CHAPTER 5

FILTER
 LEARNING OUTCOME
1. Remember working principle of frequency filter circuits

2. Understand operation and application of passive filters

3. Apply parameters of passive filters

4. Understand operation and application of active filters

5. Apply parameters of active filter

INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

FILTER is a circuit designed to pass a particular

frequency or range of frequencies while
remove unwanted frequency components
from the signal.

Filters pass, reject, and attenuate signals at various

frequencies
Application of filter in electronic equipment :

 In high performance stereo systems. Certain ranges

of audio frequencies need to be amplified or
suppressed for best sound quality and power
efficiency.

Example :

Audio equalizers - allow the amplitudes of several

frequency ranges to be adjusted to suit the listener's
taste.
 Filter are classified based on frequency response :

 Low-pass :
filter which passes low frequency signals and
blocks high frequency signals
 High-pass : filter which passes high frequency signals and
blocks low frequency signals
 Band-pass : filter that allows frequencies within a specific
frequency range and rejects (attenuates)
frequencies outside that range
 Band-stop : filter that allows above and below the particular
range of frequencies and rejects all other
frequencies
Frequency response of filter circuits : real characteristic
 VOLTAGE GAIN, Av (dB)

Decibel (dB) is a common form of gain

measurement :

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠, 𝐀𝐀𝐕𝐕 =
𝐕𝐕𝐢𝐢

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨
𝐀𝐀𝐕𝐕 (𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝐕𝐕𝐢𝐢
 CUTT-OFF FREQUENCY, fc

 The cutoff frequency :

The frequency at which the ratio of the output to input has a

magnitude of 1/√2 or 0.707 or half-power frequency.

 This magnitude, when converted to decibels is equal to –3dB.

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨 𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠, 𝑨𝑨𝑽𝑽 = = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝐕𝐕𝐢𝐢 𝟐𝟐

𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨
𝐀𝐀 𝐕𝐕 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝐕𝐕𝐢𝐢
= 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
= −𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
 CUTT-OFF FREQUENCY, fc

 A level drop of -3dB means the output signal is

attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value and
also a power reduction to 50%.

 Cut-off frequency expressed by :

1
fc =
2πRC
 Passive
Filter
Filter
Active
Filter
The difference between Passive Filter and Active Filter :

Passive Filter Active Filter

A passive filter circuit are made A active filter circuit is combination

only from passive component of passive component (R,C) and
(R,L,C) active component (op-amp)

not require an external power

require an outside power source
source

The maximum voltage gain, The maximum voltage gain,

Avmax < 1 Avmax ≥ 1
PASSIVE FILTER
 PASSIVE FILTER

 Passive filters are based on combinations of resistors (R),inductors

(L) and/or capacitors (C).

 Not depends on an external power supply.

 DO NOT contain amplifying devices (active components) such as

transistors and op-amp to amplify the input signal.

 The amplitude of the output signal is less than the input signal

 The maximum voltage gain, Avmax is never greater than 1

(Avmax < 1).
 Low-pass
filter

Type of
Bans-stop High-pass
passive
filter filter
filter

Band-
pass filter
 Passive Low-pass filter

 A low-pass filter allows signals with lower

frequencies (below cut-off frequency) while
rejecting higher frequencies.

 There are two basic kinds of circuit, inductive low

pass filter (RL) and capacitive low-pass filter (RC)
 Passive Low-pass filter

 Capacitive low-pass filter

- capacitive low-pass filters insert a resistor in

series and a capacitor in parallel with the load

- The capacitor's impedance decreases with

increasing frequency
 Passive Low-pass filter

 Capacitive low-pass filter

- This low impedance in parallel with the load

resistance tends to short out high-frequency
signals, dropping most of the voltage across series
resistor R1

RC
(Capacitive
low-pass filter)
Passive Low-pass filter Frequency response
 Passive Low-pass filter Cutt-off frequency

 The cut-off frequency for a low-pass filter is that

frequency at which the output (load) voltage
equals 70.7% of the input (source) voltage.

 Above the cut-off frequency, the output voltage is

lower than 70.7% of the input, and vice versa

𝟏𝟏
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐭𝐭 − 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 frequency, 𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐π𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
 Passive High-pass filter

 A high-pass filter allows signals with higher

frequencies (above cut-off frequency) while rejecting
lower frequencies.

 The high-pass filter are commonly used to remove

signals induced by power line noise from signal lines
 Passive High-pass filter

 High-pass filters are often used to clean up low-

frequency noise

 Remove humming sounds in audio signals, redirect

higher frequency signals to appropriate speakers in
sound systems

 Remove low-frequency trends from time series data

thereby highlighting the high-frequency trends
Passive High-pass filter

RC
(Capacitive
high-pass filter)
Passive High-pass filter Frequency response
Passive High-pass filter Cutt-off frequency

The cut-off frequency for a high-pass filter is that

frequency at which the output (load) voltage equals
70.7% of the input (source) voltage. Above the cut-off
frequency, the output voltage is greater than 70.7% of
the input, and vice versa.

the capacitive high-pass filter’s cut-off frequency can be

found with the same formula:

𝟏𝟏
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐭𝐭 − 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 frequency, 𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐π𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑
 Passive Band-pass filter

 A filter that passes a range of frequency between two

cut-off frequency and rejects frequency above and
below the range

 A band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and

a high-pass filter that connect in series
Passive Band-pass filter

Circuit Diagram of Passive Band Pass Filter

Passive Band-pass filter Frequency response
 THE FREQUENCY PASS-BAND

 PASS-BAND is the range of frequencies can pass through

a filter without being attenuated.

 The frequency range below cut-off frequency, ƒc as the input

signal is allowed to pass through the low pass filter.

 The frequency range above cut-off frequency, ƒc as the input

signal is allowed to pass through the high pass filter.

 The frequency range between two specific cut-off

frequencies, ƒc as the input signal is allowed to pass through the
band pass filter.
FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH

 Bandwidth (BW) is defined as the frequency range between

two specified cut-off frequencies (ƒc).

 BW as being the difference between the lower cut-off

frequency (ƒL) and the higher cut-off frequency ( ƒH).

BW = fL - fH or BW = fC2 – fC1

where:

Cut off frequency for Low Pass Filter, fL

Cut off frequency for High Pass Filter, fH
Passive Band-stop filter

 A filter that reject a range of frequency between two

cut-off frequency and passes above and below the
range

 Also known as band-elimination, band-reject,

or notch filters

 A band-stop filter is a combination of a low-pass

and a high-pass filter
 Passive Band-stop filter

 Band-stop filters can be made by placing a low-pass filter in

parallel with a high-pass filter

 Commonly, both the low-pass and high-pass filter sections

are of the “T” configuration.
 Passive Band-stop filter

 The low-pass filter section is comprised of R1, R2, and C1 in a

“T” configuration.

 The high-pass filter section is comprised of C2, C3, and R3 in a

“T” configuration as well.

 Together, this arrangement is known as a Twin-T filter

Passive Band-stop filter

 Filter giving sharp response when the component

values are chosen in the following ratios :

𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 = 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐(𝐑𝐑 𝟑𝟑 )

𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 = 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑 = (𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓)𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏

 Passive Band-stop filter

 The frequency of maximum attenuation is called

the notch frequency, fnotch

 Given these component ratios, the frequency of

maximum rejection (the “notch frequency”) can be
calculated as follows :

𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 =
𝟒𝟒𝛑𝛑𝐑𝐑 𝟑𝟑 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑
Passive Band-stop filter Frequency response
ACTIVE FILTER
 ACTIVE FILTER

 Active filters are based on combinations of passive component

(R,C) and active component (operational amplifier)

 Require an outside power source

 The amplitude of the output signal is more than the input

signal

 The maximum voltage gain, Avmax is greater than 1

(Avmax ≥ 1).
 APPLICATION OF ACTIVE FILTER

 Active filters are mainly used in communication and

signal processing circuits.

 They are also employed in a wide range of

applications such as entertainment, medical
electronics, etc.
 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE FILTERS

 Active filters can be designed to provide required gain,

and hence no attenuation as in the case of passive filters

 No loading problem, because of high input resistance and

low output resistance of op-amp.

 Active Filters are cost effective as a wide variety of

economical op-amps are available.
 BASIC CIRCUIT OF ACTIVE FILTERS

 This active filter

consists of an amplifier,
a negative feedback
circuit and RC circuit

 The amplifier and

feedback are connected
in a non-inverting
configuration
General diagram of active filter
 THE POLE (ORDER) OF ACTIVE FILTERS

 Each RC set of filter

components represents a
pole.

 A pole (single pole) is

simply one resistor and
one capacitor.

 Each pole represents a

-20dB/decade increase in
roll-off
One-pole (first-order) low-pass filter
 THE ROLL-OFF OF ACTIVE FILTERS
 Roll-off is the decrease in the gain of an amplifier above or below the
cut-off frequencies.

 Each order number of filter causes the output to roll-off at rate of

20dB/decade.

*Decade: A ten times increase or decrease in frequency.

 The rate of roll-off depends on the Order Roll-off (dB/decade)

order number of the filter. 1st 20
2nd 40
Filter order : Nth number order,
3rd 60
Roll-off rate : 20 x N dB/decade
4th 80
 The more poles filter has, the faster
and greater its roll-off rate

 For example, a Butterworth response

produces -20dB/decade/pole.

This means that :

 One-pole (1st order) filter has a

roll-off of -20 dB/decade

 Two-pole (2nd order) filter has a roll-off of -40 dB/decade

 Three-pole (3rd order) filter has a roll-off of -60 dB/decade
 High-order filters, such as 3rd, 4th and 5th order are usually formed by
cascading together single 1st order and 2nd order filters.

Example :

First and 2nd order low pass filters can be cascaded together to produce
a 3rd order low pass filter

Third order low-pass filter

CUT-OFF FREQUENCY OF ACTIVE FILTERS

 The cut-off frequency, fc is determined by the values

of R and C in the frequency-selective RC circuit
 For a single-pole (first-order) filter, the cut-off
frequency is :
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐π𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑

 The above formula can be used for both low-pass

and high-pass filters
 There are 4 basic categories of active filters

Low-pass
filter

Bans-stop Type of High-pass

filter active filter filter

Band-
pass filter
 Active Low-pass filter

 A low-pass filter allows signals with lower frequencies

(below cut-off frequency) while rejecting higher
frequencies.

 The amplitude of the output is increased by the gain of

the amplifier.
Active Low-pass filter

1ST ORDER ACTIVE LOW-PASS FILTER

1st order active low-pass filter and response curve.

 Active Low-pass filter

 This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade above the

cut-off frequency.
 The op-amp in 1st order (single pole) filter is connected as a
non-inverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage gain in
the pass band is set by the values of R1 and R2 :
𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏
𝐀𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 = +1
𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐

 The cut-off frequency of the 1st order filter is :

𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
 Active Low-pass filter

2nd ORDER ACTIVE LOW-PASS FILTER

 Sallen-Key is one of the most

common configurations for a
2nd order (two-pole) filter.

 There are two low-pass RC

circuits that provide a roll-off
of -40 dB/decade above fc

 One RC circuit consists of RA

and CA, and the second circuit
consists of RB and CB.
Basic Sallen-Key active low-pass filter
Active Low-pass filter

 The cut-off frequency for the Sallen-Key filter

is :
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑 𝐑𝐑 𝐀𝐀 𝐑𝐑 𝐁𝐁 𝐂𝐂𝐀𝐀 𝐂𝐂𝐁𝐁

 For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the cut-

off frequency :
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑
 Active High-pass filter

 An active high-pass filter allows signals with higher

frequencies (above cut-off frequency) while rejecting
lower frequencies.

 The maximum pass band frequency response of an

Active High Pass Filter is determined by the selection
of op-amp and gain.

 It operates such as band pass filters with a high

frequency cut-off.
Active High-pass filter

1ST ORDER ACTIVE HIGH-PASS FILTER

1st order active high-pass filter and response curve

 Active High-pass filter

 In active high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor

and resistor are reversed in the RC circuits

 The negative feedback circuit is the same as for the

active low-pass filters

 This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade

below the cut-off frequency.
 Active High-pass filter

 The op-amp in 1st order (single pole) filter is

connected as a non-inverting amplifier with the
closed-loop voltage gain in the pass band is set by the
values of R1 and R2 :
𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏
𝐀𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 = +1
𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐

 The cut-off frequency of the 1st order filter is :

𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑
 Active High-pass filter

2nd ORDER ACTIVE HIGH-PASS FILTER

 Components RA, CA, RB, and CB form the 2nd order (two-pole) frequency-
selective circuit.
 The position of the resistors and
capacitors in the frequency-selective
circuit are opposite in low pass
configuration.

 There are two high-pass RC circuits that

provide a roll-off of -40 dB/decade below fc

 The response characteristics can be

optimized by proper selection of the Basic Sallen-Key active high-pass filter
feedback resistors, R1 and R2
 Active High-pass filter

 The cut-off frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is :

𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑 𝐑𝐑 𝐀𝐀 𝐑𝐑 𝐁𝐁 𝐂𝐂𝐀𝐀 𝐂𝐂𝐁𝐁

 For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the critical frequency :

𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑

 As with the low-pass filter, 1st and 2nd order high-pass filters can be
cascaded to provide three or more poles and thereby create faster
roll-off rates.
 Active Band-pass filter

 An active band-pass is a filter that passes a range of

frequency between two cut-off frequency and rejects
frequency above and below the range

 Simple Active Band Pass Filter is connecting the basic

passive high and low pass filters to an amplifying op-
amp circuit.
Active Band-pass filter

Circuit Diagram of Active Band Pass Filter

Active Band-pass filter

 An active band-pass filter is formed by cascading a

2nd order active high-pass filter and 2nd order active
low-pass filter.

 It operates such as band pass filters with a high

frequency cut-off.
Active Band-pass filter

 The circuit of active band-pass filter :

R A1 C A2
C A1
R A2 R B2
V in C B1
R B1 V out
R1 C B2
R3
R2
Two-pole high-pass Two-pole low-pass R4

 Each of the filters shown is Sallen-Key Butterworth

configuration, so that the roll-off rate are -40dB/decade.
 Active Band-pass filter

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF ACTIVE BAND-PASS FILTER

A v (dB)
Low-pass response High-pass response
0

−3

f c1 fo f c2 f

 The lower frequency fc1 of the pass band is the cut-off frequency of
the high-pass filter.
 The upper frequency fc2 of the pass band is the cut-off frequency of
the low-pass filter.
 Active Band-pass filter

CUT-OFF FREQUENCY OF ACTIVE BAND-PASS FILTER

 The following formulas express the three frequencies of the

band-pass filter.
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑 𝐑𝐑 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐑𝐑 𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝐂𝐂𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐂𝐂𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑 𝐑𝐑 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐑𝐑 𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁 𝐂𝐂𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐂𝐂𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁

𝐟𝐟𝟎𝟎 = 𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜

Active Band-pass filter

 If equal-value components are used in implementing

each filter :
𝟏𝟏
𝐟𝐟𝐜𝐜 =
𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑

 The maximum gain, Ao occurs at the center frequency.

𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐
𝐀𝐀𝟎𝟎 =
𝟐𝟐𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏
 Active Band-stop filter

 An active band-stop filter is a filter that reject a range

of frequency between two cut-off frequency and
passes above and below the range

 The active band-stop filter is opposite of active band-

pass filter in that it blocks a specific band of
frequencies
 Active Band-stop filter

 The configuration is similar to the active band-pass filter

but R3 has been moved and R4 has been added.

C1
R2
R1 C2
V in
R3
V out
R4
 EXERCISE

1. Given R = 100Ω and C = 0.047μF. Draw RC Low Pass Filter circuit and calculate the cut-off
frequency. ( fc = 33.86 kHz )

2. Calculate the cut-off frequency if R = 60Ω and C = 21μF. Express the gain of the circuit in
decibels (dB) when Vo = 400mV and Vi = 1.2V.
( f = 126 Hz, Av (dB) = -9.54 dB )

3. If a first order high pass filter has a 47kΩ resistor and 220pF capacitor, calculate the cut
off frequency? ( fc = 15.39 kHz )

4. With the aid of resistor capacitor (RC) low pass filter diagram, calculate the cut off
frequency of the filter if the value of R = 100Ω and C = 0.0047μF.
( fc = 338.628 kHz )
 EXERCISE

5. If the R = 200Ω and C = 0.47μF, calculate the frequency cut-off for low pass filter.
( fc = 1.693 kHz )

6. Given R = 1.1kΩ and C = 0.66μF. Calculate the cut off frequency, fc and draw passive high
pass filter circuit. ( fc = 219.22 Hz )

7. With the aid of a high pass filter diagram, calculate the cut off frequency (fc) of the filter
if the values are R = 200Ω and C = 47nF. ( fc = 16.93 kHz )

8. High pass filter circuit consists of C = 20nF and R = 10kΩ while low pass filter circuit
consists of C = 500pF and R = 10kΩ. Calculate the bandwidth.
( BW = 31.04 kHz )