sexy, gimmicky, glamorous, big business.' ^^
    Hamilton's first print in this vein was a silkscreen that recapitulated the
    type of collage paintings that inaugurated the Pop movement in the
    150 late 1950s. This print. Interior (1964), combined clippings from maga-
    zines juxtaposed in a jagged, illogical manner which tended to elicit a

    151 Fricdrich Hundertwasser (Friednch Stowasser) (b. 1928), Goodbye to Africa, 1967. Lithograph, 18^ 24I
    (47 62-5). Purchase
    152 Enrico Baj (b. 1924), The Archduke
    Charles at the Battle oj Aspern-Esslirig,
    1965. Etching, 11^ X 9f (29-8 \ 24-4).
    Mrs. Alfred R. Stern Fund

    satirical viewing of their now revealed 'hidden persuaders.' Hamilton

    was one of the first artists to be highly sensitive to photographic


    manipulation and used the commercially developed methods of
    photography, particularly personahty-erasing fashion camera work,
    to create his own imagery. This was a direction he took in his silk-
    screen (or screen print, as the British prefer, having long substituted
    synthetic fabric for silk) of Frank Lloyd Wright's Guggenheim
    Museum {The 'Solomon R. Guggenheim, 1965). Hamilton took his 153
    view of the museum from a picture postcard sent to him by the British
    Pop movement's most amiable critic, Lawrence C. Alloway, then the
    museum's curator. The spiraling floors of the building and the poor
    color reproduction of the pale beige paint that covers the entire ex-
    terior inspired Hamilton. He saw the form as an architectural equi-
    valent of a spirally stitched woman's brassiere, and interpreted the
    color as flesh-pink. was only left to him to manipulate the postcard
    It

    reproduction, touching it up as one might a fashion photograph to

    simphfy the planes, curves, and shadows, and 'beefing-up' the color.
    The result is a composition as tightly constructed as any of Leger's,
    177
    giving an object that has its own well-known identity the sort of
    cosmetic treatment that has become part of our visual culture.
    The inert and immutable construction of Pop-art compositions is

    most clearly viewed in the works of Roy Lichtenstein. This American


    artist, a year younger than Hamilton, had sought a means of creating the

    sort of incredible jigsaw-perfect composition that was the ideal of


    objective Abstractionists. His view of art was strictly formalist,
    without any commitment to comment upon the contemporary
    nature of things. It was accidental that he found his best 'unified pattern
    of seeing'^- in the compositions of contemporary comic strips, even
    though this coincided so well with the subjects of Pop art. However,
    the comic-strip paintings and prints which characterize Lichtenstein's
    work of the early 1960s are selected frames from myriads of possibili-
    ties, which he has altered in color, relationship of masses, and so on.

    This burden of choice, whatever his aim, undeniably could not have
    been taken up without some attitude outside of traditional formalism.
    It is worth noting that Lichtenstein and Andy Warhol chose at the same

    time to take comic strips as their subject, and Warhol, being younger
    and less committed to the images he found in the comics, looked for
    different material after he discovered this conflict. The essential formal
    elements of the color comic strip that Lichtenstein took into his work
    consisted of solid black outlines surrounding areas of color, either
    totally flat and unvaried or made up of the ready-made dots (Ben Day
    dots) used to create lighter tones for the reproductive process utilized
    on newspaper or magazine comic-strip pages.

    153 Richard Hamilton (b. 1922), The


    Solomon R. Guggenheim, 1965. Serigraph,
    22 22 (558 55-8). Joseph G. Mayer
    Foundation Fund
    154 Andy Warhol
    (1930— 1987), Marilyn
    from Ten Marilyns. New
    York, Castelli, 1967.
    Serigraph, 36 x 36
    (91-4 X 91-4). Gift of
    David Whitney

    Unmodulated black and primary colors were best achieved through


    the stencil process, and in making prints Lichtenstein used silkscreen
    to its best advantage. The sharp edges and persistent dots had a mechan-
    ical precision that would have been sacrificed in a less stable medium.

    A Lichtenstein silkscreen such as Sweet Dreams, Baby! (or Fowl), from 156
    Eleven Pop Artists (1965), viewed terms of its composition rather
    in
    than its subjective content, is successful because the medium clearly
    defines its highly organized structure. When the artist turned to
    lithography at Gemini's studio, his work consisted of creating stencils
    far the transfer of his images to the plates and stones, a process not far
    removed from silkscreen, which had previously been solely a tool of
    commercial lithography.
    One cannot, however, write about the silkscreen as the dominant
    medium of Pop art without citing its major proponent, Andy Warhol.
    Warhol started his career as a commercial artist, creating advertise-
    ments for shoes in a highly personal and whimsical style. His decision
    to become a serious artist coincided with the new enthusiasm for
    American art among people in the women's fashion business. Attempt-

    179
    155 Jasper Johns (b. 1930), Ale
    Cans, 1964. Lithograph, 145 x
    I i-i^ (362 X 28-4). Gift of the
    Celeste and Armand Bartos
    Foundation

    ing and discarding several themes and techniques, he turned to the


    silkscreen as the medium by which he was to create images both on
    canvas and on paper. He combmed two methods: flat sohd-colored
    shapes that utihzed the basic stencil feature of silkscreen and extremely
    enlarged reproductions of photographs that were imposed on the
    screen photographically. Using the stencil style alone, Warhol pro-
    duced his series of Campbell soup can paintings and prints and his
    Ajax boxes, reproducing everyday objects in a new form and scale,
    thereby making them at once visible and mysterious subjects.
    In essence, Warhol was a portrait artist, all his work sharing the
    intense and ravishing spotlight of examination that fixed the ex-
    terior form into the shape of the personality within. His many
    '54 canvases and prints of Marilyn Monroe, the movie star whose life and
    suicide made her an epic figure of the 1960s, consisted of the same

    180
    ." «wy Licntenstein (b 1023^ <^„ , r^
    photograph of her face, taken from a reproduction in which the dots
    of the process used create the blacks and grays. This photograph is
    enlarged to such an extent that one becomes aware that the areas of
    dots are nothing more than references to eyes, hair, and mouth. Added
    to this abstracted but recognizable photo- or real-portrait is a stencil
    portrait made up of flat shapes that seem to refer mainly to the false
    or superficial elements of the star's face: lipstick, eyeshadow, wig, and
    so forth. Warhol used the silkscreen as a mechanical and anonymous
    collaborator, allowing the medium to defme his intent. Marshall
    McLuhan's interpretations of mid-twentieth-century culture in terms
    of the various forms or media of communication drew considerable
    attention during the 1960s. Warhol's work was probably the closest
    contemporary visual evocation of McLuhan's controversial declara-
    tion: 'The medium is the message.'
    An integral part of Pop art was the proliferation of its images. Not
    only did the inspiration for their subjects come from the mass-
    oriented commercial media, but the Pop artists emulated the blanket-
    ing effect successfully used by advertisers to sell their products.
    Uniqueness, that aspect of art so deeply ingrained in its appreciation
    in modern times, was a suspect quality discarded by some of the Pop
    artists.Andy Warhol consistently reprinted his images so that, for
    example, there were over three thousand canvases and portfolios of
    prints of his Flowers. But the Pop image that held the record for dis-
    semination - to the extent that it became as well known throughout
    the U.S.A. as some major commercial products- was Robert Indiana's
    137 LOVE. First painted on canvas in 1965, the four letters of the word
    'LOVE' were arranged in a square and brightly colored. Indiana's
    vision of the American dream was found in the signs advertising its
    components, such as 'EAT' on a roadside restaurant. This area of
    inspiration was not his alone, since most of the Pop artists in the early
    1 960s had isolated one word ('ART' was the most popular) in paintings

    or constructions, drawing to it the silent veneration expected of the


    serious art appreciator. LOVE became the image for the 'hippie'
    generation, who, in a period when discussion centred on the premise
    'God is dead,' needed a universal spiritual sign. While the idea of
    love was expanding and being redefined, the symbol Indiana devised
    along the lines of a business logotype became a limited edition print
    (several times in various colors), was pirated for commercial produc-
    tion as posters, was made into a chromed metal multiple, was en-

    I«2
    157 Robert Indiana (b. 1928),
    German Love from Graphik USA,
    1968. Serigraph, 22g x 22^
    (56-5X 56-2). John B. Turner
    Fund

    larged into a mammoth steel sculpture, and, finally, was engraved and
    issued as an official United States postage stamp in 1973, well afi;er the
    love generation had grown up.
    James Rosenquist was formerly a billboard sign painter, who found
    in the residue of overlapping commercial advertisements a combina-
    tion of ready-made or found-object imagery and contemporary
    subject-matter. In his earliest Hthographs made at Universal's work-
    shop, he expermiented with non-fine-art means to achieve his dis-
    jointed and distorted compositions, using spraygun and patterned
    wallpaint rollers. He later went on to create ambitious multipanel
    reinterpretations of his large environmental paintings, such as Horse
    Blinders (1973) and F-111 (1974). These giant compositions skillfully
    combine silkscreen and lithography for broad and vibrant-colored
    effects. Characteristically, Rosenquist presents a segment of a pictorial

    representation of an object in magnified form. Forehead I (1968) 158


    incorporates the oversized billboard forms to achieve a somewhat
    disoriented and shattering effect. Rosenquist's work recapitulates the
    basic derivative nature of Pop art using disparate subject-matter
    from the purely commercial arena. His pictorial usage also depends

    183
    upon a hitherto unexpected but constantly visible source - the collage
    of billboard signs.
    In Great Britain, there were several artists who followed a similar
    path. Foremost among them were the sculptor Eduardo Paolozzi
    and an American painter living abroad, R. B. Kitaj. Both chose to
    compose their silkscreens in a serial manner, creating compositions
    that were melanges of incongruous forms and objects. Paolozzi had
    spent the late 1940s studying Jean Dubuffet's collection of primitive
    art. He also felt the influence of the Surrealists, and some of his w^ork

    evokes memories of Max Ernst's collages for Une Semaine de Bonte


    (1934). Paolozzi's sculpture of the late 1950s consisted of figures
    constructed of metal cast from industrial forms. The figures had a
    robot-like appearance, and most of the human forms in his prints
    share this mechanistic tendency; if not, they draw upon the stylized
    figures of medical books. In his first major suite of prints. As Is When
    (1965), based on the life and philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein,
    Paolozzi provides most of the pictorial material from which he was to
    compose his prints during the following decade. Not only are there
    machines and dehumanized human objects, but a large amount of
    geometric form is included to assert a species of structure upon the
    159 disparate objects. However, the structure in Wittgenstein in New York
    {As Is When, 1965) is no more informative of the way the composition

    158 (/f'/O Jirn Rosenquist (b. 1933), Fore/iearf /,

    1968. Lithograph, 28^ 24-^ (722 x 62-3).


    lohn B. Turner Fund

    159 [right) Eduardo Paolozzi (b. 1924),


    Wittgenstein in New York from As is When.
    London, Editions Alecto, 1965. Serigraph,
    30x2ig (76 53 6). The Joseph G. Mayer
    Foundation Fund

    160 (Jar right) R.B. Kitaj (b. 1932), World Ruin


    Through Black Magic, 1963. Serigraph, 49I < 34!
    (125-4 X 89). John B. Turner Fund

    >m
    should be interpreted than if it did not exist. In fact it adds a de-defining
    element, much as Rauschenberg's obliteratmg brush strokes did.
    The insistent color patterns m Paolozzi's work also refer to sources in
    scientific illustration, so that the viewer once again is presented with
    'artified' visual information recovered and turned into art itself
    Kitaj, who also utilizes a geometric structure to codify his selection
    of forms, has a far more Uterary point of departure. The insertion of
    quotations and names encourages the viewer to work out a theme that
    encompasses all the variety of disconnected visual material offered.
    In the large, complex, collage-generated screen print World Ruin 160
    Through Black Magic (1963), it is nearly impossible to ignore the infer-
    ence of the title as it applies to the pictorial elements of the composi-
    tion. The apphcation of a restrictive structure to the collage format was
    a sign that some manner of serial viewing was demanded, and Kitaj
    went further into the serialization of his objects by creating a portfolio,
    In Our Time (1969), of fifty screen prints of book covers. While the
    screen-print process transformed the photoimages of the book covers,
    the selective process (the books were from Kitaj 's library) was extended
    by placing the magnified image of each book without any composi-
    tional additions on a large sheet of white paper. These fifty prints
    provide a cumulative experience activated by the viewer's recollection.
    Neither Kitaj nor Paolozzi could have produced their elaborate
    early silkscreens without the expertise of Christopher Prater. In 1963
    the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London commissioned Richard
    Hamilton, David Hockney, Paolozzi, Bridget Riley, and other British
    artists to create screen prints at Prater's Kelpra Studio. Before the

    I.e. A. project Prater had been a commercial printer with only one
    assistant and had rarely worked with artists. After the project Kelpra
    became the hub of British printmaking activity, as Hamilton,
    Paolozzi, and Kitaj posed problems, particularly in the use of photo-
    mechanical techniques, that Prater imaginatively solved. The silk-
    screen seemed to dominate printmaking during the 1960s in Great
    Britain.
    England provided a fertile situation for Pop artists like Allen Jones,
    whose interest in the commercially contrived and artificial manipula-
    tion of the female form to accentuate its sex-signaling factors coincided
    with of scandals involving prostitutes and members of the
    a series
    British government. One of the subjects that Jones used extensively
    i6i in his prints was the exaggerated stiletto-heeled shoe that characterized
    sexy lingerie advertisements and the dragon-ladies of the comic books.
    The manner in which humans allowed themselves to become de-
    formed by commercial stratagem was only one of many subjects for
    the Pop artist who was recording elements of an environment that
    no longer consisted only of trees, boulevards, and boating parties.
    The changes in the daily habits of society were part of the Pop
    artists' documentation, so while David Hockney has much in com-

    mon with the post-World War II figurative artists, he brings to his

    161 Allen Jones (b. 1937), Green


    Yellow, 1966. Lithograph, 30 y 22\
    (76- 2 / 56-5). Gift of Kleiner, Bell
    and Co.
    i62 David Hockney (b. 1937), Pacific
    Mutual Life Building with Palm Trees,
    1964. Lithograph, 20^ x 25 (51-3 /
    63-5). Giftof Kleiner, Bell and Co.

    paintings and prints the detachment of the census taker. His human
    beings rest in their compositions with the same immutability as
    objects in a Hockney's etchings, in particular, are composed
    still life.

    of dry lines, somewhat


    tentative and chaste, depicting a static and dis-
    passionate scene. Often a member of the so-called 'jet set,' Hockney
    found many of his best images in southern California, which had
    become another center for Pop-oriented art. The Hollywood life- 162
    style of flashy cars, endless throughways, roadside restaurants, sun
    'worship,' and frenetic product consumption, as well as the influential
    movie industry fostered a particularly trenchant form of Pop art
    through the overwhelming presence of trite imagery. Because of
    the presence of several print workshops, nearly all the California
    Pop artists made prints. Some who produced interesting printed
    images were Mel Ramos, Ed Ruscha, and Wayne Thiebaud.
    A large group of educated young urbanites who earned excellent
    wages well before they began to raise families provided the audience
    for Pop art and an increasingly active market for Pop prints. Most of
    the artists were asked to produce prints by the many publishers
    who sought to take advantage of their popularity, but not all the
    artists showed a deep interest in or commitment to the print media.

    Peter Blake, Alan D'Arcangelo, Claes Oldenburg, Peter Phillips,


    and Tom Wesselmann few American and British Pop
    are only a
    artists who made and improved
    significant prints (mainly silkscreen
    offset processes) during the print boom of the 1960s.
    It was inevitable that some part of the Pop artists' attitude toward

    187
    163 Josef Albers (i 888-1976), plate V from Homage to the Square: Midnight and
    Noon, 1964. Lithograph, i5|x 15^ (40x40-3). Gift of Kleiner, Bell and Co.

    the object would also be shared by artists in other countries where


    there was an invasion of American commercialism. While the Pop
    strain was weak in Continental Europe, similar beginnings were
    made using found objects, from old-fashioned and nostalgic ephem-
    era to contemporary trash. In France the main adherents of New
    Realism, Yves Klein, Jean Tinguely, and Arman, were not at all
    involved in the print media in the early 1960s. Well after Klein's
    death in 1962, Arman, Tinguely and his wife Niki de Saint-Phalle,
    and a young Bulgarian member, Christo, were eventually persuaded
    to create prints. Arman's encased accumulations of similar or identical
    objects have a formal emphasis far more attached to classic European
    compositional tradition than to the neo-Dadaist attitude of the Ameri-
    can Pop artist. Tinguely's prints celebrated his self-destructing
    machines by recording his diabolical plans in the various media. Saint-
    Phalle's Natids ('broads'), superficially derived from folk-art motifs
    1
    64 (above) Victor Vasarely (b. 1908)
    plate 2 from Planetary Folklore.
    Cologne, Galerie Der Spiegel, 1964.
    Sengraph, 25^ x 24^ (65 x 62).
    Larry Aldrich Fund

    165 Richard Anuszkiewicz (b. 1930),


    plate 3 from The Inward Eye by William
    Blake. Baltimore, Aquarius Press, 1970.
    Serigraph, 25^ x 19I (65-4 x 50-5).
    Purchase
    i66 Christo (Javachef!) (b. 1935), MOMA
    from Some Not Realized Projects, 1971.
    (Front)
    Photolithograph with collage, 27-f|- x 21-^
    (71 > 55-8). Larry Aldrich and Walter Bareiss
    Funds

    (as preserved in carnival sculpture), are among the first manifestations


    in art of the rising female consciousness and the movement for
    1 66 women's liberation. Christo's w^rapped objects, landscapes, and build-
    ings are quite the opposite of what even the assemblagists attempted.
    While the latter made the psychologically invisible common objects
    in their environment once again visible by putting them in a new
    context, Christo, in both three-dimensional and printed works,
    wrapped and made familiar things obscure, so that it was necessary to
    activate memories of the concealed objects.
    Arman, Tinguely, and Saint-Phalle were among the artists who
    contributed works to the first 'multiple' art project, MAT (Multiplica-
    tion of Transformable Art). Organized by the Swiss artists Karl
    Gerstner and Daniel Spoerri, the group of three-dimensional objects
    in editions appeared m 1959. Included was a book of geometrically
    cut sheets, which could be rearranged to form several compositions,
    made by their compatriot Dietrich Roth (then using the pseudonym
    Diter Rot). Like Spoerri, Roth was interested in a form of assemblage
    focused on remains rather than on selections. Roth's random accretions
    of compositional ideas have produced a large body of graphic and
    multiple work, often in unorthodox media and in collaboration with
    other artists.

    190
    II op, kinetic, Concrete,
    and the Conceptual arts

    All through the heyday of Abstract Expressionism and then of


    Pop art the geometric abstract tradition of Constructivism and De
    Stijl had continued to exist. Never entirely an underground situation,

    this area of abstract art survived in the practice of design and the
    study of composition and color theory w^hen it lacked a congenial
    audience. In the U.S.A. Josef Albers continued to teach, occasionally
    making embossed and uninked line his con-
    prints recapitulating in
    stellations of illusion-provoking geometric constructions. These
    prints of the 1950s, entitled Intaglio Duo A, B, C, and so on, preceded
    the work of several artists who made inkless embossed prints in both
    geometric form (the Canadian Yves Gaucher) and Pop (the Colom-
    bian Omar Rayo).
    While Albers's constellations can be traced back to the artist's

    work at the Bauhaus, his most important explorations in post-World


    War II years were in the field of color. Working on paintings
    serially titled Homage to the Square, Albers codified his theory of color
    (Interaction of Color, Yale, 1963) a year after he created his first litho-
    graphs in the form given to his paintings. The second set of litho-
    graphs Albers made at Tamarind Workshop, Homage to the Square:
    Midnight and Noon (1964), were among the earliest works to demon-
    strate that the close relationships of color needed to produce the
    illusions of aura and change of dimension could be successfully ob-
    tained in print media. Until this point Matisse's pochoirs for Jazz were
    the sole examples of compositions whose spatial contrasts were
    produced largely through the contiguity of areas of highly saturated
    flat color. The print media, particularly lithography and silkscreen,

    lent themselves well to artists who, like Albers, sought to compose


    their paintings from unmodulated color. In the case of many artists
    of the 1950s and 1960s, this meant obtaining optical effects through

    191
    i67 (abope) Ellsworth Kelly (b.
    1923), BluejGreen, 1970.
    Lithograph, 25|| x 27I
    (655 • 70-5). Gift of Connie and
    Jack Glenn, Pinky and Arthur
    Kase

    168 Robert Mangold (b. 1937),


    plate I from 7 Aquatints. New
    York, Parasol Press, 1973.
    Aquatint, 15I isii^ (396 x
    '^ 39-8).
    John B. Turner Fund
    169 Josef Albcrs (i88S-iy76), lulaglio Dim B, 1958. Inkless intaglio, 5,^x 13 j^ (i2-S x 34-7). Gift of Mr. and
    Mrs. Armand P. Bartos

    the interaction of hues placed in serial arrangements that would


    enhance the Others dealt with expansive planes of
    illusions sought.
    color, creating tension and the appearance of spatial contrast through
    the confrontation of their sharp edges. The optical group found its
    roots in Constructivism and the design formulae of the Bauhaus,
    while the aspirations of the second group tended to branch out from
    the paths of Synthetic Cubism and the less rigidly systematic among
    the Abstraction-Creation artists of the 1930s.
    The most prominent of the design-based optical artists to create a
    large corpus of prints has been Victor Vasarely, who had studied m his
    native Hungary with former Bauhaus student. He has theorized
    a
    that the integration and inseparability of form and color, which he
    calls 'plastic unity,' provides the basis for the construction of infinite

    numbers of compositions. In most of his works the grouping of units


    creates contrasts of form and color that stimulate a visual sense of
    spatial movement. A typical example of his work of the 1960s is
    his album entitled Planetary Folklore (1964), in which large squares 164
    made up of hundreds of binary units (each consisting of a geometric
    form within a square) in contrasting colors present quite complex
    illusory effects. Vasarely has had a social message in mind as he
    developed his compositional ideas: If the content of art consisted
    purely of color and simple geometric forms, the viewer would not
    have to bring to its appreciation a personal life-experience. Thus,
    It has been Vasarely's intention to expand his compositions into
    architectural components and insure wider distribution of them not
    only but also by manufacturing multiple units
    as silkscreen prints
    with which the possessor could create his own compositions.

    193
    Among the many artists whose prints have kinetic possibilities in
    their disposition of color are several who followed the lead of another
    Bauhaus-trained artist, the Swiss architect, designer, painter, and
    sculptor Max 1936 Bill had formulated a definition in which
    Bill. In

    works of Concrete art originated 'on the basis of means and laws of
    their own, without external reliance on natural phenomena or any
    transformation of them. '^^ In addition, Vasarely and other members
    of the Denise Rene Gallery in Paris, who were devoted to pure
    abstraction or Concrete art, drew many young Latin Americans to

    their theories. The Argentine Julio LeParc, the Brazilian Almire


    Mavignier, and the Venezuelans Jesus Rafael Soto and Carlos Cruz-
    Diez, have all made prints that rely on geometric form and color to

    produce sensations of movement. The New Tendency exhibitions in


    Zagreb, devoted to this artistic concern, also showed the prints of the
    Italians Getulio Alviani and Alberto Biasi, the Frenchman Francois
    Morellet, and the Yugoslav Ivan Picelj. Several of these artists added a
    third dimension to their two-dimensional compositions by printing
    them on sheets of plexiglass and combining two or more sheets, so that
    the spectator's own movement
    in relation to the work sets up its
    was one of the many ways these and other artists
    kinetic effect. This
    concerned with light and movement extended the print into three-
    dimensionality.
    Few artists from the U.S.A. were exclusively concerned with
    optical sensation. Richard Anuszkiewicz, a student of Albers, has been
    the one most faithful to this form of art and has created many silk-
    screens which rely on extremely bright colors in paneled composi-
    tions, each panel filled with thin lines of contrasting color, activating
    the spectator's photokinetic response. In his illustrations to William
    i6ji Blake's The Itiii'ard Eye (Baltimore, Aquarius Press, 1970) Anuszkie-
    wicz has used an art of no external references to extend the literary
    references. The work of Ad Reinhardt is more difficult to classsify,
    since his use of slightly varied tones of black produced an almost
    invisible geometric pattern, thus making his art perhaps more mini-
    mal than kinetic. Before his death in 1967 he created one series of
    silkscreens, which failed, technically, to reproduce the subtle transi-
    tions of his paintings.
    Other retinal artists using color have dealt with the halo effect
    (Wojciech Fangor) and have attempted to convey the physical
    sensation ot afterimage (Otto Piene). Contrast, perhaps the most

    194
    lyo Pol Bury (b. 1922), plate X from X Cinetizatiotts. New York, Lefebrc, iy66. Serigraph, 19^ 4i^
    (515 37)- Gift of Mr. and Mrs. John Lefcbre
    171 Fritz Glarner (1899-1972), Drawing for Toudc, 1959. Lithograph, 14^ (3')-3 35)- Gift of the
    Celeste and Arniand Bartos Foundation

    vivifying element in this form of art, does not require color to set up its

    effects. The black and white screen prints of the British painter
    Bridget Riley generated vertigo and other strong physiological
    reactions to their moire and other disorienting patterns. Pol Bury,
    the Belgian sculptures move in slow and unexpected sequences,
    whose 170
    cut photographs mto concentric circles, and moved each circular
    band slightly so that the finished, printed composition showed the
    subject askew in a completely bewildering manner. The production
    of such optical tricks, particularly in silkscreen, has been widespread,
    and the kinetic print, more than any other style except pure geo-
    metrical abstraction, proliferated in the 1960s.
    The rage for nonobjective prints (they were the ideal substitute for
    reproductions, historical prints, and other decorations in glass-walled
    office buildings during this period) even revived interest in the com-
    positions of older artists whose styles had elicited the newer forms.
    Sonia Delaunay, for example, created several lithographs and aqua-
    tintsduring the 1960s which recapitulate Orphist imagery of fifty
    years earlier. Mondrian, who was never to make a print in his abstract

    style, nevertheless exerted an influence on abstract printmaking after

    195
    17^ Alexander Calder
    (1S98-1976), Red Suit,
    1965. Lithograph,
    20^^ X 272 (52 X 69-8). John
    B. Turner Fund

    World War II. His association with the Abstraction-Creation group in


    Paris in 193 and his exile in the U.S.A. during the war made his role
    1

    pivotal for two American artists: the sculptor Alexander Calder and
    the Swiss-born painter Fritz Glarner. Calder had been a member of the
    Abstraction-Creation group and had created his first mobiles the
    year it was formed. His combination of movement and bright color
    did not become the subject of his prints until the late 1940s. In his
    1J2 prints of the 1960s few totally abstract compositions occur, but the
    flat, brilliant red and black that dominate Calder's lithographs are

    their structure as well. Mondrian's limited palette and right-angled


    forms were the basis of the work of his most direct disciple, Glarner.
    Glarner, also a member of the Abstraction-Creation group, translated
    lyi Mondrian's primary colors and grays into circular compositions in
    which the strict verticals and horizontals were wedged apart by
    diagonal panels. It is to Glarner's lithographs that one must look for
    the type of print Mondrian undoubtedly would have created, for
    they are sensitive, searching crayon lithographs in which Glarner
    has chronicled, line by line, the formation of his compositions.
    With his friend Max Bill, Glarner was utterly devoted to the construc-
    tion of harmonious structures of geometric forms.

    In Europe, as has been seen, two generations


    carried geometric
    abstraction into prints: Max
    Richard P. Lohse, and Auguste
    Bill,
    Herbin were the older masters of the genre; Jean Dewasne and
    Richard Mortensen were representative of the postwar group who

    196
    participated in the Salon des Realites Nouvelles, increasingly making
    of forum for the Concretist artists. This
    it a 'cool' art form with its
    unmuddied colors strongly contrasted with the concurrent Expres-
    sionist abstraction. Its content appealed to those wary of the motiva-
    tions and meanmgs behind the emotional surges of Une and color in

    Tart autre' as Michel Tapie called it. Eventually art students exposed
    to both factions made choices. One of the more interesting results
    of the influence of Geometric Abstraction is found in the work of the
    American Ellsworth Kelly. He worked in Paris longer than most
    Americans (1948-54), and he returned to a New York ringing with
    action painting.He developed a style in which color and form, with
    antecedents in the works of Matisse and Arp, became shaped into
    geometricized compositions. This has meant unusual-shaped or
    compartmentahzed canvases in his paintings, and parallelograms, id/
    eUipses and other geometrical forms in brilliant color or black floating
    on large, unmodulated areas of white in his prints. Kelly's Hthographs,
    made in both Paris and Los Angeles, are excellent examples of the
    direction abstract art took in the 1960s. They are outstanding because
    of his sense of perfection, which, like Albers's, is intuitive in regard to

    color balance. The so-called 'hard edges' of the color forms as they
    meet each other are not barriers but rather interacting planes that
    inaugurate rhythms and tensions.
    Only a few of the American painters of the later 1960s concerned
    with regulated structure and color have made successful prints. One,
    Frank Stella, worked in both hthography and silkscreen when he 173
    produced series of prints, in small format, which essentially

    .
    173 Frank Stella (b. 1936), Qualhhmiha I from V Series, 1968. Lithograph, ii^^ ,
    25I (28 >•
    65-7). John B.
    Turner Fund
    documented his earlier paintings; in some have the wall-
    cases they
    carrying properties of the paintings, even at one-eighth the
    size of
    those canvases. The shaped canvases of Stella's paintings found their
    contours from an interior structure of parallel bands in geometric
    patterns. In print, Stella related the white paper to a wall upon which
    his composition rested as well as to a negative space. This attempt to
    convey in print form the same relationship that exists between a
    painting and its environment, or between a mural and its host wall, has
    entailed certain changes in esthetic sensitivity. A German artist,
    Palermo, created interior environments within galleries by painting
    each wall. One room might have a band of color running its length,
    another would have the structure of each wall altered by the
    geometric form painted upon it. His prints, in turn, documented the
    forms painted on the wall without reference to scale or surroundings.
    A grid of intersecting lines became, in the 1960s, the ultimate
    geometric composition. The paintings done between i960 and 1967
    by the Canadian-born Agnes Martin had no printed equivalents
    until the 1970s, when she created a series of silkscreen prints. On a
    174 Clear Day (New York, Parasol Press, 1973), which were manu-
    factured by Luitpold Domberger in Stuttgart after her mathematically
    annotated sketches. Having removed herself from the craft area of
    creation, Martin was able to insure the precision that was basic to the
    evocation of a mathematical/meditational response. The gray grids
    of thirty different interior proportions, for all their apparent exacti-
    tude, are none the less intuitively conceived. Other artists who
    express themselves through the exact terms of geometric forms have,
    Hke the Cubists of many decades before, found etching to be the
    ideal medium. The clearest examples in the print media of the Ameri-
    176 can Conceptual artist Sol LeWitt's serial statements appear in the line
    etchings he has done at Crown Point Press in California. He has taken
    his linear projections which, in their most monumental form, are
    drawn directly onto walls, and etched them onto plates of traditional
    scale and proportion. The relatively simple systems, generally
    developed from straight lines in black or in primary colors, have
    served as the basis for a great number of prints that incorporate
    minimal, consistently pure geometric statements. The British artist
    173 Richard Smith and the American painter Robert Mangold both
    created etchings in which geometrical distortion is a distinguishing
    factor. Smith, who most often created layered prints with bent and cut
    174 Agnes Martin (b. 191 2), plate 18 from
    On a ClearDay. New York, Parasol Press,
    1973. Sengraph, 7^ 6| (19
    •
    17). Gift of
    •

    the artist and Parasol Press, Ltd.

    175 Richard Smith (b. 193 i). Proscenium /,

    1971. Etching, 2o| 19^ (51-7 .


    49-5).
    Reiss-Cohen Fund

    176 Sol LeWitt


    (b. 1928), Lines from
    Sides, Corners and
    Center, 1977. Etching
    and aquatint, printed
    in color, 34f X 34I
    (.S7.9 X 88.5). Gift of

    Barbara Pine
    (through the
    Associates of the
    Department of Prints
    and Illustrated Books)
    177 Gerhard Richter
    (b. 1932), plate 4 from
    Canary Landscapes, 1971
    Photoengraving and
    aquatint, 11^ 153
    (29-6 40). Gift of Mrs.
    Carol O. Selle

    175 portions emulating his shaped canvases, offers the geometric founda-
    tion for such contorted structures in his gritty etchings. Mangold
    combines in his prints confusing irregular arrangements of squares and
    168 circles. His colors in the 1970s were extremely muted, but their

    tendency to dullness is obviated by the granular surface of aquatint,


    which reflects rather than absorbs light.
    The use of the intaglio techniques, particularly aquatint, increased
    in the 1970s. In the late 1960s Jasper Johns made a portfoho at
    Universal Limited Art Editions in which his own etched plates were
    printed on the same sheet as photoengravings of his sculpture. In a
    second state he added aquatint to the etchings and etched lines to the
    photoengravings. In 1972 the American painter of totally white
    canvases, Robert Ryman, made ivory-white aquatints in which the
    density of the ink and its contoured edges as it approaches the edge of
    the plate are the only sensible variables. Ryman's prints provoke the
    viewer to sense infmitesimal variations, thus shifting awareness from
    abstract imagery to physical reality.
    Almost all of the forms taken by art that derive from the
    impositions of systems of organization, from Albers through LeWitt,
    obtain their impetus from a heightened awareness of process. Albers,
    who consciously preferred mechanical instruments and standard paint
    colors, passed on his Bauhaus philosophy to artists who also wished to
    remove the personal and unpredictable from their works. By the late

    200
    1960s, however, there was also a feeUng that all the possible forms of
    Western art had been explored. What was left except to examine the
    processes by which it was made? LeWitt incorporated instructions
    into his works, often executed by others; another American artist,
    Jennifer Bartlett, created forms from the sizes of dots and other simple
    marks filled into the squares of her grids.
    In print there were many techniques through which artists could
    exploit this subject: the gradual deterioration of a copper plate
    exposed to acid was the basis of one work by the English artistTom
    Phillips; the surface of paper and its retention of a process that affected
    both recto and verso, such as embossing, became the subject of many
    years' work by the Japanese artist, Shoichi Ida.
    While emphasizing such procedures in printmaking, it was
    inevitable that the crafts alhed to it would be exploited as well.
    Considerable attention was given to paper, and with the growing
    population of young people who wanted independence and sought it
    in artistic pursuits, this was a fresh medium, without too many

    constricting precedents. Workshops for papermaking were set up,


    both to produce uniform runs of specially colored and textured sheets
    for prints as well as to allow artists to create in the medium of paper.
    Mention is made of this efflorescence of what is essentially a craft
    because several prominent artists made editions of paper works in
    associationwith the workshops of printers. Ken Tyler's work,
    beginning in 1974 with Robert Rauschenberg, and continuing later
    with Frank Stella, David Hockney and Richard Smith, developing
    molds and stencils that organized colored paper pulp into composi-
    came out of his experiments in the printshop.
    tions,
    The same period experienced a shift in the opposite direction: the
    viewer was offered works exhibiting what seemed to be entirely
    reahstic physicality and then asked to sense it abstractly. The New
    Realists (Hyperrealists or Photorealists) of the 1970s brought to their
    work and painting the most acute sense of visuality. Pop
    in sculpture
    art's transformation of photographic representation into paintings

    and prints was basically formalist. It found fundamental eccentricities


    in photoreproduction that determined the impression of realism that
    the public eye accepted. The younger and undeniably more techni-
    cally sophisticated artist understands what the camera is incapable of
    capturing or eliminating. Examples of this form of realism may be
    found in the prints of the German Gerhard Richter and the American

    201
    lyf^ Chuck Close
    (b. 1940), Keith, 1972.
    Mezzotint, 45I •

    35^
    (116 John B.
    90).
    Turner Fund

    J77 Chuck Close. Richter begins with photographic reahty and blurs it,

    almost in the manner of those photographers who, in the nineteenth


    century, sought to attain in their new medium the effects Whistler
    created in his lithotints and etchings. Adding aquatint to photoen-
    graved plates, Richter effectively extends a tourist-enticing landscape
    into a more sensuous realm of visual experience. By
    manipulating the
    various fields of focus and eliminating some elements
    that the camera,
    with its lack of detailed selectivity, could not remove, Richter offers a
    more 'reaf view which remains, nevertheless, comfortably familiar
    and photographic. The mammoth portraits that Chuck Close has
    painted are created by a meticulously detailed brush technique after

    202
    photographs he has taken of his subject. For his first print, Keith, Close ; 78
    executed a grandiose mezzotint which, for one form of Photoreahsm,
    should stand as the ultimate example. Unable to pit the entire 45 x 36
    inch plate with the normal mezzotint tool with sufficient uniformity,
    Close had the plate photographically etched to obtain the same
    surface. Dividing the plate into one-inch-square areas, the artist
    smoothed down the pits of each area manually, taking proofs at each
    stage, so that by the time the edition was printed the earliest work had
    begun to wear. In Close's mezzotint one can see the exact area of sharp
    focus by its more visible contrast with blurred areas. Were it not for
    the faint traces of the original one-inch grid, the photomechanical
    reproduction here (small in scale and textured by the dots of the
    reproduction process) could be confused with the photograph Close
    used as his model.
    The audience for this renaissance of realism was not one that found
    comfort in all phases of the new art, although the possibihty of actual
    recognition drew to this art those who had no pleasure from abstract
    forms. Besides Close, other Americans such as Richard Estes and ijg
    Philip Pearlstein exploited the idea of intensely focussed realism. In his

    lyy Richard Estcs (b. 1936),


    Plate V from the portfoho
    Urban Landscapes- No. 2, 1979.
    Silkscreen, printed in color,
    I9|x I3-[| (50.6 X 33.8). Gift
    of a friend in memory of
    Beth Lisa Feldman and
    Wallace Reiss
    very complicated silkscreens made with Domberger in Stuttgart,
    1 yg Estes accentuated the highly reflective surfaces of urban buildings. By
    including the kind of minutiae that the eye automatically disregards
    but the camera does not, he setsup a nearly abstract composition
    which must be analyzed in the same manner as a real, but visually
    confusing, situation. The preponderance of large canvases and Mme.
    Tussaud-style sculpture gave Hyperrealism an aura of the overpower-
    ing art, decoration, and relics of the Baroque church. The prints, for
    the most part, were mementos of paintings, executed almost
    exclusively with photographic techniques and thus paradoxically
    regenerating the photo-generated imagery of the unique works.
    Apart from Photorealism, the photographic image has been a
    dominant part of certain forms of Conceptual art. This area has been
    almost exclusively documentary, so that series of photographs printed
    in offset or silkscreen become visual records of an artist's action or
    process. The techniques which make these informational pieces
    transferable to the print media inevitably eliminate a significant part
    of the photographic verisimilitude. Among the many artists who have
    / 80 issued prints in this form are the Canadians Iain Baxter and Les Levine,
    the Germans Wolf Vostell and Joseph Beuys and the British Keith
    Milow.
    Basic to Conceptual art, of course, is the use of language. Some of
    the visual structures and techniques in printmaking used by artists

    who have subscribed to the limited ethos have been


    'art is art'

    described. However, the most succinct definition of Conceptual art,


    'inquiry into the foundations of the concept "art," as it has come to
    mean,'^'* given by Joseph Kosuth, requires a linguistic rather than
    plastic context. In describing some of the many stylistic tendencies
    in printmaking after World War II, only a few references have been
    made to the incidence of word imagery, graphism, or calligraphy.
    The use of or allusion to words in art is not a twentieth-century
    phenomenon. The development of letter forms as compositional
    elements without message-carrying properties, however, was part
    of the movement toward abstraction, but the beauty of a single letter
    oi an alphabet was long ago recognized by the Oriental artist as well
    as the medieval illuminator. In the 1950s many artists chose to suggest
    writings of various forms in their paintings by transforming the
    design elements of letters. After the war a group in Paris dedicated to
    working in this manner called themselves 'Lettristes.' As artists found

    204
    i8o Les Levine (b. 1935), S29 from
    Les Levine LXVI, 1966. Photo-ofFset,
    125 •
    9^(32-3 24). Gift ofFischbach
    Gallery -ft'

    more ideas in their commercialized environment, much of the


    Lettrist painting became more hterate, more informational, and more
    readable. Throughout these postwar years, however, the primary
    thrust of the imagery ot letters and words was abstract. Even the Pop
    words 'EAT' and 'LOVE' and the occasional message of protest were
    artified by the addition of balancing compositional devices.
    Divesting words of their intrinsic formal interest and returning
    them, still within the context of visual art, to their principal role of
    message bearing was the focus of many artists. The transitional artist
    among those who recognized in language a plausible subject upon
    which to build his paintings and prints was the Japanese Arakawa.
    Utilizing stencil letters, as did Jasper Johns in his influential use of
    words indicating placement, color, and title in his canvases and prints,
    Arakawa poses philosophical problems in conjunction with pictorial
    material. While some visual enjoyment is obtained from study of the
    formal compositional elements, the words convey the substance of the
    subject of the work. Unlike Johns, whose words are integral formal
    elements that enhance or question their context, Arakawa inserts
    nonverbal images as illustrations or indicators for the problems posed
    in the lines of writing. Rather than allow the viewer to assume what

    205
    '

    WAI.I.

    Y
    M.MW IN

    --^-T
    /
    y A^
    MBI.I!
    II
    lU
    «'

    riKi Ul

    iSi Arakawa (b. 1936), Next to the Last. 1971. Serigraph, 212X4I3 (546 x 106). Reiss-Cohen Fund

    words are directives that may


    the artist wishes to be experienced, the
    castdoubt upon what the images appear to convey.
    The questioning ot visual clues to reality is, of course, the oldest
    branch of philosophy. Abstract art tended to make the viewer more
    acutely sensitive to visual information. It is, therefore, logical that
    subsequent developments should return to questionable status that
    which our eyes have accepted as truth. Conceptual art, in its language
    torm, dwells on meaning and, unlike Concrete poetry, with which it
    isoften contused, is concerned more with the transformation of
    experience patterns than with interior linguistic manipulation. Thus,
    the purest examples of Conceptual art would be considered the work
    of Art & Language (the collaborative venture of several British artists,
    ledby Terry Atkinson and Michael Baldwin, and later joined by the
    American Joseph Kosuth). Their project, begun in 1969, was confined
    to proposing visual problems through language alone. Besides
    magazines and exhibitions, they produced a series of prints, each
    expounding one area of a selected problem. Given the concentrated
    attention of art viewing, these prints, which resemble enlarged pages
    from any learned journal, alter expectations of immediate satisfaction,
    because they require a commitment of time related to reading rather
    than seeing.
    It is impossible to complete the discussion of Conceptual Art

    without referring to one of its major by-products, the artist's book.

    206
    Earlier references have been made to the many deluxe editions
    illustrated or embellished by some of the foremost artists of this
    century with prints in the traditional media. The more casual booklets
    of the Russian Futurists included prints done in less elaborate ways
    which, none the less, are of major importance in the history of
    printmaking. The artist's book which flourished as an art form in the
    1970s was a total art work, filled with words, photographs, drawings
    and collages. Its origins probably stem most directly from the various
    ephemeral publications ot Fluxus, an international group of artists
    formed in the early 1960s.
    These printed books were for many artists their only tangible
    expressions. Among the many creators of artist's books were Ed
    Ruscha, who pioneered the form in America in the 1960s with his
    photographic compendiums of parking lots and other St:)uthern Cali-
    fornia sites, the Swiss artist Dietrich Roth, who produced a series of
    bound assemblages of found materials in addition to his geometric
    cut-out books, the Belgian Marcel Broodthaers, whose books bor-
    rowed the composition of French poetry publications and exhibition
    catalogues, the British performance artists Gilbert and George, who
    issued announcements and manifestos as well as books, such as one
    titled Dark Shadows, published in 1976, that gently reflected the
    mores of the local middle class, and Hamish Fulton, a Scotsman
    whose books have recorded his hikes across terrains all over the
    world. However, the most characteristic printing of the Conceptual-
    ist was in the form of text, reducing visual art to unembellishcd

    ideas.
    In 1975 the Art and Language branch in New York founded a
    magazine, Tlw Fox, in which the article, 'A Declaration of Independ-
    ence' announced, 'At this point attempts to question or transform the
    nature of art beyond formalistic considerations must inevitably begin
    to involve a consideration not only of the presuppositions inherent in
    the internal structure of art models, but also a critical awareness of the
    social system which preconditions and drastically confines the
    possibihty of transformation.'-^^ This newMarxist interpretation of
    the role of art in the final quarter of the twentieth century found many
    different forms, not only in a reawakening of the socially and
    pohtically motivated artist, generally overlooked since the fifties, but
    also in the chaotic diversity of those who developed in the following
    decades.

    207
    iXi Frank Stella (b. 1936J, Talladega Three I t'rom the series Circuits, 19.S2. Etching, printed
    ,n black, 66 x 5i| (167.7 x i30-5)- Jeanne C. Thayer and John B. Turner Funds
    12 Pluralism and appropriation
    in Europe and America

    KosuTH STATED, 'Art "lives" through influencing other art, not by


    existing as the physical residue of an artist's ideas. The reason that
    different artists from the past are "brought ahve" again is because
    some aspect of theirwork becomes "usable" by living artists. '-^^ No
    idea about the evolution of art has been more specific to developments
    in the 1980s than this. The recapitulation of past styles became more
    than a selected use in this period when 'appropriation' became the
    term most descriptive of what was being done. Pluralism, the
    inevitable result of an information-saturated society, was now the
    pertinent mode of art, that is, no style prevailing over others. For some
    this signified the end of modernism and the beginning of post-
    modernism. From this time forward there would be no more
    discoveries, only borrowings. In fact, the first years of the eighties saw
    several events that seemed to indicate that the major monuments of
    printmaking in the years after World War II had already been created.
    Exhibitions in New York and Berlin covered much of the same
    material, announcing the new expressionist artists, the first to refer so
    directly to earlier movements. What choices the artists of the
    penultimate decade of the twentieth century had were sufficiently
    limited to lead to several manifestations of consciously 'bad' art,
    centered generally around anti-social behavior, such as the deface-
    ment of public property. The graffiti 'artists' obtained considerable
    prominence as they, together with publicized criminals, became
    popular rallying points for those who sought the true meaning of
    contemporary America, artists such as Keith Haring and
    culture. In
    Jean Michel Basquiat, whohad covered subway cars and other
    publicly visible surfaces with their works, were popular enough to
    encourage publishers to have them make prints. In addition, Basquiat
    for a time collaborated on works with Andy Warhol. In Europe,
    however, only a few artists of this sort have been given equivalent
    attention.

    209
    Among the older artists who continued to create prints in the 1 980s,
    such as Frank and Jasperjohns, significant changes that revealed
    Stella
    inciebtedness to specific works by other artists occurred. Stella took
    1 82 the tools of the drafting table and scraps from stamping plates (made to
    produce embossed plastic tablecloths) and produced wall sculptures
    and prints that inaugurated what began to be referred to as neo-
    geo(metric) art. Johns, on the other hand, began to compose works
    that were more closely related to American trompe I'oeil painting,
    organized around his own earlier imagery and objects that referred to
    183 various other illusions in art. In some cases, such as the aquatint Spring
    of 1987, he borrowed from two Picasso compositions to bring
    together these illusory elements (shadows and figures that may be read
    two ways, each mutually exclusive).
    It was inevitable that a reaction to the proliferation of intellectual,

    dehumanized, systemic art would follow. One area of Conceptual art,


    led by Joseph Beuys, emphasized, through his public performances in
    galleries and his political manifestations, the need for society to realize
    its relationships as individuals with each other, with the environment,

    }84 and with the past. In Germany Beuys included himself as part of his
    work and attracted many students and followers who found
    inspiration in his ritualistic, subjective approach (his personal past was
    evoked in such works as those in which animal fat, a dead hare, blood
    and honey recalled his survival from a plane crash in World War II).
    He created dozens of multiple art works, including prints that
    incorporated the symbolism of his art actions.

    183 Jasperjohns (b. 1930), Spring from the


    scriesThe Seasons, 1987. Aquatint and
    etching, printed in color, plate: I9^x 13^5
    (49.6 X 33.1). Gift of Emily Fisher Landau
    Etchmg, pnnted .n black,
    Stag's Foo, from Tears Suite. 1985.
    184 Joseph Beuys (19.1-86).
    plate: 6x3! (15.2 x 9i)- Walter Bareiss Fund

    211
    Also of considerable impact Germany was the persistent
    in
    collecting of foreign art, American Pop and Minimal art,
    particularly
    by successful businessmen and the numerous public museums. A large
    number of artists,reacting to these influences as well as to the unique
    of the two Germanys, felt compelled to produce a
    political situation
    new, expressionistic art, nearly all of it representational to some
    degree, with a strongly symbolic current running through it. In the
    German tradition, most of the major artists of this tendency have
    made prints. Georg Baselitz began to produce etchings and woodcuts
    in a figurative style reminiscent of Dubuffet in the 1960s. Soon
    afterwards he began to break up his figures and finally reversed them
    entirely into an upside-down position, alluding to the inherent
    disorientation of the German culture. Basehtz started to cut very large
    linoleum and plywood sheets in 1976, producing the first of many
    oversized prints which revealed radical changes in attitude towards
    the presentation and collection of prints.
    Other artists in Germany and Switzerland emerged as energetic
    printmakers, but none more so than Anselm Kiefer. A student of
    Joseph Beuys, he filled his paintings of the 1970s with collages of
    woodcuts or added some paint to his larger prints. He melded the
    techniques; there were no uniform editions of his prints, only varying

    212
    i85 Anselm Kiefer (b. 1945), Page
    19 from Der Rliein, 1983.
    Woodcut, printed in black, page:
    234 X i6| (59.1 X 42.2). Purchase

    186 A. R. Pcnck (Rair Winkler,


    b. 1939). Nighri'isioii from the
    portfolio Fi>.s7 Concentration I,
    1982. Woodcut, printed in black,
    35tx27T|(89.8x69.3)- Gift of
    Nelson Blitz, Jr

    organizations of his woodblock-printed sheets. The book, Der Rhein, 183


    which he printed ten times, includes woodcuts which appear in other
    formats and often in conjimction with those that depict other subjects.
    Kiefer used print as a context for his paintings which, for the most
    part, evoke the Germanic myths of a heroic past. He is very partial to
    the book form as a means of con veying a process or passage in time and
    space through either prints or photographs that have been defaced or
    embellished with mud and other base materials.
    Jorg Iminendorf, another pupil of Beuys's, took as one of his
    subjects the idea of Germany as a cafe where all the romantic heroes
    and naturalistic objects met together. For several years he produced
    many paintings and several large prints on the subject of Cafe
    Deutschland. The ambitious scale of prints by the German artists
    referred not only to the relative sizes of their paintings but to the
    expansion of their influence. The printing of wood and linoleum
    blocks or planks did not require a press so that relief printing, besides
    being a traditional German technique, was also one that could be
    practiced in the studio.
    Immendorf had developed a friendship with an East German artist

    who called himself A. R. Penck (Ralf Winkler), whose work was 186
    known in the West as early as the late 1960s. He moved to Cologne in
    213
    iSy Susan Rothenberg (b. 1945), Doubles, 1980. Woodcut, printed in black, ijj^x 3o|
    (33.2 X 78.5). Richard A. Epstein Fund

    West Germany in 1980. His paintings and prints contained primitive


    186 stick figures in pictographic representations of signs and symbols that
    encoded a message of the commonahty of all peoples and all situations
    from the beginning of time. This return to primitive motifs,
    indicators of mysterious ceremonies and instinctive beliefs that arose,
    as it were, from the primeval earth, recalls the early works of the
    American Abstract Expressionists forty years before who borrowed
    from ancient rock drawings of the Southwest Indians.
    The earlier German expressionists also were inspired by religious
    objects from African tribes, but studied them for their esthetic rather
    than magical values. Penck, other German neo-expressionists, and
    several artists from Italy and America in particular, sought to transmit
    through the signs they chose from other cultures, their inherent
    capacity to communicate to the subconscious. American painters such
    187 as Terry Winters and Susan Rothenberg produced prints that
    followed this example: Winters turning to the primitive forms of
    plant seeds to create heavily inked black and white lithographs made
    of specially developed materials that produced an effect somewhere

    214
    between thickly massed charcoal and
    dense ink; Rothenberg's
    woodcuts, etchings, mezzotints and hthographs
    depict her chosen
    subjects, horses which become apocalyptic, figures caught in
    uncon-
    trollable action, picking outonly the most essential contours to reveal
    not the substance but the aura of the
    objects.
    Among the several Itahan artists to emerge after the local
    Conceptual movement. Arte Povera, were
    a triumverate, Sandro
    Chia, Francesco Clemente and Enzio
    Cucchi, all of whom had
    considerable success in the early 1980s and
    also made prmts. Clemente
    has been the most prolific
    printmaker, workmg first m etchmg at
    Crown Point Press m California, and later m New
    York and Italy
    where he produced dozens of monotypes and a monumental
    hthographic book. The Departure
    of the Argonaut. Clemente's work 188
    incorporates elements of the classic past of Italy,
    for example, the type
    of fresco found in his native Neapohtan
    area. His devotion to the
    Indian Hindu culture that he experiences
    directly each year (hke many
    artists of this period, Clemente
    Hves and works in more than one
    country) emerges in many of his images
    and use of color.

    215
    A close relationship between artists in Switzerland and Germany
    has existed during this century, in part because of its role as a haven
    during the two World Wars. The legacies of Dada and Paul Klee have
    manifested themselves in the works of artists as diverse as Andre
    Tomkins whose surrealist no-style works, often accomplished in
    Berlin, influenced German artists during his short life, and Markus
    Raetz, whose prints relatemore to Klee in their sense of humor. Most
    expansive and closer to the mainstream of the neo-expressionist style,
    however, has been the work of Martin Disler. An example of his freely
    worked linoleum cuts was printed in a thirty-foot sheet and included
    one element that was cut, printed, then cut again and printed, thus
    preventing any duplication of the composition. At the time of this
    complex print, Disler's work shared with several of the Germans a
    simplified, pictographic rendering which, in his case, evolved into a
    wild, compulsive expressiveness that recalls the work of COBRA
    artist Asger Jorn in the 1950s, except that the scale of the work is that of

    the 1980s.
    In Austria there seems to have been a consistently eccentric and
    extremist approach to art in the twentieth century. Performance or
    artist-centered work there in recent years has encompassed print-
    making Simultaneously with the emergence of Hundert-
    as well.
    wasser, mentioned earlier, Arnulf Rainer embarked upon his unique
    program of scratching on plates. His earliest prints taken from
    these plates datefrom 1964, but the same plates, progressively covered
    with more scratches, capturing the ink ever more thickly, were still
    being printed in 1986 and the artist had no intention of abandoning
    them. He has applied this style, which might be referred to as the
    obsessive defacement of surface or image (he has made both paintings
    and prints in which the lines cover photographs of himself and others)
    in several collaborations with other artists, but only with his fellow
    igo Austrian, Giinter Brus, in print. In these works Brus, whose imagery is
    a hybrid of Austrian fantasy and neo-expressionism, drew on old
    copper plates that carried the remnants of botanical compositions. For
    his part, Rainer scratched over some of the older imagery, producing
    an unrecognizable but talismanic form that interacts with Brus's less
    aggressive but equally magical drawings.
    This type of obsessiveness which graphically asserts the tempera-
    igi ment is manifest in the later work of the American Jim Dine who,
    since 1975, has exploited the random marks and flaws on his copper

    216

    1S9 Gcorg Basclitz (b. 1938), Nude with Three Arms, unpublished first state, April 6, 1977.
    Hand painted linoleum cut, printed in color, 983^ x 591^ (-5° ^ i>-)- Jeanne C. Thayer and
    Purchase Funds >
    190 Giinter Brus and Arnulf
    Raincr, Plate from the
    I

    portfolio Depth Ohsciircd. lyHj-


    X6. Etchint;, photoctching and
    drypoint, printed in black, plate:
    I7t^x \2^ (45.2x31.5). Walter
    Bareiss Fund

    191 Jmi Dine (b. The Tree in Soot,


    1935),
    1981. Etching and monotype, printed in
    44}^ x 34^ (113.8 x 87.9).
    color, plate:
    |ohn B. Turner Fund
    192 Howard Hodgkin (h. 1932), Two to Go. 19S1. Lithograph, printed m color with
    gouache additions, 36|x 483 (91.8 x 122.6). CJift of the artist

    plates. He drawn over his prints and heavily abraded their


    also has
    surfaces as he removed unwanted passages by erasing and scraping.
    His intaglio works from the beginning have been expressionist in
    character, so the work of his middle age, though often repeating the
    subjects of his Pop period, has a wild and unmistakably personal tone
    to it. His monstrous trees are as much portraits of the artist as his robe
    had been in the 1960s. Another artist who
    radically changed his style in
    the 1970s was the British artist Malcolm Morley. His earliest success
    came with painted versions of color postcards, bridging the Pop and
    Neorealist styles in the early 1970s. Later, interest in classical myths
    and various heroic or disastrous moments in Hterature and other
    media became, with a freer brush work, the subject of both paintings
    and aquatints printed by a Yugoslavian, Gordan Novak, in Toronto,
    with such titles as Cradles ofCiuilization and French Legionnaires being
    Eaten by a Lion, of 1984.

    219
    193 David Salle (b. 1952), Untitled from the series Grandiose Synonym for Church, 1985.
    Etching and aquatint, printed in color, plate:
    47if x 37^ (12 1.7 x 95.8). John B. Turner
    Fund

    220
    Wrn-^
    ^^^&^
    '«

    ^^^mfi r^^t.:^^
    MpiS^^^&£
    ^ ft. "' "

    r*^i^^? ^^S
    '"' ' . ^

    - ^
    V^^VVV ^^

    -"'^
    --^^"^*^:
    ^
    IP^il^s
    ^{^H|B|^|ii^^Eg^^^'-'' '^i^^j^KKk

    194 Malcolm Morlcy (b. 19J1), French Legionnaires bciri^ Eaten by a Lion, 1984. Etching and
    aquatint, printed in color, plate: 2o|^ x 32}^ (52.6 x 83.6). Dorothy Braude Edinburg Fund

    The paintings and prints of another British artist, Howard ig2


    Hodgkin, have indicated that a kind of abstraction from nature which
    yet conveys a place and atmosphere is a sensible formula for late
    twentieth-century art. In prints, often larger in scale than his paintings
    and occasionally printed in two versions, color as well as black and
    white, Hodgkin presents framed scenes in which the specific objects
    are made up of organized, simplified forms that allude to the subject
    rather than describe it.

    In America two artists closely associated with the more expression-


    ist (or less categorizably structured) compositional styles, Julian
    Schnabel and David Salle, were both invited to make prints by Parasol
    Press, which had been the foremost publisher of the minimalist artists.
    Schnabel, whose paintings were upon broken plates and discarded
    theatrical scenery, was intrigued by the possibilities of printing upon
    equally unusual materials. He created a series of prints in his obscured
    figurative style on and another on maps. Salle, whose style was
    velvet, J93
    basically a layering of familiar imagery, from Walt Disney to Oscar igj
    Kokoschka, made several series of prints in which his drawings of

    221
    female figures and heads were immersed into a dense tangle of this sort
    of eclectic sandwich.
    Among the techniques that became more acceptable during the
    1980s was the addition of handcoloring, either directly on the printing
    form or on the print itself. Monotype, essentially a handpainted
    composition made on a plate that prints only once in the brightness of
    the original painting but is often reprinted several times, became a
    popular technique after an exhibition devoted to its history in New
    York in 1980. However, in most countries there have been artists who
    were less interested in the repeatability of the print media than in the
    unique look printed surfaces have. Thus, whilejohns, Clemente, Dine
    and many others made pure monotypes, they also enhanced pre-
    viously printed compositions with monotype. In Europe, Immendorf
    and Baselitz painted over their woodcuts, and Kiefer's prints are
    always altered in this way. It seems that these and many other artists
    have sought to expand the creative parameters of the print. This may
    be a manifestation of freedom from the mechanical restrictions of the
    edition print, but the reason seems more likely to be the artist's more
    intense involvement with the medium. One surmises that had the
    Abstract Expressionists had the large presses and large sheets of paper
    that were developed by the late 1970s, they too would have managed
    to make prints, and more than likely those prints would have been
    either monotypes or paint-enhanced prints. The development,
    however, of such materials could only occur after a period of work
    during which artists realized the possibilities inherent in the media,
    could work with printers to develop new materials and insist on
    having the flexibility to work with and on them.
    To follow the widespread activities of artists, print workshops have
    opened and publishers have encouraged printmaking activity in many
    areas of the world. For example, in Berlin a screenprinting workshop
    has worked intensively with local artists such as Rainer Petting,
    Helmut Middendorf, and the frequently visiting Scottish perform-
    ance artist and painter, Bruce McLean. In France a young lithography
    printer worked first in Lyon and then in Paris with such visiting artists
    as the theatricaldesigner and author, Robert Wilson, as well as with
    French and German artists. In Germany the Munich publisher Sabine
    Knust, working at first with Heiner Friedrich to produce the works of
    Palermo, Richter and others in the 1970s, has continued by producing
    the first groups ot prints to document the neo-expressionists, Erste
    195 Julian Schnabel (b. 1951),
    Breiida, 1984. Aquatint, printed
    in black on velvet,
    59I x 35^
    (152. 1 X91.2). The Associates
    Fund

    Konzentration. Among the artists in these portfohos were BaseHtz and


    Penck as well as the Danish artist, Per Kirkeby, whose career was
    closely connected with the neo-expressionists from Germany. An-
    other pubhsher, working mainly in Switzerland, Peter Blum, has
    produced portfohos of work by the Italians Sandro Chia and
    Clemente, as well as prints by several Americans who emerged in the
    1980s, specifically Eric Fischl and Jonathan Borofsky. Large-scale
    aquatints by Fischl, Cucchi and Mimmo Paladino, met the require-

    223
    ments of those who collected prints as realistic equivalents to the
    overscaled paintings and sculptures of these artists.

    In this discussion much has been left out about the emergence of
    great numbers of women artists in America who have had the
    opportunities as few of their predecessors had of making prints with
    the most prominent printers and publishers. Elsewhere, the prolifera-
    tion of prints made for competitions in countries of the Far East and
    Eastern Europe did not diminish. However, these prints oddly never
    found as vast an international audience as before, despite the
    magnitude of the artistic population and economic interests in
    promoting art that occurred in the European community and in
    America. Given the lengthy period of relative peace, and the great
    possibilities of nearly unimpeded travel, the diminution of substantive
    creativity in the West is obviously a product of some other com-
    bination of circumstances. One thinks of the i88os and the rise of
    post-impressionism, the artists of which actually created the formulae
    for twentieth-century art. With the desperate search that has been
    undertaken among Western artists, rapidly followed by that of the
    Japanese, certainly the quantity of styles, forms and ambitions should
    have produced some equivalent discovery and formulation in the
    eighties of this century. Perhaps the close ties prints have with
    economic trends make the appearance of the new less noticeable, since
    only the few artists who have enough of an economic base (that is,
    purchasers for their product) will have the opportunity to make
    prints. This is not to say that in the communities of young artists there
    are not a few who, as the Germans did, make prints on the floors of
    their workrooms and studios. There are, too, those whose economics
    are sufficient for them to experiment with electronics, printing out
    graphics on their computers. Why, so far, no mention has been made
    of this new technology, seems to be a curious situation, for artists all
    over the world, particularly in schools and in businesses, have had
    access to this technology for well over two decades. Recall, however,
    that lithography was developed at the end of the eighteenth century,
    and while it was used to document scenes and events, it found few
    artists capable of creating with it until the end of the nineteenth

    century. What is the purpose of the pictures of our time if not to allow
    the imagination the free rein that so much documentation in the form
    of numbers, letters, patterns on video and computer screens,
    constricts.

    224
    In concluding this history of twentieth-century art as viewed
    through the prints created during this period, the author offers an
    apology to those who may not have found herein a discussion of
    their favorite printmakers, and to those who incredulously question
    the inclusion of so many artists of the last quarter-century who seem
    to be of less consequence. Regrettably, few historians have access to a
    crystal ball revealing events that will intensify the meanings of some
    occurrences and obliterate others. Should the reader feel that the
    chosen examples have faded, there nevertheless remains evidence
    that those prints reflected specific concerns shared by many artists
    creating in similar circumstances. One finds, again, that no works by
    artistsof the past are viewed in the same manner now as they were at
    the time of their first exposure. While the writings of critics con-
    temporaneous with many of the works have been cited, the quotations
    selected here have inevitably been the ones that most closely agree
    with the opinions of our time. Within the last two decades the
    Conceptual artists reduced visual art to unembellished ideas and others
    have had their short-lived styles prefixed with Neo-. Once more, the
    hopscotch progress of art means it is nearly impossible to make
    predictions.
    At this point in the twentieth century we have looked back upon
    more than eight decades of unequaled effort and production in the field
    of printmaking. The period produced in Picasso an undisputed genius,
    whose devotion to art resulted in a vast printed u'livrc astonishingly
    rich in its imagery. The proliferation of prints followed the expansion
    of European esthetic ideas into the entire world. After World War
    II and the development of rapid and massive communication, art

    became a recognized part of the exchange of ideas. The directors of


    enlarged exhibition facilities took advantage of the comparatively
    safe and swift transportation offered by the airplane between distant
    nations to show works of art previously familiar only through repro-
    ductions, while periodicals and television repeated and dispersed
    names and images. The subsequent widespread interest in the acquisi-
    tion of original works - for most people financially possible only in
    the area of prints — led to the expansion of commercial enterprises
    devoted to art. This expansion, as has been seen, also included new
    facihties to produce prints. Numerous print publishers and print-
    collecting organizations were established during these years, and
    ultimately the print buyer's need to be protected from fraudulent

    225
    practicesbecame an overly important part of print connoisseurship.
    Because of competition among collectors and the unfortunate cate-
    gorization of some prints as excellent objects for investment, the
    monetary value ot prints has otten exceeded that of unique works of
    smiilar quality.
    The rapidity with which the visual artshave been transformed in
    recent years is all too apparent. The few decades ot prosperity and
    last

    relatively low manslaughter in the industrialized areas of the world


    have seen a disproportionate increase in persons pursuing careers in
    the fine arts. Exploration and experimentation by those artists whose
    upbringing was largely 'permissive' and whose education was
    similarly undisciplined have led to a proliferation of ideas of question-
    able value. While society is still financially and psychologically able
    to tolerate this excess of artistic production of uneven quality, it is
    quite possible that this most recent decade in our century is one of
    dram rather than progress. Each period has its detractors, and one
    can cite critics who have doomsdayed each new development in art.
    The tabula rasa etforts of the Conceptualists were a backboard for the
    rebound ot creative efforts that sought from the past a way to the
    future. With changing social conditions, the contrived commercial
    manipulation of the artist's work in the print media may diminish,
    precipitating the artist into a different relationship with the market
    and with the opportunity to create. This does not necessarily mean, as
    some printmakers would have it, simply a return to hand-cranking a
    press and producing small editions. It does imply the freedom to work
    with any means and materials that the artist desires, printing only
    those images with which the artist is completely satisfied in editions
    that reflect all the possibilities and hmitations of the chosen medium.
    Prints are, indeed, a commodity exactly because they are not unique.
    The decision to make them more precious by artificially limiting each
    edition is in direct opposition to the historical development of the
    print and printing At this moment when prints have become
    itself.

    plentiful but often dubious objects of cultural commitment, few


    would question their importance in the history of twentieth-century
    art. Only the future will show which works of our time contain the

    seeds that will nurture its own art.

    226
    Notes on the text

    1 Matisse, Henri, 'Notes d'un peintre,' lette) or letter-card (cartelettre) ; the


    La Grande Rvviic (Paris, 25 December papyrus characters have suffered the
    lyoS) pp. 731-45. trans, in Alfred H. injuries of time.
    Barr, Jr., Matisse: His Art and His Public
    (New York, The Museum of Modern 8 Gropius, Walter, Idee und Aiijhan des
    Art, 1951) Staatlichen Bauhaiises Weimar (Weimar,
    Bauhausverlag, 1923), trans, in Bauhaus
    2 Translation in Voices of German igig-igzS, ed. H. Bayer, W. & I.
    Expressionism, ed. Victor H. Meisel Gropius (New York, The Museum of
    (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Modern Art, 1938) p. 20
    1970)

    9 Huelsenbeck, Richard, Avant Dada:


    3 Louis de Marsalle (pseud. E. L.
    Eine Gcschichte des Dadaismus (Hanover,
    Kirchner), 'Uber Kirchners CJraphik,' Stelgemann, 1920), trans, by Ralph
    Goiitis (Munich, 1921) pp. 250—63 Manheim, The Dada Painters and Poets:
    An Anthoh\^Y, ed. Robert Motherwell
    4 Ernst Barlach, letter to Reinhard (New York, Wittenborn, Schultz, 1951)
    Piper, 28 December 191 1, trans, in

    Voices of German Expressionism, ed.


    10 Der Ararat (Munich), vol. 2, No. 1,
    Victor H. Meisel (Englewood Cliffs,
    1 pp. 5-6, trans, by Ralph Manheim,
    92 1 ,

    N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1970)


    The Dada Painters and Poets, pp. 59-60

    5 Letter from CX'zanne to Emile Ber-


    1 Breton, Andre, Manijeste dn Sur-
    nard, 15 April 1904, published Merciirc
    William
    realisme (Paris, 1924), trans, in
    de France, 16 October 1907, pp. 617-18.
    S. Rubin, Dada, Surrealism, and Their
    Heritage (New York, The Museum of
    6 Gil Bias (14 November 1908), trans,
    in Herschel B. Chipp, Theories oj Modern
    Modern Art, 1968) p. 64

    Art (University of California Press,


    12 Ernst, Max, 'Au dela de la Peinture,'
    1970) pp. 206/.
    Cahiers d' Art (Paris), xi, 6-7, 1936,
    7 And the General [M.P. Dagog] trans, by Dorothea Tanning in Max
    received this note with surprise: Make Ernst, Beyond Painting (New York,
    haste! Buy Royal Dutch! Sell Petits Wittenborn, Schultz, 1948)
    Beurre.
    'Ah! What confusion! Ah! What con- 13 Ernst's small etching for the cover
    fusion!' sang out the (ieneral, hands of .4m 725 du boulevard Saint-Germain by
    behind his back, Benjamin Peret (Pans, Collection Lit-
    'I resign myself to this confusion!' said terature, 1923) is also a candidate for this
    the cunning tourtelette. honor.
    Translator's note: We do not know if it

    is little tart (tourtelette), tartlet (tarte- 14 Breton, Andre, ibid.

    227
    1 1

    15 Sweeney, J. J., 'Joan Miro, Com- 26 Hopper, Edward, 'John Sloan and
    ment and Interview,' Partisan Review, the Philadelphians,' The Arts, April
    No. 2, February 1948, p. 212 1927, vol. XI, No. 4, p. 174

    16 Breton, A., Le Surrealisme et la 27 hi 1938 the Graphic Arts Division


    Peinture (New York, Brentano's, 1945) of the Works Progress Administration
    p. 68 had a silkscreen workshop in New
    York under the direction of Anthony
    17 Dali, Salvador, 'Philosophical Pro- Velonis. In 1940 several artists
    working
    vocations' in Documents J4 (Brussels, thereformed the Silk Screen Group,
    15 May 1934), quoted in Andre Breton, which became the National Serigraph
    Qu'est-ce-quc le Surrealisme? (Brussels, Society in 1944.
    R. Henriquez, 1934)
    28 James Lang, review of McMillen,
    18 Soby, James Thrall, Salvador Dali
    Inc., New York exhibition. Art News,
    (New York, The Museum of Modern 15 January 1942, p. 31
    Art, 1946) p. 14
    29 Giacometti, Alberto, 'Le reve, le
    sphinx et la mort de T.,' Labyrinthe
    19 Galas, Nicolas, 'Saper Vedere' in
    (Paris), No. 22, December 1946, p. 12
    Brunidor Portfolio Number One (New
    York, Brunidor Editions, 1947) 30 Escher, M. C, The Graphic Work of
    M.C. Escher (New York, Ballantine,
    20 Matisse, 'Comment je fais mes 1971)
    livres,' Anthologie du livre illustre, ed.
    Albert Skira, 1944, trans, in William S. 3 and Peter Smithson,
    Letter to Alison
    Lieberman, Matisse, 50 Years of his 16 January quoted in Richard
    1957,
    Graphic Art (New York, Braziller, 1956) Hamilton, introduction by Richard
    p. 12 Morphet (London, Tate Gallery, 1970)

    2 Matisse, Henri, Ja^-a- (Paris, Teriade, 32 Swenson, Gene R., 'What Is Pop
    1947) PP- 141-42 Art?,' interview with Roy Lichtenstein,
    Art News, vol. 62 No. 7, November
    22 Howe, Russell W., 'Chalk and 1963, pp. 25, 62
    Cheese: Puy and Leger,' Apollo (Lon-
    don), vol. 50, August 1949, pp. 31-3 ii Staber, Margit, Max Bill (New
    York, Fernhill, 1964) p. 23

    23 Leger, Fernand, Cirque (Paris, Teri-


    34 Kosuth, Joseph, 'Art After Philo-
    ade, 1950) p. 51
    sophy, I & II,' Studio International,
    October and November 1969, reprinted
    24 Davis, Stuart, quoted in Sam
    Battcock (New York,
    in Idea Art, cd. G.
    Hunter, Modern American Painting and
    Dutton, 1973) p. 93
    Sculpture (New York, Laurel, 1959)
    p. 128
    35 Sarah Charlesworth, 'A Declara-
    tion of Independence,' The Fox, Spring,
    25 Breton, Andre, 'Le Surrealisme et
    1975, P- I

    la Peinture,' La Revolution Surrealiste,


    No. 4, Paris, i
    5 July 1925 36 Kosuth, Joseph, ibid., p. 82
    Glossary of printmaking terms

    Aquatint: An intaglio print taken from dampened paper are run through a press
    a metal plate which has been etched under extreme pressure. Normally the
    through a porous ground of powdered plate is smaller than the paper and its
    and melted resin so as to produce a impression remains on the paper. See
    fme-textured effect of ink wash when Aquatint, Drypoint, Engraving, Etching,
    printed. and Mezzotint.

    Drypoint : An intagho print taken from Linoleum cut (lino-cut) : A relief print
    a metal plate into which the lines form- made from a block of linoleum cut in
    ing the image are scratched with a metal the same manner as a woodcut. The
    or crystal point. The tool leaves a printed surface has less texture than in a
    residue of metal along the edges which woodcut because of the homogeneous
    will capture some ink, giving a distinc- nature of linoleum.
    tive furry line.
    Lithograph: A planographic print
    Engraving: An intaglio print taken made from a special type of stone
    from a metal plate into which the lines (Bavarian limestone), metal plate (zinc,
    forming the image are cut with a wedge- aluminum or other), or coated paper,
    shaped tool called a 'burin.' all of which retain grease and reject

    Etching: An from
    intaglio print taken
    water. The image is created directly

    a metal plate into which the image has upon the stone or plate with greasy
    pencil, crayon and/or liquid [tusche) or
    been bitten with acid. Lines may be
    scratched through a layer of varnish
    else transferred from treated paper.
    After a series of treatments alternating
    or other impervious material (hard
    nonhardening light etching and inking, the stone or
    ground), or pressed into a
    impervious material (soft ground), or plate is dampened and
    rolled with ink,

    drawn with a water-soluble substance


    which will remain only in areas where
    the image has been drawn.
    thatis allowed to dry, covered with an

    impervious material, and then soaked in Mezzotint: An intaglio print from a


    water so that the material over the metal plate which has been manually
    drawing lifts (lift-ground or sugar-lift). scratched or pitted with a rocker (a
    An acid bath of variable composition multitoothed tool). The pits are sub-
    and duration etches away all areas sequently smoothed away to form areas
    where the ground is removed and the that will no longer hold ink.
    plate exposed, creating grooves and
    textures that will hold ink. Monotype: A single printing of an
    image incapable of being identically
    Intaglio technique: Grooves and other reprinted. The most common technique
    altered areas below the surface of a metal is painting the image on glass or metal
    plate form or control the image. Copper and printing before the ink or paint
    and zinc are the usual materials for the
    dries.
    plates.Ink introduced into the grooves
    and cleaned from the original surface of Photomechanical techniques: The image
    the plate will print when plate and is transferred by means of light passing

    229
    through a photographic negative onto a paper and block through a press. See
    Hght-sensitized printing surface. In order Li)wleum cut and Woodcut.
    to obtain grays in relief, intaglio, and
    Serigrapli Sec Silk.<creen.
    stencil techniques, a fine screen must be :

    introduced to break up the image into


    Silkscrecn : A print made by passing
    areas of varying densities.
    ink or paint through a screen of cloth,
    usually silk but more recently synthetic
    Planographk technique: The image to
    material, to which a stencil has been
    be printed is created upon the surface
    adhered. The stencil may be made of
    of a stone or plate which is altered
    adhesive film, cut or prepared photo-
    chemically rather than dimensionally.
    graphically, or may be a brushed-on
    The stone or plate is inked, covered with
    coating, often applied over an image
    paper, and printed on a flat-bed press.
    made with water-soluble material, which
    Plates made in this manner may also be
    allows the coating over it to be washed
    printed on an offset press. See Lithograph.
    away.
    Relief technique: The image is printed
    Stencil technique: The image is created
    from the portion of a block of rigid
    from open space in a cut or shaped form
    material that remains above cut-out
    which will allow ink or paint to pass
    areas or from materials added to a flat
    through when applied with a brush
    surface. Relief prints other than woodcut
    {pochoir), airbrush, or squeegee (silk-
    and linoleum cut utilize cut pieces oi
    screen). See SiJkscreen.
    cardboard or paper pasted in a low-
    relief image, plastic glue hardened into Woodcut: A relict print made from a

    shapes, cast objects, and other forms oi plank of wood on the


    (usually cut
    relief Printing is done either by rubbing straight grain) trom which areas meant
    the verso of paper placed on the inked to remain uninked are cut away with a
    surface of the block or by running the gouge or sharp knife.

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    mit einem Werkkatalo^ samllicher Radier- of Ben Shahn. New York, Quadrangle,
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    Dieter Rot Books and Graphics Part
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    tion Hansjorg Meyer, 1972; Part 2 and V. Vasarely V^asarely, vols. 1-2.
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    Stuff, Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon, 1967
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    M. Galfetti Antonio Saura, la obra grafica Proute, 1950


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    R. Schapire Karl Schmidt- Rottluffs gra- Arts et Metiers Graphiques, 1979


    phische Werk bis 92 j.
    1 Berlin, Euphorion, K. von Walterskirchen Maurice de

    1924 Vlaminck Verzeichnis des graphischen


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    G. Wietek Schmidt-Rottluff Graphik, 1970
    Munich, Karl Thiemig, 1971 F. Feldman and J. Schellmann Andy
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    Works (19J9-70). Syracuse, Syracuse Feldman Fine Arts and Abbeville Press;
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    A. Liore and P. Cailler Catalogue de W. Grohmann 'Das graphische Werk
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    vols. i-ii. Geneva, Cailler, 1958 D. Brusberg Paul Wunderlich Werkver-
    R. Mason Kurt Seligmann, oeuvre grave. zeichnis der Lithqgrafien von 1949-71.
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    K. Prescott The Complete Graphic Works

    236
    Ind ex
    Figiirei in italic refer to monochrome ilhislrations.bold numerals to color plates

    Adam, Henri-Georges, 141 Bill,Max, 194, 196 Crippa, Roberto, 139


    Albers, Joseph, 61-2, 128, 191-3, Bissiere,Roger, 140 Crommelynck, Fernand, 117
    194, 197, 200; Homage to the Blake, Peter, 187 Crommelynck brothers, 115
    Square: Midnight and Noon. lyi; Blake, William, 77, 156, 194 Crown Point Press, 198, 215
    163: Intaglio Dho B, lyi; i6g: Self Bleyl, Fritz, 21-3 Cruz-Diez, Carlos, 194
    Portrait, 61; 3? Blum, Peter, 223 Cucchi, Enzio, 215, 223-4
    Alechinsky, Pierre, 147, 149; k Life, Boccioni, Umberto, 50 Cuevas, Jose Luis, 161
    I2g Bonnard, Pierre, 12, 96, 114, 141;
    Alloway, Lawrence C, 177 Dingo, 96; S2; Parallelement. 13, 96;
    Alviani, Getulio, 194
    Dali, Salvador, 71, 76, 79-80; Alice
    in Wonderland. 80; Les Chants de
    Antes, Horst, 157, 159, 160; Figure Bontecou, Lee, 167
    with Red P-Hat with Flag. ijjS Borofsky, Jonathan, 223
    Matdoror. 79; 6g: Don Quixote. 80
    Anuszkiewicz, Richard, 194; The In- Braque, Georges, 9, 32, 36,
    D'Arcangelo, Alan, 187
    37, 40-2,
    ward Eye, 194; 165 Daumier, Honore, 16, 118, 119
    45, 85, 90-1, 92, 95, 128, 140, 147;
    Davis, Stuart, 106, 124; Sixth Avenue
    Apollinaire, Guillaume. 18-19, 42, Chariot. 91; Fox, 2g; Phaedon, 91;
    El, 106; 9j
    47, 48, 107 Theogony, 90-1; 79; The Varnished
    Debenjak, Riko, 164
    Appel, Karel, 147, 148-9 Chariot, 91; 87
    de Kooning, Willem, 124, 130, 136-
    Aragon, Louis, 70 Breton, Andre, 70-1, 74, 75, 76, 82,
    Arakawa, 205-6; Next to the Last, 7, 160, 174; Untitled, 115
    iSi S3, 107, 128
    Delatre, Eugene, 10, 41
    Archipenko, Alexander, 42, 46 Broodthaers, Marcel, 207
    Delaunay, Robert, 35, 42, 46-7, 48;
    Arman, 188, 190 Brus, Giinter, 216; Depth Obscured.
    The Eiffel Tower, 46-7; j/
    Arnera, 11 4- 15 igo
    Delaunay, Soma, 195
    Arp, Jean, 32, 67, 69-70, 142, 197; ButTon, 1 1
    Delvaux, Paul, 84
    Arpaden. 70; Narel Bottle. 70; 60 Burchfield, Charles, 122
    Derain, Andre, 17, 18-19, 21, 32, 95-
    Atelier 17, 77, So-i, 128-9, 130. HV. Bury, Pol, 195; X
    Cinelizalions, 170
    L'Enchanteur
    6; Pourrissant, 8;
    149 Butler, Reg, 154
    Pantagruel. 95-6; 91
    Atkinson, Terry, 206
    Desnos, Robert, 75
    Automatism, 81, 129 Galas, Nicolas, 83-4
    Dewasne, Jean, 196—7
    Calder, Alexander, 196; Red Sun, 772
    Diaghilev, Serge, 107
    Bacon, Francis, 152, 154 Gallery, Mary, 166-7
    Dine,Jim, 167, 174, 175,216-19, 222;
    Baj, Enrico, 160, 161; The Archduke Canals, Ricardo, 10
    Car Crash, 175; Eleven Part Self
    Charles at the Battle of Aspern- Capogrossi, Giuseppe, 147
    (Red Pony), 175; 149; The
    Portrait
    152
    Eslling, Carman, Albert, 93
    Tree in Soot, igi
    Baldwin, Michael, 206 Carra, Carlo, 50, 102
    Disler, Martin,216
    Balzac, Honore de, 12, 108 Cendrars, Blaise, 48
    Dix, Otto, 55-8; The War, 57; 47
    Barlach, Ernst, 30-1; Melamorphic Cezanne, Paul, 9, 21, 37-8, 48
    Doesburg, Theo van, 62
    Creations of Cod. 3 i 22 ; Chagall, Marc, 12, 48, 51, 92-4, 128,
    Domberger, Luitpold, 198, 204
    Barnes, Dr. Albert C, 89 137, 140, 165; Arabian Nights, 93;
    Dotrement, Christian, 147, 149
    Bartlett, Jennifer, 201 88; The Bible, 92; Dead Souls, 92;
    DubufFet,Jean, 148, 150-2, 160, 162,
    Baselitz,Georg, 212, 222, 223; Nude The Fables of La Fontaine, 92; The
    184, 212; Carrot Nose, 147; Maticre
    with Three Arms. 189 Grandfathers, 54; 46; My Life, 51-
    et Memoire, 150; Phenomena, 150-
    Baskin, Leonard, 732; Man of Peace. 4; Self Portrait with Grimace, 92; So
    i; Work and Play, 150; ijo
    132; 112 Chia, Sandro, 215, 223
    Ducasse, Isadore, 79
    Basquiat, Jean Michel, 209 Chirico, Giorgio de, 15, 50, 69, 82,
    Bauhaus, 50, 61-2, 66, 103, 128, 191,
    Duchamp, Marcel, 42, 67
    102
    Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, 42
    193, 194, 200 Christo, 188, 190; MOMA(Front),
    Dufy, Raoul, 17, 94-5; Le Bestiaire
    Baxter, lain, 204 166
    ou Cortege d'Orphee, 19; Fishing,
    Beckmann, Max, 58, 128; Die Holle Clemente, Francesco, 215, 222, 223;
    19-21; to; La Mer. Si
    (Hell). 58; 50; Night, 58; Self Por- The Departure of the Argonaut, 215;
    Diirer, Albrecht, 37
    trait with Bowler Hat, 59; 30 iSS
    Bellmer, Hans, 84; Rose ou verte la Close, Chuck, 202-3; Keith, 203; 17^
    nuit, 74 COBRA, 147-9, 159, 216 Einstein, Albert, 21
    Bellows, George, 122 Colette, 99 Eluard, Paul, 70, 75
    Bengston, Billy Al, 166 Constant, George, 147 Ensor, James, 15, 158
    Benton, Thomas Hart, 124, 129 Le Corbusier, 148 Ernst, Max, 15, 67, 69, 70, 83, 128,
    Bernard, Tristan, 98 Corinth, Lovis, 29-30; Death and the 129; Histoire Naturellc, 71; Let
    Berni, Antonio, 160 Artist, 29-30; 20 There Be Fashion, Down with Art,
    Bernik, Janez, 164 Corneille, Cornelis, 147 69; 5g', Unc Semaine de Bonte, 71-4,
    Beuys, Joseph, 204, 210, 212, 213; Cornell, Joseph, 139 184; 63
    Stag's Foot, 184 Courtin, Pierre, 141; Composition, Escher, Maurits Cornelius, 161-2;
    Biasi, Alberto, 194 121 0(/ifr World, 162; 140

    237
    1

    Estcs, Richard, 203 4; ( 'rlhvi ImiuI- Haring. Keith. 209 12; Three Women Conversing, 23;
    scapfs No. 2. ijg Hartigan. Grace. 167 11; Winter Moonlight, 27; 49
    Hartung. Hans. 134. 143 4. 146; Kirkeby, Per, 223
    Fabiam. Miirtin. 1 1 i Sheaf, 124 Kitaj, R. B., 74, 184, 185-6; In Our
    Fangor. Wojciecli, 194 Hausniann. Raoul, 69 Time, 185; World Ruin Through
    Federal Art Project, 124 Hayter, Stanley William. 77. 80-1. Black Magic, 185; 160
    Fcinmgcr, Lyonel, 47-8, 62, 128: 128-9, 130-2. 134. 149; .-{mazon, Klee, Paul, 15, 32, 35, 62-3, 69, 125,
    Cathedral, 62; 54; The Gate. 47-8; Hi; 70 128, 140, 158, 160, 216; Tightrope
    19 Heckcl, Erich, 21; l-ran:i Reclinin<i, Walker, 63; 55; l^irgin in a Tree, 16;
    Fetting, Rainer, 222 24; 43; Self Portrait, 24
    FischI, Eric, 223-4 Hellcu. PauL 16 Klein, Yves, i,S,S

    Fluxus, 207 Herbiii. Auguste. 196 Klimt, (iustav. 156


    Fontana. Lucio, Mv-C'; Sci Aniiiajorli Hesiod. 90 Kline, Franz, 30 1

    Oriiiiiia/i, U7 Heyboer, Anton, 162-3; The .Sysletn Klinger, Max, 15; The Plague, is, 4
    I rancis, Sam, 134 f>, 149, iMk The with Figure, 142 Knust, Sabine, 222-3
    While Line. 134; 143 Hiratsuka, Un'ichi, 126 Kokoschka, Oskar, 67, 128, 143,221;
    Frankenthaler. Helen, 13S, 167; Hiroshigc, 126 Self Portrait, 59; 52
    While I'cihil. iig Hitler, Adolf, 128 KolKvitz, Kathe, 30, 31; Death and a
    Frapier, F., S6 Hockney, David, 186-7, 201; Pacific Woman Strug^Ung for a Child, 30;
    Frasconi. Antonio, T32; The Slcnii is Mutual Life Building with Palm 21
    Cotninfi. lit Trees, 162 Kosuth, Joseph, 204, 206, 209
    Frelaut, Jacques, 110 Hodgkin, Howard, 221; Two to Go. Kruchenyckh, Alexei, 50-1
    Freud, Signiund, is, 21, 70 192 Kubin, Alfred, 69
    Friedrich, Heiner, 222 Hofmann, Hans, 124, 130 Kupka, Frank. 48
    Fuchs, Ernst, 156; St. Geeirgc. tj} Hopper, Edward, 122-4; Night
    Fulton. Hamish, 207 Shadows. 106
    Huclsenbeck, Richard, 67-9 La Fontaine, Jean de, 11-12
    (MUCHF.R, Yves, 191 Hugnet, Georges, 76 Lacounere, Roger. 8s. 87. 91-2. 96.
    Ciauguin, Paul, 16, 17, 1S-19, 29, 62- Hundertwasser, Friedrich, IS6-7, 1 10
    3 2 16; Goodbye to .-ifrica. 151 Lam. Wifredo. 84
    (iemini G.E.L., 172, 179 Lasansky. Mauncio. 130-2; Self Por-
    (lerstner, Karl, lyo luA, Shoichi, 201
    trait, III
    C.iaconietti, Alberto, 71, 81-2, 152, Laurens, Henri. 46; Les Pelican. 46; ;6
    Ikcda, Masuo, 160; Romantic Scene.
    I S3. I S4, 160: Bust, i?i; Invisible Lautreamont. Comte de. 79
    1.19
    Object (Hands Holdiiif; The Void). Inimendorf, 222; Le Fauconnier. Henri, 42
    Jiirg, 213, C\ifc
    Si:' -I Lecuirc, Pierre, 141
    Deutschlaiid. 213
    (iide. Andre. IS2 German Lofe. Leger, Fernand, 42, 48, 103-6, 12S,
    Indiana, Robert, 137;
    Clilbert and deorge, Daik .Shadows. LOVE. 182-3 140, 148, 177; Ci'r^Hf, i04-5;94; La
    207 Institute of Contemporary Arts. 186 Fin du Monde, 48; 40; The Vase,
    Gilot, Fran(,oise, 113 103-4; 9"
    Cilarner, Fritz, 167, 196; Drawing for Lehmbruck, Wilhelm, 36; ."{ppari-

    Toiido. 171
    Jacob. Max. 32. 37. 45 lion, 36; 2^
    Janssen. Horst. IS7. 1S8-9; Hannos Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 51
    C'.leizes, Albert, 42
    Tod. 159: .Melancholy Self Portrait.
    Cloethe. Johann Wolfgang von, 1S2 LeParc, Julio, 194
    tiokib. Leon. 154 Levme, Jack, 154
    Cioncharova. Natalie. 50 Jemec. Andrej. 164 Levine, Les, 204; Les Let'ine LXVI,
    Clonzalcz. Julio, 143
    Johns. Jasper. 167. 170-4. 200, 20s, I So
    210, 222; .4/c Cans. 171; /J5; Col-
    Goodenough, Robert, 167 LeWitt, Sol, 198, 200-1; Lines from
    ored Numerals, 172; Flag I, 170-1; Sides, Corner and Center, 176
    Ciorky, Arsliile, 130
    (iottheb, Adolph, 14s; Spring, 210; i8j Lichtenstem, Roy, 176, 178-9; Sweel
    m8; BUick Ground
    Jones. Allen, 186; Green Yellow, 161 Dreams, Baby!, 179; 156
    - Red Disc, iig
    Cioya, Francisco, S7 Jorn, Asger, 147, 148-9, 150, 216; Lieberman, William S., 41, 129
    Masculine Resistance, 12S Limbour, Georges, 74
    (Jreishaber, H. A. P., 132
    Ciris, Juan, 42, 45; Ne coupez pas Lipchitz, Jacques, 46, 128, 154
    X'lademoiseUe. 45; JS Kahnwi:iifr, Daniel H., 10, 32 3^>. .
    El Lissitzky, 51, 66, 70; Proun, 38
    Gropius, Walter, 62 37. 41. 45. 50. 74. 76 Lohse, Richard P., 196
    Grosnian, Fatyana, iMi-j Kandinsky, Wassily, 32-4, 36, 62 .63, Lozingot, Serge, s i i

    (irosz, (ieorge, 55 8, 69, 128; Goii 67, 128, 14a; Ktinge, 33-4; 2r.
    mil uns, 57; Im Schatten, 57; 4f Orange, 56
    Guggenheim, Peggy. 137 Kelly, Ellsworth, 197; BlnejG Maar, Dora. 1 1

    167 Macke, August, 32, 35


    Hajdu. Etienne. 141; Heradile. IZ2 Kessler, Count Harry. 96-8 McLean. Bruce, 222
    Hamaguchi, Yozo. 161; Asparaftts Kiefcr. Anselm. 212 13, 222; McLuhan, Marshall, 182
    and Lemon, 141 Rhein, 213; iSs Maeght. Aimc, 41, 77
    Hamilton. Richard. 176-8, iSCi; In- Kimura. Kosuke. 164 Magntte. Rene. 71, 84, 160
    terior. 176-7; jjo; The Solomon R. Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig. 21-4, Maillol, Aristide, 96-8; Eclogues, 84;
    Gut^aenheim, 177-8; i^i 26-7. 3S, 37, S4; Nude Dancers
    1 I 'irgil. 98

    238
    Maillol, Gaspard, yS Munakata. Shiko. 126—7; Flower Picro della Francesca. 102
    Malevich, Kasimir, 32, so; Simnlta- Hunting Mural, 107 Poliakotf. Serge, 140
    iiam! Death of a Man in an Airplane Munch. Edvard, 13-14. 16, 21. 154; Pollock, Jackson, 124, 129-30, 137,
    and at the Railway, so-i; 41 The Kiss, 15. 23; j; Sin, 15 142, 143, 160, 167; Untitled 4, loS
    Mallarnie, Stephane, SX Miinter. Gabriel. 32 Posada. Jose Guadalupe. ii<;-2i
    Manessier. Alfred. 140 Prater, Christopher, 1S6
    Mangold, Robert, iyS-200; 7 Aqua- Nay. Ernst Wilhelm, 146 Pratt Graphics Workshop, 138
    lints. 168 Ncruda, Pablo, 122
    Marc, Franz, 32. 34, 47, 67; Riiiun; Nesch, Rolf, 154; The Herring Catch, Rabiu Ais, Franfois, 95
    School. 24 154; n4 Radiguet, Raymond, 46
    Marcoussis, Louis, 42-5. 76; Portrait Nevelson. Louise, 139. 166; Untitled, Ractz, Markus, 216
    of Guillauinc Apolliiiairc. 42; n. 120 Rainer, Arnulf 216; Depth Obscured.
    Still Life: Zither and Scashell, 4y. 14 Ncvinson, C. R. W.. 50 I go

    Mann, John, 47: H'oolworlh hiiildini; Newman, Barnett, 138; iS Cantos. Ramos, Mel, 187
    ( The Dance). 47; iii 138; Untitled. 117 Rauschenberg, Robert, 167, 168,
    Marini, Marino, I54 Noda, Tetsuya. 164 172-4, 185, 201; Accident. 167,
    Mansol, 167 Nolde, Emil. 22-3. 25-6. 35. 143. 168-70; 144; Sky Garden, 172
    Marsh, Reginald, 122 154; The Prophet. 26; 15; The Young Rayo, Omar, 191
    Martin, Agnes, lyX; On a Clear Day. Couple, 26; 45 Reinhardt. Ad, 194
    lyS; 174 No\'ak. Clordon, 219 Rembrandt, 30, 118, 122, 158
    Maryan, 154 Richtcr, Gerhard, 201-2, 222; Canary
    Masson, Andre, 70, 74-6, 83, 128, Oldenburg, Claes, 187 Landscapes, 177
    129, 137; Chinese Actors, 76; Rape. Onchi, Koshiro, 126 Riley, Bridget, 186, 195
    75-6; 6_r. Soleils Bas, 74-5; 64; Orozco. Jose Clcmente, 121, 122 Rivera, Diego, 119, 12 1-2, 124;
    I'oya^e a I 'eiiise. 76 Osthaus. Karl Ernst, 28 Zapata, 10 j
    Matisse, Henri. 13, 17, ly, 21.41, 85, Ovid, 1 1-12, 108 Rivers, Larry, 167, 174-5; Lucky
    87-yo, 95, 114, 128, 140, 197; Strike in the Mirror II. 148
    Horse, Rider and Clown. 90; 86; Paiadino, Mimmo, 223-4 Rohlfs, Christian, 2S-9; Two Dan-
    Jazz. 89-90, lyi; Nude Study. 17; Palermo, 198, 222 cers. 29; ip
    6; Odalisque in Striped Pantaloons. Paolozzi, Eduardo, 74, 184-6; .4.< /.•. Rosenberg, Paul, 107
    87; 77; Pasiphac - Chant de Minos. When; 184; Wittgenstein in New Rosenquist, James, 167, 183-4; F-iii.
    89; Poesies. 88-9; yS: I 'erre. 89. yo York, 184-5; ( 59 183; Forehead I, 183, /.s*'; Horse
    Matta. S3-4, 128; .Arcane 17. S3; / Parmigiano. 103 Blinders. 183
    Want to See It to Beliei'e It. 83- 4; 7 j Pascm. Jules. 96; Cendrillon, 96; 92 Roth, Dietrich, 190, 207
    Matthieu. Eniil, 134 Pearlstein. Philip. 203 Rothenberg, Susan, 214-15; Doubles,
    Mavignier. Almire, iy4 Pechstein, Max. 26. 35; Dialogue, 28; 1S7
    Metzinger, Jean. 42 17; Erich Heckel
    24-5; 14 1, Rothko. Mark. 130
    Michaux, Henri. 148 Penck. A. R., 213-14, 223; Nighi- Rouault. Georges. 12, 17,85-7,91-2;
    Middendorf. Helmut. 222 I'ision, 186 .•Autumn, 86, 87; 76; Christ on the
    Milow. Keith. 204 Perrault, Charles, 96 Cross, 87; Cirque, 87; Cirque de
    Mirbeau. Octave, y6 Peterdi, Gabor, 130; (jerniination. I'Etoile Filante, 87; Clown and
    Miro, Joan. 70. 76-9, 12S, 144, 14s. 130; log Monkey, 11; 44; Les Fleurs du Mai,
    147. 164; Barcelona Series, 77; 67; Phillips, Peter, 187 87; The Little Dwarf 83; Miserere,
    Enfances. 7ft; 66; Equino.x, 78-9; 62; Phillips. Tom, 201 Ss-f'; 75; Passion, 87; Who does not
    Self Portrait, 76; Series I, 77 S; 6S Picabia, Francis, 42, 67 paint a face for himself?, 73
    Moholy-Nagy. Lazlo. 66; KonstruL'- Picasso, Pablo, 9, 12,32,36,37-42,45, Ruscha, Ed, 166, 187, 207
    tionen, 37 47, 67, 85, 90, 92, 95, 106, 107-18, Ryman, Robert, 200
    Mondrian. 195-6
    Fiet, 48, 128, 134, 140, 147, 165, 210, 225;
    Montherlant, Henri de. 89 The Bull, 114; Le Chef d'oeuvre Sabaktes, Jaime, 116
    Moore. Henry. 152-3; Elephant inconnu, 108; 95; Le Cocu Magni- Saint-Phalle, Niki de, 18S. 190;
    Skull. 153; 1J2; Proinethee. 152-3 fique, 117; 101; Dancer with Tam- Nanas, i88-yo
    Morandi, Giorgio, 102-3; '*>"" i-'7<' bourine, 112; gS; Les Demoiselles Salle, David, 221-2; Grandiose Syn-
    with Coffee Pot. Sg d'Ai'ignon, 18, 107; Faun Unveil- onym for Church, 193
    Morellet, Fran^'ois, 194 ing a Sleeping Woman, 1 10; 97; The Sartre, Jean-Paul, 142
    Morlcy. Malcolm. 2iy; French Le- Frugal Repast, 10, 16, 18; i; Guer- Saura, Antonio, 154
    gionnaires heiin; Eaten hy a Luni. 2 1 y; nica,no, 129, 122; Head of a Young Schmidt-Rottluf, Karl, 21-2, 27-8,
    194 Woman, 18; 7; Minotaur, 107; Min- 35; Erich Heckel, 24-5; ; ;; Land-
    Morosov, Ivan. 48 otauromachy, 109-10; g6; Portrait scape at Dangast, 27, iS
    Morris. William. yS of a Girl (after Cranach the Younger), Schnabel, Julian, 221; Brenda. 195
    Mortcnscn. Richard. iy6-7 115; .Saint Matorel, 37, 38; 27; Still Schrag, Karl, 130; Falling Night, no
    Motherwell, Robert, 84, 137-8. 167; Life with Bottle, 28; Still Life under a Schwittcrs, Kurt, 66, 128, 168; Merz,
    In Black with Yellow Ochre. 137-8; Lamp, 115; 100; '347' series, 117; 70, 61
    116; Spanish Elegies, 138 Two Nude Figures, 38, 114; 26; Segonzac, Andre Dunoyer de, 42,
    Mourlot. Fernand. y4 'Vollard Suite', 108—9; Woman in y8-9; Colette, 99; Sy, The Georgics,
    Mourlot Freres, 92, 113. 165 an Armchair No. 1, 113; gg 99; Tableau de Boxe, 98-9
    Miiller, Otto. 23. 26-7; Tiro Cypsy Picelj. Ivan. 194 Seligmann, Kurt, 84
    Girls ill Living Room. 16 Piene. Otto. 194 Severini, Gino. 50, 147

    239
    Shahn, Ben, 124-5; Triple Dip. 125; Tamayo, Rufino, 154 Solitaire, 16; 42; Portrait of a Young
    102 Tanguy, Yves,' 70, 82-3, 137; The Woman, 42; ji; Renee, three-quar-
    Shchukin, Sergei, 48 Island of a Day, 82; 72 ters view, 42; JO
    Singier, Gustave, 147 Tapie, Michel, 197 Virgil.1 1-12,
    99
    Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 121; Moises Tapies Fuig, Antoni, 144-5; Number Vlaminck, Maurice de, 17, 21, 99-
    Saenz, 122; 104 15, 126 102; Head of a Girl, 21; 9
    Skira, Albert, 108 Tenade, Efstratios, 89 Vollard, Ambroise, 10, 13, 85, 86, 90,
    Sloan, John, 122, 124; Nigltl H'indcw. Thiebaud, Wayne, 187 92, 99, 108-11, 141
    105 Ting, Walasse, 149 Vostell, Wolf, 204
    Smith, Richard, 198-200, 201; Pro- Tinguely, Jean, 188, 190 Vuillard, Edouard, 12
    scenium I, ij$ Tissot, James. 16
    Soby, James Thrall, 80 Tomkins, Andre, 216
    Sonderborg, K.R.H., 146-7 Torres-Garcia, 142 Wadsworth, Charles, 50
    Sorlier, Charles, 94 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 12 Warhol, Andy, 166, 176, 178, 179-
    Soto, Jesus Rafael, 194 Trier, Hann, 147 82, 209; Flowers, 182; Marilyn,
    Soulages, Pierre, 134, 144; Composi- Trotsky, Leon, 51 180-2; ij4
    tion IV\ 125 Tyler, Ken, 172, 201 Wayne, June, 165
    Spoerri, Daniel, 190 Tzara, Tristan, 70, 76 Weber, Max, 46
    Stael. Nicolas de, 140; The Wall Wesselmann, Tom, 187
    (Study in Color No. 1), 146 UccELLO, Paolo, 102 Whistler, James, 202
    Stella, Frank, 197-8, 201, 210; Universal Limited Art Editions, 134, Wilson, Robert, 222
    Quathlamha I, lyj; Talladega Three 137, 138, 166-8, 172, 175, 183, 200
    Winter, Fritz, 147
    I. 182 Utrillo, Maurice, 99-102 Winters, Terry, 214-15
    Stieglitz, Alfred, 47,67 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 184
    Still,ClyfTord, 130 Valentin, Curt, 76 Wols (Wolfgang Schuize), 142-3,
    Stinnes, Heinrich, 36 Vallotton, Edouard, 19 148, 160; Nourritures, 142; /2_j

    Stuck, Franz von. Sin. 15 Van Gogh, Vmcent, 16, 17, 21, 28-9 Wood, Grant, 124
    Suares, Andre, 87 Van Velde, Bram, Wright, Frank Lloyd, 177
    147
    Summers, Carol, 132; Monte Amiata, Vasarely, Victor, 193, 194; Planetary Wunderlich, Paul, 157-8; Rendez-
    114 Folklore, 193; 164 vous Techiiic II, ij6
    Sutej, Miroslav, 164 Vauxcelles, Louis, 41-2
    Sutherland, Graham, 152, 153—4; Vedova, Emilio, 147
    Yamamoto, Kanae, 126
    Bestiary, 154; Crown of Thorns, ijj Velazquez, Diego de Silva y, 116
    Yanagi, Dr., 126
    Verlame, Paul, 13
    Takamatsu, Jiro, 164 Verve, 89, 90
    Tamarind Lithography Workshop, Villon, Jacques, 16, 42—4, 99; The Zao Wou-ki, 147
    139, 165-f), 167-8, 191 Dinner Table, 42; J2; The Game of Zapata, Emiliano, 121

    240
    1

    ^^ WORLD OF ART
    Prints of the Twentieth Century: A History
    Riva Castleman. 195 illustrations, 33 in color

    Printmaking has attracted some of the greatest figures


    in twentieth-century art, and it is impossible to grasp the
    full significance of such movements as Expressionism,
    Surrealism, or Pop Art without a knowledge of their
    printmaking achievements. Moreover, prints remain
    almost the only medium in which major works of art can be
    collected for a relatively modest sum. When this book first
    appeared, it was at once accepted as the best concise guide to
    an astonishingly diverse genre and now this revised edition
    includes a new chapter on recent developments. The full range
    of techniques is covered and all major artists in the medium
    are discussed, from Bonnard and Munch through Picasso to

    Hockney, Stella and today's avant-garde. The illustrations


    are drawn from the unrivalled collection of the Museum of
    Modern Art, New York. "There is not another history that is
    as comprehensive. " (Apollo) "An excellent book - and one that
    anybody seriously interested in the historical background to
    modern prints can hardly afford to neglect. " (Arts Review) "No
    better narrator of the story of modern printmaking could be

    found than Riva Castleman. " (The Times Literary Supplement)

    Thames and Hudson

    Revised and enlarged edition ISBN D-5DD-5D5Efl-l


    51195
    On ihc cover:
    Fcrnand L^gcr: page 4
    from La h'in du Monde

    '>yBl>»'Ccndrar5. 1,19
    CDT-' t11
    rr i. 11. QC
    yD PnntcdinSpiin 9 780500"202289
    La-

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