Journal of Geoscience Education

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Examining intersectionality and inclusivity in

geosciences education research: A synthesis of the
literature 2008–2018

Allison Mattheis, Megan Murphy & Erika Marin-Spiotta

To cite this article: Allison Mattheis, Megan Murphy & Erika Marin-Spiotta (2019)
Examining intersectionality and inclusivity in geosciences education research: A synthesis
of the literature 2008–2018, Journal of Geoscience Education, 67:4, 505-517, DOI:
10.1080/10899995.2019.1656522

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2019.1656522

Published online: 30 Sep 2019.

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JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION
2019, VOL. 67, NO. 4, 505–517
https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2019.1656522

Examining intersectionality and inclusivity in geosciences education

research: A synthesis of the literature 2008–2018
Allison Mattheisa, Megan Murphyb, and Erika Marin-Spiottab
a
Applied and Advanced Studies in Education, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90032; bDepartment of
Geography, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This article reviews geoscience education research published since the December 2007 Received 08 September 2018
“Broadening Participation” issue of the Journal of Geoscience Education to examine how Revised 12 February 2019
research in the field has taken up—or not—calls for greater inclusivity. We also applied and 07 August 2019
recent calls to actively confront and lessen reports of discrimination and harassment in the Accepted 13 August 2019
Published online
sciences and looked for evidence of how these goals are included in geoscience education 30 September 2019
research. This synthesis of the extant literature in geoscience education research was guided
by a framework that draws from the concept of intersectionality (Collins, 2015; Crenshaw, KEYWORDS
1991) and interventions that can build learning environments that provide physical and psy- Intersectionality; higher
chological safety for diverse students, educators, and field professionals synthesized by a education; inclusive
2018 report from the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine. We identi- pedagogy; gender; race
fied three primary themes in the literature reviewed and illustrate these with examples from
published articles: (a) increased challenges to science as neutral, (b) continued assumptions
of meritocracy in higher education, and (c) assimilation as representation. We also highlight
exemplary articles that were most closely aligned with our conceptual framework, and then
present three recommendations for future research efforts. A key goal of the present article
is to call on researchers to more deeply consider the role of social identities in studies of
geoscience education.

Introduction 2017; Gay-Antaki & Liverman, 2018) and the negative

impact of these experiences on the recruitment and
Concern about the underrepresentation of white
retention of members of underrepresented groups in
women and people of color of all genders in the geo-
the geosciences (Clancy, Nelson, Rutherford, & Hinde,
sciences is increasingly reflected in the activities of
2014; Clancy et al., 2017), educational research that
field-specific professional societies, institutions of
considers the role of social identities and how these
higher education, and disciplinary research journals
affect individual and collective experiences can play
such as the Journal of Geoscience Education (JGE).
Research in this area has focused on overcoming bar- an important part in promoting diversity and inclu-
riers to the recruitment of minoritized communities sion in the field.
in the geosciences and other scientific disciplines, and
more recent attention has examined how retention is Conceptual framework
influenced by discrimination, bullying, and harass-
Intersectionally inclusive geoscience environments
ment in hostile learning and workplace climates. In
their 2016 piece in this journal, St. John, Riggs and This synthesis of extant literature in geoscience educa-
Mogk proposed that attention to professional ethics tion research (GER) was guided by a framework that
and interpersonal behaviors is key to building a strong draws from the social theory concept of intersectional-
and supportive community of practice in the geo- ity (Collins, 2015; Crenshaw, 1991) and interventions
sciences. In light of recent reports that have docu- that can build learning environments that provide
mented widespread harassment and discrimination physical and psychological safety for diverse students,
based on identity (see Clancy, Lee, Rodgers, & Richey, educators, and field professionals in order to prevent

CONTACT Allison Mattheis amatthe5@calstatela.edu Applied and Advanced Studies in Education, California State University Los Angeles, 5151
State University Dr., Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA.
ß 2019 National Association of Geoscience Teachers
506 A. MATTHEIS ET AL.

Table 1. Conceptual framework: Intersectionally inclusive geoscience environments.

Characteristics of research design that attends to intersectionality1 Characteristics of STEM spaces that are inclusive and free of harassment2
Recognizes that power is unequally distributed Attempts are made to balance gender ratios and address dominance of

Hierarchies in learning environments are identified (e.g., professors/ men and masculinity in STEM spaces. Organizational climate that
supervisors have more power and autonomy than students, and communicates intolerance of harassment.
graduate students have more power than undergraduates).
Interventions and supportive resources indicate a move beyond legal

History of institutionalized racism and sexism identified as roots of compliance to address culture and climate.
problem of “underrepresented minorities” (rather than focus on Higher education-specific interventions and commitments.
individual traits).
Efforts are made to that diffuse hierarchical and dependent
Acknowledges multiple and overlapping identities that create relationships (e.g., between trainees and supervisors).
particular experiences of oppression (e.g., students are not only
Support is provided for targets of harassment and prevention efforts
categorized by gender or race, but both; other aspects of identity not are implemented (e.g., bystander intervention training).
always visible, such as socioeconomic status and disability, are addressed).
Transparency and accountability are assured in reporting and
Recognizes that certain social locations provide more access to response mechanisms.
resources and power than others along different axes of identity in
Leadership reflects and values diversity (e.g., adoption of affirmative
broader U.S. society (i.e., in general, people identified as white or action hiring policies).
perceived to be white have greater access to certain opportunities than
people of color; men and masculinity are afforded greater social status
than women and femininity; those born in the U.S. or holding U.S.
citizenship are less vulnerable than immigrants; speaking English as a first
language speakers of other languages).
Notes. 1Intersectionality is a theory usually attributed to black feminist scholars Kimberle Crenshaw (1991) and Patricia Hill Collins (2015) and informed by
the work of critical race scholars. 2We drew this list from the 2018 National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine report authored by
Johnson, Widnall, and Benya, but apply it to include the representation of people from additional minoritized groups (including but not limited to
gender) and to counter harassment of all forms (including but not limited to sexual harassment). We focused on elements of suggested practice that
could be considered in geoscience education research based in higher education settings.

harassment and discrimination. The application of and learning in the geosciences. In Table 1 we1 out-
this framework is in keeping with Lewis and Baker’s line characteristics of research and educational inter-
(2010) call for the additional use of sociocultural theo- ventions that would indicate alignment with this
ries in GER in order to promote positive change for conceptual framework and draw readers’ attention to
teaching, learning, and research. First developed to the connections between understanding and acknowl-
explain how the identities of women of color are situ- edging individual identities, identifying and rectifying
ated in particular structural and representational loca- power imbalances, and developing positive organiza-
tions of overlapping oppression, the concept of tional cultures that support educational equity.
intersectionality highlights how multiple sociocultur-
ally constructed identities exist simultaneously and
create particular experiences of marginalization. Methods
Rooted in critical theory, intersectionality highlights Defining the scope of the literature review
how privilege and oppression are not equally distrib-
uted, and centers the distinct needs and experiences Research on higher education teaching and learning
of individuals who belong to more than one marginal- in the geosciences is an important site of analysis to
ized group. examine how practices are developed and dissemi-
The second part of our framework is drawn from a nated across classroom and research environments.
report released by the National Academies of Sciences, Similar to Callahan et al. (2017), our review focused
Engineering, and Medicine (Johnson, Widnall, & mainly on questions of how knowledge in GER has
Benya, 2018) that highlighted how sexual harassment been accumulating, specifically applying a concep-
is an institutional problem related to broader issues of tual framework that elucidated ways that social iden-
discrimination based on gender and other identities. tities were or were not considered in research on
Recent research has revealed the prevalence of sexual teaching and learning. We focused on work released
harassment and assault experienced by trainees in dis- since the JGE December 2007 “Broadening
ciplines that involve field training (Clancy et al., 2014) Participation” issue, collecting articles published
and how sexual and racial harassment disproportion- between 2008 and 2018.
ately affect women of color’s access to research and
1
educational opportunities in the planetary sciences The authors of this review are members of the ADVANCEGeo research
team, an NSF-funded project focused on confronting sexual harassment
(Clancy et al., 2017). These reports, along with inci- and gender-based discrimination in the geosciences through the
dents reported widely in the scientific press, lead us to development and distribution of curricular materials. We believe that
these problems cannot be addressed without a broader focus on
propose that the prevention of harassment is related representation and inclusion in the field, and that we should build on
to building anti-oppressive environments for study successful models already in place.
 JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 67, 505–517 (2019) 507

Table 2. Sample entry from analytic review matrix.1

Author(s), year of publication, article title Palmer et al. (2009) Xoa:dau to Maunkaui: Integrating Indigenous Knowledge into an Undergraduate
Earth Systems Science Course.
Setting “Earth Systems on the Southern Great Plains,” a multidisciplinary course offered at University of
Oklahoma.
Participants/focus of intervention Undergrad students enrolled in class (7/30 with Native American identities); Identities and roles of
the faculty are clarified in addition to students in class.
Methods/study design Formative evaluation of class, along with analysis of student evaluations at end of course (n ¼ 27)
Outcomes/findings Students wanted even more focus on indigenous knowledge; Native American students still unsure
of geosciences as career path.
Significance Includes use of storytelling and metaphors as teaching tools in geosciences; demonstrates
connections between art and Earth surface features.
Alignment w/conceptual framework2 Lit review includes greater contextualizing (not just stats about Native American students, but
coverage of different perspectives in curricular materials)—inclusion of historical context; explicit
breaking down of hierarchical roles by involving students as teachers of younger students and
other efforts to create cross-generational community.
SOE level3 2 (case study of 1 class).
Note. 1A total of 165 articles were included in the overall review. For ease of reading, the orientation of columns and rows has been reversed for this
sample entry. The matrix used for the overall review includes one article per row, with column headings of Setting, Participants, and so on. 2See Table
1 for overview of conceptual framework. 3Strength of Evidence index from St. John and McNeal (2017): 1 ¼ practitioner wisdom/expert opinion;
2 ¼ qualitative and quantitative case studies; 3 ¼ qualitative and quantitative cohort studies; 4 ¼ meta-analyses; and 5 ¼ systematic reviews.

Table 3. Overview of sources reviewed and relevance based on conceptual framework.

Total number of articles selected for examination1
Highly Somewhat Not aligned with Total Number
Journal relevant relevant conceptual framework of Articles
Journal of Geoscience Education2 26 49 22 97
International Journal of Science Teaching2 2 7 12 21
Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering3,4 2 17 1 20
Journal of College Science Teaching2 1 6 7 14
EoS3 0 4 2 6
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education2 2 0 3 5
Geosphere3 0 1 0 1
PLoS One3 0 1 0 1
Note. 1We examined articles published in these journals between 2008 and 2018, in keeping with the goal of reviewing progress in GER since the publi-
cation of the December 2007 “Broadening Participation” issue of JGE. 2Articles from this journal were selected and reviewed by the first author.
3
Articles from this journal were selected and reviewed by the second author. 4Articles from this journal were selected and reviewed by the
third author.

Search and selection intersectional and gender-inclusive geoscience spaces

in higher education, and the ways and degree to
We began our review by identifying eight journals in
which student, faculty, or researcher identities were
which GER routinely appears, including but not lim-
considered in the research. Table 3 presents an over-
ited to JGE. We then read the online table of con-
view of the total number of articles categorized as
tents for each issue of these journals published since
“highly relevant,” “somewhat relevant,” or “not
2008 and reviewed the abstracts for all articles with
aligned with conceptual framework.”
titles that were possibly relevant to the review. After For example, the study presented in the article
filtering out articles focused on research conducted in summarized in Table 2 was rated as “highly relevant”
K–12 educational settings and studies that did not based on both methods and content: Native American
involve collection of data from human subjects, we identities were explicitly discussed, indigenous know-
downloaded all remaining articles. This yielded a ledge was valued and centered, higher educational
total of 165 selected articles, which we read in their power dynamics were shifted (undergraduates were
entirety. We developed a matrix to summarize, com- engaged in outreach to younger students, faculty were
pare, and contrast articles and to record details described primarily as mentors rather than content
related to the conceptual framework and that catego- experts), and developing respectful community rela-
rized each article according to the Strength of tionships was emphasized. By attending to faculty and
Evidence pyramid proposed by St. John and McNeal researcher identities, identifying existing hierarchies
in a 2017 issue of JGE (see Table 2 for a sample that have marginalized Native identities in the geo-
entry, with formatting adjusted for publication). We sciences and in higher education, and deliberately val-
coded each article based on its alignment with our uing the input of communities that have been
conceptual framework’s focus on building systematically excluded from institutional leadership,
508 A. MATTHEIS ET AL.

this type of research both identifies the conditions frequently surprised by the amount of collaborative
under which discrimination based on identity can work in which they saw scientists engaging, and listed
occur and suggests ways to prevent it. observations students made about the people who do
We employed an iterative analysis process that science, including gender, race, nationality, and dress
began with preliminary review and coding of articles or appearance. To more comprehensively and accur-
in specific journals by individual authors (see Table 3). ately study student interest in particular science fields,
Following clarification and comparison of matrix researchers should take care to identify distinctions
entries among the three authors, the first author iden- between content-specific knowledge, perceptions of
tified positive exemplars aligned with the conceptual science domains overall, individual understandings,
framework and preliminary themes based on patterns and collective activities (Krapp & Prenzel, 2011).
across the data set. The final results were reviewed and Reichert, Cervato, Larsen, and Niederhauser (2014)
clarified through discussion with the third author. noted the social implications of science by drawing
connections between support for climate change pol-
icy and public understanding, and the importance of
Results of analysis and discussion
considering personal values in developing critical
In this section we present and illustrate three primary thinking skills was highlighted by Yacobucci (2013, p.
themes identified through our analysis: (a) increased 351), “because many aspects of geoscience research
challenges to science as neutral, (b) continued have social and ethical implications.”
assumptions of meritocracy in higher education; and Several articles presented science itself as an act of
(c) assimilation as representation. After a summary of advocacy (e.g., Palmer, Elmore, Watson, Kloesel, &
the significance of our overall findings, we present Palmer, 2009; Unsworth, Riggs, & Chavez, 2012).
exemplars of GER that promotes inclusivity through Koretsky, Petcovic, and Rowbotham (2012) promoted
an intersectional focus on identity. a community-oriented, service-learning approach to
geoscience education that emphasized effective com-
munication with peers and the public as essential
Increased challenges to assumptions of science
parts of preparation for careers in the field. Canetto,
as neutral
Trott, Thomas, and Wynstra (2012) and Murray,
Most physical and natural scientists—and many geo- Napieralski, Luera, Thomas-Brown, and Reynolds-
science education researchers—were trained in experi- Keefer (2012) suggested that efforts to diversify the
mental methods and inquiry approaches that aim to geosciences should emphasize ways that careers in the
control for variability when examining a phenomenon. field can have positive social impacts and solve com-
This has often led to an assumption that science itself munity-based environmental problems.
is therefore objective and neutral, despite the numer- Acknowledging the dominance of Western models
ous ways that scientists’ personal perspectives guide of logical empiricism in science, technology, engineer-
their research. We found that a growing number of ing, and math (STEM) fields, and how these differ
GER articles published since 2008 have begun to take epistemologically from more holistic and contextual-
alternative stances; many articles have discussed the ized bases of knowledge that guide indigenous science
nuanced ways that science is a process and a human perspectives, is important in expanding culturally rele-
endeavor—one that is potentially subject to bias and vant practices that can increase the participation of
can influence public decision making (Apple, Lemus, people from underrepresented backgrounds in STEM
& Semken, 2014; Bond, Philo, & Shipton, 2011; Feig, and invite new research perspectives and practices
2010; Kluver, Robertson, & Agardy, 2018; McNeal, (Abrams, Taylor, & Guo, 2013), and understanding
Hammerman, Christiansen, & Carroll, 2014; Nadelson science as a process that can change over time can be
& Viskupic, 2010; Pelch & McConnell, 2017; Ward, part of enhancing students’ opportunities to see them-
Semken, & Libarkin, 2014). selves as scientists (Kinner & Lord, 2018).
In an evaluation of how college students developed
understandings of human impacts on climate change,
Continued belief in meritocracy of
Nam and Ito (2011) focused on the importance of
higher education
information literacy and discussion of different per-
spectives in groups, along with the application of sci- A clear commitment to expanding student participa-
entific reasoning to arrive at a conclusion. Laursen tion and representation is demonstrated in the GER
and Brickley (2011) noted that college students were literature, yet most studies continue to reflect narrow
 JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 67, 505–517 (2019) 509

understandings of what constitutes academic success. Assumptions of natural talent or academic commit-
We found widespread evidence of instructor beliefs ment as primary indicators of achievement can
that academic success is primarily attributable to the obscure the importance of structures that systematic-
amount of effort expended by students or natural ally restrict opportunity for certain groups, starting
aptitude, rather than more nuanced considerations of early in students’ educational careers. Here again,
systemic issues of marginalization and barriers to identity matters, because those who have been suc-
access. Articles on instructional strategies were typic- cessful in traditional modes of STEM instruction are
ally framed by literature reviews that did not address the minority rather than the majority of students.
student identity but, rather, reported typical perform- Even faculty who attempt to change their instructional
ance of students enrolled in similar classes based on strategies may reproduce these same inequitable rela-
narrow parameters. The way most evaluation or tionships if they do not deliberately challenge these
empirical studies in GER are presented also reflects a underlying beliefs about meritocracy.
belief that instructors can achieve a degree of objectiv- These unchecked assumptions are especially evident
ity in their practice, or that standardized instruments in studies that involve the assessment of spatial rea-
can be used to objectively measure student achieve- soning or visualization skills, given that historically
ment. Markley, Miller, Kneeshaw, and Herbert (2009) men have been perceived to be naturally better than
even found that most faculty included in their study women at these skills. For example, Feig (2010), sug-
did not perceive teaching practices as highly influen- gested that most students struggled with applying spa-
tial on student learning outcomes. tial skills to field work, and that demonstrations
When responsibility for success is placed almost beyond classrooms would be valuable for researchers
entirely on students, failure is therefore often attrib- interested in spatial skills development to consider
uted to lack of internal motivation or intellectual cap- when examining the implications of performance on
acity. As demonstrated by Bejerano and Bartosh classroom assessments. Shields (2018) and Gold et al.
(2015), however, gendered norms and expectations (2018) also argued that gender differences in spatial
influence the development of scientific identities, reasoning are due to socialization and not to innate
including the sense of oneself as a capable student. differences in ability, and Ormand et al. (2014) found
Studies that address gender differences without that performance on spatial reasoning measures had
making note of broader social contexts of inequality— little impact on academic performance. Colaianne and
especially in fields with inconsistent gender represen- Powell (2011) found that students taking courses
tation, like the geosciences—may overlook important across liberal arts disciplines could enhance their spa-
explanatory data for student success. In their analysis tial abilities and apply these to geology coursework.
of factors that predict student performance on field Given this context, GER could support efforts to
assessments, Dykas and Valentino (2016) suggested reduce gender discrimination in the geosciences by
that women may feel more stressed because they are reframing the way that spatial skills are considered.
less academically prepared, but they did not consider Most studies, however, continue to reinforce gender-
that stress in fieldwork might be caused by specific based differences in skill level, despite research to
gendered vulnerabilities, including to sexual harass- the contrary.
ment (see Clancy et al., 2014). In their examination of A growing body of work outside the geosciences
decision-making processes relative to their careers in specifically supports the notion that using traditional
the geosciences, Canetto et al. (2012) found that achievement measures to track student success ignores
women frequently incorporated concerns unrelated to histories of limited access to higher education. Work
confidence in their abilities as geoscientists or interest that has incorporated additional perspectives includes
in pursuing future opportunities—for example, hetero- Ceglie’s (2011) study of how women of color develop
sexual-identified women took their male partners’ science identities and Cole and Espinoza’s (2009)
goals into account when making career decisions, exploration of how gender identity impacted how
although none of the heterosexual-identified men STEM students of color experienced their campus cli-
reported considering their female partners’ goals. mates and resulting impacts on academic outcomes.
Sallee and Pascale (2012) suggested ways that institu- Williams and George-Jackson (2014) also documented
tions should specifically address the multiple burdens continued differences in perceptions of STEM self-effi-
faced by women scientists with children because of cacy based on gender identity.
differential career impacts for men and women One example of a recruitment and development
with families. model that directly counters a focus on traditional
510 A. MATTHEIS ET AL.

measures of performance was documented in an art- Rather than changing the culture of institutions, many
icle by Stassun, Burger, and Lange (2010) that efforts attempt to change individuals so they can par-
described a bridge to the Ph.D. program that specific- ticipate in these spaces as they currently exist. The
ally avoided looking for the standouts and instead title of an article exploring the experiences and per-
sought “diamonds in the rough”—focusing on prom- ceptions of tenured women STEM faculty by Tyson
ise rather than elitism, and creating partnerships and Borman (2010) serves as an apt example: “We’ve
between research universities and local minority-serv- all learned a lot of ways not to solve the problem.”
ing institutions. Similarly, Fortenberry et al. (2009) Initiatives that aim to assimilate individuals rather
documented the need for more institutional connec- than change institutions are often guided by implicit
tions to improve the representation of students of assumptions about students from certain backgrounds
color in STEM fields. that are frequently inaccurate; one article, for example,
Cervato and Flory (2015) found that instilling a assumed that people of color are located exclusively in
sense of belonging as well as building content know- urban areas and did not have access to “dynamic
ledge was important in a successful high school to col- scenery.” More positive examples that focus on
lege transition program. Espinosa (2008) reported broader cultural and structural influences and attend
specific experiences that helped support academic self- to differences based on individual identity do exist in
concept in Latinx and African American men and the literature, however.
women STEM students. And Hammersley, Levine, For example, Mack, Johnson, Woodson, Henkin,
Cornwell, Kusnick, and Hausback (2012) found that and Dee (2010) examined how organizational trust
Hispanic students participating in a course that aimed and institutional supports had positive or negative
to be more culturally relevant (“Geology of Mexico”) impacts on faculty sense of empowerment and com-
earned grades comparable to those of their white pared differences across career stage and gender. In a
peers, countering a trend in other geology classes. 2012 article, Unsworth et al. examined the impact of a
program designed to support the entry of Native
American students into the geosciences. They found
Assimilation as representation
that after completing the program, participants still
Committed advocates in the geosciences have worked conceptualized the categories of “scientist” and
for decades to diversify labs, classrooms, and workpla- “Native American” as distinct in broader social con-
ces and have achieved some measurable degrees of texts but were more likely to feel proud of their cul-
success. Overall measures of diversity in the field, tural heritage and see science as a viable career option
however, suggest limited overall progress (Bernard & that did not conflict with this identity. Parham et al.
Cooperdock, 2018). The proportion of women faculty (2010) also identified how self-reinforcing conditions
in many geoscience fields has increased over the last contribute to the overrepresentation of white men in
decade (Wilson, 2017), although percentages remain the geosciences—underlying assumptions that students
lower than the overall STEM workforce (Wilson, with these characteristics are naturally better at sci-
2019). These changes appear to reflect increased rep- ence can lead faculty to provide more encouragement,
resentation of white women, as the number of stu- which therefore leads to a greater likelihood they will
dents of color in the geosciences have shown no stay in the field. Focusing on individuals rather than
improvement in 40 years (Bernard & Cooperdock, structures as the point of intervention can limit the
2018). Employing an intersectional perspective pro- long-term or broader effectiveness of programs
vides a lens not to critique these previous efforts as designed to invite more people to the field.
failed but to suggest that a more structural analysis is Research that takes a more nuanced look at the
needed in order to more effectively promote greater persistent underrepresentation of white women and
participation in the field. Many efforts to increase the people of color in the geosciences demonstrates the
representation of women and minoritized racial and need for additional perspectives and greater attention
ethnic groups in the geosciences have focused on to context. Although some programs have focused on
developing individual skills and capacities to increase broadening students’ ideas of who can participate in
success within existing structures. Although well- certain fields by introducing them to professionals
meaning, such initiatives frequently overlook how from diverse backgrounds (see Hallar et al., 2010, for
existing norms and expectations in the geosciences are a description of such efforts in the atmospheric scien-
modeled in higher education settings and do not ces), many studies have focused on pipeline issues
address how these norms exclude many people. overemphasizing counting numbers of people from
 JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 67, 505–517 (2019) 511

certain groups rather than encouraging cultural geoscientists, such as Project GAP, described by
change. This approach can also reinforce other mis- Adetunji et al. (2012).
taken interpretations, such as the model minority In order to be effectively prepared for the contexts
myth; Hanson and Fang (2009) demonstrated that they are likely to encounter as geoscience students or
although Asian scientists are well-represented in terms professionals, however, white women and people of
of numerical presence in many STEM fields, racialized color should also be informed that they will likely
stereotypes and negative work climates contribute to need to navigate sexism and racism in the field.
lower reports of satisfaction than white peers. This is Because of differences in social positioning, some
not to say that representation does not matter— mentoring relationships may be materially more
Mattox et al. (2008) found that physical geology text- “useful” than others (Callahan, Libarkin, McCallum, &
book photos of people doing science did not match Atchison, 2015). As Callahan et al. (2017, p.
the overall population, and a 2014 study by Sexton, 573) stated:
O’Connell, Banning, and Most documented the way We might conceive of the diversity of our community
that faculty photographs on department websites rein- as an indication of its relative health. There is no
question that past efforts have been important in
forced images of geoscientists as mostly white, male,
bringing us to our current understanding. The
and in careers that spend a great deal of time out- treatments, however, have been largely prescriptive.
doors. A recent study from the medical profession The persistent underrepresentation of minorities in
revealed how historical portraiture in medical school geoscience, and STEM more broadly, indicates that
halls can signal exclusion (Fitsousa, Anderson, & our prospects are not nearly as robust as they
could be.
Reisman, 2019).
The role of mentoring and role models is an area Instead of focusing on how to assimilate promising
of research in which representation is particularly sali- students into an existing culture of geoscience, the
ent. Interpersonal relationships can be highly influen- geosciences themselves must adapt to be more inclu-
tial on whether individuals remain in the field. Studies sive. Such an approach involves a focus on changing
have shown the importance of faculty assistance in shared social practices rather than changing
helping students transfer from two- to four-year insti- individuals.
tutions (Wolfe, 2018) and in encouraging or discour-
aging them from science coursework (Sherman-Morris Conclusions
& McNeal, 2016). Access to field experiences and
A key finding of our review is the absence of a focus
mentoring can impact geoscience student success
on identity in a majority of GER published over the
(Rathburn & Putman, 2018), and ongoing mentorship
last 10 years. As we examined the literature, a primary
can enhance career satisfaction and retention of Earth
reason for coding articles as not aligned with our con-
sciences majors (Cervato & Flory, 2015; McCallum,
ceptual framework of intersectionally inclusive learn-
Libarkin, Callahan, & Atchison, 2018).
ing environments was the limited manner in which
Hernandez et al. (2017) found that women mentors
students and instructors were considered in the
supported persistence of female students, but Baber,
research presented: In general, connections to a geo-
Pifer, Colbeck, and Furman (2010) discussed the
science classroom were the only details included.
importance of building relationships across identities Instructors were typically identified by years of teach-
to avoid tokenizing students or faculty, and instead ing experience and the age or level of students taught,
placing greater responsibility on faculty from majority whereas students were typically described in terms of
groups to learn how to be better mentors to students major or subject area, year in college, the size of the
from different backgrounds. course in which they were enrolled, and whether they
Student expectations and faculty mentoring styles were working individually or cooperatively. Many
also should be taken into account when pairing train- studies of instructional interventions or evaluations of
ees with mentors (Houser, Lemmons, & Cahill, 2013). activities or programs exclusively addressed content
Schupp, Irwin, Marasco, and Asher (2018) described preparation and familiarity with concepts, without
how new mentoring programs look to take advantage measuring other outcomes that are known to be asso-
of technology to link students with mentors at other ciated with retention, such as aspects of social
institutions, which could also enhance perceptions of well-being.
diversity in the field. Other efforts aim to highlight Some articles went as far as to indicate specifically
the diversity of gender and ethnicity of current that factors such as gender and ethnicity were not of
512 A. MATTHEIS ET AL.

interest and were therefore not included in data col- nuance and inclusion of the impact of social identities
lection. We find this to be an especially notable over- on teaching and learning, additional work of this type
sight in articles that focus on field camp and other can yield important explanatory interpretations.
beyond-the-classroom activities, because of the docu- Even among studies that employed qualitative
mented disparate impacts on women in these spaces methodologies or methods, the acknowledgment of
(Clancy et al., 2014). Other studies included these researcher positionality that is fundamental to most
data in tables that contextualized or introduced the research using these approaches was missing in many
study but did not address their potential impact in publications and reinforced the absence of a focus on
any other way in the study. In several studies, data identity. (Notable exceptions include the identification
tables summarizing participant characteristics indi- of the indigenous heritage of one of the faculty
cated strong gender imbalances, but the authors did researchers in Palmer et al., 2009, and the description
not discuss these numbers other than referring to of the gender and racial identities of the raters
them as reflective of the major or field as a whole and involved in analysis in Stokes et al., 2015.) More
not in terms of contextualizing the study findings. detailed descriptions of participants in qualitative
Similarly, ethics and professional values were rarely studies enhance their potential for generalizability and
mentioned. When present, they were more likely to be clarify how trustworthiness (a corollary of validity and
referenced in terms of discussing climate change, sci- reliability assurances) is considered in research design.
entific integrity, and environmental responsibility In one useful example, McNeal et al. (2014) provided
rather than in terms of educational relationships. contextualizing details such as students’ religious and
In accordance with our conceptual framework political affiliations when considering the analysis of
based on social critical theory, we suggest that consid-
qualitative data collected in their study on student
ering power dynamics will enhance the ability of geo-
engagement, knowledge, and perceptions of climate
science education research to promote equity and
change. Given the social context in which people
inclusion efforts in the field. Although likely a reflec-
come to understand science, these details are import-
tion of the attempt of researchers to establish a degree
ant for readers to identify how one study’s findings
of objectivity in their work, we suggest that including
can inform their own practice. Including additional
such elements would in fact strengthen the ability of
details can also help researchers avoid unintentionally
such work to have impacts beyond the specific setting
reinforcing deficit assumptions about students from
in which they were collected and can more adequately
underrepresented backgrounds and provide more
address the complex nature of teaching and learning
in higher education. This approach is also in keeping detail about how identities can overlap and influence
with the recent stance taken by some major scientific one another.
societies, including the American Geophysical Union
(AGU), and funding agencies such as the National Exemplars of intersectionally inclusive geosciences
Science Foundation (NSF) to define harassment as a education research
form of scientific misconduct (AGU 2017; Marın-
Spiotta, 2018; NSF 2018). We identified six articles (presented here in chrono-
Our review also revealed that, although the use of logical order) published since 2008 in JGE that were
qualitative research methods is growing in GER and most closely aligned with the conceptual framework
several excellent examples exist (see, e.g., Feig, 2010; that guided our inquiry and provide evidence of
Stokes, Levine, & Flessa, 2015), the extant literature promising practices. As the key journal publishing
reflects a relative lack of familiarity with the full work in the emerging field of geosciences education
potential uses of related methodologies. For example, research, JGE can make an important contribution to
at least two studies suggested that qualitative modes the broader geosciences community and other areas of
of analysis were employed because of a lack of suffi- STEM education research. In these studies, researchers
cient data to employ statistical analyses, and another not only focused on the identities of those involved in
noted that the qualitative data the researchers had col- the studies but also examined differences in their
lected “required little analysis.” These statements likely experiences based on these identities. In keeping with
reflect a misinterpretation of the selection of qualita- an intersectional perspective, they acknowledged how
tive research approaches rather than a belief that power is unequally distributed among participants,
quantitative methods are better or more appropriate. communities, and in the geosciences. This awareness
Because qualitative research methods allow for greater is a necessary precursor for the prevention of
 JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 67, 505–517 (2019) 513

harassment because it reveals how some individuals are forced to create new meanings for preexisting cul-
are situated in more vulnerable positions. tural constructs” (Stokes et al., 2015, p. 251).
Unsworth et al. (2012) introduced an article that Hendricks, Atchison, and Feig (2017) also demon-
described a bridge program designed to introduce strated how structural barriers can result in compli-
Native American youth to the geosciences by empha- cated negotiations of self-advocacy for geoscience
sizing the influence of social context, noting, “federal students and faculty with disabilities participating in
government and history is replete with examples of field experiences. Their study included first-person
resource dispossession over Native objections” (p. narratives that documented the perspectives of indi-
384). The authors recognized existing knowledge and viduals with physical, sensory, or cognitive disabilities
assets of Native American communities and drew and illustrated how marginalization based on identi-
connections to the objectives of community-oriented ties outside the norm of a social group can reduce
geoscience. Participants were invited to provide self- learning; they concluded by calling for geoscientists to
descriptions that allowed for greater nuance, and provide opportunities for all learners to build on
within-group as well as between-group differences their strengths.
were referenced.
In describing the Atmospheric Science Program at
Recommendations
Howard University, Morris, Joseph, Smith, and Yu
(2012) discussed how navigation of different levels of Based on our review of the last 10 years’ of geoscien-
institutional hierarchy was necessary to establish and ces education research, we offer three suggestions for
fund the initiative. Student data were disaggregated by future work that could help promote diversity and
race and gender, both faculty and student issues were inclusion efforts in the geosciences. Based on our con-
reported, and the role of minority-serving institutions ceptual framework, we suggest that conducting educa-
in addressing historical discrimination in higher edu- tional research that includes attention to social
cation—especially of African American students—was dynamics in learning environments will create new
also discussed. opportunities to make these spaces safer and more
Ward et al. (2014) described a study that developed welcoming for geoscientists from all backgrounds.
place-based geoscience assessments for the Blackfeet
and Dine (Navajo) communities that focused on Increased focus on the role of individual and col-
changing a practice of measuring conceptual under- lective social identities
standing rather than merely adjusting existing assess- First and most important, geoscience education
ments. Their work also addressed hierarchies by researchers should attend to student and instructor
shifting assumptions of expertise to local community identities and expand understandings of identity in
members rather than geoscientists. study design and data collection. Investigations that
Similarly, Dalbotten et al. (2014) described a cross- explore group dynamics in educational settings should
generational program that connected K–12 students especially attend to multiple identities, intersectional-
with community elders, college students, and faculty ity, and within-group differences. Researchers should
from different institutions to implement a program be careful to avoid conflating chromosomal/biological
focused on holistic approaches to learning. They sex with gender and be clear about how they categor-
applied a conceptual framework that emphasized ize participants. When possible, students should be
trust- and relationship-building between researchers, invited to self-identify, and categories beyond binary
teachers, students, and Native American community assumptions of men and women should be included.
members, and developed STEM pedagogical strategies Stokes et al. (2015), for example, included cisgender
that were culturally situated. as one option among others, and Stofer (2016, p. 234)
Stokes et al. (2015) also consulted existing literature described participants as “presenting male by name
in developing a sociocultural approach to understand and appearance.”
students’ decision making around choosing a geo- When collecting data about student race and/or
science major, discussed research on implicit biases, ethnicity, researchers should avoid reinforcing
and found specific ways that Hispanic students and assumptions of whiteness as standard, and avoid using
women experienced their majors differently than overly generalized categorizations. Several articles we
white students and men. Based on their review of reviewed, for example, reported students in ways such
others’ work, the authors summarized “a traditional as “percentage Caucasian,” “white or nonwhite,” or
geology curriculum loses its effectiveness if learners “Asian/Caucasian/underrepresented.” Labels such as
514 A. MATTHEIS ET AL.

these are less than accurate at best and dehumanizing assessment of the development of a concept inventory
at worst.2 to assess student knowledge of oceanography using
Additionally, disability status and socioeconomic grounded theory analytic approaches for the qualita-
class are important factors to include in studies that tive component and item response theory for quanti-
seek to explain differences in academic experiences. A tative analysis.
study by Hendricks et al. (2017) was one of the only Some researchers also did more to clarify the onto-
articles we found that focused on accessibility as a logical assumptions about students, teachers, and
goal. We echo Carabajal, Marshall and Atchison’s learning that guided their research. Dohaney, Brogt,
(2017) call for additional consideration of accessibility and Kennedy (2015), for example, described starting
and disability status in GER. We also suggest that assumptions involved in their use of cognitive load
more ethnographic research studies would comple- theory to frame research on students’ note-taking
ment existing research in the field and help illuminate skills. Given the increased use of mixed methods in
the experiences of members of minoritized groups in educational research, more attention is needed in this
the geosciences. area to ensure that researchers are accurately address-
ing the epistemological differences between qualitative
Expanded use of qualitative data and and quantitative approaches to inquiry and demon-
epistemologies strating an awareness of the blending that occurs in
Second, we promote the expanded and deeper use of such studies.
qualitative methodologies and critical epistemologies.
We encourage geoscience education researchers with Increased support for collaborative
traditional training in physical and quantitative scien- longitudinal research
ces not to equate descriptive coding of qualitative data Finally, we echo the call of others for more longitu-
with analysis but, rather, to think of it as one step in dinal research studies about the impact of programs
a more extended interpretive process. Qualitative data and courses designed to recruit students from under-
present the potential for deeper interpretation and represented backgrounds to the geosciences (e.g.,
have more explanatory potential with additional ana- Baber et al., 2010; Levine, Gonzalez, Cole, Furhman,
lysis, as presented in studies such as that by Lukes & Le Floch, 2007; Lewis & Baker, 2010). These studies
and McConnell (2014), which included a useful flow
need to focus on more than academic achievement;
chart of their qualitative analysis process, and Canetto
studies should also focus on whether students are
et al. (2012), in which researchers conducted a quali-
retained as majors in geoscience departments, and
tative interview study that sought to explore gender
whether they continue in the field in professional
differences in graduate students in the atmospheric
roles. Much research in GER touches on elements of
sciences. Sexton (2012) similarly provided a more
these questions, and we encourage members of the
detailed explanation of analytic process and clarified
research community to build on the work that has
the steps taken to establish trustworthiness in an
been done. Promising examples include a study that
investigation of students’ conceptions of the roles of
followed a group of young women who participated
rivers in canyon formation.
in a middle-school STEM enrichment program to col-
Two strong examples of mixed methods research
that demonstrated awareness of how multiple student lege to track the impact of early exposure to such
characteristics can impact their experiences are Baber opportunities (Hughes, 2015) and a report in which
et al. (2010), in which researchers developed an inter- White, Reddy, Liu, Williams, and Shoemake (2013)
view protocol designed to prompt students to discuss described “30 years of meteorological education at an
significant events or interpersonal interactions that HBCU,” including statistics about program graduates
were linked to their interest in the geosciences, and a and their professional roles.
discussion in Murray et al. (2012) about how address- Future research in these areas can build on past
ing power dynamics is essential to the appropriate strengths and address existing challenges to increasing
application of focus group methods. Arthurs, Hsia, diversity and inclusion in the field of geosciences edu-
and Schweinle (2015) also clearly described the theor- cation research.
etical assumptions related to their mixed methods
Funding
2
We would particularly like to draw researchers’ attention to the racist
history of the term “Caucasian.” A useful explanatory reference is This work was supported by U.S. National Science
Mukhopadhyay (2008). Foundation ADVANCE Partnership Award #1725879.
 JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCE EDUCATION 67, 505–517 (2019) 515

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