EC3352 Digital Systems Design Lecture Notes 1

EnggTree.
com
EC3352 DSD IIYR/III SEM R2021 MSAJCE/ECE
LECTURE NOTES
EC3352-DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN

II YEAR – III SEMESTER – R2021
UNIT- I BASIC CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION:
In 1854, George Boole, an English mathematician, proposed algebra for
symbolically representing problems in logic so that they may be analyzed
mathematically. The mathematical systems founded upon the work of Boole are called
Boolean algebra in his honor.
The application of a Boolean algebra to certain engineering problems was
introduced in 1938 by C.E. Shannon.
For the formal definition of Boolean algebra, we shall employ the
postulates formulated by E.V. Huntington in 1904.
Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebra:

The postulates of a mathematical system forms the basic assumption from
which it is possible to deduce the theorems, laws and properties of the system.
The most common postulates used to formulate various structures are—
i) Closure:
A set S is closed w.r.t. a binary operator, if for every pair of elements of S, the
binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
The result of each operation with operator (+) or (.) is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 ЄB.
ii) Identity element:

A set S is said to have an identity element w.r.t a binary operation * on S, if
there exists an element e Є S with the property,
e* x = x * e = x
Eg: 0+ 0 = 0 0+1=1+0=1 a) x+ 0= x
1.1=1 1.0=0.1=1 b) x. 1 = x
iii) Commutative law:

A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative if,
x*y=y*x for all x, y Є S
Downloaded from EnggTree.com

EnggTree.com
Eg: 0+ 1 = 1+ 0 = 1 a) x+ y= y+ x
0.1=1.0=0 b) x. y= y. x
iv) Distributive law:

If * and • are two binary operation on a set S, • is said to be distributive over +
whenever,
x . (y+ z) = (x. y) + (x. z)
Similarly, + is said to be distributive over • whenever,
x + (y. z) = (x+ y). (x+ z)
v) Inverse:
A set S having the identity element e, w.r.t. binary operator * is said to have an
inverse, whenever for every x Є S, there exists an element x’ Є S such that,
x. x’ Є e
a) x+ x’ = 1, since 0 + 0’ = 0+ 1 and 1+ 1’ = 1+ 0 = 1
b) x. x’ = 1, since 0 . 0’ = 0. 1 and 1. 1’ = 1. 0 = 0
Summary:
Postulates of Boolean algebra:
POSTULATES (a) (b)

Postulate 2 (Identity) x+0=x x.1=x
Postulate 3 (Commutative) x+ y = y+ x x . y = y. x
Postulate 4 (Distributive) x (y+ z) = xy+ xz x+ yz = (x+ y). (x+ z)
Postulate 5 (Inverse) x+x’ = 1 x. x’ = 0
Basic theorem and properties of Boolean algebra:
Basic Theorems:

EnggTree.com
The theorems, like the postulates are listed in pairs; each relation is the dual of
the one paired with it. The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and
need no proof. The theorems must be proven from the postulates. The proofs of the
theorems with one variable are presented below. At the right is listed the number of the
postulate that justifies each step of the proof.
1) a) x+ x = x
x+ x = (x+ x) . 1------------------- by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= (x+ x). (x+ x’)------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ xx’------------------- 4(b) [ x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)]
= x+ 0------------------- 5(b) [ x. x’ = 0 ]
= x------------------- 2(a) [ x+0 = x ]
b) x. x = x
x. x = (x. x) + 0------------------- by postulate 2(a) [ x+ 0 = x ]
= (x. x) + (x. x’)------------------- 5(b) [ x. x’ = 0]
= x ( x+ x’)------------------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x (1)------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1 ]
= x------------------- 2(b) [ x.1 = x ]
2) a) x+ 1 = 1
x+ 1 = 1 . (x+ 1)------------------- by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= (x+ x’). (x+ 1)------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ x’.1------------------- 4(b) [ x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)]
= x+ x’------------------- 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= 1------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’= 1]
b) x .0 = 0
3) (x’)’ = x
From postulate 5, we have x+ x’ = 1 and x. x’ = 0, which defines the
complement of x. The complement of x’ is x and is also (x’)’.
Therefore, since the complement is unique,
(x’)’ = x.
4) Absorption Theorem:
a) x+ xy = x

EnggTree.com
x+ xy = x. 1 + xy------------------- by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]

= x (1+ y)------------------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x (1)------------------- by theorem 2(a) [x+ 1 = x]
= x.------------------- by postulate 2(a) [x. 1 = x]
b) x. (x+ y) = x
x. (x+ y) = x. x+ x. y------------------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x + x.y------------------- by theorem 1(b) [x. x = x]
= x.------------------- by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
c) x+ x’y = x+ y
x+ x’y = x+ xy+ x’y------------------- by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
= x+ y (x+ x’)------------------- by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x+ y (1)------------------- 5(a) [x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ y------------------- 2(b) [x. 1= x]
d) x. (x’+y) = xy
x. (x’+y) = x.x’+ xy------------------- by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= 0+ xy------------------- 5(b) [x. x’ = 0]
= xy.------------------- 2(a) [x+ 0= x]
Properties of Boolean algebra:

1. Commutative property:
Boolean addition is commutative, given by
x+ y = y+ x
According to this property, the order of the OR operation conducted on the

variables makes no difference.
Boolean algebra is also commutative over multiplication given by,
x. y = y. x
This means that the order of the AND operation conducted on the variables makes
no difference.
2. Associative property:

EnggTree.com
The associative property of addition is given by,
A+ (B+ C) = (A+B) + C
The OR operation of several variables results in the same, regardless of the grouping
of the variables.
The associative law of multiplication is given by,
A. (B. C) = (A.B) . C
It makes no difference in what order the variables are grouped during the AND
operation of several variables.
3. Distributive property:
The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean multiplication, given by
A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)
The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean addition, given by
A. (B+C) = (A.B)+ (A.C)
4. Duality:
It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of

Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.
If the dual of an algebraic expression is desired, we simply interchange OR
and AND operators and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s.
x+ x’ = 1 is x. x’ = 0
Duality is a very important property of Boolean algebra.

EnggTree.com
Summary:
Theorems of Boolean algebra:
THEOREMS (a) (b)

x+x=x x.x=x
1 Idempotent
x+1=1 x.0=0
2 Involution (x’)’ = x
3 x+ xy = x x (x+ y) = x
Absorption
x+ x’y = x+ y x. (x’+ y)= xy
4 Associative x+(y+ z)= (x+ y)+ z x (yz) = (xy) z
5 DeMorgan’s Theorem (x+ y)’= x’. y’ (x. y)’= x’+ y’
DeMorgan’s Theorems:
Two theorems that are an important part of Boolean algebra were proposed by
DeMorgan.
The first theorem states that the complement of a product is equal to the sum of
the complements.
(AB)’ = A’+ B’
The second theorem states that the complement of a sum is equal to the product of
the complements.
(A+ B)’ = A’. B’
Consensus Theorem:
In simplification of Boolean expression, an expression of the form AB+ A’C+ BC,
the term BC is redundant and can be eliminated to form the equivalent expression AB+
A’C. The theorem used for this simplification is known as consensus theorem and is
stated as,
AB+ A’C+ BC = AB+ A’C
The dual form of consensus theorem is stated as,
(A+B) (A’+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A’+C)

EnggTree.com
BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS:
Minimization of Boolean Expressions:
The Boolean expressions can be simplified by applying properties, laws
and theorems of Boolean algebra.
Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals:
1. x (x’+y)
= xx’+ xy [ x. x’= 0 ]
= 0 + xy [ x+ 0 = x ]
= xy.
2. x+ x’y
= x + xy + x’y [ x+ xy= x]
= x+ y (x+x’)
= x+ y (1) [ x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ y.
3. (x+ y) (x+ y’)

= x.x+ xy’+ xy+ yy’
= x+ xy’+ xy+ 0 [ x. x= 0]; [ y. y’= 0]
= x (1+ y’+ y)
= x (1) [ 1+y= 1 ]
= x.
4. xy + x’z + yz.
= xy + x’z + yz( x+ x’) [ x+ x’= 1]
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
Re-arranging,
= xy + xyz + x’z +x’yz
= xy (1+ z) + x’z (1+y) [1+y= 1]
= xy+ x’z.
5. xy+ yz+ y’z

= xy+ z ( y+ y’)
= xy+ z ( 1 ) [ y+ y’ = 1]
= xy+ z.

EnggTree.com
6. (x+ y) (x’+ z) (y+ z)

= (x+ y) (x’+ z) [ dual form of consensus theorem,
(A+ B) (A’+ C) (B+ C) = (A+ B) (A’+ C) ]
7. x’y+ xy+ x’y’

= y ( x’+ x) + x’y’ [ x (y+ z) = xy+ xz ]
= y ( 1 ) + x’y’ [ x+ x’ = 1]
= y+ x’y’ [ x+ x’y’ = x+ y’ ]
= y+ x’.
8. x+ xy’+ x’y
= x (1+ y’)+ x’y
= x (1) + x’y [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= x+ x’y [ x+ x’y = x+ y ]
= x+ y.
9. AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB + C)

= AB + (AC)' + AAB'BC + AB'CC
= AB + (AC)' + 0+ AB'CC [B.B' = 0]
= AB + (AC)' + AB'C [C.C = 1]
= AB + A' + C' +AB'C [(AC)' = A' + C']
= AB+A’+C'+AB' [C’ + AB’C = C’ + AB’]
= A' + B+ C’+ AB’ [A’+AB=A’+B]
Re- arranging,
=A'+AB’+B+C' [A’+AB=A’+B]
=A'+B’+B+C' [B’+B=1]
= A'+1+C’ [ A+ 1=1]
=1
10. (x’+ y) (x+ y)

= x’.x+ x’y+ yx+ y.y
= 0+ x’y+ xy+ y [ x.x’= 0]; [ x. x= x]
= y ( x’+ x+ 1)
= y( 1 ) [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= y.
11. xy+ xyz+ xy (w+ z)

= xy ( 1+ z+ w+ z)

EnggTree.com
= xy ( 1 ) [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= xy.
12. xy+ xyz+ xyz’+ x’yz
= xy ( 1+ z+ z’)+ x’yz
= xy ( 1 ) + x’yz [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= xy+ x’yz
= y ( x+ x’z ) [ x+ x’y = x+ y]
= y ( x+ z ).
13. xyz+ xy’z+ xyz’

= xy (z+ z’) + xy’z
= xy+ xy’z [ x+ x’= 1]
= x(y+ y’z) [ x+ x’y = x+ y]
= x(y+ z)
14. x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xy’z’+ xyz’

= x’z’ (y’+ y)+ xz’ (y’+ y)
= x’z’+ xz’ [ x+ x’= 1]
= z’ (x’+ x)
= z’ [ x+ x’= 1]
15. w’xyz’+ xyz’+ xy’z’+ xy’z

= xyz’ (w’+ 1) + xy’z’+ xy’z
= xyz’+ xy’z’+ xy’z [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= xz’ (y+ y’) + xy’z
= xz’+ xy’z [ x+ x’= 1]
= x (z‘+ y’z)
= x (z’+ y’). [ x’+ xy’ = x’+ y’]
16. w’xy’z+ w’xyz+ wxz

= w’xz (y’+ y)+ wxz
= w’xz (1)+ wxz [ x+ x’= 1]
= w’xz+ wxz
= xz (w’+ w)
= xz. [ x+ x’= 1]
17. x’y’z’+ x’y’z+ x’yz’+ x’yz+ xy’z’

= x’y’ (z’+z) + x’y (z’+z)+ xy’z’
= x’ y’ (1) + x’y (1)+ xy’z’ [ x+ x’= 1]
= x’y’ + x’y + xy’z’
= x’(y’+y) + xy’z’

EnggTree.com
= x’ (1) + xy’z’ [ x+ x’= 1]

= x’ + xy’z’
= x’+ y’z’. [ x’+ xy’ = x’+ y’]
18. w’y (w’xz)’ + w’xy’z’ + wx’y
= w’y (w’’+ x’+ z’) + w’xy’z’ + wx’y
= w’y (w+ x’+ z’) + w’xy’z’ + wx’y [ x’’ = x]
= w’yw+ w’y x’+ w’y z’ + w’xy’z’ + wx’y
= 0 + w’x’y+ w’y z’ + w’xy’z’ + wx’y [x. x’= 0]
Re-arranging,
= w’x’y+ wx’y + w’y z’ + w’xy’z’
= x’y (w’+ w) + w’z’ (y+ xy’)
= x’y (1) + w’z’ (y+ xy’) [ x+ x’= 1]
= x’y+ w’z’ (y+x) [ x+ x’y = x+ y]
19. xy+ x (y+ z) + y (y+ z)

= xy+ xy+ xz+ yy+ yz
= xy+ xz+ y+ yz [x+ x= x]; [x. x= x]
= xy+ xz+ y [x+ xy= x]
= y+ xz [x+ xy= x]
20. [ xy’ (z+ wy) + x’y’] z

= [ xy’z+ xy’wy+ x’y’] z
= [ xy’z+ 0+ x’y’] z [x. x’= 0]
= xy’z. z+ x’y’z
= xy’z+ x’y’z [x. x= x]
= y’z (x+ x’)
= y’z (1) [ x+ x’= 1]
= y’z.
21. x’yz+ xy’z’+ x’y’z’+ xy’z+ xyz

= yz (x’+x) + xy’z’+ x’y’z’+ xy’z
= yz (1) + y’z’ (x+ x’) + xy’z [ x+ x’= 1]
= yz+ y’z’ (1) + xy’z [ x+ x’= 1]
= yz+ y’z’+ xy’z
= yz+ y’ (z’+ xz)
= yz+ y’ (z’+ x) [ x’+ xy = x’+ y]
= yz+ y’z’+ xy’
22. [(xy)’+ x’+ xy]’

= [ x’+ y’+ x’+ xy]’
= [ x’+ y’+ xy]’ [x+ x= x]
10

EnggTree.com
= [x’+ y’+ x]’ [ x’+ xy = x’+ y]

= [y’+ 1]’ [ x+ x’= 1]
= [ 1 ]’ [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= 0.
23. [ xy+ xz]’+ x’y’z
= (xy)’. (xz)’+ x’y’z
= (x’+ y’). (x’+ z’)+ x’y’z
= x’x’+ x’z’+ x’y’+ y’z’+ x’y’z
= x’+ x’z’+ x’y’+ y’z’+ x’y’z[x+ x= x]
= x’+ x’z’+ x’y’+ y’ [z’+ x’z]
= x’+ x’z’+ x’y’+ y’ [z’+ x’] [ x’+ xy = x’+ y]
= x’+ x’y’+ y’ [z’+ x’] [x+ xy = x]
= x’+ x’y’+ y’z’+ x’y’
= x’+ y’z’+ x’y’ [x+ xy = x]
= x’+ y’z’. [x+ xy = x]
24. xy+ xy’( x’z’)’

= xy+ xy’ (x’’+ z’’)
= xy+ xy’ (x+ z) [x’’ = x]
= xy+ xy’x+ xy’z
= xy+ xy’+ xy’z [x. x= x]
= xy+ xy’ [1+ z]
= xy+ xy’ [1] [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= xy+ xy’
= x( y+ y’)
= x [1] [ x+ x’= 1]
= x.
25. [( xy’+ xyz)’+ x (y+ xy’)]’

= [ x( y’+yz)’+ x (y+ xy’)]’
= [ x( y’+z)’+ x (y+ x)]’ [ x’+ xy = x’+ y]; [ x+ x’y = x+ y]
= [ x( y’+z)’+ xy+ x.x)]’
= [ (xy’+xz)’+ xy+ x)]’ [x. x= x]
= [ ( xy’+xz)’+ x)]’ [x+ xy = x]
= [ (xy’)’. (xz)’+ x]’
= [ (x’+y’’). (x’+z’)+ x]’
= [ (x’+y). (x’+z’)+ x]’ [x’’ = x]
= [ (x’+ yz’)+ x]’ [ (x+ y) (x+ z)= x+ yz]
= [ x’+ yz’+ x]’
= [ 1+ yz’]’ [ x+ x’= 1]
= [1]’ [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= 0.
11

EnggTree.com
26. [ (xy+ z’) ((x+ y)’+z) ]’

= [ (xy+ z’) ((x’. y’)+z) ]’
= [ xy. x’y’+ xy. z+ z’. x’y’+ z’. z]’
= [ 0+ xyz+ x’y’z’+ 0]’ [x. x’= 0]
= [ xyz+ x’y’z’ ]’
= (xyz)’. ( x’y’z’)’
= ( x’+ y’+ z’). (x’’+ y’’+ z’’)
= ( x’+ y’+ z’). (x+ y+ z). [x’’ = x]
27. (x+ y) (x’z’+ z) (y’+ xz)’

= (x+ y) (x’z’+ z) (y’’. (xz)’)
= (x+ y) (x’+ z) (y. (xz)’) [ x+ x’y = x+ y]; [x’’ = x]
= (x+ y) (x’+ z) (y. (x’+z’))
= ( x.x’+ xz+ x’y+ yz) (x’y+ yz’)
= ( 0+ xz+ x’y+ yz) (x’y+ yz’)
= (xz+ x’y+ yz) (x’y+ yz’)
= xz. x’y+ xz. yz’+ x’y. x’y+ x’y. yz’+ yz. x’y+ yz. yz’
= 0+ 0+ x’y+ x’yz’+ x’yz+ 0 [x. x’= 0]; [x. x= x]
= x’y+ x’yz’+ x’yz
= x’y (1+ z’+ z)
= x’y (1) [ 1+ x = 1 ]
= x’y.
28. Y= ∑m (1, 3, 5, 7)
= x’y’z+ x’yz+ xy’z+ xyz
= x’z( y’+y) + xz( y’+y)
= x’z (1)+ xz (1) [ x+ x’= 1]
= x’z+ xz
= z( x’+ x)
= z (1) [ x+ x’= 1]
= z.
12

EnggTree.com
COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION:
The complement of a function F is F’ and is obtained from an interchange of 0’s
for 1’s and 1’s for 0’s in the value of F. The complement of a function may be derived
algebraically through DeMorgan’s theorem.
DeMorgan’s theorems for any number of variables resemble in form the two-
variable case and can be derived by successive substitutions similar to the method used
in the preceding derivation. These theorems can be generalized as –
(A+B+C+D+…+F)’=A’B’C’D’…F’
(A B C D … F)’ = A’+B’+ C’+ D’+ … +F’.
Find the complement of the following functions,
1. F= x’yz’+ x’y’z
F’= (x’yz’+ x’y’z)’
= (x”+ y’+ z”) . (x”+ y”+z’)
= (x+ y’+ z). (x+ y+ z’).
2. F= (xy + y’z + xz) x.
F’ = [(xy + y’z + xz) x]’

= (xy + y’z + xz)’ + x’
= [(xy)’ . (y’z)’. (xz)’] + x’
= [(x’+y’). (y+z’). (x’+z’)] + x’
= [(x’y+ x’z’+ 0+ y’z’) ( x’+z’)] + x’
= x’x’y+ x’x’z’+ x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ x’z’z’+ y’z’z’+ x’
= x’y+ x’z’+ x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ x’z’+ y’z’+ x’ [x+ x = x], [x. x = x]
= x’y+ x’z’+ x’z’ (y’+ y) + y’z’+ x’ [x+ x’= 1]
= x’y+ x’z’+ x’z’ (1) + y’z’+ x’
= x’y+ x’z’+ y’z’+ x’
= x’y+ x’+ x’z’+ y’z’
= x’(y+1) + x’z+ y’z’ [y+1= 1]
= x’ (1+z) + y’z’ [y+1= 1]
= x’+ y’z’
13

EnggTree.com
3. F= x (y’z’+ yz)
F’= [x (y’z’+ yz)]’
= x’+ (y’z’+ yz)’
= x’+ (y’z’)’. (yz)’
= x’+ (y”+ z”) . (y’+ z’)
= x’+ (y+ z) . (y’+ z’).
4. F= xy’+ x’y
F’= (xy’+ x’y)’
= (xy’)’. (x’y)’
= (x’+y) (x+y’)
= x’x+ x’y’+ yx+ yy’
= x’y’+ xy.
5. f = wx’y + xy’+ wxz

f’ = (wx’y + xy’+ wxz)’
= (wx’y)’ (xy’)’ (wxz)’
= (w’+x+ y’) (x’+ y) (w’+ x’+ z’)
= (w’x’+ w’y+ xx’+ xy+ x’y’+ yy’) (w’+ x’+ z’)
= (w’x’+ w’y+ xy+ x’y’) (w’+ x’+ z’)
= w’x’. w’+ w’y. w’+ xy. w’+ x’y’. w’+ w’x’. x’+w’y. x’+ xy. x’+ x’y’. x’+
w’x’. z’+ w’y. z’+ xy. z’+ x’y’.z’
= w’x’+ w’y+ w’xy+ w’x’y’+ w’x’+ w’x’y+ 0 + x’y’+ w’x’z’+ w’yz’+ xyz’+ x’y’z’
= w’x’+ w’y+ w’xy+ w’x’y’+ w’x’y+ x’y’+ w’x’z’+ w’yz’+ xyz’+ x’y’z’
= w’x’( 1+ y’+ y+ z’)+ w’y( 1+ x+ z’)+ x’y’(1+ z’)+ xyz’
= w’x’(1)+ w’y(1)+ x’y’(1)+ xyz’
= w’x’+ w’y+ x’y’+ xyz’
14

EnggTree.com
CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS:
Minterms and Maxterms:

A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x) or in its complement
form (x’). Now either two binary variables x and y combined with an AND operation.
Since each variable may appear in either form, there are four possible combinations:
x’y’, x’y, xy’ and xy
Each of these four AND terms is called a ‘minterm’.
In a similar fashion, when two binary variables x and y combined with an
OR operation, there are four possible combinations:
x’+ y’, x’+ y, x+ y’ and x+ y
Each of these four OR terms is called a ‘maxterm’.
The minterms and maxterms of a 3- variable function can be represented as

in table below.
Variables Minterms Maxterms
x y z mi Mi
0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+ y+ z= M0
0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+ y+ z’= M1
0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+ y’+ z= M2
0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+ y’+ z’= M3
1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+ y+ z= M4
1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+ y+ z’= M5
1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+ y’+ z= M6
1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+ y’+ z’= M7
Sum of Minterm: (Sum of Products)

The logical sum of two or more logical product terms is called sum of products
expression. It is logically an OR operation of AND operated variables such as:
15

EnggTree.com
Sum of Maxterm: (Product of Sums)

A product of sums expression is a logical product of two or more logical sum
terms. It is basically an AND operation of OR operated variables such as,
Canonical Sum of product expression:

If each term in SOP form contains all the literals then the SOP is known as
standard (or) canonical SOP form. Each individual term in standard SOP form is called
minterm canonical form.
F (A, B, C) = AB’C+ ABC+ ABC’
Steps to convert general SOP to standard SOP form:

1. Find the missing literals in each product term if any.
2. AND each product term having missing literals by ORing the literal and
its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in
the product term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated product terms if any.
Obtain the canonical SOP form of the function:

1. Y(A, B) = A+ B
= A. (B+ B’)+ B (A+ A’)
= AB+ AB’+ AB+ A’B
= AB+ AB’+ A’B.
2. Y (A, B, C) = A+ ABC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+ ABC
= (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC
= ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’+ ABC
= ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’
= m7+ m6+ m5+ m4
16

EnggTree.com
= ∑m (4, 5, 6, 7).
3. Y(A,B,C)=A+BC
= A. (B+ B’). (C+ C’)+(A+ A’). BC
= (AB+ AB’). (C+ C’)+ ABC+ A’BC
= ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’+ ABC+ A’BC
= ABC+ ABC’+ AB’C+ AB’C’+ A’BC
= m7+ m6+ m5+ m4+ m3
= ∑m (3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
4. Y (A, B, C) = AC+ AB+ BC

= AC (B+ B’)+ AB (C+ C’)+ BC (A+ A’)
= ABC+ AB’C+ ABC+ ABC’+ ABC+ A’BC
= ABC+ AB’C+ ABC’+ A’BC
= ∑m (3, 5, 6, 7).
5. Y (A, B, C, D) = AB+ ACD

= AB (C+ C’) (D+ D’) + ACD (B+ B’)
= (ABC+ ABC’) (D+ D’) + ABCD+ AB’CD
= ABCD+ ABCD’+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’+ ABCD+ AB’CD
= ABCD+ ABCD’+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’+ AB’CD.
Canonical Product of sum expression:

If each term in POS form contains all literals then the POS is known as standard
(or) Canonical POS form. Each individual term in standard POS form is called Maxterm
canonical form.
F (A, B, C) = (A+ B+ C). (A+ B’+ C). (A+ B+ C’)
F (x, y, z) = (x+ y’+ z’). (x’+ y+ z). (x+ y+ z)
Steps to convert general POS to standard POS form:
1. Find the missing literals in each sum term if any.

2. OR each sum term having missing literals by ANDing the literal and
its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and reorder the literals in
the sum term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated sum terms if any.
17

EnggTree.com
Obtain the canonical POS expression of the functions:

1. Y= A+ B’C
= (A+ B’) (A+ C) [ A+ BC = (A+B) (A+C)]
= (A+ B’+ C.C’) (A+ C+ B.B’)
= (A+ B’+C) (A+ B’+C’) (A+ B+ C) (A+ B’+ C)
= (A+ B’+C). (A+ B’+C’). (A+ B+ C)
= M2. M3. M0
= ∏M (0, 2, 3)
2. Y= (A+B) (B+C) (A+C)

= (A+B+ C.C’) (B+ C+ A.A’) (A+C+B.B’)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B’+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A’+B+C) (A+B’+C)
= M0. M1. M4. M 2
= ∏M (0, 1, 2, 4)
3. Y= A. (B+ C+ A)
= (A+ B.B’+ C.C’). (A+ B+ C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A+ B’+C’) (A+B+C)
= (A+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C) (A+ B’+C’)
= M0. M1. M2. M3
= ∏M (0, 1, 2, 3)
4. Y= (A+B’) (B+C) (A+C’)
= (A+B’+C.C’) (B+C+ A.A’) (A+C’+ B.B’)
= (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C’) (A+B’+C’)
= (A+B’+C) (A+B’+C’) (A+B+C) (A’+B+C) (A+B+C’)
= M2. M3. M0. M4. M1
= ∏M (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
5. Y= xy+ x’z
= (xy+ x’) (xy+ z)Using distributive law, convert the function into OR terms.
= (x+x’) (y+x’) (x+z) (y+z) [x+ x’=1]
= (x’+y) (x+z) (y+z)
= (x’+y+ z.z’) (x+z+y.y’) (y+z+ x.x’)
= (x’+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z’) (x+ y+ z) (x+ y’+ z) (x+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z)
= (x’+ y+ z) (x’+ y+ z’) (x+ y+ z) (x+ y’+ z)
18

EnggTree.com
= M4. M5. M0.M2

= ∏M (0, 2, 4, 5).
KARNAUGH MAP MINIMIZATION:

The simplification of the functions using Boolean laws and theorems becomes
complex with the increase in the number of variables and terms. The map method, first
proposed by Veitch and slightly improvised by Karnaugh, provides a simple,
straightforward procedure for the simplification of Boolean functions. The method is
called Veitch diagram or Karnaugh map, which may be regarded as a pictorial
representation of a truth table.
The Karnaugh map technique provides a systematic method for simplifying and
manipulation of Boolean expressions. A K-map is a diagram made up of squares, with
each square representing one minterm of the function that is to be minimized. For n
variables on a Karnaugh map there are 2n numbers of squares. Each square or cell
represents one of the minterms. It can be drawn directly from either minterm (sum-of-
products) or maxterm (product-of-sums) Boolean expressions.
Two- Variable, Three Variable and Four Variable Maps

Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four and five
variables. The number of cells in a Karnaugh map is equal to the total number of
possible input variable combinations as is the number of rows in a truth table. For three
variables, the number of cells is 23 = 8. For four variables, the number of cells is 24 = 16.
19

EnggTree.com
Product terms are assigned to the cells of a K-map by labeling each row and each
column of a map with a variable, with its complement or with a combination of variables
& complements. The below figure shows the way to label the rows & columns of a 1, 2, 3
and 4- variable maps and the product terms corresponding to each cell.
It is important to note that when we move from one cell to the next along any row
or from one cell to the next along any column, one and only one variable in the product
term changes (to a complement or to an uncomplemented form). Irrespective of number
of variables the labels along each row and column must conform to a single change.
Hence gray code is used to label the rows and columns of K-map as shown ow.
Grouping cells for Simplification:
The grouping is nothing but combining terms in adjacent cells. The simplification
is achieved by grouping adjacent 1’s or 0’s in groups of 2i, where i = 1, 2, …, n and n is
the number of variables. When adjacent 1’s are grouped then we get result in the sum of
product form; otherwise we get result in the product of sum form.
20

EnggTree.com
Grouping Two Adjacent 1’s: (Pair)

In a Karnaugh map we can group two adjacent 1’s. The resultant group is called
Pair.
Examples of Pairs
Grouping Four Adjacent 1’s: (Quad)
In a Karnaugh map we can group four adjacent 1’s. The resultant group is called
Quad. Fig (a) shows the four 1’s are horizontally adjacent and Fig (b) shows they are
vertically adjacent. Fig (c) contains four 1’s in a square, and they are considered adjacent
to each other.
21

EnggTree.com
Examples of Quads
The four 1’s in fig (d) and fig (e) are also adjacent, as are those in fig (f) because,
the top and bottom rows are considered to be adjacent to each other and the leftmost
and rightmost columns are also adjacent to each other.
Grouping Eight Adjacent 1’s: (Octet)

In a Karnaugh map we can group eight adjacent 1’s. The resultant group is called Octet.
Simplification of Sum of Products Expressions: (Minimal Sums)
The generalized procedure to simplify Boolean expressions as follows:

1. Plot the K-map and place 1’s in those cells corresponding to the 1’s in the sum
of product expression. Place 0’s in the other cells.
2. Check the K-map for adjacent 1’s and encircle those 1’s which are not adjacent
to any other 1’s. These are called isolated 1’s.
3. Check for those 1’s which are adjacent to only one other 1 and encircle such
pairs.
22

EnggTree.com
4. Check for quads and octets of adjacent 1’s even if it contains some 1’s that have
already been encircled. While doing this make sure that there are minimum
number of groups.
5. Combine any pairs necessary to include any 1’s that have not yet been
grouped.
6. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all the groups.
Three- Variable Map:
1. Simplify the Boolean expression,

F(x, y, z) = ∑m (3, 4, 6, 7).
Soln:
F = yz+ xz’
2. F(x, y, z) = ∑m (0, 2, 4, 5, 6).

Soln:
F = z’+ xy’
3. F=A’C+A’B+AB’C+BC
Soln:
= A’C (B+ B’) + A’B (C+ C’) + AB’C + BC (A+ A’)
= A’BC+ A’B’C + A’BC + A’BC’ + AB’C + ABC + A’BC
= A’BC+ A’B’C + A’BC’ + AB’C + ABC
= m3+ m1+ m2+ m5+ m7
23

EnggTree.com
= ∑ m (1, 2, 3, 5, 7)
F=C+A’B
4. AB’C + A’B’C + A’BC + AB’C’ + A’B’C’

Soln:
= m5 + m1 + m3 + m4 + m0
= ∑ m (0, 1, 3, 4, 5)
F=A’C+B’
Four - Variable Map:
1. Simplify the Boolean expression,

Y = A’BC’D’ + A’BC’D + ABC’D’ + ABC’D + AB’C’D + A’B’CD’
Soln:
Therefore, Y= A’B’CD’+ AC’D+ BC’
24

EnggTree.com
2. F (w, x, y, z) = ∑ m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)

Soln:
Therefore,
F= y’+ w’z’+ xz’
3. F= A’B’C’+ B’CD’+ A’BCD’+ AB’C’
= A’B’C’ (D+ D’) + B’CD’ (A+ A’) + A’BCD’+ AB’C’ (D+ D’)
= A’B’C’D+ A’B’C’D’+ AB’CD’+ A’B’CD’+ A’BCD’+ AB’C’D+ AB’C’D’
= m1+ m0+ m10+ m2+ m6+ m9+ m8
= ∑ m (0, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10)
Therefore,
F= B’D’+ B’C’+ A’CD’.
25

EnggTree.com
4. Y= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’C+ AB

= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’C (D+D’)+ AB (C+C’) (D+D’)
= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB’CD’+ (ABC+ ABC’) (D+ D’)
= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB’CD’+ ABCD+ ABCD’+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’
= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’CD+ AB’CD’+ ABCD’+ ABC’D+ ABC’D’
= m15+ m8+ m11+ m10+ m14+ m13+ m12
= ∑ m (8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
Therefore,
Y= AB+ AC+ AD’.
5. Y (A, B, C, D)= ∑ m (7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
Therefore,
Y= AB+ AC+ AD+BCD.
26

EnggTree.com
6. Y= A’B’C’D+ A’BC’D+ A’BCD+ A’BCD’+ ABC’D+ ABCD+ AB’CD

= m1+ m5+ m7+ m6+ m13+ m15+ m11
= ∑ m (1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 15)
In the above K-map, the cells 5, 7, 13 and 15 can be grouped to form a quad as
indicated by the dotted lines. In order to group the remaining 1’s, four pairs have to be
formed. However, all the four 1’s covered by the quad are also covered by the pairs. So,
the quad in the above k-map is redundant.
Therefore, the simplified expression will be,
Y = A’C’D+ A’BC+ ABD+ ACD.
7. Y= ∑ m (1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15)
Therefore, Y= A’C’D+ ABC’+ ACD+ AB’C.
27

EnggTree.com
8. Y= A’B’CD’+ ABCD’+ AB’CD’+ AB’CD+ AB’C’D’+ ABC’D’+ A’B’CD+ A’B’C’D’
Therefore, Y= AD’+ B’C+ B’D’
9. F (A, B, C, D) = ∑ m (0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10)
Therefore, F= A’C’D’+ AB’D’+ B’C’.
Simplification of Sum of Products Expressions: (Minimal Sums)
1. Y= (A+ B+ C’) (A+ B’+ C’) (A’+ B’+ C’) (A’+ B+ C) (A+ B+ C)
= M1. M3. M7. M4. M0
=∏ M (0, 1, 3, 4, 7)
= ∑ m (2, 5, 6)
28

EnggTree.com
Y’ = B’C’+ A’C+ BC.

Y= Y” = (B’C’+ A’C+ BC)’
= (B’C’)’. (A’C)’. (BC)’
= (B”+ C”). (A”+C’). (B’+ C’)
Y = (B+ C). (A+C’). (B’+ C’)
2. Y= (A’+ B’+ C+ D) (A’+ B’+ C’+ D) (A’+ B’+ C’+ D’) (A’+ B+ C+ D) (A+ B’+ C’+ D)
(A+ B’+ C’+ D’) (A+ B+ C+ D) (A’+ B’+ C+ D’)
= M12. M14. M15. M8. M6. M7. M0. M13
= ∏M (0, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15)
Y’ = B’C’D’+ AB+ BC
Y= Y” = (B’C’D’+ AB+ BC)’
= (B’C’D’)’. (AB)’. (BC)’
= (B”+ C”+D”). (A’+B’). (B’+ C’)
= (B+ C+ D). (A’+ B’). (B’+ C’)
Therefore, Y= (B+ C+ D). (A’+ B’). (B’+ C’)
3. F(A, B, C, D)= ∏M (0, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15)
Y’ = A’B’D’+ A’B’C+ ABD+ AC’
29

EnggTree.com
Y= Y” = (A’B’D’+ A’B’C+ ABD+ AC’)’

= (A’B’D’)’. (A’B’C)’. (ABD)’. (AC’)’
= (A”+ B”+ D”). (A”+ B”+C’). (A’+ B’+ D’). (A’+ C”)
= (A+ B+ D). (A+ B+ C’). (A’+ B’+ D’). (A’+ C)
Therefore, Y= (A+ B+ D). (A+ B+ C’). (A’+ B’+ D’). (A’+ C)
4. F(A, B, C, D)= ∑m (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10)

= ∏M (3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
Y’ = BD’+ CD+ AB
Y= Y” = (BD’+ CD+ AB)’

= (BD’)’. (CD)’. (AB)’
= (B’+ D”). (C’+ D’). (A’+ B’)
= (B’+ D). (C’+ D’). (A’+ B’)
Therefore, Y= (B’+ D). (C’+ D’). (A’+ B’)
Don’t care Conditions:

A don’t care minterm is a combination of variables whose logical value is not
specified. When choosing adjacent squares to simplify the function in a map, the don’t
care minterms may be assumed to be either 0 or 1. When simplifying the function, we
can choose to include each don’t care minterm with either the 1’s or the 0’s, depending
on which combination gives the simplest expression.
1. F (x, y, z) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 4, 5)+ ∑d (3, 6, 7)
30

EnggTree.com
F (x, y, z) = 1
2. F (w, x, y, z) = ∑m (1, 3, 7, 11, 15)+ ∑d (0, 2, 5)
F (w, x, y, z) = w’x’+ yz
3. F (w, x, y, z) = ∑m (0, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12)+ ∑d (2, 5, 13)
F (w, x, y, z) = w’xz+ wy’+ x’z’.

4. F (w, x, y, z) = ∑m (0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10)+ ∑d (2, 11)
Soln:
F (w, x, y, z) = wx’+ x’y’+ w’y’z’.
31

EnggTree.com
5. F( A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 6, 8, 13, 14)+ ∑d (2, 4, 10)

Soln:
F( A, B, C, D) = CD’+ B’D’+ A’B’C’D’.
Five- Variable Maps:

A 5- variable K- map requires 25= 32 cells, but adjacent cells are difficult to
identify on a single 32-cell map. Therefore, two 16 cell K-maps are used.
If the variables are A, B, C, D and E, two identical 16- cell maps containing B, C, D
and E can be constructed. One map is used for A and other for A’.
In order to identify the adjacent grouping in the 5- variable map, we must
imagine the two maps superimposed on one another ie., every cell in one map is
adjacent to the corresponding cell in the other map, because only one variable changes
between such corresponding cells.
Five- Variable Karnaugh map (Layer Structure)
32

EnggTree.com
Thus, every row on one map is adjacent to the corresponding row (the one
occupying the same position) on the other map, as are corresponding columns. Also,
the rightmost and leftmost columns within each 16- cell map are adjacent, just as
they are in any 16- cell map, as are the top and bottom rows.
Typical subcubes on a five-variable map

However, the rightmost column of the map is not adjacent to the leftmost
column of the other map.
1. Simplify the Boolean function

F (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑m (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 21, 25, 27, 29, 31)
Soln:
F (A, B, C, D, E) = A’B’E’+ BE+ AD’E
33

EnggTree.com
2. F (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑m (0, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31)
Soln:
F (A, B, C, D, E) = C’D’E’+ A’B’CD’E+ A’B’CDE’+ AB’D’E’+ ABE+ BC’
3. F (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑m ( 1, 4, 8, 10, 11, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26)+∑d (0, 12, 16, 17)
Soln:
F (A, B, C, D, E) = B’C’D’+ A’D’E’+ BC’E’+ A’BC’D+ AC’D’+ AB’CE’
34

EnggTree.com
4. F (A, B, C, D, E) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 28, 29, 31)

Soln:
F (A, B, C, D, E) = BCD’E’+ ABCE+ A’B’C’E’+ A’C’D’E+ A’B’CD
5. F (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) = ∑m (2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31 )
Soln:
F (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) = x2x3+ x3x4x5+ x1’x2’x4+ x1’x3’x4x5
35

EnggTree.com
6. F (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31 )+ ∑d (4, 5)
Soln:
F (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) = x2x3’x4’+ x2x3x4x5’+ x3’x4’x5+ x1x2x4+ x1’x2’x3x5’+ x1’x2’x3’x4
LOGIC GATES
BASIC LOGIC GATES:
Logic gates are electronic circuits that can be used to implement the most
elementary logic expressions, also known as Boolean expressions. The logic gate is the
most basic building block of combinational logic.
There are three basic logic gates, namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT
gate. Other logic gates that are derived from these basic gates are the NAND gate, the
NOR gate, the EXCLUSIVE- OR gate and the EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate.
GATE SYMBOL OPERATION TRUTH TABLE
NOT NOT gate (Invertion), produces

an inverted output pulse for a
(7404) given input pulse.
AND gate performs logical

multiplication. The output is
AND HIGH only when all the inputs
(7408) are HIGH. When any of the
inputs are low, the output is
LOW.
36

EnggTree.com
OR gate performs logical

addition. It produces a HIGH
OR on the output when any of the
(7432) inputs are HIGH. The output is
LOW only when all inputs are
LOW.
It is a universal gate. When any

NAND of the inputs are LOW, the
output will be HIGH. LOW
(7400) output occurs only when all
inputs are HIGH.
It is a universal gate. LOW

NOR output occurs when any of its
input is HIGH. When all its
(7402) inputs are LOW, the output is
HIGH.
EX- OR The output is HIGH only when

(7486) odd number of inputs is HIGH.
The output is HIGH only when

EX- NOR
even number of inputs is HIGH.
Or when all inputs are zeros.
UNIVERSAL GATES:
The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates, since any logic
function can be implemented using NAND or NOR gates. This is illustrated in
the following sections.
a) NAND Gate:
The NAND gate can be used to generate the NOT function, the AND function,
37

EnggTree.com
the OR function and the NOR function.

i) NOT function:
By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input.
NOT function using NAND gate
ii) AND function:

By simply inverting output of the NAND gate. i.e.,
AND function using NAND gates
iii) OR function:
By simply inverting inputs of the NAND gate. i.e.,
OR function using NAND gates
38

EnggTree.com
Bubble at the input of NAND gate indicates inverted input.
iv)NOR function:
By inverting inputs and outputs of the NAND gate.
NOR function using NAND gates
b) NOR Gate:
Similar to NAND gate, the NOR gate is also a universal gate, since it can be used
to generate the NOT, AND, OR and NAND functions.
i) NOT function:
By connecting all the inputs together and creating a single common input.
NOT function using NOR gates
39

EnggTree.com
ii) OR function:
By simply inverting output of the NOR gate. i.e.,
OR function using NOR gates
iii) AND function:

By simply inverting inputs of the NOR gate. i.e.,
AND function using NOR gates
Bubble at the input of NOR gate indicates inverted input.
Truth table
40

EnggTree.com
iv) NAND Function:

By inverting inputs and outputs of the NOR gate.
NAND function using NOR gates
Conversion of AND/OR/NOT to NAND/NOR:

1. Draw AND/OR logic.
2. If NAND hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each
AND gate and bubbles on input side to all OR gates.
If NOR hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the output of each OR
gate and bubbles on input side to all AND gates.
3. Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a bubble in step 2.
4. Replace bubbled OR by NAND and bubbled AND by NOR.
5. Eliminate double inversions.
1. Implement Boolean expression using NAND gates:
Original Circuit:
41

EnggTree.com
Soln:
NAND Circuit:
42

EnggTree.com
2. Implement Boolean expression for EX-OR gate using NAND gates.

Soln:
gate.
Adding bubbles on the output of each AND gates and on the inputs of each OR
Adding an inverter on each line that received bubble,
Eliminating double inversion,
43

EnggTree.com
Replacing inverter and bubbled OR with NAND, we have
44

EnggTree.com
EC3352 DSD II YR III SEM MSAJCE/ECE
UNIT II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS:

INTRODUCTION:
The digital system consists of two types of circuits, namely

(i) Combinational circuits
(ii) Sequential circuits
Combinational circuit consists of logic gates whose output at any time is

determined from the present combination of inputs. The logic gate is the most basic
building block of combinational logic. The logical function performed by a combinational
circuit is fully defined by a set of Boolean expressions.
Sequential logic circuit comprises both logic gates and the state of storage
elements such as flip-flops. As a consequence, the output of a sequential circuit depends
not only on present value of inputs but also on the past state of inputs.
In the previous chapter, we have discussed binary numbers, codes, Boolean
algebra and simplification of Boolean function and logic gates. In this chapter, formulation
and analysis of various systematic designs of combinational circuits will be discussed.
A combinational circuit consists of input variables, logic gates, and output

variables. The logic gates accept signals from inputs and output signals are generated
according to the logic circuits employed in it. Binary information from the given data
transforms to desired output data in this process. Both input and output are obviously the
binary signals, i.e., both the input and output signals are of two possible states, logic1
and logic 0.
Block diagram of a combinational logic circuit
For n number of input variables to a combinational circuit, 2n possible

combinations of binary input states are possible. For each possible combination, there is
one and only one possible output combination. A combinational logic circuit can be
described by m Boolean functions and each output can be expressed in terms of n input
variables.

EnggTree.com
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Any combinational circuit can be designed by the following steps of design procedure.
1. The problem is stated.
2. Identify the input and output variables.
3. The input and output variables are assigned letter symbols.
4. Construction of a truth table to meet input -output requirements.
5. Writing Boolean expressions for various output variables in terms of
input variables.
6. The simplified Boolean expression is obtained by any method of minimization—
algebraic method, Karnaugh map method, or tabulation method.
7. A logic diagram is realized from the simplified boolean expression using
logic gates.
The following guidelines should be followed while choosing the preferred form
for hardware implementation:
1. The implementation should have the minimum number of gates, with the
gates used having the minimum number of inputs.
2. There should be a minimum number of interconnections.
3. Limitation on the driving capability of the gates should not be ignored.
ARITHMETIC CIRCUITS – BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS:

In this section, we will discuss those combinational logic building blocks that can
be used to perform addition and subtraction operations on binary numbers. Addition and
subtraction are the two most commonly used arithmetic operations, as the other two,
namely multiplication and division, are respectively the processes of repeated addition
and repeated subtraction.
The basic building blocks that form the basis of all hardware used to perform the
arithmetic operations on binary numbers are half-adder, full adder, half-subtractor, full-
subtractor.
Half-Adder:
A half-adder is a combinational circuit that can be used to add two binary bits. It
has two inputs that represent the two bits to be added and two outputs, with one
producing the SUM output and the other producing the CARRY.

EnggTree.com
Block schematic of half-adder

The truth table of a half-adder, showing all possible input combinations and
the corresponding outputs are shown below.
Inputs Outputs
A B Carry (C) Sum (S)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
Truth table of half-adder
K-map simplification for carry and sum:
The Boolean expressions for the SUM and CARRY outputs are given by the
equations,
Sum, S = A’B+ AB’= A B
Carry, C = A . B
The first one representing the SUM output is that of an EX-OR gate, the second
one representing the CARRY output is that of an AND gate.
The logic diagram of the half adder is,
Logic Implementation of Half-adder

EnggTree.com
Full-Adder:
A full adder is a combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic sum of three
input bits. It consists of 3 inputs and 2 outputs.
Two of the input variables, represent the significant bits to be added. The third
input represents the carry from previous lower significant position. The block
diagram of full adder is given by,
Block schematic of full-adder
The full adder circuit overcomes the limitation of the half-adder, which can be used
to add two bits only. As there are three input variables, eight different input combinations
are possible. The truth table is shown below,
Truth Table:
Inputs Outputs
A B Cin Sum (S) Carry (Cout)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
To derive the simplified Boolean expression from the truth table, the Karnaugh map
method is adopted as,

EnggTree.com
The Boolean expressions for the SUM and CARRY outputs are given by the
equations,
Sum, S = A’B’Cin+ A’BC’in + AB’C’in + ABCin
Carry, Cout = AB+ ACin + BCin .
The logic diagram for the above functions is shown as,
Implementation of full-adder in Sum of Products
The logic diagram of the full adder can also be implemented with two half-
adders and one OR gate. The S output from the second half adder is the exclusive-OR of
Cin and the output of the first half-adder, giving
Sum = Cin (A B) [x y = x‘y+ xy‘]

= Cin (A‘B+AB‘)
= C‘in (A‘B+AB‘) + Cin (A‘B+AB‘)‘ [(x‘y+xy‘)‘= (xy+x‘y‘)]
= C‘in (A‘B+AB‘) + Cin (AB+A‘B‘)
= A‘BC‘in + AB‘C‘in + ABCin + A‘B‘Cin .

EnggTree.com
and the carry output is,

Carry, Cout = AB+ Cin (A’B+AB’)
= AB+ A‘BCin+ AB‘Cin
= AB (Cin+1) + A‘BCin+ AB‘Cin [Cin+1= 1]
= ABCin+ AB+ A‘BCin+ AB‘Cin
= AB+ ACin (B+B‘) + A‘BCin
= AB+ ACin+ A‘BCin
= AB (Cin+1) + ACin+ A‘BCin [Cin+1= 1]
= ABCin+ AB+ ACin+ A‘BCin
= AB+ ACin+ BCin (A +A‘)
= AB+ ACin+ BCin.
Implementation of full adder with two half-adders and an OR gate
Half -Subtractor:
A half-subtractor is a combinational circuit that can be used to subtract one binary
digit from another to produce a DIFFERENCE output and a BORROW output. The
BORROW output here specifies whether a ‗1‘ has been borrowed to perform the
subtraction.
Block schematic of half-subtractor
The truth table of half-subtractor, showing all possible input combinations

and the corresponding outputs are shown below.
Input Output
A B Difference (D) Borrow (Bout)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

EnggTree.com
K-map simplification for half subtractor:
The Boolean expressions for the DIFFERENCE and BORROW outputs are given by
the equations,
Difference, D = A’B+ AB’= A B
Borrow, Bout = A’ . B
The first one representing the DIFFERENCE (D)output is that of an exclusive-OR

gate, the expression for the BORROW output (Bout) is that of an AND gate with input A
complemented before it is fed to the gate.
The logic diagram of the half adder is,
Logic Implementation of Half-Subtractor
Comparing a half-subtractor with a half-adder, we find that the expressions for the
SUM and DIFFERENCE outputs are just the same. The expression for BORROW in the
case of the half-subtractor is also similar to what we have for CARRY in the case of the
half-adder. If the input A, ie., the minuend is complemented, an AND gate can beused
to implement the BORROW output.
Full Subtractor:
A full subtractor performs subtraction operation on two bits, a minuend and a
subtrahend, and also takes into consideration whether a ‗1‘ has already been borrowed
by the previous adjacent lower minuend bit or not.
As a result, there are three bits to be handled at the input of a full subtractor,
namely the two bits to be subtracted and a borrow bit designated as B in. There are two
outputs, namely the DIFFERENCE output D and the BORROW output Bo. The

EnggTree.com

EnggTree.com
BORROW output bit tells whether the minuend bit needs to borrow a ‗1‘ from the next
possible higher minuend bit.
Block schematic of full-adder
The truth table for full-subtractor is,

Inputs Outputs
A B Bin Difference(D) Borrow(Bout)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
K-map simplification for full-subtractor:
The Boolean expressions for the DIFFERENCE and BORROW outputs are given
by the equations,
Difference, D = A’B’Bin+ A’BB’in + AB’B’in + ABBin
Borrow, Bout = A’B+ A’Cin + BBin .
The logic diagram for the above functions is shown as,

EnggTree.com
Implementation of full-adder in Sum of Products
The logic diagram of the full-subtractor can also be implemented with two half-
subtractors and one OR gate. The difference,D output from the second half subtractor
is the exclusive-OR of Bin and the output of the first half-subtractor, giving
Difference,D= Bin (A B) [x y = x‘y+ xy‘]
= Bin (A‘B+AB‘)
= B‘in (A‘B+AB‘) + Bin (A‘B+AB‘)‘ [(x‘y+xy‘)‘= (xy+x‘y‘)]
= B‘in (A‘B+AB‘) + Bin (AB+A‘B‘)
= A‘BB‘in + AB‘B‘in + ABBin + A‘B‘Bin
. and the borrow output is,
Borrow, Bout = A’B+ Bin (A’B+AB’)’ [(x‘y+xy‘)‘= (xy+x‘y‘)]

= A‘B+ Bin (AB+A‘B‘)
= A‘B+ ABBin+ A‘B‘Bin
= A‘B (Bin+1) + ABBin+ A‘B‘Bin [Cin+1= 1]
= A‘BBin+ A‘B+ ABBin+ A‘B‘Bin
= A‘B+ BBin (A+A‘) + A‘B‘Bin [A+A‘= 1]
= A‘B+ BBin+ A‘B‘Bin
= A‘B (Bin+1) + BBin+ A‘B‘Bin [Cin+1= 1]
= A‘BBin+ A‘B+ BBin+ A‘B‘Bin
= A‘B+ BBin+ A‘Bin (B +B‘)
= A‘B+ BBin+ A‘Bin.
Therefore,
we can implement full-subtractor using two half-subtractors and OR gate as,
Implementation of full-subtractor with two half-subtractors and an OR gate
10

EnggTree.com
Binary Adder (Parallel Adder):

The 4-bit binary adder using full adder circuits is capable of adding two 4-
bit numbers resulting in a 4-bit sum and a carry output as shown in figure below.
4-bit binary parallel Adder
Since all the bits of augend and addend are fed into the adder circuits
simultaneously and the additions in each position are taking place at the same time, this
circuit is known as parallel adder.
Let the 4-bit words to be added be represented by,

A3A2A1A0= 1111 and B3B2B1B0= 0011.
The bits are added with full adders, starting from the least significant position, to
form the sum it and carry bit. The input carry C0 in the least significant position must be
0. The carry output of the lower order stage is connected to the carry input of the next
higher order stage. Hence this type of adder is called ripple-carry adder.
In the least significant stage, A0, B0 and C0 (which is 0) are added resulting in sum
S0 and carry C1. This carry C1 becomes the carry input to the second stage. Similarly in
the second stage, A1, B1 and C1 are added resulting in sum S 1 and carry C2, in the third
stage, A2, B2 and C2 are added resulting in sum S 2 and carry C3, in the third stage, A3, B3 and
C3 are added resulting in sum S3 and C4, which is the output carry. Thus the circuit
results in a sum (S3S2S1S0) and a carry output (Cout).
Though the parallel binary adder is said to generate its output immediately after
the inputs are applied, its speed of operation is limited by the carry propagation delay
11

EnggTree.com
through all stages. However, there are several methods to reduce this delay.
One of the methods of speeding up this process is look-ahead carry addition which
eliminates the ripple-carry delay.
Carry Propagation–Look-Ahead Carry Generator:

In Parallel adder, all the bits of the augend and the addend are available for
computation at the same time. The carry output of each full-adder stage is connected to
the carry input of the next high-order stage. Since each bit of the sum output depends on
the value of the input carry, time delay occurs in the addition process. This timedelay
is called as carry propagation delay.
For example, addition of two numbers (0011+ 0101) gives the result as 1000.
Addition of the LSB position produces a carry into the second position. This carry when
added to the bits of the second position, produces a carry into the third position. This
carry when added to bits of the third position, produces a carry into the last position.
The sum bit generated in the last position (MSB) depends on the carry that was generated
by the addition in the previous position. i.e., the adder will not produce correct result
until LSB carry has propagated through the intermediate full-adders. This represents a
time delay that depends on the propagation delay produced in an each full-adder. For
example, if each full adder is considered to have a propagation delay of
30nsec, then S3 will not react its correct value until 90 nsec after LSB is generated.
Therefore total time required to perform addition is 90+ 30 = 120nsec.
4-bit Parallel Adder

The method of speeding up this process by eliminating inter stage carry delay is
called look ahead-carry addition. This method utilizes logic gates to look at the lower
order bits of the augend and addend to see if a higher-order carry is to be generated. It
uses two functions: carry generate and carry propagate.
12

EnggTree.com
Full-Adder circuit
Consider the circuit of the full-adder shown above. Here we define

two functions: carry generate (Gi) and carry propagate (Pi) as,
Carry generate, Gi = Ai Bi
Carry propagate, Pi = Ai Bi
the output sum and carry can be expressed as,
Si = P i Ci
Ci+1 = Gi Pi C i
Gi (carry generate), it produces a carry 1 when both Ai and Bi are 1, regardless of
the input carry Ci.
Pi (carry propagate) because it is the term associated with the propagation of the
carry from Ci to Ci+1.
The Boolean functions for the carry outputs of each stage and substitute for each
Ci its value from the previous equation:
C0= input carry
C1 = G 0 + P 0 C 0
C2= G1 + P1C1 = G1 + P1 (G0 + P0C0)
= G1 + P 1 G0 + P 1P 0C 0
C3= G2 + P2C2 = G2 + P2 (G1 + P1G0 + P1P0C0)
= G 2 + P 2 G 1 + P 2 P 1 G 0 + P 2 P 1 P 0 C0
13

EnggTree.com
Since the Boolean function for each output carry is expressed in sum of products,
each function can be implemented with one level of AND gates followed by an OR gate.
The three Boolean functions for C 1, C2 and C3 are implemented in the carry look-ahead
generator as shown below. Note that C3 does not have to wait for C2 and C1 to propagate;
in fact C3 is propagated at the same time as C1 and C2.
Logic diagram of Carry Look-ahead Generator
Using a Look-ahead Generator we can easily construct a 4-bit parallel adder with
a Look-ahead carry scheme. Each sum output requires two exclusive-OR gates. The
output of the first exclusive-OR gate generates the Pi variable, and the AND gate generates
the Gi variable. The carries are propagated through the carry look-ahead generator and
applied as inputs to the second exclusive-OR gate. All output carries are generated after a
delay through two levels of gates. Thus, outputs S 1 through S3 have equal propagation
delay times.
14

EnggTree.com
4-Bit Adder with Carry Look-ahead
Binary Subtractor (Parallel Subtractor):

The subtraction of unsigned binary numbers can be done most conveniently by
means of complements. The subtraction A-B can be done by taking the 2‘s complement
of B and adding it to A. The 2‘s complement can be obtained by taking the 1‘s complement
and adding 1 to the least significant pair of bits. The 1‘s complement can be implemented
with inverters and a 1 can be added to the sum through the input carry.
15

EnggTree.com
The circuit for subtracting A-B consists of an adder with inverters placed between
each data input B and the corresponding input of the full adder. The input carry C0 must
be equal to 1 when performing subtraction. The operation thus performed becomes A,
plus the 1‘s complement of B, plus1. This is equal to A plus the 2‘s complement of B.
4-bit Parallel Subtractor
Parallel Adder/ Subtractor:

The addition and subtraction operation can be combined into one circuit with one
common binary adder. This is done by including an exclusive-OR gate with each full
adder. A 4-bit adder Subtractor circuit is shown below.
4-Bit Adder Subtractor
The mode input M controls the operation. When M= 0, the circuit is an adder and
when M=1, the circuit becomes a Subtractor. Each exclusive-OR gate receives input M
16

EnggTree.com
and one of the inputs of B. When M=0, we have B 0= B. The full adders receive the
value of B, the input carry is 0, and the circuit performs A plus B. When M=1, we have B
1= B‘ and C0=1. The B inputs are all complemented and a 1 is added through the input
carry. The circuit performs the operation A plus the 2‘s complement of B. The exclusive-
OR with output V is for detecting an overflow.
Decimal Adder (BCD Adder):

The digital system handles the decimal number in the form of binary coded decimal
numbers (BCD). A BCD adder is a circuit that adds two BCD bits and producesa sum
digit also in BCD.
Consider the arithmetic addition of two decimal digits in BCD, together with an
input carry from a previous stage. Since each input digit does not exceed 9, the output
sum cannot be greater than 9+ 9+1 = 19; the 1 is the sum being an input carry. The adder
will form the sum in binary and produce a result that ranges from 0 through 19.
These binary numbers are labeled by symbols K, Z 8, Z4, Z2, Z1, K is the carry. The
columns under the binary sum list the binary values that appear in the outputs of the 4-
bit binary adder. The output sum of the two decimal digits must be represented in BCD.
Binary Sum BCD Sum

Decimal
K Z8 Z4 Z2 Z1 C S8 S4 S2 S1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 3
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 5
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 6
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 7
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 8
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 9
17

EnggTree.com
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 10
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 11
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 12
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 13
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 14
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 15
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 16
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 17
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 18
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 19
In examining the contents of the table, it is apparent that when the binary sum is
equal to or less than 1001, the corresponding BCD number is identical, and therefore no
conversion is needed. When the binary sum is greater than 9 (1001), we obtain a non-
valid BCD representation. The addition of binary 6 (0110) to the binary sum converts it
to the correct BCD representation and also produces an output carry as required.
The logic circuit to detect sum greater than 9 can be determined by simplifying
the boolean expression of the given truth table.
18

EnggTree.com
To implement BCD adder we require:

• 4-bit binary adder for initial addition
• Logic circuit to detect sum greater than 9 and
• One more 4-bit adder to add 01102 in the sum if the sum is greater than 9 or
carry is 1.
The two decimal digits, together with the input carry, are first added in the top4-
bit binary adder to provide the binary sum. When the output carry is equal to zero,
nothing is added to the binary sum. When it is equal to one, binary 0110 is added to
the binary sum through the bottom 4-bit adder. The output carry generated from the
bottom adder can be ignored, since it supplies information already available at the
output carry terminal. The output carry from one stage must be connected to the input
carry of the next higher-order stage.
Block diagram of BCD adder
Binary Multiplier:
Multiplication of binary numbers is performed in the same way as in decimal
numbers. The multiplicand is multiplied by each bit of the multiplier starting from the
least significant bit. Each such multiplication forms a partial product. Such partial
19

EnggTree.com
products are shifted one position to the left. The final product is obtained from the sum
of partial products.
Consider the multiplication of two 2-bit numbers. The multiplicand bits are B1 and
B0, the multiplier bits are A 1 and A0, and the product is C3, C2, C1 and C0. The first partial
product is formed by multiplying A 0 by B1B0. The multiplication of two bits such as A0 and
B0 produces a 1 if both bits are 1; otherwise, it produces a 0. This is identicalto an AND
operation. Therefore the partial product can be implemented with AND gates as shown
in the diagram below.
The second partial product is formed by multiplying A 1 by B1B0 and shifted one
position to the left. The two partial products are added with two half adder (HA) circuits.
2-bit by 2-bit Binary multiplier
Usually there are more bits in the partial products and it is necessary to use full
adders to produce the sum of the partial products. The least significant bit of the product
does not have to go through an adder since it is formed by the output of thefirst AND
gate.
A combinational circuit binary multiplier with more bits can be constructed in a
similar fashion. A bit of the multiplier is ANDed with each bit of the multiplicand in as
many levels as there are bits in the multiplier. The binary output in each level of AND
gates are added with the partial product of the previous level to form a new partial
product. The last level produces the product. For J multiplier bits and K multiplicand bits
we need (J x K) AND gates and (J-1) k-bit adders to produce a product of J+K bits.
Consider a multiplier circuit that multiplies a binary number of four bits by a
number of three bits. Let the multiplicand be represented by B3, B2, B1, B0 and the
multiplier by A2, A1, and A0. Since K= 4 and J= 3, we need 12 AND gates and two 4-bit
adders to produce a product of seven bits. The logic diagram of the multiplier is shown
below.
20

EnggTree.com
4-bit by 3-bit Binary multiplier
PARITY GENERATOR/ CHECKER:

A Parity is a very useful tool in information processing in digital computers to
indicate any presence of error in bit information. External noise and loss of signal strength
causes loss of data bit information while transporting data from one device to other
device, located inside the computer or externally. To indicate any occurrence of error, an
extra bit is included with the message according to the total number of 1s in a set of data,
which is called parity.
If the extra bit is considered 0 if the total number of 1s is even and 1 for odd
quantities of 1s in a set of data, then it is called even parity. On the other hand, if the extra
bit is 1 for even quantities of 1s and 0 for an odd number of 1s, then it is called oddparity.
21

EnggTree.com
The message including the parity is transmitted and then checked at the receiving
end for errors. An error is detected if the checked parity does not correspond with the one
transmitted. The circuit that generates the parity bit in the transmitter is called a parity
generator and the circuit that checks the parity in the receiver is called a parity checker.
Parity Generator:
A parity generator is a combination logic system to generate the parity bit at the
transmitting side. A table illustrates even parity as well as odd parity for a message
consisting of three bits.
3-bit Message Odd Party Even Parity

A B C bit bit
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
Parity generator truth table for even and odd parity
If the message bit combination is designated as A, B, C and Pe, Po are the even
and odd parity respectively, then it is obvious from table that the boolean expressions
of even parity and odd parity are
Pe = A (B C) and
Po = (A B C)′.
K-map Simplification:
P= A’B’C+ A’BC’+ A’B’C’+ ABC

= A’ (B’C+ BC’) + A (B’C’+ BC)
= A’ (B C) + A (B C)’
= A (B C)
22

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
3-bit even parity generator
Parity Checker:
The message bits with the parity bit are transmitted to their destination, where
they are applied to a parity checker circuit. The circuit that checks the parity at the
receiver side is called the parity checker. The parity checker circuit produces a check bit
and is very similar to the parity generator circuit. If the check bit is 1, then it is assumed
that the received data is incorrect. The check bit will be 0 if the received data is correct.
The table shows the truth table for the even parity checker.
4-Bit Received Parity Error

A B C D Check (PEC)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
23

EnggTree.com
PEC= A’B’ (C’D+ CD’) + A’B (C’D’+ CD) + AB (C’D+ CD’) + AB’ (C’D’+ CD)
= A’B’ (C D) + A’B (C D)’ + AB (C D) + AB’ (C D)’
= (A’B’+ AB) (C D) + (A’B+ AB’) (C D)’
= (A B)’ (C D) + (A B) (C D)’
= (A B) (C D)
Logic Diagram:
4-bit even parity checker
MAGNITUDE COMPARATOR:
A magnitude comparator is a combinational circuit that compares two given

numbers (A and B) and determines whether one is equal to, less than or greater than the
other. The output is in the form of three binary variables representing the conditions A
= B, A>B and A<B, if A and B are the two numbers being compared.
Block diagram of magnitude comparator
24

EnggTree.com
For comparison of two n-bit numbers, the classical method to achieve the
Boolean expressions requires a truth table of 22n entries and becomes too lengthy and
cumbersome.
2-bit Magnitude Comparator:

The truth table of 2-bit comparator is given in table below—
Truth table:
Inputs Outputs
A3 A2 A1 A0 A>B A=B A<B
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0
25

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
26

EnggTree.com
2- bit Magnitude Comparator

4-bit Magnitude Comparator:
Let us consider the two binary numbers A and B with four digits each. Write
the coefficient of the numbers in descending order as,
A = A3A2A1A0
B = B3 B 2 B 1 B 0 ,
Each subscripted letter represents one of the digits in the number. It is observed from the
bit contents of two numbers that A = B when A 3 = B3, A2 = B2, A1 = B1 and A0 = B0. When the
numbers are binary they possess the value of either 1 or 0, the equality relation of each
pair can be expressed logically by the equivalence function as
Xi = AiBi + Ai′Bi′ for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Or, Xi = (A B)′. or, Xi ′ = A B
Or, Xi = (AiBi′ + Ai′Bi)′.
27

EnggTree.com
where,
Xi =1 only if the pair of bits in position i are equal (ie., if both are 1 or both are 0).
To satisfy the equality condition of two numbers A and B, it is necessary that all
Xi must be equal to logic 1. This indicates the AND operation of all Xi variables. In other
words, we can write the Boolean expression for two equal 4-bit numbers.
(A = B) = X3X2X1 X0.
The binary variable (A=B) is equal to 1 only if all pairs of digits of the two numbers
are equal.
To determine if A is greater than or less than B, we inspect the relative magnitudes
of pairs of significant bits starting from the most significant bit. If the two digits of the
most significant position are equal, the next significant pair of digits is compared. The
comparison process is continued until a pair of unequal digits is found. It may be
concluded that A>B, if the corresponding digit of A is 1 and B is 0. If the corresponding
digit of A is 0 and B is 1, we conclude that A<B. Therefore, we can derive the logical
expression of such sequential comparison by the following two Boolean functions,
(A>B) = A3B3′ +X3A2B2′ +X3X2A1B1′ +X3X2X1A0B0′

(A<B) = A3′B3 +X3A2′B2 +X3X2A1′B1 +X3X2X1A0′B0
The symbols (A>B) and (A<B) are binary output variables that are equal to 1 when
A>B or A<B, respectively.
The gate implementation of the three output variables just derived is simpler
than it seems because it involves a certain amount of repetition. The unequal outputs
can use the same gates that are needed to generate the equal output. The logic
diagram of the 4-bit magnitude comparator is shown below,
28

EnggTree.com
4-bit Magnitude Comparator
The four x outputs are generated with exclusive-NOR circuits and applied to
an AND gate to give the binary output variable (A=B). The other two outputs use the
x variables to generate the Boolean functions listed above. This is a multilevel
implementation and has a regular pattern.
29

EnggTree.com
CODE CONVERTERS:
A code converter is a logic circuit that changes data presented in one type of
binary code to another code of binary code. The following are some of the most
commonly used code converters:
i. Binary-to-Gray code
ii. Gray-to-Binary code
iii. BCD-to-Excess-3
iv. Excess-3-to-BCD
v. Binary-to-BCD
vi. BCD-to-binary
vii. Gray-to-BCD
viii. BCD-to-Gray
ix. 8 4 -2 -1 to BCD converter
1. Binary to Gray Converters:

The gray code is often used in digital systems because it has the advantage that
only one bit in the numerical representation changes between successive numbers. The
truth table for the binary-to-gray code converter is shown below,
Binary code Gray code

B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
3 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
7 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
10 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
11 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
13 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
15 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
30

EnggTree.com
K-map simplification:
Now, the above expressions can be implemented using EX-OR gates as,
31

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
2. Gray to Binary Converters:

The truth table for the gray-to-binary code converter is shown below,
Truth table:
Gray code Binary code
G3 G2 G1 G0 B3 B2 B1 B0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
From the truth table, the logic expression for the binary code outputs can be written as,
G3= ∑m (8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
G2= ∑m (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11)
G1= ∑m (2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15)
G0= ∑m (1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14)
32

EnggTree.com
From the above K-map,

B3= G3
B2= G3‘G2+ G3G2‘
B2= G3 G2
B1= G3‘G2‘G1+ G3‘G2G1‘+ G3G2G1+ G3G2‘G1‘
= G3‘ (G2‘G1+ G2G1‘) + G3 (G2G1+ G2‘G1‘)
= G3‘ (G2 G1) + G3 (G2 G1)‘ [x y = x‘y+ xy‘], [(x y)‘ = xy+ x‘y‘]
B1= G3 G2 G1
B0= G3‘G2‘ G1‘G0+ G3‘G2‗G1G0‘+ G3G2G1‗G0+ G3G2G1 G0‘+ G3‘G2G1‘G0‘+
G3G2‗G1‘G0‘+ G3‘G2G1G0+ G3G2‗G1 G0.
= G3‘G2‘ (G1‘G0+ G1G0‘) + G3G2 (G1‘G0+ G1G0‘) + G1‘G0‘ (G3‘G2+ G3G2‘) +
G1G0 (G3‘G2+ G3G2‘).
= G3‘G2‘ (G0 G1) + G3G2 (G0 G1) + G1‘G0‘ (G2 G3) +G1G0 (G2 G3).
= G0 G1 (G3‘G2‘ + G3G2) + G2 G3 (G1‘G0‘+G1G0)
= (G0 G1) (G2 G3)‘+ (G2 G3) (G0 G1) [x y = x‘y+ xy‘]
B0= (G0 G1) (G2 G3).
33

EnggTree.com
Now, the above expressions can be implemented using EX-OR gates as,
Logic diagram of 4-bit gray-to-binary converter

3. BCD –to-Excess-3 Converters:
Excess-3 is a modified form of a BCD number. The excess-3 code can be derived
from the natural BCD code by adding 3 to each coded number.
For example, decimal 12 can be represented in BCD as 0001 0010. Now adding 3 to each digit
we get excess-3 code as 0100 0101 (12 in decimal). With this information the truth table for
BCD to Excess-3 code converter can be determined as,
Truth Table:
B3 B2 B1 B0 E3 E2 E1 E0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
From the truth table, the logic expression for the Excess-3 code outputs can be
written as,
E3= ∑m (5, 6, 7, 8, 9) + ∑d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
E2= ∑m (1, 2, 3, 4, 9) + ∑d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
E1= ∑m (0, 3, 4, 7, 8) + ∑d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
E0= ∑m (0, 2, 4, 6, 8) + ∑d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
34

EnggTree.com
35

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
4. Excess-3 to BCD
Converter: Truth table:
Excess-3 code BCD code

Decimal
E3 E2 E1 E0 B3 B2 B1 B0
3 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
5 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
7 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
9 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
10 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
11 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
36

EnggTree.com
From the truth table, the logic expression for the Excess-3 code outputs can be
written as,
B3= ∑m (11, 12) + ∑d (0, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15)
B2= ∑m (7, 8, 9, 10) + ∑d (0, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15)
B1= ∑m (5, 6, 9, 10) + ∑d (0, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15)
B0= ∑m (4, 6, 8, 10, 12) + ∑d (0, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15)
Now, the above expressions the logic diagram can be implemented as,
37

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
5. BCD –to-Binary Converters:

The steps involved in the BCD-to-binary conversion process are as follows:
1. The value of each bit in the BCD number is represented by a binary equivalent
or weight.
2. All the binary weights of the bits that are 1‘s in the BCD are added.
3. The result of this addition is the binary equivalent of the BCD number.
Two-digit decimal values ranging from 00 to 99 can be represented in BCD by two 4-
bit code groups. For example, 1910 is represented as,
The left-most four-bit group represents 10 and right-most four-bit group represents 9.
The binary representation for decimal 19 is 1910 = 110012.
38

EnggTree.com
BCD Code Binary

B4 B3 B2 B1 B0 E D C B A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
39

EnggTree.com
40

EnggTree.com
From the above K-map,
A= B0
B= B1B4‘+ B1’B4
= B1 B4
C= B4’B2 + B2B1’ + B4B2’B1
D= B4’B3 + B4B3’B2’ + B4B3’B1’
E= B4B3 + B4B2B1
Now, from the above expressions the logic diagram can be implemented as,
Logic Diagram:
41

EnggTree.com
42

EnggTree.com
6. Binary to BCD Converter:

The truth table for binary to BCD converter can be written as,
Truth Table:
Binary Code BCD Code
Decimal
D C B A B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
11 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
12 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
13 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
14 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
15 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
From the truth table, the logic expression for the BCD code outputs can be written as,
B0= ∑m (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15)
B1= ∑m (2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 13)
B2= ∑m (4, 5, 6, 7, 14, 15)
B3= ∑m (8, 9)
B4= ∑m (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
43

EnggTree.com
From the above K-map, the logical expression can be obtained

as, B0= A
B1= DCB’+ D’B
B2= D’C+ CB
B3= DC’B’
B4= DC+ DB
Logic Diagram:
44

EnggTree.com
7. Gray to BCD Converter:

The truth table for gray to BCD converter can be written as,
Truth Table:
Gray Code BCD Code
G3 G2 G1 G0 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
45

EnggTree.com
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
46

EnggTree.com
From the above K-map, the logical expression can be obtained as,
B0= (G0 G1) (G2 G3)
B1= G’2G1+ G’3G2G’1
B2= G’3G2+ G3G’2G’1
B3= G3G2G’1
B4= G3G’2+ G3G1
Logic Diagram:
47

EnggTree.com
8. BCD to Gray Converter:

The truth table for gray to BCD converter can be written as,
Truth table:
BCD Code (8421) Gray code
B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
48

EnggTree.com
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Logic Diagram:
49

EnggTree.com
9. 8 4 -2 -1 to BCD Converter:
The truth table for 8 4 -2 -1 to BCD converter can be written as,
Truth Table:
Gray Code BCD Code
D C B A B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
50

EnggTree.com
From the above K-map, the logical expression can be obtained as,
51

EnggTree.com
B0 = A
B1= A’B’CD+ (A B) (C’+D’)
B2= D’CB’A’+ C’ (A+B)
B3= D (ABC+ A’B’C’)
B4= CD ( A’+B’)
Logic Diagram:
52

EnggTree.com
DECODERS:
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from ‗n‘
input lines to a maximum of ‗2n‘ unique output lines. The general structure of
decoder circuit is –
General structure of decoder
The encoded information is presented as ‗n‘ inputs producing ‗2n‘ possible

outputs. The 2n output values are from 0 through 2n-1. A decoder is provided with enable
inputs to activate decoded output based on data inputs. When any one enable input is
unasserted, all outputs of decoder are disabled.
Binary Decoder (2 to 4 decoder):

A binary decoder has ‗n‘ bit binary input and a one activated output out of 2 n
outputs. A binary decoder is used when it is necessary to activate exactly one of 2 n outputs
based on an n-bit input value.
53

EnggTree.com
2-to-4 Line decoder
Here the 2 inputs are decoded into 4 outputs, each output representing one of the
minterms of the two input variables.
Inputs Outputs
Enable A B Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 x x 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
As shown in the truth table, if enable input is 1 (EN= 1) only one of the outputs
(Y0 – Y3), is active for a given input.
The output Y0 is active, ie., Y0= 1 when inputs A= B= 0,
Y1 is active when inputs, A= 0 and B= 1,
Y2 is active, when input A= 1 and B= 0,
Y3 is active, when inputs A= B= 1.
3- to-8 Line Decoder:

A 3-to-8 line decoder has three inputs (A, B, C) and eight outputs (Y 0- Y7). Based
on the 3 inputs one of the eight outputs is selected.
The three inputs are decoded into eight outputs, each output representing one of
the minterms of the 3-input variables. This decoder is used for binary-to-octal conversion.
The input variables may represent a binary number and the outputs will represent the
eight digits in the octal number system. The output variables are mutually exclusive
because only one output can be equal to 1 at any one time. The output line whose value is
equal to 1 represents the minterm equivalent of the binary number presently available in
the input lines.
Inputs Outputs
A B C Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
54

EnggTree.com
3-to-8 line decoder
BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder:

A seven-segment display is normally used for displaying any one of the decimal
digits, 0 through 9. A BCD-to-seven segment decoder accepts a decimal digit in BCD
and generates the corresponding seven-segment code.
55

EnggTree.com
Each segment is made up of a material that emits light when current is passed
through it. The segments activated during each digit display are tabulated as—
Digit Display Segments Activated
0 a, b, c, d, e, f
1 b, c
2 a, b, d, e, g
3 a, b, c, d, g
4 b, c, f, g
5 a, c, d, f, g
56

EnggTree.com
Truth table:
BCD code 7-Segment code

Digit A B C D a b c d e f g
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
57

EnggTree.com
58

EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
59

EnggTree.com
BCD to 7-segment display decoder
Applications of decoders:
1. Decoders are used in counter system.
2. They are used in analog to digital converter.
3. Decoder outputs can be used to drive a display system.
60

EnggTree.com
ENCODERS:
An encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse operation of a decoder.
Hence, the opposite of the decoding process is called encoding. An encoder is a
combinational circuit that converts binary information from 2n input lines to a maximum
of ‗n‘ unique output lines.
The general structure of encoder circuit is –
General structure of Encoder
It has 2n input lines, only one which 1 is active at any time and ‗n‘ output lines. It
encodes one of the active inputs to a coded binary output with ‗n‘ bits. In an encoder, the
number of outputs is less than the number of inputs.
Octal-to-Binary Encoder:
It has eight inputs (one for each of the octal digits) and the three outputs that
generate the corresponding binary number. It is assumed that only one input has a value
of 1 at any given time.
Inputs Outputs
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 A B C
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
The encoder can be implemented with OR gates whose inputs are determined
directly from the truth table. Output z is equal to 1, when the input octal digit is 1 or 3
or 5 or 7. Output y is 1 for octal digits 2, 3, 6, or 7 and the output is 1 for digits 4, 5, 6 or
7. These conditions can be expressed by the following output Boolean
functions: z= D1+ D3+ D5+ D7
61

EnggTree.com
y= D2+ D3+ D6+ D7

x= D4+ D5+ D6+ D7
The encoder can be implemented with three OR gates. The encoder defined in the
below table, has the limitation that only one input can be active at any given time. If two
inputs are active simultaneously, the output produces an undefined combination.
For eg., if D3 and D6 are 1 simultaneously, the output of the encoder may be 111.
This does not represent either D6 or D3. To resolve this problem, encoder circuits must
establish an input priority to ensure that only one input is encoded. If we establish a
higher priority for inputs with higher subscript numbers and if D3 and D6 are 1 at the same
time, the output will be 110 because D6 has higher priority than D3.
Octal-to-Binary Encoder
Another problem in the octal-to-binary encoder is that an output with all 0‘s is
generated when all the inputs are 0; this output is same as when D 0 is equal to 1. The
discrepancy can be resolved by providing one more output to indicate that atleast one
input is equal to 1.
Priority Encoder:
A priority encoder is an encoder circuit that includes the priority function. In
priority encoder, if two or more inputs are equal to 1 at the same time, the input having
the highest priority will take precedence.
In addition to the two outputs x and y, the circuit has a third output, V (valid bit
indicator). It is set to 1 when one or more inputs are equal to 1. If all inputs are 0, there
is no valid input and V is equal to 0.
62

EnggTree.com
The higher the subscript number, higher the priority of the input. Input D3, has the
highest priority. So, regardless of the values of the other inputs, when D 3 is 1, the output
for xy is 11.
D2 has the next priority level. The output is 10, if D2= 1 provided D3= 0. Theoutput
for D1 is generated only if higher priority inputs are 0, and so on down the priority levels.
Truth table:
Inputs Outputs
D0 D1 D2 D3 x y V
0 0 0 0 x x 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
x 1 0 0 0 1 1
x x 1 0 1 0 1
x x x 1 1 1 1
Although the above table has only five rows, when each don‘t care condition is
replaced first by 0 and then by 1, we obtain all 16 possible input combinations. For
example, the third row in the table with X100 represents minterms 0100 and 1100. The
don‘t care condition is replaced by 0 and 1 as shown in the table below.
Modified Truth table:
Inputs Outputs
D0 D1 D2 D3 x y V
0 0 0 0 x x 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
63

EnggTree.com
The priority encoder is implemented according to the above Boolean functions.
4- Input Priority Encoder
64

EnggTree.com
MULTIPLEXER: (Data Selector)
A multiplexer or MUX, is a combinational circuit with more than one input line, one
output line and more than one selection line. A multiplexer selects binary information
present from one of many input lines, depending upon the logic status of the selection
inputs, and routes it to the output line. Normally, there are 2 n input lines and n selection
lines whose bit combinations determine which input is selected. The multiplexer is often
labeled as MUX in block diagrams.
A multiplexer is also called a data selector, since it selects one of many inputs and
steers the binary information to the output line.
Block diagram of Multiplexer
2-to-1- line Multiplexer:

The circuit has two data input lines, one output line and one selection line, S.
When S= 0, the upper AND gate is enabled and I0 has a path to the output.
When S=1, the lower AND gate is enabled and I1 has a path to the output.
Logic diagram
The multiplexer acts like an electronic switch that selects one of the two sources.
Truth table:
Y
I0
I1
65

EnggTree.com
4-to-1-line Multiplexer:
A 4-to-1-line multiplexer has four (2 n) input lines, two (n) select lines and one
output line. It is the multiplexer consisting of four input channels and information of one
of the channels can be selected and transmitted to an output line according to the select
inputs combinations. Selection of one of the four input channel is possible by two selection
inputs.
Each of the four inputs I0 through I3, is applied to one input of AND gate. Selection
lines S1 and S0 are decoded to select a particular AND gate. The outputs of the AND gate
are applied to a single OR gate that provides the 1-line output.
4-to-1-Line Multiplexer
Function table:
S1 S0 Y
0 0 I0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
1 1 I3
To demonstrate the circuit operation, consider the case when S 1S0= 10. The AND
gate associated with input I2 has two of its inputs equal to 1 and the third input connected
to I2. The other three AND gates have atleast one input equal to 0, which makes their
outputs equal to 0. The OR output is now equal to the value of I2, providinga path from
the selected input to the output.
66

EnggTree.com
The data output is equal to I0 only if S1= 0 and S0= 0; Y= I0S1‘S0‘.

The data output is equal to I1 only if S1= 0 and S0= 1; Y= I1S1‘S0.
The data output is equal to I2 only if S1= 1 and S0= 0; Y= I2S1S0‘.
The data output is equal to I3 only if S1= 1 and S0= 1; Y= I3S1S0.
When these terms are ORed, the total expression for the data output is,
Y= I0S1’S0’+ I1S1’S0 +I2S1S0’+ I3S1S0.
As in decoder, multiplexers may have an enable input to control the operation of
the unit. When the enable input is in the inactive state, the outputs are disabled, and when
it is in the active state, the circuit functions as a normal multiplexer.
Quadruple 2-to-1 Line Multiplexer:
67

EnggTree.com
This circuit has four multiplexers, each capable of selecting one of two input lines.
Output Y0 can be selected to come from either A0 or B0. Similarly, output Y1 may have the
value of A1 or B1, and so on. Input selection line, S selects one of the lines in each of the
four multiplexers. The enable input E must be active for normal operation.
Although the circuit contains four 2-to-1-Line multiplexers, it is viewed as a circuit
that selects one of two 4-bit sets of data lines. The unit is enabled when E= 0. Then if S=
0, the four A inputs have a path to the four outputs. On the other hand, ifS=1, the four
B inputs are applied to the outputs. The outputs have all 0‘s when E= 1, regardless of the
value of S.
Application:
The multiplexer is a very useful MSI function and has various ranges of
applications in data communication. Signal routing and data communication are the
important applications of a multiplexer. It is used for connecting two or more sources to
guide to a single destination among computer units and it is useful for constructing a
common bus system. One of the general properties of a multiplexer is that Boolean
functions can be implemented by this device.
Implementation of Boolean Function using MUX:

Any Boolean or logical expression can be easily implemented using a multiplexer.
If a Boolean expression has (n+1) variables, then ‗n‘ of these variables can be connected
to the select lines of the multiplexer. The remaining single variable along with constants
1 and 0 is used as the input of the multiplexer. For example, if C is the single variable, then
the inputs of the multiplexers are C, C‘, 1 and 0. By this method any logical expression
can be implemented.
In general, a Boolean expression of (n+1) variables can be implemented using a
multiplexer with 2n inputs.
1. Implement the following boolean function using 4: 1 multiplexer,

F (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 3, 5, 6).
Solution:
Variables, n= 3 (A, B, C)
Select lines= n-1 = 2 (S1, S0)
2n-1 to MUX i.e., 22 to 1 = 4 to 1 MUX
Input lines= 2n-1 = 22 = 4 (D0, D1, D2, D3)
Implementation table:
Apply variables A and B to the select lines. The procedures for implementing the
function are:
68

EnggTree.com
i. List the input of the multiplexer

ii. List under them all the minterms in two rows as shown below.
The first half of the minterms is associated with A‘ and the second half with A. The given
function is implemented by circling the minterms of the function and applying the
following rules to find the values for the inputs of the multiplexer.
1. If both the minterms in the column are not circled, apply 0 to the corresponding
input.
2. If both the minterms in the column are circled, apply 1 to the
corresponding input.
3. If the bottom minterm is circled and the top is not circled, apply C to the input.
4. If the top minterm is circled and the bottom is not circled, apply C‘ to the input.
Multiplexer Implementation:
69

EnggTree.com
2. F (x, y, z) = ∑m (1, 2, 6, 7)
Solution:
3. F ( A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 2, 4, 5)
Solution:
Variables, n= 3 (A, B, C)
Select lines= n-1 = 2 (S1, S0)
Input lines= 2n-1 = 22 = 4 (D0, D1, D2, D3)
70

EnggTree.com
4. F( P, Q, R, S)= ∑m (0, 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 15)
Solution:
Variables, n= 4 (P, Q, R, S)
Select lines= n-1 = 3 (S2, S1, S0)
Input lines= 2n-1 = 23 = 8 (D0, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7)
71

EnggTree.com
5. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 and also using 4:1 multiplexer
F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14)
Solution:
Variables, n= 4 (A, B, C, D)
72

EnggTree.com
Multiplexer Implementation (Using 8: 1 MUX):
Using 4: 1 MUX:
6. F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
73

EnggTree.com
Solution:
7. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 multiplexer.

F (A, B, C, D) = A’BD’ + ACD + B’CD + A’C’D.
Solution:
Convert into standard SOP form,
= A‘BD‘ (C‘+C) + ACD (B‘+B) + B‘CD (A‘+A) + A‘C‘D (B‘+B)
= A‘BC‘D‘ + A‘BCD‘+ AB‘CD + ABCD +A‘B‘CD + AB‘CD +A‘B‘C‘D+ A‘BC‘D
74

EnggTree.com
= A‘BC‘D‘ + A‘BCD‘+ AB‘CD + ABCD +A‘B‘CD +A‘B‘C‘D+ A‘BC‘D

= m4+ m6+ m11+ m15+ m3+ m1+ m5
= ∑m (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 15)
8. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 multiplexer.

F (A, B, C, D) = AB’D + A’C’D + B’CD’ + AC’D.
Solution:
Convert into standard SOP form,
= AB‘D (C‘+C) + A‘C‘D (B‘+B) + B‘CD‘ (A‘+A) + AC‘D (B‘+B)
75

EnggTree.com
= AB‘C‘D + AB‘CD+ A‘B‘C‘D + A‘BC‘D +A‘B‘CD‘ + AB‘CD‘ +AB‘C‘D+ ABC‘D

= AB‘C‘D + AB‘CD+ A‘B‘C‘D + A‘BC‘D +A‘B‘CD‘ + AB‘CD‘+ ABC‘D
= m9+ m11+ m1+ m5+ m2+ m10+ m13
= ∑m (1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13).
Implementation Table:
9. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 and also using 4:1 multiplexer
F (w, x, y, z) = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14)
Solution:
Variables, n= 4 (w, x, y, z)
76

EnggTree.com

Multiplexer Implementation (Using 8:1 MUX):
(Using 4:1 MUX):
77

EnggTree.com
10. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 multiplexer

F (A, B, C, D) = ∏m (0, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14)
Solution:
78

EnggTree.com
11. Implement the Boolean function using 8: 1 multiplexer

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 2, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13) + d (3, 8, 14)
Solution:
Implementation Table:
79

EnggTree.com
12. An 8×1 multiplexer has inputs A, B and C connected to the selection inputs S2,
S1, and S0 respectively. The data inputs I0 to I7 are as follows
I1=I2=I7= 0; I3=I5= 1; I0=I4= D and I6= D'.
Determine the Boolean function that the multiplexer implements.
80

EnggTree.com
F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13).
DEMULTIPLEXER:
Demultiplex means one into many. Demultiplexing is the process of taking
information from one input and transmitting the same over one of several outputs.
A demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit that receives information on a
single input and transmits the same information over one of several (2n) output lines.
Block diagram of demultiplexer

The block diagram of a demultiplexer which is opposite to a multiplexer in its
operation is shown above. The circuit has one input signal, ‗n‘ select signals and 2n
output signals. The select inputs determine to which output the data input will be
connected. As the serial data is changed to parallel data, i.e., the input caused to appear
on one of the n output lines, the demultiplexer is also called a ―data distributer‖ or a
―serial-to-parallel converter‖ .
81

EnggTree.com
1-to-4 Demultiplexer:
A 1-to-4 demultiplexer has a single input, Din, four outputs (Y0 to Y3) and
two select inputs (S1 and S0).
Logic Symbol
The input variable Din has a path to all four outputs, but the input information
is directed to only one of the output lines. The truth table of the 1-to-4 demultiplexer is
shown below.
Enable S1 S0 Din Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3
0 x x x 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Truth table of 1-to-4 demultiplexer
From the truth table, it is clear that the data input, Din is connected to the
output Y0, when S1= 0 and S0= 0 and the data input is connected to output Y1 when S1=
0 and S0= 1. Similarly, the data input is connected to output Y2 and Y3 when S1= 1 and
S0= 0 and when S1= 1 and S0= 1, respectively. Also, from the truth table, the expression
for outputs can be written as follows,
82

EnggTree.com
Y0= S1’S0’Din
Y1= S1’S0Din
Y2= S1S0’Din
Y3= S1S0Din
Logic diagram of 1-to-4 demultiplexer
Now, using the above expressions, a 1-to-4 demultiplexer can be implemented

using four 3-input AND gates and two NOT gates. Here, the input data line Din, is connected
to all the AND gates. The two select lines S1, S0 enable only one gate at a time
and the data that appears on the input line passes through the selected gate to the
associated output line.
1-to-8 Demultiplexer:
A 1-to-8 demultiplexer has a single input, Din, eight outputs (Y0 to Y7) and
three select inputs (S2, S1 and S0). It distributes one input line to eight output lines
based on the select inputs. The truth table of 1-to-8 demultiplexer is shown below.
Din S2 S1 S0 Y7 Y6 Y5 Y4 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 x x x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
83

EnggTree.com
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Truth table of 1-to-8 demultiplexer
From the above truth table, it is clear that the data input is connected with one of
the eight outputs based on the select inputs. Now from this truth table, the expression
for eight outputs can be written as follows:
Y0= S2‘S1‘S0‘Din Y4= S2 S1‘S0‘Din
Y1= S2‘S1‘S0Din Y5= S2 S1‘S0Din
Y2= S2‘S1S0‘Din Y6= S2 S1S0‘Din
Y3= S2‘S1S0Din Y7= S2S1S0Din
Now using the above expressions, the logic diagram of a 1-to-8 demultiplexer can be
drawn as shown below. Here, the single data line, D in is connected to all the eight AND
gates, but only one of the eight AND gates will be enabled by the select input lines. For
example, if S2S1S0= 000, then only AND gate-0 will be enabled and thereby the data input,
Din will appear at Y0. Similarly, the different combinations of the select inputs, the input
Din will appear at the respective output.
84

EnggTree.com
Logic diagram of 1-to-8 demultiplexer

1. Design 1:8 demultiplexer using two 1:4 DEMUX.
85

EnggTree.com
2. Implement full subtractor using demultiplexer.
Inputs Outputs
A B Bin Difference(D) Borrow(Bout)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
86

EnggTree.com
EC3352 DSD II YEAR III SEM MSAJCE/ECE
UNIT III SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
In combinational logic circuits, the outputs at any instant of time depend only
on the input signals present at that time. For a change in input, the output occurs
immediately.
Combinational Circuit- Block Diagram
In sequential logic circuits, it consists of combinational circuits to which

storage elements are connected to form a feedback path. The storage elements are
devices capable of storing binary information either 1 or 0.
The information stored in the memory elements at any given time defines the
present state of the sequential circuit. The present state and the external circuit
determine the output and the next state of sequential circuits.
Sequential Circuit- Block Diagram
Thus in sequential circuits, the output variables depend not only on the
present input variables but also on the past history of input variables.
The rotary channel selected knob on an old-fashioned TV is like a
combinational. Its output selects a channel based only on its current input – the
position of the knob. The channel-up and channel-down push buttons on a TV is like
a sequential circuit. The channel selection depends on the past sequence of up/down
pushes.

EnggTree.com
The comparison between combinational and sequential circuits is given in

table below.
S.No Combinational logic Sequential logic

The output variable, at all times The output variable depends not only
1 depends on the combination of on the present input but also depend
input variables. upon the past history of inputs.
Memory unit is required to store the
2 Memory unit is not required
past history of input variables.
3 Faster in speed Slower than combinational circuits.
4 Easy to design Comparatively harder to design.
5 Eg. Parallel adder Eg. Serial adder
3.2 Classification of Logic Circuits
The sequential circuits can be classified depending on the timing of

their signals:
• Synchronous sequential circuits
• Asynchronous sequential circuits.
In synchronous sequential circuits, signals can affect the memory elements
only at discrete instants of time. In asynchronous sequential circuits change
in input signals can affect memory element at any instant of time. The
memory elements used in both circuits are Flip-Flops, which are capable of
storing 1-bit information.

EnggTree.com
S.No Synchronous sequential circuits Asynchronous sequential circuits

Memory elements are clocked Memory elements are either unclocked
1
Flip-Flops Flip-Flops or time delay elements.
The change in input signals can
The change in input signals can affect
2 affect memory element upon
memory element at any instant of time.
activation of clock signal.
The maximum operating speed Because of the absence of clock, it can
3 of clock depends on time delays operate faster than synchronous
involved. circuits.
4 Easier to design More difficult to design
3.3 LATCHES:
Latches and Flip-Flops are the basic building blocks of the most sequential
circuits. Latches are used for a sequential device that checks all of its inputs
continuously and changes its outputs accordingly at any time independent of clocking
signal. Enable signal is provided with the latch. When enable signal is active output
changes occur as the input changes. But when enable signal is not activated input
changes do not affect the output.
Flip-Flop is used for a sequential device that normally samples its inputs and
changes its outputs only at times determined by clocking signal.
3.3.1 SR Latch:
The simplest type of latch is the set-reset (SR) latch. It can be constructed from
either two NOR gates or two NAND gates.
SR latch using NOR gates:

The two NOR gates are cross-coupled so that the output of NOR gate 1 is
connected to one of the inputs of NOR gate 2 and vice versa. The latch has two outputs
Q and Q’ and two inputs, set and reset.

EnggTree.com
SR latch using NOR gates
Before going to analyse the SR latch, we recall that a logic 1 at any input of a
NOR gate forces its output to a logic 0. Let us understand the operation of this circuit
for various input/ output possibilities.
Case 1: S= 0 and R= 0
Initially, Q= 1 and Q’= 0
Let us assume that initially Q=1 and Q’=0. With Q’=0, both inputs to NORgate
1 are at logic 0. So, its output, Q is at logic 1. With Q=1, one input of NOR gate 2 is at
logic
1. Hence its output, Q’ is at logic 0. This shows that when S and R both are
low, the output does not change.
Initially, Q= 0 and Q’= 1

With Q’=1, one input of NOR gate 1 is at logic 1, hence its output, Q is at logic
0. With Q=0, both inputs to NOR gate 2 are at logic 0. So, its output Q’ is at logic 1. In
this case also there is no change in the output state.

EnggTree.com
In this case, R input of the NOR gate 1 is at logic 1, hence its output, Q is at logic 0.
Both inputs to NOR gate 2 are now at logic 0. So that its output, Q’ is at logic 1.
In this case, S input of the NOR gate 2 is at logic 1, hence its output, Q is at logic 0.
Both inputs to NOR gate 1 are now at logic 0. So that its output, Q is at logic 1.
When R and S both are at logic 1, they force the outputs of both NOR gates to
the low state, i.e., (Q=0 and Q’=0). So, we call this an indeterminate or prohibited
state, and represent this condition in the truth table as an asterisk (*). This condition
also violates the basic definition of a latch that requires Q to be complement of Q’.
Thus in normal operation this condition must be avoided by making sure that 1’s are
not applied to both the inputs simultaneously.
We can summarize the operation of SR latch as follows:
• When S= 0 and R= 0, the output, Qn+1 remains in its present state, Qn.
• When S= 0 and R= 1, the latch is reset to 0.
• When S= 1 and R= 0, the latch is set to 1.
• When S= 1 and R= 1, the output of both gates will produce 0.
i.e., Qn+1= Qn+1’= 0.

EnggTree.com
The truth table of NOR based SR latch is shown below.

S R Qn Qn+1 State
0 0 0 0 No Change
0 0 1 1 (NC)
0 1 0 0
Reset
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
Set
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 x Indeterminate
1 1 1 x *
SR latch using NAND gates:

The SR latch can also be implemented using NAND gates. The inputs of this
Latch are S and R. To understand how this circuit functions, recall that a low on any
input to a NAND gate forces its output high.
SR latch using NAND gates
Logic Symbol
We can summarize the operation of SR latch as follows:

• When S= 0 and R= 0, the output of both gates will produce 0.
i.e., Qn+1= Qn+1’= 1.
• When S= 0 and R= 1, the latch is reset to 0.
• When S= 1 and R= 0, the latch is set to 1.
• When S= 1 and R= 1, the output, Qn+1 remains in its present state, Qn.

6
EnggTree.com
The truth table of NAND based SR latch is shown below.

S R Qn Qn+1 State
0 0 0 x Indeterminate
0 0 1 x *
0 1 0 1
Set
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
Reset
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 No Change
1 1 1 1 (NC)
Gated SR Latch:
In the SR latch, the output changes occur immediately after the input
changes i.e, the latch is sensitive to its S and R inputs all the time.
A latch that is sensitive to the inputs only when an enable input is active.
Such a latch with enable input is known as gated SR latch.
• The circuit behaves like SR latch when EN= 1. It retains its previous state
when EN= 0
SR Latch with enable input using NAND gates Logic Symbol
The truth table of gated SR latch is show below.

EN S R Qn Qn+1 State
1 0 0 0 0
No Change (NC)
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
Reset
1 0 1 1 0

7
EnggTree.com
1 1 0 0 1
Set
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 x Indeterminate
1 1 1 1 x *
0 x x 0 0
No Change (NC)
0 x x 1 1
When S is HIGH and R is LOW, a HIGH on the EN input sets the latch. When S is
LOW and R is HIGH, a HIGH on the EN input resets the latch.
3.3.2 D Latch
In SR latch, when both inputs are same (00 or 11), the output either does not
change or it is invalid. In many practical applications, these input conditions are not
required. These input conditions can be avoided by making them complement of each
other. This modified SR latch is known as D latch.
D Latch Logic Symbol

8
EnggTree.com
As shown in the figure, D input goes directly to the S input, and its complement
is applied to the R input. Therefore, only two input conditions exists, either S=0 and
R=1 or S=1 and R=0. The truth table for D latch is shown below.
EN D Qn Qn+1 State
1 0 x 0 Reset
1 1 x 1 Set
0 x x Qn No Change (NC)
As shown in the truth table, the Q output follows the D input. For this reason,
D latch is called transparent latch.
When D is HIGH and EN is HIGH. Q goes HIGH. When D is LOW and EN is
HIGH, Q goes LOW. When EN is LOW, the state of the latch is not affected by the D
input.
3.4 TRIGGERING OF FLIP-FLOPS
The state of a Flip-Flop is switched by a momentary change in the input signal.

This momentary change is called a trigger and the transition it causes is said to trigger
the Flip-Flop. Clocked Flip-Flops are triggered by pulses. A clock pulse starts from an
initial value of 0, goes momentarily to 1and after a short time, returns to its initial 0
value.
Latches are controlled by enable signal, and they are level triggered, either
positive level triggered or negative level triggered. The output is free to change
according to the S and R input values, when active level is maintained at the enable
input.

9
EnggTree.com
Flip-Flops are different from latches. Flip-Flops are pulse or clock edge
triggered instead of level triggered.
3.5 EDGE TRIGGERED FLIP-FLOPS
Flip-Flops are synchronous bistable devices (has two outputs Q and Q’). In this
case, the term synchronous means that the output changes state only at aspecified
point on the triggering input called the clock (CLK), i.e., changes in the output occur
in synchronization with the clock.
An edge-triggered Flip-Flop changes state either at the positive edge (rising
edge) or at the negative edge (falling edge) of the clock pulse and is sensitive to its
inputs only at this transition of the clock. The different types of edge-triggered Flip-
Flops are—
• S-R Flip-Flop,
• J-K Flip-Flop,
• D Flip-Flop,
• T Flip-Flop.
Although the S-R Flip-Flop is not available in IC form, it is the basis for the D
and J-K Flip-Flops. Each type can be either positive edge-triggered (no bubble at C

10
EnggTree.com
input) or negative edge-triggered (bubble at C input). The key to identifying an edge-

triggered Flip-Flop by its logic symbol is the small triangle inside the block at the
clock (C) input. This triangle is called the dynamic input indicator.
3.5.1 S-R Flip-Flop

The S and R inputs of the S-R Flip-Flop are called synchronous inputs because
data on these inputs are transferred to the Flip-Flop's output only on the triggering
edge of the clock pulse. The circuit is similar to SR latch except enable signal is
replaced by clock pulse (CLK). On the positive edge of the clock pulse, the circuit
responds to the S and R inputs.
SR Flip-Flop
When S is HIGH and R is LOW, the Q output goes HIGH on the triggering edge
of the clock pulse, and the Flip-Flop is SET. When S is LOW and R is HIGH, theQ
output goes LOW on the triggering edge of the clock pulse, and the Flip-Flop is RESET.
When both S and R are LOW, the output does not change from its prior state. An
invalid condition exists when both S and R are HIGH.
CLK S R Qn Qn+1 State

1 0 0 0 0
No Change (NC)
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
Reset
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
Set
1 1 0 1 1

11
EnggTree.com
1 1 1 0 x Indeterminate
1 1 1 1 x *
0 x x 0 0
No Change (NC)
0 x x 1 1
Truth table for SR Flip-Flop
Input and output waveforms of SR Flip-Flop
3.5.2 J-K Flip-Flop:

JK means Jack Kilby, Texas Instrument (TI) Engineer, who invented IC in 1958.
JK Flip-Flop has two inputs J(set) and K(reset). A JK Flip-Flop can be obtained from
the clocked SR Flip-Flop by augmenting two AND gates as shown below.
JK Flip Flop
The data input J and the output Q’ are applied o the first AND gate and its
output (JQ’) is applied to the S input of SR Flip-Flop. Similarly, the data input K and

12
EnggTree.com
the output Q are applied to the second AND gate and its output (KQ) is applied to
the R input of SR Flip-Flop.
J=K=0
When J=K= 0, both AND gates are disabled. Therefore clock pulse have no
effect, hence the Flip-Flop output is same as the previous output.
J=0,K=1
When J= 0 and K= 1, AND gate 1 is disabled i.e., S= 0 and R= 1. This condition
will reset the Flip-Flop to 0.
J=1,K=0
When J= 1 and K= 0, AND gate 2 is disabled i.e., S= 1 and R= 0. Therefore the
Flip-Flop will set on the application of a clock pulse.
J=K=0
When J=K= 1, it is possible to set or reset the Flip-Flop. If Q is High, AND gate
2 passes on a reset pulse to the next clock. When Q is low, AND gate 1 passes on a
set pulse to the next clock. Eitherway, Q changes to the complement of the last state
i.e., toggle. Toggle means to switch to the opposite state. The truth table of JK Flip-
Flop is given below.
Inputs Output
CLK State
J K Qn+1
1 0 0 Qn No Change
1 0 1 0 Reset
1 1 0 1 Set
1 1 1 Qn’ Toggle

13
EnggTree.com
Input and output waveforms of JK Flip-Flop
Characteristic table and Characteristic equation:

The characteristic table for JK Flip-Flop is shown in the table below. From the table,
K-map for the next state transition (Qn+1) can be drawn and the simplified logic expression
which represents the characteristic equation of JK Flip-Flop can be found.
Qn J K Qn+1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Characteristic table
Characteristic equation: Qn+1= JQ’+ K’Q.

14
EnggTree.com
3.5.3 D Flip-Flop:
Like in D latch, in D Flip-Flop the basic SR Flip-Flop is used with complemented
inputs. The D Flip-Flop is similar to D-latch except clock pulse is used instead of
enable input.
D Flip-Flop
To eliminate the undesirable condition of the indeterminate state in the RS Flip-

Flop is to ensure that inputs S and R are never equal to 1 at the same time. This is done
by D Flip-Flop. The D (delay) Flip-Flop has one input called delay input andclock
pulse input. The D Flip-Flop using SR Flip-Flop is shown below.
The truth table of D Flip-Flop is given below.
Clock D Qn+1 State
1 0 0 Reset
1 1 1 Set
0 x Qn No Change
Truth table for D Flip-Flop

15
EnggTree.com
Input and output waveforms of clocked D Flip-Flop
Looking at the truth table for D Flip-Flop we can realize that Qn+1
function follows the D input at the positive going edges of the clock pulses.

The characteristic table for D Flip-Flop shows that the next state of the Flip-
Flop is independent of the present state since Qn+1 is equal to D. This means that an input
pulse will transfer the value of input D into the output of the Flip-Flop independent of
the value of the output before the pulse was applied.
The characteristic equation is derived from K-map.
Qn D Qn+1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Characteristic table
Characteristic equation: Qn+1= D.

16
EnggTree.com
3.5.4 T Flip-Flop
The T (Toggle) Flip-Flop is a modification of the JK Flip-Flop. It is obtained
from JK Flip-Flop by connecting both inputs J and K together, i.e., single input.
Regardless of the present state, the Flip-Flop complements its output when the clock
pulse occurs while input T= 1.
T Flip-Flop
When T= 0, Qn+1= Qn, ie., the next state is the sameas the present state and no
change occurs.
When T= 1, Qn+1= Qn’,ie., the next state is the complement of the present state.
The truth table of T Flip-Flop is given below.
T Qn+1 State
0 QnN o Change
1 Qn’Toggle
Truth table for T Flip-Flop

17
EnggTree.com

The characteristic table for T Flip-Flop is shown below and characteristic
equation is derived using K-map.
Qn T Qn+1
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Characteristic equation: Qn+1= TQn’+ T’Qn.
3.5.5 Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop

A master-slave Flip-Flop is constructed using two separate JK Flip-Flops. The
first Flip-Flop is called the master. It is driven by the positive edge of the clock pulse. The
second Flip-Flop is called the slave. It is driven by the negative edge of the clock
pulse. The logic diagram of a master-slave JK Flip-Flop is shown below.
Logic diagram
When the clock pulse has a positive edge, the master acts according to its J-K
inputs, but the slave does not respond, since it requires a negative edge at the clock
input.

18
EnggTree.com
When the clock input has a negative edge, the slave Flip-Flop copies the
master outputs. But the master does not respond since it requires a positive edge at
its clock input.
The clocked master-slave J-K Flip-Flop using NAND gates is shown below.
Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop
3.6 APPLICATION TABLE (OR) EXCITATION TABLE:

The characteristic table is useful for analysis and for defining the operation
of the Flip-Flop. It specifies the next state (Qn+1) when the inputs and present state
are known.
The excitation or application table is useful for design process. It is used to
find the Flip-Flop input conditions that will cause the required transition, when the
present state (Qn) and the next state (Qn+1) are known.

19
EnggTree.com
3.6.1 SR Flip-Flop:
Present Next
Inputs
State State Present Next
Inputs Inputs
Qn S R Qn+1 State State
0 0 0 0 Qn Qn+1 S R S R
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 x
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 x
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 x 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 x
Modified Table
Characteristic Table
Present Next
Inputs
State State
Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 x 0
Excitation Table
The above table presents the excitation table for SR Flip-Flop. It consists of present
state (Qn), next state (Qn+1) and a column for each input to show how the required
transition is achieved.
There are 4 possible transitions from present state to next state. The required
Input conditions for each of the four transitions are derived from the information
available in the characteristic table. The symbol ‘x’ denotes the don’t care condition,
it does not matter whether the input is 0 or 1.

20
EnggTree.com
3.6.2 JK Flip-Flop:
Present Next Present Next
Inputs Inputs Inputs
State State State State
Qn J K Qn+1 Qn Qn+1 J K J K
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 x
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 x
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
x 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
x 0
1 1 1 0
Characteristic Table Modified Table
Present Next
Inputs
State State
Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x
1 0 x 1
1 1 x 0
Excitation Table

21
EnggTree.com
3.6.3 D Flip-Flop
Present Next Present Next

Input Input
State State State State
Qn D Qn+1 Qn Qn+1 D
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
Characteristic Table Excitation Table
3.6.4 T Flip-Flop
Present Next
Input
State State Present Next
Input
Qn T Qn+1 State State
0 0 0 Qn Qn+1 T
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0
Characteristic Table
Modified Table

22
EnggTree.com
3.7 REALIZATION OF ONE FLIP-FLOP USING OTHER FLIP-FLOPS
It is possible to convert one Flip-Flop into another Flip-Flop with some

additional gates or simply doing some extra connection. The realization of one Flip-
Flop using other Flip-Flops is implemented by the use of characteristic tables and
excitation tables. Let us see few conversions among Flip-Flops.
SR Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop
SR Flip-Flop to JK Flip-Flop
SR Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop
JK Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop
JK Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop
D Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop
T Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop
3.7.1 SR Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop:

• Write the characteristic table for required Flip-Flop (D Flip-Flop).
• Write the excitation table for given Flip-Flop (SR Flip-Flop).
• Determine the expression for the given Flip-Flop inputs (S and R) by
using K- map.
• Draw the Flip-Flop conversion logic diagram to obtain the required Flip-
Flop (D Flip-Flop) by using the above obtained expression.
The excitation table for the above conversion is

Given Flip-Flop
Required Flip-Flop (D)
(SR)
Input Present state Next state Flip-Flop Inputs
D Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 0 x
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 x 0

23
EnggTree.com
D Flip-Flop
3.7.2 SR Flip-Flop to JK Flip-Flop

The excitation table for the above conversion is,
Flip-Flop
Inputs Present state Next state
Input
J K Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 0 0 x
0 0 1 1 x 0
0 1 0 0 0 x
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 x 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1
JK Flip-Flop

24
EnggTree.com
2.7.3 SR Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop

Flip-Flop
Input Present state Next state
Inputs
T Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
3.7.4 JK Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop

Flip-Flop
Inputs
T Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x 0
1 0 1 1 x
1 1 0 x 1

25
EnggTree.com
JK Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop
Flip-Flop
Inputs
D Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 0 x
0 1 0 x 1
1 0 1 1 x
1 1 1 x 0
D Flip-Flop to T Flip-Flop
Flip-Flop
Input
T Qn Qn+1 D
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

26
EnggTree.com
T Flip-Flop to D Flip-Flop
Flip-Flop
Input
D Qn Qn+1 T
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0
3.8 CLASSIFICATION OF SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT:
In synchronous or clocked sequential circuits, clocked Flip-Flops are used as

memory elements, which change their individual states in synchronism with the
periodic clock signal. Therefore, the change in states of Flip-Flop and change in state
of the entire circuits occur at the transition of the clock signal.
The synchronous or clocked sequential networks are represented by two models.
• Moore model: The output depends only on the present state of the Flip-Flops.
• Mealy model: The output depends on both the present state of the Flip-Flops
and on the inputs.

27
EnggTree.com
3.8.1 Moore model:

In the Moore model, the outputs are a function of the present state of the Flip-
Flops only. The output depends only on present state of Flip-Flops, it appears only
after the clock pulse is applied, i.e., it varies in synchronism with the clock input.
Moore model
3.8.2 Mealy model:

In the Mealy model, the outputs are functions of both the present state of the
Flip-Flops and inputs.
Mealy model
3.8.3 Difference between Moore and Mealy model

Sl.No Moore model Mealy model
1 Its output is a function of present Its output is a function of present state
state only. as well as present input.
2 Input changes does not affect the Input changes may affect the output of
output. the circuit.
3 It requires more number of states It requires less number of states for
for implementing same function. implementing same function.

28
EnggTree.com
3.9 ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT:
The behavior of a sequential circuit is determined from the inputs, outputs

and the state of its Flip-Flops. The outputs and the next state are both a function of
the inputs and the present state. The analysis of a sequential circuit consists of
obtaining a table or diagram from the time sequence of inputs, outputs and internal
states.
Before going to see the analysis and design examples, we first understand the
state diagram, state table.
3.9.1 State Diagram

State diagram is a pictorial representation of a behavior of a sequential
circuit.
In the state diagram, a state is represented by a circle and the transition between
states is indicated by directed lines connecting the circles.
A directed line connecting a circle with circle with itself indicates that next
state is same as present state.
The binary number inside each circle identifies the state represented by the circle.
The directed lines are labeled with two binary numbers separated by a symbol
‘/’. The input value that causes the state transition is labeled first and the output
value during the present state is labeled after the symbol ‘/’.
In case of Moore circuit, the directed lines are labeled with only one binary number
representing the state of the input that causes the state transition. The output state is
indicated within the circle, below the present state because output state depends only
on present state and not on the input.

29
EnggTree.com
State diagram for Mealy circuit State diagram for Moore circuit
3.9.2 State Table

State table represents relationship between input, output and Flip-Flop states.
It consists of three sections labeled present state, next state and output.
o The present state designates the state of Flip-Flops before the occurrence
of a clock pulse, and the output section gives the values of the output
variables during the present state.
o Both the next state and output sections have two columns representing
two possible input conditions: X= 0 and X=1.
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
AB AB AB Y Y
a a c 0 0
b b a 0 0
c d c 0 1
d b d 0 0

30
EnggTree.com
In case of Moore circuit, the output section has only one column since output
does not depend on input.
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 Y
AB AB AB
a a c 0
b b a 0
c d c 1
d b d 0
2.9.3 State Equation

It is an algebraic expression that specifies the condition for a Flip-Flop state
transition.
The Flip-Flops may be of any type and the logic diagram may or may not
include combinational circuit gates.
3.9.4 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
The synchronous sequential circuit analysis is summarizes as given below:

1. Assign a state variable to each Flip-Flop in the synchronous sequential circuit.
2. Write the excitation input functions for each Flip-Flop and also write the
Moore/ Mealy output equations.
3. Substitute the excitation input functions into the bistable equations for
the Flip-Flops to obtain the next state output equations.
4. Obtain the state table and reduced form of the state table.
5. Draw the state diagram by using the second form of the state table.

31
EnggTree.com
3.9.5 Analysis of Mealy Model

1. A sequential circuit has two JK Flip-Flops A and B, one input (x) and one output
(y). the Flip-Flop input functions are,
JA= B+ x JB= A’+ x’
KA= 1 KB= 1
and the circuit output function, Y= xA’B.
a) Draw the logic diagram of the Mealy circuit,
b) Tabulate the state table,
c) Draw the state diagram.
Soln:
State table:
To obtain the next-state values of a sequential circuit with JK Flip-Flops, use
the JK Flip-Flop characteristics table.
Present state Input Flip-Flop Inputs Next state Output

JA= B+ x KA= 1 JB= A’+ x’ KB= 1
A B x A(t+1) B(t+1) Y= xA’B
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

32
EnggTree.com
Next state Output
x= 0 x= 1 x= 0 x= 1
A B A B A B y y
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Second form of state table
State Diagram:
State Diagram
2. A sequential circuit with two ‘D’ Flip-Flops A and B, one input (x) and one
output (y). the Flip-Flop input functions are:
DA= Ax+ Bx
DB= A’xand the circuit output function is,
Y= (A+ B) x’.
(a) Draw the logic diagram of the circuit,
(b) Tabulate the state table,
(c) Draw the state diagram.
Soln:

33
EnggTree.com
State Table:
DA=
A B x DB= A’x A(t+1) B(t+1) Y= (A+B)x’
Ax+Bx
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Next state Output

Present state
x= 0 x= 1 x= 0 x= 1
A B A B A B Y Y
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

34
EnggTree.com
State Diagram:
3. Analyze the synchronous Mealy machine and obtain its state diagram.
Soln:
The given synchronous Mealy machine consists of two D Flip-Flops, one inputs and
one output.
The Flip-Flop input functions are,
DA= Y1’Y2X’
DB= X+ Y1’Y2
The circuit output function is, Z= Y1Y2X
State Table:

35
EnggTree.com

Y1 Y2 X DA= Y1’Y2X’ DB= X+ Y1’Y2 Y1 (t+1) Y2 (t+1) Z= Y1Y2X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Z Z
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
State Diagram:

36
EnggTree.com
4. A sequential circuit has two JK Flop-Flops A and B, two inputs x and y and
one output z. The Flip-Flop input equation and circuit output equations are
JA = Bx + B' y' KA = B' xy'
JB = A' x KB = A+ xy'
z = Ax' y' + Bx' y'
(a) Draw the logic diagram of the circuit

(b) Tabulate the state table.
(c) Derive the state equation.
State diagram:
State table:
To obtain the next-state values of a sequential circuit with JK Flip-Flop, use
the JK Flip-Flop characteristic table,

37
EnggTree.com
Present
Input Flip-Flop Inputs Next state Output
state
JA= KA= JB= KB=
A B x y A(t+1) B(t+1) z
Bx+B’y’ B’xy’ A’x A+xy’
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
State Equation:

38
EnggTree.com
5. A sequential circuit has two JK Flip-Flop A and B. the Flip-Flop input functions
are: JA= B JB= x’
KA= Bx’ KB= A x.

Logic diagram:
The output function is not given in the problem. The output of the Flip-Flops
may be considered as the output of the circuit.
State table:
To obtain the next-state values of a sequential circuit with JK Flip-Flop, use
the JK Flip-Flop characteristic table.
Present state Input Flip-Flop Inputs Next state

A B x JA= B KA= Bx’ JB= x’ KB= A x A(t+1) B(t+1)
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

39
EnggTree.com
Next state
X= 0 X= 1
A B A B A B
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1
State Diagram:
3.9.6 Analysis of Moore Model

6. Analyze the synchronous Moore circuit and obtain its state diagram.
Soln:
Using the assigned variable Y1 and Y2 for the two JK Flip-Flops, we can write
the four excitation input equations and the Moore output equation as follows:

40
EnggTree.com
JA= Y2X ; KA= Y2’

JB= X ; KB= X’ and output function, Z= Y1Y2’
State table:
Y2
Y1 Y2 X JA= Y2X KA= Y2’ JB= X KB= X’ Y1 (t+1) (t+1) Z= Y1Y2’
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1
Y
Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0

State Diagram:
Here the output depends on the present state only and is independent of the
input. The two values inside each circle separated by a slash are for the present state
and output.

41
EnggTree.com
7. A sequential circuit has two T Flip-Flop A and B. The Flip-Flop input functions
are:
TA= Bx TB = x
y= AB
Soln:
Logic diagram:
State table
A B x TA= Bx TB = x A (t+1) B (t+1) y= AB
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

42
EnggTree.com
Next state Output

Present state
x= 0 x= 1 x= 0 x= 1
A B A B A B y y
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
State Diagram:
3.10 STATE REDUCTION/ MINIMIZATION

The state reduction is used to avoid the redundant states in the sequential
circuits. The reduction in redundant states reduces the number of required Flip-Flops
and logic gates, reducing the cost of the final circuit.
The two states are said to be redundant or equivalent, if every possible set of
inputs generate exactly same output and same next state. When two states are
equivalent, one of them can be removed without altering the input-output
relationship.
Since ‘n’ Flip-Flops produced 2n state, a reduction in the number of states may
result in a reduction in the number of Flip-Flops.
The need for state reduction or state minimization is explained with one example.

43
EnggTree.com
State diagram
Step 1: Determine the state table for given state diagram

Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a b c 0 0
b d e 1 0
c c d 0 1
d a d 0 0
e c d 0 1
State table
Step 2: Find equivalent states

From the above state table c and e generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state c and e go to next states c and d and
have outputs 0 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state e can be removed
and replaced by c. The final reduced state table is shown below.
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a b c 0 0
b d c 1 0
c c d 0 1
d a d 0 0
Reduced state table

44
EnggTree.com
The state diagram for the reduced table consists of only four states and is shown
below.
Reduced state diagram
1. Reduce the number of states in the following state table and tabulate the reduced
state table.
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e f 0 1
e a f 0 1
f g f 0 1
g a f 0 1
Soln:
From the above state table e and g generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state e and g go to next states a and f and
have outputs 0 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state g can be removed
and replaced by e.
The reduced state table-1 is shown below.

45
EnggTree.com
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e f 0 1
e a f 0 1
f e f 0 1
Reduced state table-1
Now states d and f are equivalent. Both states go to the same next state (e, f)
and have same output (0, 1). Therefore one state can be removed; f is replaced by d.
The final reduced state table-2 is shown below.
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e d 0 1
e a d 0 1
Thus 7 states are reduced into 5 states.
2. Determine a minimal state table equivalent furnished below
Next state
Present state
X= 0 X= 1
1 1, 0 1, 0
2 1, 1 6, 1
3 4, 0 5, 0
4 1, 1 7, 0
5 2, 0 3, 0
6 4, 0 5, 0
7 2, 0 3, 0

46
EnggTree.com
Soln:
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
1 1 1 0 0
2 1 6 1 1
3 4 5 0 0
4 1 7 1 0
5 2 3 0 0
6 4 5 0 0
7 2 3 0 0
From the above state table, 5 and 7 generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state 5 and 7 go to next states 2 and 3 and
have outputs 0 and 0 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state 7 can be removed
and replaced by 5.
Similarly, 3 and 6 generate exactly same next state and same output for
every possible set of inputs. The state 3 and 6 go to next states 4 and 5 and have
outputs 0 and 0 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state 6 can be removed and
replaced by 3.
The final reduced state table is shown below.
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
1 1 1 0 0
2 1 3 1 1
3 4 5 0 0
4 1 5 1 0
5 2 3 0 0
Reduced state table

47
EnggTree.com
3. Minimize the following state table.
Present state Next state

X= 0 X= 1
A D, 0 C, 1
B E, 1 A, 1
C H, 1 D, 1
D D, 0 C, 1
E B, 0 G, 1
F H, 1 D, 1
G A, 0 F, 1
H C, 0 A, 1
I G, 1 H,1
Soln:
Present state Next state Output

X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
A D C 0 1
B E A 1 1
C H D 1 1
D D C 0 1
E B G 0 1
F H D 1 1
G A F 0 1
H C A 0 1
I G H 1 1
From the above state table, A and D generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state A and D go to next states D and C
and have outputs 0 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state D can be
removed and replaced by A. Similarly, C and F generate exactly same next state and
same output for every possible set of inputs. The state C and F go to next states H and
D and have outputs 1 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state F can be
removed and replaced by C.
The reduced state table-1 is shown below.

48
EnggTree.com
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
A A C 0 1
B E A 1 1
C H A 1 1
E B G 0 1
G A C 0 1
H C A 0 1
I G H 1 1
From the above reduced state table-1, A and G generate exactly same next
state and same output for every possible set of inputs. The state A and G go to next
states A and C and have outputs 0 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state
G can be removed and replaced by A. The final reduced state table-2 is shown below.
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
A A C 0 1
B E A 1 1
C H A 1 1
E B A 0 1
H C A 0 1
I A H 1 1
4. Reduce the following state diagram.

49
EnggTree.com
Soln:
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e f 0 1
e a f 0 1
f g f 0 1
g a f 0 1
State table
From the above state table e and g generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state e and g go to next states a and f and
have outputs 0 and 1 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state g can be removed
and replaced by e. The reduced state table-1 is shown below.

X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e f 0 1
e a f 0 1
f e f 0 1
Now states d and f are equivalent. Both states go to the same next state (e, f)
and have same output (0, 1). Therefore one state can be removed; f is replaced by d.
The final reduced state table-2 is shown below.

X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c d 0 0
c a d 0 0
d e d 0 1
e a d 0 1

The state diagram for the reduced state table-2 is,

50
EnggTree.com
Reduced state diagram
3.11 DESIGN OF SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS:
A synchronous sequential circuit is made up of number of Flip-Flops and

combinational gates. The design of circuit consists of choosing the Flip-Flops and then
finding a combinational gate structure together with the Flip-Flops. The number of
Flip-Flops is determined from the number of states needed in the circuit. The
combinational circuit is derived from the state table.
3.11.1 Design procedure:
1. The given problem is determined with a state diagram.

2. From the state diagram, obtain the state table.
3. The number of states may be reduced by state reduction methods (if
applicable).
4. Assign binary values to each state (Binary Assignment) if the state
table contains letter symbols.
5. Determine the number of Flip-Flops and assign a letter symbol (A, B, C,…)
to each.
6. Choose the type of Flip-Flop (SR, JK, D, T) to be used.
7. From the state table, circuit excitation and output tables.
8. Using K-map or any other simplification method, derive the circuit output
functions and the Flip-Flop input functions.
9. Draw the logic diagram.

51
EnggTree.com
The type of Flip-Flop to be used may be included in the design specifications

or may depend what is available to the designer. Many digital systems are
constructed with JK Flip-Flops because they are the most versatile available. The
selection of inputs is given as follows.
Flip-Flop Application
JK General Applications
D Applications requiring transfer of
data
T (Ex: Shift Registers)
Application involving
complementation (Ex:
Binary Counters)

52
EnggTree.com
3.11.2 Excitation Tables:

Before going to the design examples for the clocked synchronous sequential
circuits we revise Flip-Flop excitation tables.
Present Next
Inputs
State State
Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 x 0
Excitation table for SR Flip-Flop
Present Next
Inputs
State State
Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x
1 0 x 1
1 1 x 0
Excitation table for JK Flip-Flop
Present Next
Input
State State
Qn Qn+1 T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Excitation table for T Flip-Flop
Present Next
Input
State State
Qn Qn+1 D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Excitation table for D Flip-Flop

53
EnggTree.com
Synchronous Sequential Circuits 3.55
3.11.3 Problems
1. A sequential circuit has one input and one output. The state diagram is shown
below. Design the sequential circuit with a) D-Flip-Flops, b) T Flip-Flops, c) RS
Flip-Flops and d) JK Flip-Flops.
Solution:
State Table:
The state table for the state diagram is,
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
A B AB AB Y Y
0 0 00 10 0 1
0 1 11 00 0 0
1 0 10 01 1 0
1 1 00 10 1 0
State reduction:
As seen from the state table there is no equivalent states. Therefore,
no reduction in the state diagram.
The state table shows that circuit goes through four states, therefore we
require 2 Flip-Flops (number of states= 2m, where m= number of Flip-Flops). Since
two Flip-Flops are required first is denoted as A and second is denoted as B.

55
EnggTree.com
i) Design using D Flip-Flops:

Excitation table:
Using the excitation table for T Flip-Flop, we can determine the excitation
table for the
given circuit as,
Present State Next State Input
Qn Qn+1 D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Excitation table for D Flip-Flop
Flip-Flop
Present state Input Next state Output
Inputs
D
A B X A B A DB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Circuit excitation table

56
EnggTree.com
With these Flip-Flop input functions and circuit output function we can draw
the logic diagram as follows.
Logic diagram of given sequential circuit using D Flip-Flop
ii) Design using T Flip-Flops:

Using the excitation table for T Flip-Flop, we can determine the excitation
table for the given circuit as,
Present State Next State Input
Qn Qn+1 T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Excitation table for T Flip-Flop

57
EnggTree.com
Flip-Flop
Inputs
A B X A B TA TB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Therefore, input functions for,
TA= B  x and
TB= AB+ AX+ BX
Circuit output function, Y = XA’B’+ X’A

58
EnggTree.com
Logic diagram of given sequential circuit using T Flip-Flop
iii) Design using SR Flip-Flops:

Using the excitation table for RS Flip-Flop, we can determine the excitation
Present State Next State Inputs
Qn Qn+1 S R
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 x 0
Excitation table for SR Flip-Flop
Present
Input Next state Flip-Flop Inputs Output
state
A B X A B SA RA SB RB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 x 0 x 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 x 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 x 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 x 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 x 0 0 x 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 x 0 0 1 0

59
EnggTree.com

60
EnggTree.com
iii) Design using JK Flip-Flops:
Using the excitation table for JK Flip-Flop, we can determine the excitation

Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x
1 0 x 1
1 1 x 0
Present
state
A B X A B JA KA JB KB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 x 0 x 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 x 0 x 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 x x 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 x x 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 x 0 0 x 1
1 0 1 0 1 x 1 1 x 0
1 1 0 0 0 x 1 x 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 x 0 x 1 0

61
EnggTree.com
The input functions for,
JA= BX’+ B’X JB= AX

=BX
KA= BX’+ B’X KB= A+ X

=BX
Circuit output function, Y= AX’+ A’B’X

Logic diagram of given sequential circuit using JK Flip-Flop

62
EnggTree.com
2. Design a clocked sequential machine using JK Flip-Flops for the state diagram
shown in the figure. Use state reduction if possible. Make proper state
assignment.
Soln:
State Table:
Next state Output
Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c b 0 0
c a b 0 1
d a b 0 0
From the above state table a and d generate exactly same next state and same
output for every possible set of inputs. The state a and d go to next states a and b
and have outputs 0 and 0 for x=0 and x=1 respectively. Therefore state d can be
removed and replaced by a. The final reduced state table is shown below.
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b c b 0 0
c a b 0 1
Reduced State table
Binary Assignment:
Now each state is assigned with binary values. Since there are three states,
number of Flip-Flops required is two and 2 binary numbers are assigned to the states.
a= 00; b= 0; and c= 10
The reduced state diagram is drawn as,

63
EnggTree.com
Reduced State Diagram
Excitation Table:
Qn Qn+1 J K
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 x
1 0 x 1
1 1 x 0
Present
state
X A B A B JA KA JB KB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 x 0 x 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 x 1 x 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 x x 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 x x 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 x 0
1 1 0 0 1 x 1 1 x 1
0 1 1 x x x x x x x
1 1 1 x x x x x x x

64
EnggTree.com
3. Design a clocked sequential machine using T Flip-Flops for the following state
diagram. Use state reduction if possible. Also use straight binary state
assignment.
Soln:
State Table:
State table for the given state diagram is,

65
EnggTree.com
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
a a b 0 0
b d c 0 0
c a b 1 0
d b a 1 1
Even though a and c are having same next states for input X=0 and X=1,
as the outputs are not same state reduction is not possible.
State Assignment:
Use straight binary assignments as a= 00, b= 01, c= 10 and d= 11, the
transition table is,
Flip-Flop
Input Present state Next state Output
Inputs
X A B A B TA TB Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
K-map simplification:

66
EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
3.12 STATE ASSIGNMENT:

In sequential circuits, the behavior of the circuit is defined in terms of its inputs,
present states, next states and outputs. To generate desired next state at particular
present state and inputs, it is necessary to have specific Flip-Flop inputs. These Flip-Flop
inputs are described by a set of Boolean functions called Flip-Flopinput functions.
To determine the Flip-Flop functions, it is necessary to represent states in the state
diagram using binary values instead of alphabets. This procedure is known as state
assignment.
Reduced state diagram with binary states

67
EnggTree.com
3.15.1 Rules for state assignments

There are two basic rules for making state assignments.
Rule 1:
States having the same NEXT STATES for a given input condition should
have assignments which can be grouped into logically adjacent cells in a K-map.
Rule 2:
States that are the NEXT STATES of a single state should have assignment
which can be grouped into logically adjacent cells in a K-map.
Next state Output

Present state
X= 0 X= 1 X= 0 X= 1
00 01 10 0 0
01 11 10 1 0
10 10 11 0 1
11 00 11 0 0
State table with assignment states
3.15.2 State Assignment Problem:

1. Design a sequential circuit for a state diagram shown below. Use state
assignment rules for assigning states and compare the required combinational
circuit with random state assignment.
Using random state assignment we assign,

a= 000, b= 001, c= 010, d= 011 and e= 100.

68
EnggTree.com
The excitation table with these assignments is given as,

An Bn Cn X An+1 Bn+1 Cn+1 Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 x x x x
1 0 1 1 x x x x
1 1 0 0 x x x x
1 1 0 1 x x x x
1 1 1 0 x x x x
1 1 1 1 x x x x

69
EnggTree.com
The random assignments require:

7 three input AND functions
1 two input AND function
4 two input OR functions
12 gates with 31 inputs
Now, we will apply the state assignment rules and compare the results.
State diagram after applying Rules 1 and 2
Rule 1 says that: e and d must be adjacent, and

b and c must be adjacent.
Rule 2 says that: e and d must be adjacent, and
b and c must be adjacent.
Applying Rule 1, Rule 2 to the state diagram we get the state assignment as,

An Bn Cn X An+1 Bn+1 Cn+1 Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 x x x x
0 1 0 1 x x x x
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 x x x x
1 0 0 1 x x x x
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 x x x x
1 1 0 1 x x x x
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

70
EnggTree.com
The state assignments using Rule 1 and 2 require:

4 three input AND functions
1 two input AND function
2 two input OR functions
7 gates with 18 inputs
Thus by simply applying Rules 1 and 2 good results have been achieved.

71
EnggTree.com
3.14 SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS
Flip-Flops can be connected together to perform counting operations. Such a

group of Flip- Flops is a counter. The number of Flip-Flops used and the way in which
they are connected determine the number of states (called the modulus) and also the
specific sequence of states that the counter goes through during each complete cycle.
Counters are classified into two broad categories according to the way they are
clocked:
Asynchronous counters,
Synchronous counters.
In asynchronous (ripple) counters, the first Flip-Flop is clocked by the external
clock pulse and then each successive Flip-Flop is clocked by the output of the
preceding Flip-Flop.
In synchronous counters, the clock input is connected to all of the Flip-Flops so
that they are clocked simultaneously. Within each of these two categories, counters
are classified primarily by the type of sequence, the number of states, or the number
of Flip-Flops in the counter.
The term ‘synchronous’ refers to events that have a fixed time relationship
with each other. In synchronous counter, the clock pulses are applied to all Flip-
Flops simultaneously. Hence there is minimum propagation delay.
S.No Asynchronous (ripple) counter Synchronous counter
1 All the Flip-Flops are not All the Flip-Flops are clocked
clocked simultaneously. simultaneously.
2 The delay times of all Flip- There is minimum propagation delay.
Flops are added. Therefore
there is considerable
propagation delay.
3 Speed of operation is low Speed of operation is high.
4 Logic circuit is very simple Design involves complex logic circuit

72
EnggTree.com
even for more number of states. as number of state increases.

5 Minimum numbers of logic The number of logic devices is more
devices are needed. than ripple counters.
6 Cheaper than synchronous Costlier than ripple counters.
counters.
3.14.1 2-Bit Synchronous Binary Counter

In this counter the clock signal is connected in parallel to clock inputs of both the
Flip-Flops (FF0 and FF1). The output of FF0 is connected to J1 and K1 inputs of the second
Flip-Flop (FF1).
2-Bit Synchronous Binary Counter
Assume that the counter is initially in the binary 0 state: i.e., both Flip-Flops
are RESET. When the positive edge of the first clock pulse is applied, FF 0 will toggle
because J0= k0= 1, whereas FF1 output will remain 0 because J1= k1= 0. After the first
clock pulse Q0=1 and Q1=0.
When the leading edge of CLK2 occurs, FF0 will toggle and Q0 will go LOW. Since
FF1 has a HIGH (Q0 = 1) on its J1 and K1 inputs at the triggering edge of this clock pulse,
the Flip-Flop toggles and Q1 goes HIGH. Thus, after CLK2, Q0 = 0 andQ1 = 1.
When the leading edge of CLK3 occurs, FF0 again toggles to the SET state (Q0
= 1), and FF1 remains SET (Q1 = 1) because its J1 and K1 inputs are both LOW (Q0 =
0). After this triggering edge, Q0 = 1 and Q1 = 1.
Finally, at the leading edge of CLK4, Q0 and Q1 go LOW because they both have
a toggle condition on their J1 and K1 inputs. The counter has now recycled to its
original state, Q0 = Q1 = 0.

73
EnggTree.com
Timing diagram

A 3 bit synchronous binary counter is constructed with three JK Flip-Flops
and an AND gate. The output of FF0 (Q0) changes on each clock pulse as the counter
progresses from its original state to its final state and then back to its original state.
To produce this operation, FF0 must be held in the toggle mode by constant HIGH,
on its J0 and K0 inputs.
The output of FF1 (Q1) goes to the opposite state following each time Q0= 1.
This change occurs at CLK2, CLK4, CLK6, and CLK8. The CLK8 pulse causes the
counter to recycle. To produce this operation, Q0 is connected to the J1 and K1 inputs
of FF1. When Q0= 1 and a clock pulse occurs, FF1 is in the toggle mode and therefore
changes state. When Q0= 0, FF1 is in the no-change mode and remains in its present
state.
The output of FF2 (Q2) changes state both times; it is preceded by the unique
condition in which both Q0 and Q1 are HIGH. This condition is detected by the AND
gate and applied to the J2 and K2 inputs of FF3. Whenever both outputs Q0= Q1= 1,

74
EnggTree.com
the output of the AND gate makes the J2= K2= 1 and FF2 toggles on the following clock
pulse. Otherwise, the J2 and K2 inputs of FF2 are held LOW by the AND gate output,
FF2 does not change state.
CLOCK Pulse Q2 Q1 Q0
Initially 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
8 (recycles) 0 0 0
Timing diagram

This particular counter is implemented with negative edge-triggered Flip-
Flops. The reasoning behind the J and K input control for the first three Flip- Flops is
the same as previously discussed for the 3-bit counter. For the fourth stage, the Flip-
Flop has to change the state when Q0= Q1= Q2= 1. This condition is decoded by AND
gate G3.

75
EnggTree.com
Therefore, when Q0= Q1= Q2= 1, Flip-Flop FF3 toggles and for all other times it
is in a no-change condition. Points where the AND gate outputs are HIGH are
indicated by the shaded areas.
Timing diagram
3.14.4 4-Bit Synchronous Decade Counter: (BCD Counter):

BCD decade counter has a sequence from 0000 to 1001 (9). After 1001 state it
must recycle back to 0000 state. This counter requires four Flip-Flops and AND/OR
logic as shown below.

76
EnggTree.com
4-Bit Synchronous Decade Counter
CLOCK Pulse Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0
Initially 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10(recycles) 0 0 0 0
 First, notice that FF0 (Q0) toggles on each clock pulse, so the logic equation
for its J0 and K0 inputs is
J0= K0= 1
This equation is implemented by connecting J0 and K0 to a constant HIGH level.
 Next, notice from table, that FF1 (Q1) changes on the next clock pulse each
time Q0 = 1 and Q3 = 0, so the logic equation for the J1 and K1 inputs is
J1= K1= Q0Q3’
This equation is implemented by ANDing Q0 and Q3 and connecting the gate
output to the J1 and K1 inputs of FFl.
 Flip-Flop 2 (Q2) changes on the next clock pulse each time both Q0 = Q1 =
1. This requires an input logic equation as follows:
J2= K2= Q0Q1

This equation is implemented by ANDing Q0 and Q1 and connecting the gate
output to the J2 and K2 inputs of FF3.

77
EnggTree.com
 Finally, FF3 (Q3) changes to the opposite state on the next clock pulse each time
Q0 = 1, Q1 = 1, and Q2 = 1 (state 7), or when Q0 = 1 and Q1 = 1 (state 9).The
equation for this is as follows:
J3= K3= Q0Q1Q2+ Q0Q3

This function is implemented with the AND/OR logic connected to the J3 and
K3 inputs of FF3.
Timing diagram
3.14.5 Synchronous UP/DOWN Counter

An up/down counter is a bidirectional counter, capable of progressing in
either direction through a certain sequence. A 3-bit binary counter that advances
upward through its sequence (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) and then can be reversed so that it
goes through the sequence in the opposite direction (7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,0) is an
illustration of up/down sequential operation.
The complete up/down sequence for a 3-bit binary counter is shown in table
below. The arrows indicate the state-to-state movement of the counter for both its UP
and its DOWN modes of operation. An examination of Q0 for both the up and down
sequences shows that FF0 toggles on each clock pulse. Thus, the J0 and K0 inputs of FF0
are,
J0= K0= 1

78
EnggTree.com
To form a synchronous UP/DOWN counter, the control input (UP/DOWN) is

used to allow either the normal output or the inverted output of one Flip-Flop to the
J and K inputs of the next Flip-Flop. When UP/DOWN= 1, the MOD 8 counter will
count from 000 to 111 and UP/DOWN= 0, it will count from 111 to 000.
When UP/DOWN= 1, it will enable AND gates 1 and 3 and disable AND gates
2 and 4. This allows the Q0 and Q1 outputs through the AND gates to the J and K
inputs of the following Flip-Flops, so the counter counts up as pulses are applied.
When UP/DOWN= 0, the reverse action takes place.
J1= K1= (Q0.UP)+ (Q0’.DOWN)
J2= K2= (Q0. Q1.UP)+ (Q0’.Q1’.DOWN)
3-bit UP/DOWN Synchronous Counter

79
EnggTree.com
3.14.6 MODULUS-N-COUNTERS
The counter with ‘n’ Flip-Flops has maximum MOD number 2n. Find the
number of Flip-Flops (n) required for the desired MOD number (N) using the
equation,
2n ≥ N
(i) For example, a 3 bit binary counter is a MOD 8 counter. The basic counter can
be modified to produce MOD numbers less than 2n by allowing the counter to
skin those are normally part of counting sequence.
n= 3
N= 8
2n = 23= 8= N
(ii) MOD 5 Counter:

2n= N
2n= 5
22= 4 less than N.
23= 8 > N(5)
Therefore, 3 Flip-Flops are required.
(iii) MOD 10 Counter:

2n= N= 10
23= 8 less than N.
24= 16 > N(10).
To construct any MOD-N counter, the following methods can be used.
1. Find the number of Flip-Flops (n) required for the desired MOD number
(N) using the equation,
2n ≥ N.
2. Connect all the Flip-Flops as a required counter.
3. Find the binary number for N.
4. Connect all Flip-Flop outputs for which Q= 1 when the count is N, as inputs
to NAND gate.
5. Connect the NAND gate output to the CLR input of each Flip-Flop.

80
EnggTree.com
When the counter reaches Nth state, the output of the NAND gate goes LOW,
resetting all Flip-Flops to 0. Therefore the counter counts from 0 through N-1.
For example, MOD-10 counter reaches state 10 (1010). i.e., Q3Q2Q1Q0= 1 0 1 0. The
outputs Q3 and Q1 are connected to the NAND gate and the output of the NAND gate
goes LOW and resetting all Flip-Flops to zero. Therefore MOD-10 counter counts from
0000 to 1001. And then recycles to the zero value.
The MOD-10 counter circuit is shown below.
MOD-10 (Decade) Counter
3.15 SHIFT REGISTERS:

A register is simply a group of Flip-Flops that can be used to store a binary
number. There must be one Flip-Flop for each bit in the binary number. For instance,
a register used to store an 8-bit binary number must have 8 Flip-Flops.
The Flip-Flops must be connected such that the binary number can be entered
(shifted) into the register and possibly shifted out. A group of Flip-Flops connected
to provide either or both of these functions is called a shift register.
The bits in a binary number (data) can be removed from one place to another
in either of two ways. The first method involves shifting the data one bit at a time in
a serial fashion, beginning with either the most significant bit (MSB) or the least
significant bit (LSB). This technique is referred to as serial shifting. The second
method involves shifting all the data bits simultaneously and is referred to as parallel
shifting.

81
EnggTree.com
There are two ways to shift into a register (serial or parallel) and similarly two
ways to shift the data out of the register. This leads to the construction of four basic
register types—
i. Serial in- serial out,
ii. Serial in- parallel out,
iii. Parallel in- serial out,
iv. Parallel in- parallel out.
(i) Serial in- serial out (iii) Parallel in- serial out
(iii) Serial in- parallel out (iv) Parallel in- parallel out
3.15.1 Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register:

The serial in/serial out shift register accepts data serially, i.e., one bit at a time
on a single line. It produces the stored information on its output also in serial form.
Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register

The entry of the four bits 1010 into the register is illustrated below, beginning with
the right-most bit. The register is initially clear. The 0 is put onto the data input line,
making D=0 for FF0. When the first clock pulse is applied, FF0 is reset, thus storing the
0.
Next the second bit, which is a 1, is applied to the data input, making D=1 for
FF0 and D=0 for FF1 because the D input of FF1 is connected to the Q0 output. When

82
EnggTree.com
the second clock pulse occurs, the 1 on the data input is shifted into FF0, causing FF0
to set; and the 0 that was in FF0 is shifted into FFl.
The third bit, a 0, is now put onto the data-input line, and a clock pulse is
applied. The 0 is entered into FF0, the 1 stored in FF0 is shifted into FFl, and the 0
stored in FF1 is shifted into FF2.
The last bit, a 1, is now applied to the data input, and a clock pulse is applied. This
time the 1 is entered into FF0, the 0 stored in FF0 is shifted into FFl, the 1 storedin FF1
is shifted into FF2, and the 0 stored in FF2 is shifted into FF3. This completesthe serial
entry of the four bits into the shift register, where they can be stored for any length of
time as long as the Flip-Flops have dc power.
Four bits (1010) being entered serially into the register

83
EnggTree.com
To get the data out of the register, the bits must be shifted out serially and taken
off the Q3 output. After CLK4, the right-most bit, 0, appears on the Q3 output.
When clock pulse CLK5 is applied, the second bit appears on the Q3 output.
Clock pulse CLK6 shifts the third bit to the output, and CLK7 shifts the fourth bit to
the output. While the original four bits are being shifted out, more bits can be shifted
in. All zeros are shown being shifted out, more bits can be shifted in.
Four bits (1010) being entered serially-shifted out of the register and replaced by all zeros
3.15.2 Serial-In Parallel-Out Shift Register:

84
EnggTree.com
In this shift register, data bits are entered into the register in the same as
serial-in serial-out shift register. But the output is taken in parallel. Once the data are
stored, each bit appears on its respective output line and all bits are available
simultaneously instead of on a bit-by-bit.
Serial-In parallel-Out Shift Register

85
EnggTree.com
Four bits (1111) being serially entered into the register
3.15.3 Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register:

In this type, the bits are entered in parallel i.e., simultaneously into their
respective stages on parallel lines.
A 4-bit parallel-in serial-out shift register is illustrated below. There are four
data input lines, X0, X1, X2 and X3 for entering data in parallel into the register. SHIFT/
LOAD input is the control input, which allows four bits of data to load in parallel into
the register.
When SHIFT/LOAD is LOW, gates G1, G2, G3 and G4 are enabled, allowing each
data bit to be applied to the D input of its respective Flip-Flop. When a clock pulse is
applied, the Flip-Flops with D = 1 will set and those with D = 0 will reset, thereby
storing all four bits simultaneously.

86
EnggTree.com
Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register
When SHIFT/LOAD is HIGH, gates G1, G2, G3 and G4 are disabled and gates
G5, G6 and G7 are enabled, allowing the data bits to shift right from one stage to the
next. The OR gates allow either the normal shifting operation or the parallel data-
entry operation, depending on which AND gates are enabled by the level on the
SHIFT/LOAD input.
3.15.4 Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register:

In this type, there is simultaneous entry of all data bits and the bits appear on
parallel outputs simultaneously.

87
EnggTree.com
Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register
3.15.5 UNIVERSAL SHIFT REGISTERS

If the register has shift and parallel load capabilities, then it is called a shift
register with parallel load or universal shift register. Shift register can be used for
converting serial data to parallel data, and vice-versa. If a parallel load capability is
added to a shift register, the data entered in parallel can be taken out in serial fashion
by shifting the data stored in the register.
The functions of universal shift register are:
1. A clear control to clear the register to 0.
2. A clock input to synchronize the operations.
3. A shift-right control to enable the shift right operation and the serial input
and output lines associated with the shift right.
4. A shift-left control to enable the shift left operation and the serial input and
output lines associated with the shift left.
5. A parallel-load control to enable a parallel transfer and the n input lines
associated with the parallel transfer.
6. ‘n’ parallel output lines.
7. A control line that leaves the information in the register unchanged
even though the clock pulses re continuously applied.
It consists of four D-Flip-Flops and four 4 input multiplexers (MUX). S0 and S1
are the two selection inputs connected to all the four multiplexers. These two
selection inputs are used to select one of the four inputs of each multiplexer.

88
EnggTree.com
The input 0 in each MUX is selected when S1S0= 00 and input 1 is selected when
S1S0= 01. Similarly inputs 2 and 3 are selected when S1S0= 10 and S1S0= 11
respectively. The inputs S1 and S0 control the mode of the operation of the register.
4-Bit Universal Shift Register
When S1S0= 00, the present value of the register is applied to the D-inputs of the
Flip-Flops. This is done by connecting the output of each Flip-Flop to the 0 input of
the respective multiplexer. The next clock pulse transfers into each Flip-Flop, the
binary value is held previously, and hence no change of state occurs.
When S1S0= 01, terminal 1 of the multiplexer inputs has a path to the D inputs of
the Flip-Flops. This causes a shift-right operation with the lefter serial input
transferred into Flip-Flop FF3.
When S1S0= 10, a shift-left operation results with the right serial input going into
Flip-Flop FF1.
Finally when S1S0= 11, the binary information on the parallel input lines (I1, I2,
I3 and I4) are transferred into the register simultaneously during the next clock pulse.

89
EnggTree.com
The function table of bi-directional shift register with parallel inputs and parallel
outputs is shown below.
Mode Control
Operation
S1 S0
0 0 No change
0 1 Shift-right
1 0 Shift-left
1 1 Parallel load
3.15.6 BI-DIRECTION SHIFT REGISTERS:

A bidirectional shift register is one in which the data can be shifted either left
or right. It can be implemented by using gating logic that enables the transfer of a
data bit from one stage to the next stage to the right or to the left depending on the
level of a control line.
A 4-bit bidirectional shift register is shown below. A HIGH on the RIGHT/LEFT
control input allows data bits inside the register to be shifted to the right, and a LOW
enables data bits inside the register to be shifted to the left.
When the RIGHT/LEFT control input is HIGH, gates G1, G2, G3 and G4 are
enabled, and the state of the Q output of each Flip-Flop is passed through to the D
input of the following Flip-Flop. When a clock pulse occurs, the data bits are shifted
one place to the right.
When the RIGHT/LEFT control input is LOW, gates G5, G6, G7 and G8 are
enabled, and the Q output of each Flip-Flop is passed through to the D input of the
preceding Flip-Flop. When a clock pulse occurs, the data bits are then shifted one
place to the left.

90
EnggTree.com
4-bit bi-directional shift register

91
EnggTree.com
UNIT IV
ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A sequential circuit is specified by a time sequence of inputs, outputs and
internal states. In synchronous sequential circuits, the output changes whenever a
clock pulse is applied. The memory elements are clocked flip-flops.
Asynchronous sequential circuits do not use clock pulses. The memory
elements in asynchronous sequential circuits are either unclocked flip-flops (Latches)or
time-delay elements.
S.No Synchronous sequential circuits Asynchronous sequential circuits

Memory elements are either
Memory elements are clocked flip-
1 unclocked flip-flops or time delay
flops
elements.
The change in input signals can The change in input signals can
2 affect memory element upon affect memory element at any
activation of clock signal. instant of time.
The maximum operating speed of
clock depends on time delays Because of the absence of clock, it
3 involved. Therefore synchronous can operate faster than synchronous
circuits can operate slower than circuits.
asynchronous.
4 Easier to design More difficult to design

EnggTree.com
ASynchronous Sequential Circuits 4.2
Block diagram of Asynchronous sequential circuits
The block diagram of asynchronous sequential circuit is shown above. It

consists of a combinational circuit and delay elements connected to form feedback
loops. There are ‘n’ input variables, ‘m’ output variables, and ‘k’ internal states.
The delay elements provide short term memory for the sequential circuit. The
present-state and next-state variables in asynchronous sequential circuits are called
secondary variables and excitation variables, respectively.
When an input variable changes in value, the ‘y’ secondary variable does not
change instantaneously. It takes a certain amount of time for the signal to propagate
from the input terminals through the combinational circuit to the ‘Y’ excitation
variables where the new values are generated for the next state. These values
propagate through the delay elements and become the new present state for the
secondary variables.
In steady-state condition, excitation and secondary variables are same, but during
transition they are different.
To ensure proper operation, it is necessary for asynchronous sequential
circuits to attain a stable state before the input is changed to a new value. Because of
unequal delays in wires and combinational circuits, it is impossible to have two or

2
EnggTree.com
more input variable change at exactly same instant. Therefore, simultaneous changes
of two or more input variables are avoided.
Only one input variable is allowed to change at any one time and the time
between input changes is kept longer than the time it takes the circuit to reach stable
state.
Types:
According to how input variables are to be considered, there are two types
Fundamental mode circuit
Pulse mode circuit.
Fundamental mode circuit assumes that:

The input variables change only when the circuit is stable.
Only one input variable can change at a given time.
Inputs are levels (0, 1) and not pulses.
Pulse mode circuit assumes that:

The input variables are pulses (True, False) instead of levels.
The width of the pulses is long enough for the circuit to respond to the input.
The pulse width must not be so long that it is still present after the new state
is reached.
4.2 Analysis of Fundamental Mode Circuits

The analysis of asynchronous sequential circuits consists of obtaining a table
or a diagram that describes the sequence of internal states and outputs as a function
of changes in the input variables.

3
EnggTree.com
4.2.1 Analysis procedure

The procedure for obtaining a transition table from the given circuit diagram
is as follows.
1. Determine all feedback loops in the circuit.
2. Designate the output of each feedback loop with variable Y1 and its
corresponding inputs y1, y2,….yk, where k is the number of feedback loops in
the circuit.
3. Derive the Boolean functions of all Y’s as a function of the external inputs
and the y’s.
4. Plot each Y function in a map, using y variables for the rows and the external
inputs for the columns.
5. Combine all the maps into one table showing the value of Y= Y1, Y2,….Yk
inside each square.
6. Circle all stable states where Y=y. The resulting map is the transition table.
4.2.2 Problems
1. An asynchronous sequential circuit is described by the following excitation and
output function,
Y= x1x2+ (x1+x2) y
Z= Y
a) Draw the logic diagram of the circuit.
b) Derive the transition table, flow table and output map.
c) Describe the behavior of the circuit.
Soln:
i) The logic diagram is shown as,
Logic diagram

4
EnggTree.com
ii)
y x1 x2 x1x2 (x1+x2)y Y= x1x2+ (x1+x2)y Z= Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Transition table:
Output map:
Output is mapped for all stable states. For unstable states output is
mapped unspecified.
Flow table:
Assign a= 0; b= 1
iii)
The circuit gives carry output of the full adder circuit.

5
EnggTree.com
2. Design an asynchronous sequential circuit that has two internal states and one
output. The excitation and output function describing the circuit are as follows:
Y1= x1x2+ x1y2+ x2y1
Y2= x2+ x1y1y2+ x1y1
Z= x2+ y1.
b) Derive the transition table, output map and flow table.
Soln:
i) The logic diagram is shown as,
Logic Diagram
ii)
2+
1y1xy2
y
1 xx2
1 y x2
2 y x1
1 y x1
x
y
2x
Z=x
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

6
EnggTree.com
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Transition table and Output map
Transition table Output map

7
EnggTree.com
Primitive Flow table
3. An asynchronous sequential circuit is described by the excitation and output

functions,
Y= x1x2’+ (x1+x2’) y
Z= Y
Soln:
Logic diagram
ii)
y x1 x2 x 2’ x1x2’ (x1+x2’)y Y= x1x2’+ (x1+x2’)y Z= Y
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

8
EnggTree.com
Transition table:
Transition Table
Output map:
Output is mapped for all stable states. For unstable states output is
mapped unspecified.
Output map
Flow table:
Assign a= 0; b= 1

functions, B= (A1’B2) b+ (A1+B2) C= B
Soln:
Logic Diagram
ii)

9
EnggTree.com
b A1 B2 A1’ (A1’B2)b A1+B2 B= (A1’B2) b+ (A1+B2) C= B

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
Transition table
Output map
Output is mapped for all stable states.
Flow table
Assign a= 0; b= 1

10
EnggTree.com

functions,
X= (Y1Z1’W2) x + (Y1’Z1W2’)
S=X’
a) Draw the logic diagram of the circuit
b) Derive the translation table and output map
Soln:
)x2
S= X’
Y 1’ Z1
W 2’
’
2
1
1
(Y1 Z1W’
W
X
Y
W2’
Z
Z
x
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

11
EnggTree.com
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Transition table and Output map:
Transition table Output map
4.3 Analysis of Pulse Mode Circuits

Pulse mode asynchronous sequential circuits rely on the input pulses rather
than levels. They allow only one input variable to change at a time. They can be
implemented by employing a SR latch.
The procedure for analyzing an asynchronous sequential circuit with SR
latches can be summarized as follows:

12
EnggTree.com
1. Label each latch output with Yi and its external feedback path (if any) with
yi for
i = 1,2 ,..,, k.
2. Derive the Boolean functions for the Si and Ri inputs in each latch.
3. Check whether SR = 0 for each NOR latch or whether S'R' = 0 for each NAND
latch. If either of these condition is not satisfied, there is a possibility that the
circuit may not operate properly.
4. Evaluate Y = S + R’y for each NOR latch or Y = S' + Ry for each NAND latch.
5. Construct a map with the y’s representing the rows and the x inputs
representing the columns.
6. Plot the value of Y= Y1Y2 ……Yk in the map.
7. Circle all stable states such that Y = y. The resulting map is the transition
table.
The analysis of a circuit with latches will be demonstrated by means of the
below example.
1. Derive the transition table for the pulse mode asynchronous sequential circuit
shown below.
Example of a circuit with SR latches

13
EnggTree.com
Soln:
There are two inputs x1 and x2 and two external feedback loops giving rise
to the secondary variables y1 and y2.
Step 1:
The Boolean functions for the S and R inputs in each latch are:
S1= x1y2 S2= x1x2

R1= x1’x2’ R2= x2’y1
Step 2:
Check whether the conditions SR= 0 is satisfied to ensure proper operation of the
circuit.
S1R1= x1y2 x1’x2’ = 0
S2R2= x1x2 x2’y1 = 0
The result is 0 because x1x1’ = x2x2’ = 0
Step 3:
Evaluate Y1 and Y2. The excitation functions are derived from the relation Y= S+
R’y. Y1= S1+ R1’y1 = x1y2 +(x1’x2’)’ y1
= x1y2 +(x1+ x2) y1 = x1y2 +x1y1+
x2y1 Y2= S2+ R2’y2 = x1x2+ (x2’y1)’y2
= x1x2+ (x2+ y1’) y2 = x1x2+ x2y2+ y1’y2
y1 y2 x1 x2 x1y2 x1y1 x2y1 x1x2 x2y2 y1’y2 Y1 Y2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

14
EnggTree.com
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
Step 4:
Maps for Y1 and Y2.
Step 5:
Transition table

15
EnggTree.com
4.4 RACES:
A race condition is said to exist in an asynchronous sequential circuit when
two or more binary state variables change value in response to a change in an input
variable.
Races are classified as:
i. Non-critical races
ii. Critical races.
Non-critical races:
If the final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on the order in
which the state variables change, the race is called a non-critical race.
If a circuit, whose transition table (a) starts with the total stable state y1y2x=
000 and then change the input from 0 to 1. The state variables must then change from
00 to 11, which define a race condition.
The possible transitions are:
00 11
00 01 11
00 10 11
In all cases, the final state is the same, which results in a non-critical condition. In (a),
the final state is (y1y2x= 111), and in (b), it is (y1y2x= 011).
Examples of Non-critical Races

16
EnggTree.com
Critical races:
A race becomes critical if the correct next state is not reached during a state
transition. If it is possible to end up in two or more different stable states, depending
on the order in which the state variables change, then it is a critical race. For proper
operation, critical races must be avoided.
The below transition table illustrates critical race condition. The transition
table (a) starts in stable state (y1y2x= 000), and then change the input from 0 to 1. The
state variables must then change from 00 to 11. If they change simultaneously, the
final total stable state is 111. In the transition table (a), if, because of unequal
propagation delay, Y2 changes to 1 before Y1 does, then the circuit goes to the total
stable state 011 and remains there. If, however, Y1 changes first, the internal state
becomes 10 and the circuit will remain in the stable total state 101.
Hence, the race is critical because the circuit goes to different stable states,
depending on the order in which the state variables change.
Examples of Critical Races
4.5 CYCLES
Races can be avoided by directing the circuit through intermediate
unstable states with a unique state-variable change. When a circuit goes through a
unique sequence of unstable states, it is said to have a cycle.

17
EnggTree.com
Again, we start with y1y2 = 00 and change the input from 0 to 1. The transition table
(a) gives a unique sequence that terminates in a total stable state 101. The tablein (b)
shows that even though the state variables change from 00 to 11, the cycleprovides a
unique transition from 00 to 01 and then to 11, Care must be taken when using a cycle
that terminates with a stable state. If a cycle does not terminate with a
stable state, the circuit will keep going from one unstable state to another, making
the entire circuit unstable. This is demonstrated in the transition table (c).
Examples of Cycles
Debounce Circuit:
Input binary information in binary information can be generated manually be

means of mechanical switches. One position of the switch provides a voltage equivalent
to logic 1, and the other position provides a second voltage equivalent to logic 0.
Mechanical switches are also used to start, stop, or reset the digital system. A common
characteristic of a mechanical switch is that when the arm is thrown fromone position
to the other the switch contact vibrates or bounces several times before coming to a final
rest. In a typical switch, the contact bounce may take several milliseconds to die out,
causing the signal to oscillate between 1 and 0 because the switch contact is vibrating.
A debounce circuit is a circuit which removes the series of pulses that result
from a contact bounce and produces a single smooth transition of the binary signal
from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. One such circuit consists of a single-pole, double-throw
switch connected to an SR latch, as shown below. The center contact is connected to

18
EnggTree.com
ground that provides a signal equivalent to logic 0. When one of the two contacts, A
or B, is not connected to ground through the switch, it behaves like a logic-1 signal.
When the switch is thrown from position A to position B and back, the outputs of the
latch produce a single pulse as shown, negative for Q and positive for Q'. The switch
is usually a push button whose contact rests in position A. When the pushbutton is
depressed, it goes to position B and when released, it returns to position A.
Debounce Circuit
The operation of the debounce circuit is as follows: When the switch resets in
position A, we have the condition S = 0, R = 1 and Q = 1, Q' = 0. When the switch is
moved to position B, the ground connection causes R to go to 0, while S becomes a 1
because contact A is open. This condition in turn causes output Q to go to 0 and Q' to
go to 1. After the switch makes an initial contact with B, it bounces several times. The
output of the latch will be unaffected by the contact bounce because Q' remains 1 (and
Q remains 0) whether R is equal to 0 (contact with ground) or equal to 1 (no contact
with ground). When the switch returns to position A, S becomes 0 and Q returns to
1. The output again will exhibit a smooth transition, even if there is a
contact bounce in position A.

19
EnggTree.com
4.6 DESIGN OF FUNDAMENTAL MODE SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

The design of an asynchronous sequential circuit starts from the statement of
the problem and concludes in a logic diagram. There are a number of design steps
that must be carried out in order to minimize the circuit complexity and to produce a
stable circuit without critical races.
The design steps are as follows:

1. State the design specifications.
2. Obtain a primitive flow table from the given design specifications.
3. Reduce the flow table by merging rows in the primitive flow table.
4. Assign binary state variables to each row of the reduced flow table to obtain the
transition table. The procedure of state assignment eliminates any possible critical
races.
5. Assign output values to the dashes associated with the unstable states to
obtain the output maps.
6. Simplify the Boolean functions of the excitation and output variables and
draw the logic diagram.
1. Design a gated latch circuit with inputs, G (gate) and D (data), and one output, Q.
Binary information present at the D input is transferred to the Q output when G is
equal to 1. The Q output will follow the D input as long as G= 1. When G goesto
0, the information that was present at the D input at the time of transition
occurred is retained at the Q output. The gated latch is a memory element that
accepts the value of D when G= 1 and retains this value after G goes to 0, a change
in D does not change the value of the output Q.
Soln:
Step 1:
From the design specifications, we know that Q= 0 if DG= 01
and Q= 1 if DG= 11
because D must be equal to Q when G= 1.
When G goes to 0, the output depends on the last value of D. Thus, if the transition
is from 01 to 00 to 10, then Q must remain 0 because D is 0 at the time ofthe transition
from 1 to 0 in G.

20
EnggTree.com
If the transition of DG is from 11 to 10 to 00, then Q must remain 1. This

information results in six different total states, as shown in the table.
Inputs Output
State Comments
D G Q
a 0 1 0 D= Q because G= 1
b 1 1 1 D= Q because G= 1
c 0 0 0 After state a or d
d 1 0 0 After state c
e 1 0 1 After state b or f
f 0 0 1 After state e
Step 2: A primitive flow is a flow table with only one stable total state in each row.
It has one row for each state and one column for each input combination.
Step 3:
Primitive flow table
The primitive flow table has only stable state in each row. The table can be
reduced to a smaller number of rows if two or more stable states are placed in the
same row of the flow table. The grouping of stable states from separate rows into one
common row is called merging.

21
EnggTree.com
States that are candidates for merging
Thus, the three rows a, c, and d can be merged into one row. The second row
of the reduced table results from the merging of rows b, e, and f of the primitive flow
table.
Reduced table- 1
The states c & d are replaced by state a, and states e & f are replaced by state b
Reduced table- 2
Step 4:
Assign distinct binary value to each state. This assignment converts the flow
table into a transition table. A binary state assignment must be made to ensure that
the circuit will be free of critical races.
Assign 0 to state a, and 1 to state b in the reduced state table.
Transition table and output map

22
EnggTree.com
Step 5:
Gated-Latch Logic diagram
The diagram can be implemented also by means of an SR latch. Obtain the

Boolean function for S and R inputs.
y Y S R
0 0 0 x
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 x 0
SR Latch excitation table
From the information given in the transition table and from the latch
excitation table conditions, we can obtain the maps for the S and R inputs of the latch.
Maps for S and R
The logic diagram consists of an SR latch using NOR latch and the gates
required to implement the S and R Boolean functions. With a NAND latch, we must
use the complemented values for S and R.
S’ = (DG)’ and R’ = (D’G)’

23
EnggTree.com
Logic diagram with NOR latch Logic diagram with NAND latch
2. Design a negative-edge triggered T flip-flop. The circuit has two inputs, T (toggle)
and G (clock), and one output, Q. the output state is complemented if T= 1 and the
clock changes from 1 to 0 (negative-edge triggering). Otherwise, underany other
input condition, the output Q remains unchanged.
Step 1:
Starting with the input condition TC= 11 and assign it to a. The circuit goes to state
b and output Q complements from 0 to 1 when C changes from 1 to 0 while T remains a
1.
Another change in the output occurs when the circuit changes from state c to
state d. In this case, T=1, C changes from 1 to 0, and the output Q complements from
1 to 0. The other four states in the table do not change the output, because T is equal
to 0. If Q is initially 0, it stays at 0, and if initially at 1, it stays at 1 even though the
clock input changes.
Inputs Output
State Comments
T G Q
a 1 1 0 Initial output is 0
b 1 0 1 After state a
c 1 1 1 Initial output is 1
d 1 0 0 After state c
e 0 0 0 After state d or f
f 0 1 0 After state e or a
g 0 0 1 After state b or h
h 0 1 1 After state g or c
Specifications of total states

24
EnggTree.com
Step 2: Merging of the flow table

The information for the primitive flow table can be obtained directly from the
condition listed in the above table. We first fill in one square in each row belonging
to stable state in that row as listed in the table.
Then we enter dashes in those squares whose input differs by two variables
from the input corresponding to the stable state.
The unstable conditions are then determined by utilizing the information
listed under the comments in the above table.
Step 3: Compatible pairs
The rows in the primitive flow table are merged by first obtaining all
compatible pairs of states. This is done by means of the implication table.

25
EnggTree.com
Implication table
The implication table is used to find the compatible states. The only difference
is that when comparing rows, we are at liberty to adjust the dashes to fit any desired
condition. The two states are compatible if in every column of the corresponding
rows in the primitive flow table, there are identical or compatible pairs and if there is
no conflict in the output values.
A check mark ( ) designates a square whose pair of states is compatible. Those

states that are not compatible are marked with a cross (x). The remaining squares are
recorded with the implied pairs that need further investigation.
The squares that contain the check marks define the compatible pairs: (a,
f) (b, g) (b, h) (c, h) (d, e) (d, f) (e, f) (g, h)
Step 4: Maximal compatibles

Having found all the compatible pairs, the next step is to find larger set of
states that are compatible. The maximal compatible is a group of compatibles that
contain all the possible combinations of compatible states. The maximal compatible
can be obtained from a merger diagram.

26
EnggTree.com
The merger diagram is a graph in which each state is represented by a dot

placed along the circumference of a circle. Lines are drawn between any two
corresponding dots that form a compatible pair. All possible compatibles can be
obtained from the merger diagram by observing the geometrical patterns in
which states are connected to each other.
• A line represents a compatible pair
• A triangle constitutes a compatible with three states
• An n-state compatible is represented in the merger diagram by an n-sided
polygon with all its diagonals connected.
Merger Diagram
The merger diagram is obtained from the list of compatible pairs derived from
the implication table. There are eight straight lines connecting the dots, one for each
compatible pair. The lines form a geometrical pattern consisting of two triangles
connecting (b, g, h) & (d, e, f) and two lines (a, f) & (c, h). The maximal compatibles
are:
(a, f) (b, g, h) (c, h) (d, e, f)
Reduced Flow table

27
EnggTree.com
The reduced flow table is drawn. The compatible states are merged into one row
that retains the original letter symbols of the states. The four compatible set of states
are used to merge the flow table into four rows.
Final Reduced Flow table
Here we assign a common letter symbol to all the stable states in each merged
row. Thus, the symbol f is replaced by a; g & h are replaced by b, and similarly for
the other two rows.
Step 5: State Assignment and Transition table

Find the race-free binary assignment for the four stable states in the reduced
flow table. Assign a= 00, b= 01, c= 11 and d= 10.
Substituting the binary assignment into the reduced flow table, the transition
table is obtained. The output map is obtained from the reduced flow table.
Transition Table and Output Map
Transition table Output map Q= y2

28
EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
Maps for Latch Inputs

29
EnggTree.com
3. Develop a state diagram and primitive flow table for a logic system that has two
inputs, X and Y, and a single output X, which is to behave in the following manner.
Initially, both inputs and output are equal to 0. Whenever X= 1 and Y= 0, the Z
becomes 1 and whenever X= 0 and Y= 1, the Z becomes 0. When inputs are zero,
i.e. X= Y= 0 or inputs are one, i.e. X= Y= 1, the output Z does not change; it remains
in the previous state. The logic system has edge triggered inputs withouthaving a
clock. The logic system changes state on the rising edges of the two inputs. Static
input values are not to have any effect in changing the Z
output.
Soln:
The conditions given are,
Initially both inputs X and Y are 0.
When X= 1, Y= 0; Z= 1
When X= 0, Y= 1; Z= 0
When X= Y= 0 or X= Y= 1, then Z does not change, it remains in the previous
state.
Step 1:
The above state transitions are represented in the state diagram as,
State diagram

30
EnggTree.com
Step 2:
A primitive flow table is constructed from the state diagram. The primitive
flow table has one row for each state and one column for each input combination.
Only one stable state exists for each row in the table. The stable state can be easily
identified from the state diagram. For example, state A is stable with output 0 when
inputs are 00, state C is stable with output 1 when inputs are 10 and so on.
We know that both inputs are not allowed to change simultaneously, so we can
enter dash marks in each row that differs in two or more variables from the input
variables associated with the stable state. For example, the first row in the flowtable
shows a stable state with an input of 00. Since only one input can change at anygiven
time, it can change to 01 or 10, but not to 11. Therefore we can enter two dashes in
the 11 column of row A.
The remaining places in the primitive flow table can be filled by observing
state diagram. For example, state B is the next state for present state A when input
combination is 01; similarly state C is the next state for present state A when input
combination is 10.
Step 3:

31
EnggTree.com
The squares that contain the check marks ( ) define the compatible pairs:
(A, B) (A, D) (A, F) (B, D) (C, E) (C, F) (D, E) (E, F)
Step 4:
The merger diagram is obtained from the list of compatible pairs derived
from the implication table. There are eight straight lines connecting the dots, one for
each compatible pair. The lines form a geometrical pattern consisting of two triangles
connecting (A, B, D) & (C, E, F) and two lines (A, F) & (D, E). The maximal
compatibles are:
(A, B, D) (C, E, F) (A, F) (D, E)
Merger diagram
Closed covering condition:
The condition that must be satisfied for merging rows is that the set of chosen
compatibles must cover all the states and must be closed. The set will cover all the states
if it includes all the states of the original state table. The closure condition is

32
EnggTree.com
satisfied if there are no implied states or if the implied states are included within the
set. A closed set of compatibles that covers all the states is called a closed covering.
If we remove (A, F) and (D, E), we are left with a set of two compatibles:
(A, B, D) (C, E, F)
All six states from the primitive flow table are included in this set. Thus, the set
satisfies the covering condition.
The reduced flow table is drawn as below.
Reduced flow table
row. Thus, the symbol B & D is replaced by A; E & F are replaced by C.
Step 5:
Find the race-free binary assignment for the four stable states in the reduced
flow table. Assign A= 0 and C= 1
Transition table and output map

33
EnggTree.com
Step 6:
Gated-Latch Logic diagram
4. Design a circuit with inputs X and Y to give an output Z= 1 when XY= 11 but
only if X becomes 1 before Y, by drawing total state diagram, primitive flow
table and output map in which transient state is included.
Soln:
Step 1:
The state diagram can be drawn as,
State table
Step 2:
A primitive flow table is constructed from the state table as,

34
EnggTree.com
Step 3:
Implication table
(A, B) (A, C) (A, D) (A, E) (B, D) (C, E)
Step 4:
from the implication table. There are six straight lines connecting the dots, one for
each compatible pair. The lines form a geometrical pattern consisting of one triangle
connecting (A, B, D) & a line (C, E). The maximal compatibles are:
(A, B, D) (C, E)

35
EnggTree.com
Merger diagram
Reduced flow table
row. Thus, the symbol B & D is replaced by A; E is replaced by C.
Transition table
5. Design a circuit with primary inputs A and B to give an output Z equal to 1 when A
becomes 1 if B is already 1. Once Z= 1 it will remain so until A goes to 0. Draw
the total state diagram, primitive flow table for designing this circuit.
Soln:
Step 1:

36
EnggTree.com
State diagram
Step 2:
6. Design an asynchronous sequential circuit that has two inputs X 2 and X1 and one
output Z. When X1= 0, the output Z is 0. The first change in X2 that occurs while
X1 is 1 will cause output Z to be 1. The output Z will remain 1 until X 1 returns to
0.
Soln:

37
EnggTree.com
Step 1:
State diagram
Step 2:
Step 3:
The rows in the primitive flow table are merged by obtaining all compatible
pairs of states. This is done by means of the implication table.

38
EnggTree.com
Implication table
(A, B) (A, C) (C, E) (D, F)
Step 4:
from the implication table. There are four straight lines connecting the dots, one for
each compatible pair. It consists of four lines (A, B), (A, C), (C, E) and (D, F).
Merger diagram
The maximal compatibles are:
(A, B) (C, E) (D, F)

This set of maximal compatible covers all the original states resulting in the reduced
flow table.

39
EnggTree.com
Flow table
row. Thus, the symbol B is replaced by A; E is replaced by C and F is replaced by D.
Step 5:
Reduced Flow table
Find the race-free binary assignment for the four stable states in the
reduced flow table. Assign A= S0, C= S1 and D= S2.
Now, if we assign S0= 00, S1 = 01 and S2 = 10, then we need one more state S3=
11 to prevent critical race during transition of S0 S1 or S2 S1. By introducing S3
the transitions S1 S2 and S2 S1 are routed through S4.
Thus after state assignment the flow table can be given as,

40
EnggTree.com
Flow table with state assignment
K- Map simplification:

41
EnggTree.com
Logic Diagram:
7. Obtain a primitive flow table for a circuit with two inputs x1 and x2 and
two outputs z1 and z2 that satisfies the following four conditions.
i. When x1x2 = 00, output z1z2 = 00.
ii. When x1= 1 and x2 changes from 0 to 1, the output z1z2 = 01.
iii. When x2= 1 and x1 changes from 0 to 1, the output z1z2 = 10.
iv. Otherwise the output does not change.
Soln:

42
EnggTree.com
State diagram
Step 2: A primitive flow table is constructed from the state table as,

43
EnggTree.com
4.7 HAZARDS
Hazards are unwanted switching transients that may appear at the output of a
circuit because different paths exhibit different propagation delays.
Hazards occur in combinational circuits, where they may cause a temporary
false-output value. When this condition occurs in asynchronous sequential circuits, it
may result in a transition to a wrong stable state.
Hazards in Combinational Circuits:

A hazard is a condition where a single variable change produces a momentary
output change when no output change should occur.
Types of Hazards:
Static hazard
Dynamic hazard
4.7.1 Static Hazard

In digital systems, there are only two possible outputs, a ‘0’ or a ‘1’. The hazard
may produce a wrong ‘0’ or a wrong ‘1’. Based on these observations, there are three
types,
Static- 0 hazard,
Static- 1 hazard,
Static- 0 hazard:
When the output of the circuit is to remain at 0, and a momentary 1 output is
possible during the transmission between the two inputs, then the hazard is called a
static 0-hazard.
Static- 1 hazard:
When the output of the circuit is to remain at 1, and a momentary 0 output is
possible during the transmission between the two inputs, then the hazard is called a
static 1-hazard.

44
EnggTree.com
The below circuit demonstrates the occurrence of a static 1-hazard. Assume

that all three inputs are initially equal to 1 i.e., X1X2X3= 111. This causes the output of
the gate 1 to be 1, that of gate 2 to be 0, and the output of the circuit to be equal to 1.
Now consider a change of X2 from 1 to 0 i.e., X1X2X3= 101. The output of gate 1 changes
to 0 and that of gate 2 changes to 1, leaving the output at 1. The output may
momentarily go to 0 if the propagation delay through the inverter is taken into
consideration.
The delay in the inverter may cause the output of gate 1 to change to 0 before
the output of gate 2 changes to 1. In that case, both inputs of gate 3 are momentarily
equal to 0, causing the output to go to 0 for the short interval of time that the input
signal from X2 is delayed while it is propagating through the inverter circuit.
Thus, a static 1-hazard exists during the transition between the input states
X1X2X3= 111 and X1X2X3= 101.
Circuit with static-1 hazard
Now consider the below network, and assume that the inverter has an
appreciably greater propagation delay time than the other gates. In this case there is
a static 0-hazard in the transition between the input states X1X2X3= 000 and X1X2X3=
010 since it is possible for a logic-1 signal to appear at both input terminals of the
AND gate for a short duration.

45
EnggTree.com
The delay in the inverter may cause the output of gate 1 to change to 1 before
the output of gate 2 changes to 0. In that case, both inputs of gate 3 are momentarily
equal to 0, causing the output to go to 1 for the short interval of time that the input
signal from X2 is delayed while it is propagating through the inverter circuit.
Thus, a static 0-hazard exists during the transition between the input states
X1X2X3= 000 and X1X2X3= 010.
Circuit with static-0 hazard
A hazard can be detected by inspection of the map of the particular circuit. To

illustrate, consider the map in the circuit with static 0-hazard, which is a plot of the
function implemented. The change in X2 from 1 to 0 moves the circuit from minterm
111 to minterm 101. The hazard exists because the change in input results in a
different product term covering the two minterrns.
Maps demonstrating a Hazard and its Removal
The minterm 111 is covered by the product term implemented in gate 1 and
minterm 101 is covered by the product term implemented in gate 2. Whenever the
circuit must move from one product term to another, there is a possibility of a
momentary interval when neither term is equal to 1, giving rise to an undesirable 0
output.
The remedy for eliminating a hazard is to enclose the two minterms in
question with another product term that overlaps both groupings. This situation is

46
EnggTree.com
shown in the map above, where the two terms that causes the hazard are combined into
one product term. The hazard- free circuit obtained by this combinational is shown
below.
Hazard-free Circuit
The extra gate in the circuit generates the product term X 1X4. The hazards in
combinational circuits can be removed by covering any two minterms that may
produce a hazard with a product term common to both. The removal of hazards
requires the addition of redundant gates to the circuit.
4.7.2 Dynamic Hazard
A dynamic hazard is defined as a transient change occurring three or more times

at an output terminal of a logic network when the output is supposed to change only
once during a transition between two input states differing in the valueof one variable.
Now consider the input states X1X2X3= 000 and X1X2X3= 100. For the first input
state, the steady state output is 0; while for the second input state, the steady state
output is 1. To facilitate the discussion of the transient behavior of this network,
assume there are no propagation delays through gates G3 and G5 and that the
propagation delays of the other three gates are such that G1 can switch faster than G2
and G2 can switch faster than G4.

47
EnggTree.com
Circuit with Dynamic hazard
When X1 changes from 0 to 1, the change propagates through gate G 1 before

gate G2 with the net effect that the inputs to gate G3 are simultaneously 1 and the
network output changes from 0 to 1. Then, when X1 change propagates through gate
G2, the lower input to gate G3 becomes 0 and the network output changes back to 0.
Finally, when the X1= 1 signal propagates through gate G4, the lower input to
gate G5 becomes 1 and the network output again changes to 1. It is therefore seen that
during the change of X1 variable from 0 to 1 the output undergoes the sequence,
0 1 0 1, which results in three changes when it should have undergoneonly
a single change.
4.7.3 Essential Hazard

An essential hazard is caused by unequal delays along two or more paths that
originate from the same input. An excessive delay through an inverter circuit in
comparison to the delay associated with the feedback path may cause such a hazard.
Essential hazards elimination:
Essential hazards can be eliminated by adjusting the amount of delays in the
affected path. To avoid essential hazards, each feedback loop must be handled with
individual care to ensure that the delay in the feedback path is long enough compared
with delays of other signals that originate from the input terminals.

48
EnggTree.com
4.8 Design Of Hazard Free Circuits

1. Design a hazard-free circuit to implement the following function.
F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (1, 3, 6, 7, 13, 15)
Soln:
a) K-map Implementation and grouping
F=A’B’D+ A’BC+ ABD
b) Hazard- free realization

The first additional product term A’CD, overlapping two groups (group 1 &
2) and the second additional product term, BCD, overlapping the two groups
(group 2 & 3).
F=A’B’D+ A’BC+ ABD+ A’CD+ BCD

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12).
Soln:

49
EnggTree.com
F= B’D’+ A’BC+ AC’D’

The additional product term, A’CD’ overlapping two groups (group 1 & 2) for
hazard free realization. Group 1 and 3 are already overlapped hence they do not
require additional minterm for grouping.
F= B’D’+ A’BC+ AC’D’+ A’CD’

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 15).
F= CD+ A’B+ B’D

50
EnggTree.com

The additional product term, A’D overlapping two groups (group 2 & 3) for
hazard free realization. Group 1 and 2 are already overlapped hence they do not
require additional minterm for grouping.
F= CD+ A’B+ B’D+ A’D

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15).
Soln:
F= B’D’+ A’B+ ACD

51
EnggTree.com
F= B’D’+ A’B+ ACD+ A’C’D’+ BCD+ AB’C

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0, 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11).
F= AB’D+ A’BC+ A’BD+ A’B’C’
b) Hazard- free realization:
F= AB’D+ A’BC+ A’BD+ A’B’C’+ A’C’D+ B’C’D

52
EnggTree.com
UNIT V LOGIC FAMILIES AND

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC DEVICES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A memory unit is a collection of storage cells with associated circuits needed
to transfer information in and out of the device. The binary information is transferred
for storage and from which information is available when needed for processing. When
data processing takes place, information from the memory is transferred to selected
registers in the processing unit. Intermediate and final results obtained in the processing
unit are transferred back to be stored in memory.
5.2 Units of Binary Data: Bits, Bytes, Nibbles and Words

As a rule, memories store data in units that have from one to eight bits. The
smallest unit of binary data is the bit. In many applications, data are handled in an 8-
bit unit called a byte or in multiples of 8-bit units. The byte can be split into two 4-bit
units that are called nibbles. A complete unit of information is called a word and
generally consists of one or more bytes. Some memories store data in 9-bit groups; a
9-bit group consists of a byte plus a parity bit.
5.3 Basic Semiconductor Memory Array

Each storage element in a memory can retain either a 1 or a 0 and is called a
cell. Memories are made up of arrays of cells, as illustrated in Figure below using 64 cells
as an example. Each block in the memory array represents one storage cell, andits
location can be identified by specifying a row and a column.

EnggTree.com
Programmable Logic Devices, Memory 5.2
A 64-cell memory array organized in three different ways
5.4 Memory Address and Capacity
The location of a unit of data in a memory array is called its address. For
example, in Figure (a), the address of a bit in the 3-dimensional array is specified by
the row and column. In Figure (b), the address of a byte is specified only by the row
in the 2-dimensional array. So, as you can see, the address depends on how the
memory is organized into units of data. Personal computers have random-access
memories organized in bytes. This means that the smallest group of bits that can be
addressed is eight.
Examples of memory address

2
EnggTree.com
The capacity of a memory is the total number of data units that can be stored.
For example, in the bit-organized memory array in Figure (a), the capacity is 64 bits.
In the byte-organized memory array in Figure (b), the capacity is 8 bytes, which is
also 64 bits. Computer memories typically have 256 MB (megabyte) or more of
internal memory.
5.5 Basic Memory Operations
Since a memory stores binary data, data must be put into the memory and data
must be copied from the memory when needed. The write operation puts data into a
specified address in the memory, and the read operation copies data out of a specified
address in the memory. The addressing operation, which is part of both thewrite and
the read operations, selects the specified memory address.
Data units go into the memory during a write operation and come out of the
memory during a read operation on a set of lines called the data bus. As indicated in
Figure, the data bus is bidirectional, which means that data can go in either
directional (into the memory or out of the memory).
Block diagram of memory operation
For a write or a read operation, an address is selected by placing a binary code

representing the desired address on a set of lines called the address bus. The address code
is decoded internally and the appropriate address is selected. The number oflines in
the address bus depends on the capacity of the memory. For example, a 15-bit address
code can select 32,768 locations (215) in the memory; a 16-bit address code can select
65,536 locations (216) in the memory and so on.

3
EnggTree.com
In personal computers a 32-bit address bus can select 4,294,967,296 locations

(232), expressed as 4GB.
5.5.1 Write Operation
To store a byte of data in the memory, a code held in the address register is placed
on the address bus. Once the address code is on the bus, the address decoder decodes the
address and selects the specified location in the memory. The memory then gets a write
command, and the data byte held in the data register is placed on the data bus and stored
in the selected memory address, thus completing the write operation. When a new data
byte is written into a memory address, the current data byte stored at that address is
overwritten (replaced with a new data byte).
Illustration of the Write operation
5.5.2 Read Operation
A code held in the address register is placed on the address bus. Once the address
code is on the bus, the address decoder decodes the address and selects the specified
location in the memory. The memory then gets a read command, and a "copy" of the
data byte that is stored in the selected memory address is placed on the data bus and
loaded into the data register, thus completing the read operation. Whena data byte is
read from a memory address, it also remains stored at that address. This is called
nondestructive read.

4
EnggTree.com
Illustration of the Read operation
5.6 Classification of Memories
There are two types of memories that are used in digital systems:
Random-Access Memory (RAM),

Read-Only Memory (ROM).
RAM (random-access memory) is a type of memory in which all addresses are

accessible in an equal amount of time and can be selected in any order for a read or
write operation. All RAMs have both read and write capability. Because RAMs losestored
data when the power is turned off, they are volatile memories.
ROM (read-only memory) is a type of memory in which data are stored permanently
or semi permanently. Data can be read from a ROM, but there is no write operation
as in the RAM. The ROM, like the RAM, is a random-access memorybut the term RAM
traditionally means a random-access read/write memory. Because ROMs retain stored
data even if power is turned off, they are nonvolatile memories.

5
EnggTree.com
Classification of memories
5.6.1 RANDOM-ACCESS MEMORIES (RAMS)
RAMs are read/write memories in which data can be written into or read
from any selected address in any sequence. When a data unit is written into a given
address in the RAM, the data unit previously stored at that address is replaced by
the new data unit. When a data unit is read from a given address in the RAM, the
data unit remains stored and is not erased by the read operation. This
nondestructive read operation can be viewed as copying the content of an address
while leaving the content intact.
A RAM is typically used for short-term data storage because it cannot retain
stored data when power is turned off.
The two categories of RAM are the static RAM (SRAM) and the dynamic RAM
(DRAM). Static RAMs generally use flip-flops as storage elements and can therefore
store data indefinitely as long as dc power is applied. Dynamic RAMs use capacitors as
storage elements and cannot retain data very long without the capacitors being
recharged by a process called refreshing. Both SRAMs and DRAMs will lose stored
data when dc power is removed and, therefore, are classified as volatile memories.
Data can be read much faster from SRAMs than from DRAMs. However, DRAMs
can store much more data than SRAMs for a given physical size and cost because the
DRAM cell is much simpler, and more cells can be crammed into a given chip area than
in the SRAM.

6
EnggTree.com
5.6.1.1 Static RAM (SRAM)
Storage Cell:
All static RAMs are characterized by flip-flop memory cells. As long as dc

power is applied to a static memory cell, it can retain a 1 or 0 state indefinitely. If
power is removed, the stored data bit is lost.
The cell is selected by an active level on the Select line and a data bit (l or 0) is
written into the cell by placing it on the Data in line. A data bit is read by taking it off
the Data out line.
Basic SRAM Organization:
Basic Static Memory Cell Array
The memory cells in a SRAM are organized in rows and columns. All the cells
in a row share the same Row Select line. Each set of Data in and Data out lines go to
each cell in a given column and are connected to a single data line that serves as both
an input and output (Data I/O) through the data input and data output buffers.
SRAM chips can be organized in single bits, nibbles (4 bits), bytes (8 bits), or
multiple bytes (16, 24, 32 bits, etc.). The memory cell array is arranged in 256 rows
and 128 columns, each with 8 bits as shown below. There are actually 215 = 32,768
addresses and each address contains 8 bits. The capacity of this example memory is
32,768 bytes (typically expressed as 32 Kbytes).
Memory array configuration

7
EnggTree.com
Operation:
The SRAM works as follows. First, the chip select, CS, must be LOW for the
memory to operate. Eight of the fifteen address lines are decoded by the row decoder
to select one of the 256 rows. Seven of the fifteen address lines are decoded by the
column decoder to select one of the 128 8-bit columns.
Memory block diagram
Read:
In the READ mode, the write enable input, WE‘ is HIGH and the output
enable, OE‗ is LOW. The input tri state buffers are disabled by gate G1, and the
column output tristate buffers are enabled by gate G2. Therefore, the eight data bits
from the selected address are routed through the column I/O to the data lines (I/O1
through I/O7), which are acting as data output lines.
Write:
In the WRITE mode, WE‘ is LOW and OE‘ is HIGH. The input buffers are
enabled by gate G1, and the output buffers are disabled by gate G2. Therefore the
eight input data bits on the data lines are routed through the input data control and
the column I/O to the selected address and stored.

8
EnggTree.com
Read and Write Cycles:

For the read cycle shown in part (a), a valid address code is applied to the
address lines for a specified time interval called the read cycle time, tWC. Next, the
chip select (CS) and the output enable (DE) inputs go LOW. One time interval after
the DE input goes LOW; a valid data byte from the selected address appears on the
data lines. This time interval is called the output enable access time, tGQ. Two other
access times for the read cycle are the address access time, tAQ, measured from the
beginning of a valid address to the appearance of valid data on the data lines and the
chip enable access time, tEQ, measured from the HIGH-to-LOW transition of CS to
the appearance of valid data on the data lines.
During each read cycle, one unit of data, a byte in this case is read from the
memory.
For the write cycle shown in Figure (b), a valid address code is applied to the
address lines for a specified time interval called the write cycle time, tWE . Next, the
chip select (CS) and the write enable (WE) in puts go LOW. The required time interval
from the beginning of a valid address until the WE input goes LOW is called the
address setup time, t s(A). The time that the WE input must be LOW is the write pulse
width. The time that the input WE must remain LOW after valid data are applied to
the data inputs is designated t WD; the time that the valid input data must remain on
the data lines after the WE input goes HIGH is the data hold time, t h(D).
During each write cycle, one unit of data is written into the memory.

9
EnggTree.com
5.6.2 READ- ONLY MEMORIES (ROMS)
A ROM contains permanently or semi-permanently stored data, which can be

read from the memory but either cannot be changed at all or cannot be changed
without specialization equipment. A ROM stores data that are used repeatedly in
system applications, such as tables, conversions, or programmed instructions for
system initialization and operation. ROMs retain stored data when the power is OFF
and are therefore nonvolatile memories.
The ROMs are classified as follows:
i. Masked ROM (ROM)
ii. Programmed ROM (PROM)
iii. Erasable PROM (EPROM)
iv. Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)
5.6.2.1 Masked ROM
The mask ROM is usually referred to simply as a ROM. It is permanently

programmed during the manufacturing process to provide widely used standard
functions, such as popular conversions, or to provide user-specified functions. Once
the memory is programmed, it cannot be changed.
Most IC ROMs utilize the presence or absence of a transistor connection at a

row/column junction to represent a 1 or a 0. The presence of a connection from a
row line to the gate of a transistor represents a 1 at that location because when the
row line is taken HIGH; all transistors with a gate connection to that row line turn on

10
EnggTree.com
and connect the HIGH (1) to the associated column lines.
ROM Cells
At row/column junctions where there are no gate connections, the column lines
remain LOW (0) when the row is addressed.
5.6.2.2 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
The PROM (Programmable Read-only memory), comes from the manufacturer

unprogrammed and are custom programmed in the field to meet the user‘s needs.
A PROM uses some type of fusing process to store bits, in which a memory link
is burned open or left intact to represent a 0 or a 1. The fusing process is irreversible;
once a PROM is programmed, it cannot be changed.
The fusible links are manufactured into the PROM between the source of each
cell's transistor and its column line. In the programming process, a sufficient current
is injected through the fusible link to bum it open to create a stored O. The link is left
intact for a stored 1. All drains are commonly connected to VDD.

11
EnggTree.com
PROM array with fusible links
Three basic fuse technologies used in PROMs are metal links, silicon links,
and pn junctions. A brief description of each of these follows.
1. Metal links are made of a material such as nichrome. Each bit in the memory
array is represented by a separate link. During programming, the link is either
"blown" open or left intact. This is done basically by first addressing a given cell
and then forcing a sufficient amount of current through the link to cause it to
open. When the fuse is intact, the memory cell is configured as a logic 1 and when
fuse is blown (open circuit) the memory cell is logic 0.
2. Silicon links are formed by narrow, notched strips of polycrystalline silicon.

Programming of these fuses requires melting of the links by passing a sufficient
amount of current through them. This amount of current causes a high temperature
at the fuse location that oxidizes the silicon and forms insulation
around the now-open link.
3. Shorted junction, or avalanche-induced migration, technology consists basically

of two pn junctions arranged back-to-back. During programming, one of thediode
junctions is avalanched, and the resulting voltage and heat causealuminum
ions to migrate and short the junction. The remaining junction is then used as a
forward- biased diode to represent a data bit.
5.6.2.3 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

An EPROM is an erasable PROM. Unlike an ordinary PROM, an EPROM can be
reprogrammed if an existing program in the memory array is erased first.
An EPROM uses an NMOSFET array with an isolated-gate structure. The isolated

transistor gate has no electrical connections and can store an electrical charge for
indefinite periods of time. The data bits in this type of array are represented by the
presence or absence of a stored gate charge. Erasure of a data bitis a process that
removes the gate charge.

12
EnggTree.com
Two basic types of erasable PROMs are the ultraviolet erasable PROM (UV
EPROM) and the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM).
• UV EPROM:
You can recognize the UV EPROM device by the transparent quartz lid on the
package, as shown in Figure below. The isolated gate in the FET of an ultraviolet
EPROM is "floating" within an oxide insulating material. The programming process
causes electrons to be removed from the floating gate. Erasure is done by exposure of
the memory array chip to high-intensity ultraviolet radiation through the quartz
window on top of the package.
The positive charge stored on the gate is neutralized after several minutes to an
hour of exposure time. In EPROM‘s, it is not possible to erase selective information,
when erased the entire information is lost. The chip can be reprogrammed.
It is ideally suited for product development, college laboratories, etc.
Ultraviolet Erasable PROM
During programming, address and datas are applied to address and data pins
of the EPROM. The program pulse is applied to the program input of the EPROM.
The program pulse duration is around 50msec and its amplitude depends on EPROM
IC. It is typically 11.5V to 25V.
In EPROM, it is possible to program any location at any time- either

individually, sequentially or at random.
5.6.2.4 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)
The EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM), also uses MOS circuitry. Data is
stored as charge or no charge on an insulating layer, which is made very thin (<
200Å). Therefore a voltage as low as 20- 25V can be used to move charges across the
thin barrier in either direction for programming or erasing ROM.

13
EnggTree.com
An electrically erasable PROM can be both erased and programmed with

electrical pulses. Since it can be both electrically written into and electrically erased,
the EEPROM can be rapidly programmed and erased in-circuit for reprogramming.
It allows selective erasing at the register level rather than erasing all the
information, since the information can be changed by using electrical signals.
It has chip erase mode by which the entire chip can be erased in 10 msec.
Hence EEPROM‘s are most expensive.
Advantages of RAM:
1. Fast operating speed (< 150 nsec),

2. Low power dissipation (< 1mW),
3. Economy,
4. Compatibility,
5. Non-destructive read-out.
Advantages of ROM:
1. Ease and speed of design,

2. Faster than MSI devices (PLD and FPGA)
3. The program that generates the ROM contents can easily be structured to
handle unusual or undefined cases,
4. A ROM‘s function is easily modified just by changing the stored pattern,
usually without changing any external connections,
5. More economical.

14
EnggTree.com
Disadvantages of ROM:
1. For functions more than 20 inputs, a ROM based circuit is impractical

because of the limit on ROM sizes that are available.
2. For simple to moderately complex functions, ROM based circuit may be
costly: consume more power; run slower.
Comparison between RAM and ROM:
S.No RAM ROM
RAMs have both read and write

1 ROMs have only read operation.
capability.
2 RAMs are volatile memories. ROMs are non-volatile memories.
They lose stored data when the They retain stored data even if power is
3
power is turned OFF. turned off.
RAMs are available in both RAMs are available in both bipolar and
4
bipolar and MOS technologies. MOS technologies.
5 Types: SRAM, DRAM, EEPROM Types: PROM, EPROM.
Comparison between SRAM and DRAM:
S.No Static RAM Dynamic RAM
1 It contains less memory cells It contains more memory cells per unit area.
per unit area.
2 Its access time is less, hence Its access time is greater than static RAM
faster memories.
3 It consists of number of flip- It stores the data as a charge on the capacitor.
flops. Each flip-flop stores It consists of MOSFET and capacitor for each
one bit. cell.
4 Refreshing circuitry is not Refreshing circuitry is required to maintain
required. the charge on the capacitors every time after
every few milliseconds. Extra hardware is
required to control refreshing.
5 Cost is more Cost is less.

15
EnggTree.com
Comparison of Types of Memories:
Memory One- Transistor In-system

Non- Volatile High Density
type cell writability
SRAM No No No Yes
DRAM No Yes Yes Yes
ROM Yes Yes Yes No
EPROM Yes Yes Yes No
EEPROM Yes No No Yes
5.8 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC DEVICES:
5.8.1 INTRODUCTION:
A combinational PLD is an integrated circuit with programmable gates divided
into an AND array and an OR array to provide an AND-OR sum of product
implementation. The PLD‘s can be reprogrammed in few seconds and hence gives
more flexibility to experiment with designs. Reprogramming feature of PLDs also
makes it possible to accept changes/modifications in the previously design circuits.
The advantages of using programmable logic devices are:
1. Reduced space requirements.

2. Reduced power requirements.
3. Design security.
4. Compact circuitry.
5. Short design cycle.
6. Low development cost.
7. Higher switching speed.
8. Low production cost for large-quantity production.

16
EnggTree.com
According to architecture, complexity and flexibility in programming in PLD‘s are

classified as—
• PROMs : Programmable Read Only memories,
• PLAs : Programmable Logic Arrays,
• PAL : Programmable Logic Array,
• FPGA : Field Programmable Gate Arrays,
• CPLDs : Complex Programmable Logic Devices.
Programmable Arrays:
All PLDs consists of programmable arrays. A programmable array isessentially
a grid of conductors that form rows and columns with a fusible link at each cross
point. Arrays can be either fixed or programmable.
The OR Array:
It consists of an array of OR gates connected to a programmable matrix with
fusible links at each cross point of a row and column, as shown in the figure below.
The array can be programmed by blowing fuses to eliminate selected variables from
the output functions. For each input to an OR gate, only one fuse is left intact in
order to connect the desired variable to the gate input. Once the fuse is blown, it
cannot be reconnected.
Another method of programming a PLD is the antifuse, which is the opposite of the
fuse. Instead of a fusible link being broken or opened to program a variable, a
normally open contact is shorted by ―melting‖ the antifuse material to form a
connection.

17
EnggTree.com
An example of a basic programmable OR array
The AND Array:

This type of array consists of AND gates connected to a programmable matrix
with fusible links at each cross points, as shown in the figure below. Like the OR array,
the AND array can be programmed by blowing fuses to eliminate selected variables
from the output functions. For each input to an AND gate, only one fuse is left intact
in order to connect the desired variable to the gate input. Also, like the OR array, the
AND array with fusible links or with antifuses is one-time programmable.
An example of a basic programmable AND array

18
EnggTree.com
5.8.2 Classification of PLDs

There are three major types of combinational PLDs and they differ in
the placement of the programmable connections in the AND-OR array. The
configuration of the three PLDs is shown below.
1. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):
A PROM consists of a set of fixed (non-programmable) AND array

constructed
as a decoder and a programmable OR array. The programmable OR gates
implement the Boolean functions in sum of minterms.
(a) Programmable read- only memory (PROM)
2. Programmable Logic Array (PLA):
A PLA consists of a programmable AND array and a programmable OR

array.
The product terms in the AND array may be shared by any OR gate to provide
the required sum of product implementation.
The PLA is developed to overcome some of the limitations of the PROM. The
PLA is also called an FPLA (Field Programmable Logic Array) because the user in the
field, not the manufacturer, programs it.
Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

19
EnggTree.com
3. Programmable Array Logic (PAL):
The basic PAL consists of a programmable AND array and a fixed OR array.
The AND gates are programmed to provide the product terms for the Boolean
functions, which are logically summed in each OR gate.
It is developed to overcome certain disadvantages of the PLA, such as longer
delays due to the additional fusible links that result from using two programmable
arrays and more circuit complexity.
Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
Array logic Symbols:
PLDs have hundreds of gates interconnected through hundreds of

electronic fuses. It is sometimes convenient to draw the internal logic of such
device in a compact form referred to as array logic.

20
EnggTree.com
5.8.3 PROGRAMMABLE ROM:
PROMs are used for code conversions, generating bit patterns for characters
and as look-up tables for arithmetic functions.
As a PLD, PROM consists of a fixed AND-array and a programmable OR array.

The AND array is an n-to-2n decoder and the OR array is simply a collection of
programmable OR gates. The OR array is also called the memory array. The decoder
serves as a minterm generator. The n-variable minterms appear on the 2n lines at the
decoder output. The 2n outputs are connected to each of the ‗m‘ gates in the OR array
via programmable fusible links.
2n x m PROM
5.8.4 Implementation of Combinational Logic Circuit using PROM

1. Using PROM realize the following expression
F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 1, 3, 5, 7)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 2, 5, 6)
Step1: Truth table for the given function

A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

21
EnggTree.com
Step 2: PROM diagram
2. Design a combinational circuit using PROM. The circuit accepts 3-bit binary and
generates its equivalent Excess-3 code.
Step1: Truth table for the given function
B2 B1 B0 E3 E2 E1 E0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0

27
EnggTree.com
Step 2: PROM diagram
5.8.5 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC ARRAY: (PLA)
The PLA is similar to the PROM in concept except that the PLA does not provide
full coding of the variables and does not generate all the minterms.
The decoder is replaced by an array of AND gates that can be programmed to
generate any product term of the input variables. The product term are then
connected to OR gates to provide the sum of products for the required Boolean
functions. The AND gates and OR gates inside the PLA are initially fabricated with
fuses among them. The specific boolean functions are implemented in sum of
products form by blowing the appropriate fuses and leaving the desired connections.

28
EnggTree.com
PLA block diagram
The block diagram of the PLA is shown above. It consists of ‗n‘ inputs, ‗m‘ outputs,
‗k‘ product terms and ‗m‘ sum terms. The product terms constitute a group of ‗k‘ AND
gates and the sum terms constitute a group of ‗m‘ OR gates. Fuses are inserted between all
‗n‘ inputs and their complement values to each of the AND gates. Fuses are also provided
between the outputs of the AND gate and the inputs of the OR gates.
Another set of fuses in the output inverters allow the output function to be generated
either in the AND-OR form or in the AND-OR-INVERT form. With the inverter fuse in place,
the inverter is bypassed, giving an AND-OR implementation. With the fuse blown, the inverter
becomes part of the circuit and the function is implemented in the AND-OR- INVERT form.
5.8.6 Implementation of Combinational Logic Circuit using PLA
1. Implement the combinational circuit with a PLA having 3 inputs, 4

product terms and 2 outputs for the functions.
F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 4)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 5, 6, 7)
Solution:
Step 1: Truth table for the given functions
A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0

29
EnggTree.com
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1
Step 2: K-map Simplification
With this simplification, total number of product term is 6. But we require only 4
product terms. Therefore find out F1‘ and F2‘.
Now select, F1‘ and F2, the product terms are AC, AB, BC and A‘B‘C‘
Step 3: PLA Program table:

Input
Product s Outputs
term A B C F1 (C) F2 (T)
AB 1 1 1 - 1 1
AC 2 1 - 1 1 1
BC 3 - 1 1 1 -
A‘B‘C‘ 4 0 0 0 - 1

30
EnggTree.com
In the PLA program table, first column lists the product terms numerically as
1, 2, 3, and 5. The second column (Inputs) specifies the required paths between the
AND gates and the inputs. For each product term, the inputs are marked with 1, 0,
or - (dash). If a variable in the product form appears in its normal form, the
corresponding input variable is marked with a 1. If it appears complemented, the
corresponding input variable is marked with a 0. If the variable is absent in the
product term, it is marked with a dash ( - ). The third column (output) specifies the
path between the AND gates and the OR gates. The output variables are marked with
1‘s for all those product terms that formulate the required function.
Step 4: PLA Diagram
The PLA diagram uses the array logic symbols for complex symbols. Each input
and its complement is connected to the inputs of each AND gate as indicatedby the
intersections between the vertical and horizontal lines. The output of the AND gate are
connected to the inputs of each OR gate. The output of the OR gate goes toan EX-OR
gate where the other input can be programmed to receive a signal equal to either logic 1
or 0.

31
EnggTree.com
The output is inverted when the EX-OR input is connected to 1 ie., (x 1= x’).
The output does not change when the EX-OR input is connected to 0 ie., (x 0= x).
2. Implement the combinational circuit with a PLA having 3 inputs, 4

product terms and 2 outputs for the functions.
F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (3, 5, 6, 7)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 2, 4, 7)
Solution:

A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

32
EnggTree.com
Now select, F1‘ and F2, the product terms are B’C’, A’C’, A’B’ and
ABC. Step 3: PLA Program table
Input
Product s Outputs
B‘C‘ 1 - 0 0 1 1
A‘C‘ 2 0 - 0 1 1
A‘B‘ 3 0 0 - 1 -
ABC 4 1 1 1 - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

33
EnggTree.com
3. Implement the following functions using PLA.

F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 2, 4, 6)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 1, 6, 7)
F3 (A, B, C) = ∑m (2, 6)
Solution:
A B C F1 F2 F3
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0

34
EnggTree.com
Step 3: PLA Program table

Input
Product s Outputs
term A B C F1 (T) F2 (T) F3 (T)
A‘B‘C 1 0 0 1 1 - -
AC‘ 2 1 - 0 1 - -
BC‘ 3 - 1 0 1 - 1
A‘B‘ 4 0 0 - - 1 -
AB 5 1 1 - - 1 -
Step 4: PLA Diagram
4. A combinational circuit is designed by the function

F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (3, 5, 7)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (4, 5, 7)

35
EnggTree.com
Solution:
A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Input
Product s Outputs
AC 1 1 - 1 1 1
BC 2 - 1 1 1 -
AB‘ 3 1 0 - - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

36
EnggTree.com
5. A combinational circuit is defined by the

functions, F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 3, 5)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (5, 6, 7)
Implement the circuit with a PLA having 3 inputs, 3 product terms and 2
outputs.
Solution:
A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1

37
EnggTree.com
Now select, F1‘ and F2, the product terms are AC, AB and C’.
Input
Product s Outputs
AB 1 1 1 - 1 1
C‘ 2 - - 0 1 -
AC 3 1 - 1 - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

38
EnggTree.com
6. A combinational circuit is defined by the

functions, F1 (A, B, C) = ∑m (0, 1, 3, 4)
F2 (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Implement the circuit with a PLA having 3 inputs, 4 product terms and 2
outputs.
Solution:
A B C F1 F2
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

39
EnggTree.com
The product terms are B’C’, A’C, AB’ and A’B.

Input
Product s Outputs
term A B C F1 (T) F2 (T)
B‘C‘ 1 - 0 0 1 -
A‘C 2 0 - 1 1 1
AB‘ 3 1 0 - - 1
A‘B 4 0 1 - - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

40
EnggTree.com
7. A combinational logic circuit is defined by the function,

F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 15)
G (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (1, 5, 7, 11, 15)
Implement the circuit with a PLA having 4 inputs, 6 product terms and 2 outputs.
Solution:
A B C D F G
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

41
EnggTree.com
The product terms are A‘BC‘, A‘CD, BCD, ACD‘, A‘C‘D, ACD

Product Inputs Outputs
term A B C D F (T) G (T)
A‘BC‘ 1 0 1 0 - 1 -
A‘CD 2 0 - 1 1 1 -
BCD 3 - 1 1 1 1 1
ACD‘ 4 1 - 1 0 1 -
A‘C‘D 5 0 - 0 1 - 1
ACD 6 1 - 1 1 - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

42
EnggTree.com
8. Design a BCD to Excess-3 code converter and implement using suitable PLA.
Solution:
Step 1: Truth table of BCD to Excess-3 converter is shown below,
BCD code Excess-3 code
Decimal
B3 B2 B1 B0 E3 E2 E1 E0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
The product terms are B3, B2B0, B2B1, B2B1’B0’, B2’B0, B2’B1, B1’B0’, B1B0, B0’

43
EnggTree.com

Product Inputs Outputs
terms B3 B2 B1 B0 E3 (T) E2 (T) E1 (T) E0 (T)
B3 1 1 - - - 1 - - -
B 2B 0 2 - 1 - 1 1 - - -
B 2B 1
3 - 1 1 - 1 - - -
B2B1‘B0‘
4 - 1 0 0 - 1 - -
B2‘B0
5 - 0 - 1 - 1 - -
B2‘B1
6 - 0 1 - - 1 - -
B1‘B0‘
7 - - 0 0 - - 1 -
B 1B 0
8 - - 1 1 - - 1 -
B0‘
9 - - - 0 - - - 1
Step 4: PLA Diagram

44
EnggTree.com
Comparison between PROM, PLA, and PAL:
S.No PROM PLA PAL

AND array is fixed Both AND and OR OR array is fixed and
1 and OR array is arrays are AND array is
programmable programmable programmable
Cheaper and simpler
2 Costliest and complex Cheaper and simpler
to use

45
EnggTree.com
AND array can be AND array can be

All minterms are
3 programmed to get programmed to get
decoded
desired minterms desired minterms
Only Boolean
Any Boolean
functions in standard Any Boolean functions
functions in SOP form
4 SOP form can be in SOP form can be
can be implemented
implemented using implemented using PLA
using PLA
PROM

46
EnggTree.com
5. DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES
Integrated circuits
Integrated Circuits are used for producing several different circuit configurations and
production technologies. The semiconductor chip consists of electronic components
used for constructing circuits. Integrated circuits are classified into
Linear Integrated Circuits
Digital Integrated Circuits
Both operate with continuous and discrete signals respectively and are used to
construct various electronic circuits.
There are different levels of Integration, based on the number of logic gates in a
single IC package.
Small scale Integration (SSI)
These IC‟s contain fewer logic gates (0 to 10).The input and output pins can be
directly connected to the pins in the package.
Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
These IC‟s have approximately around 10 to 1000 gates in one package, which
performs some specific functions.
(Ex: adders, multiplexers)
Large Scale Integration (LSI)
These IC‟s contain thousands of gates in a single package.
(Ex: processors, memory chips and programmable logic devices)
Very Large Scale Integrated Devices (VLSI)
These IC‟s contain hundreds of thousands of gates in a single package.
(Ex: memory arrays, computer chips)

EnggTree.com
Classification of Logic Families
Based on the circuit technology digital IC‟s are classified into various types
RTL (Resistor Transistor Logic)
DTL (Diode Transistor Logic)
TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)
ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic)
MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic)
Characteristics of Logic Families
The following are the important characteristics of digital IC‟s
Propagation Delay (or) Operating Speed
Voltage and Current parameters
Power Dissipation
Fan-in
Fan-out
Noise Margin
Operating Temperature
Power Supply Requirements
Propagation Delay (or) Operating Speed:
Propagation delay is defined as the time taken by the output of a gate to respond
when its inputs have changed.
Propagation delay shown in the diagram has two propagation delay times

EnggTree.com
tPLH : Propagation delay time from low level(0) to high level(1)
tPHL : Propagation delay time from high level(1) to low level(0)
The delay in output is a measure of relative speed of logic circuits.
Average propagation delay PD avg = ( tPLH + tPHL )/2
Voltage and Current Parameters:
Digital logic gates have a certain range of voltage and current levels
corresponding to 0(low level)) and 1(high level)
Voltage and current levels:
High level input voltage and current: The minimum input voltage recognised as logic
1(high level) by the logic gates (2V – 3V range) and the corresponding current is
high level input current.
Low level input voltage and current: The maximum input voltage recognised as logic
0(low level) by the logic gates (around 0.8V) and the corresponding current is low
level input current.
High level output voltage and current: The minimum voltage available at the output
corresponding to logic 1 and the corresponding current is high level output current.
Low level output voltage and current: The minimum voltage available at the output
corresponding to logic 0 and the corresponding current is low level output current.
Power Dissipation:
Power dissipation is the measure of power consumed by the logic gate

when fully driven by all its inputs. It is expressed in milliwatts or nanowatts.
Average power dissipation Pdc avg =Vcc x Iavg
Vcc - DC supply voltage
Iavg – Average current taken from the supply

EnggTree.com
Fan-in:
Fan-in is the number of inputs available in a gate
Fan-out:
Fan-out is the number of similar logic gates that the output of a gate can drive
without affecting the normal operation.
Noise Margin:
Noise margin is the maximum external noise voltage added to the input signal that
does not cause any undesirable change in the circuit operation.
Operating Temperature:
All integrated circuits are semiconductor devices sensitive to temperature
Operating range
0ºC to +70º for consumer applications
-55º to +125ºC for military applications
Power Supply Requirements:
The amount of power required by the IC.

EnggTree.com
5.1 RESISTOR TRANSISTOR LOGIC (RTL)
The following diagram shows the Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL) of NOR logic
function.
Basic diagram of RTL NOR consists of transistor and resistors.
Here it is three input NOR gates logic diagram using RTL [i.e., A, B, C].
This follows the NOR gates truth table in its operation. i.e., whenever any one of the
input is “HIGH” then it produce low output (or) all inputs are low, it produces “Low”
output. This is similar to NOR logic truth table shown below.

EnggTree.com
Operation:
When all inputs are zero (or) low, then output Q= 0.
Since, all these transistors Q1, Q2, Q3 are in OFF condition; its collector output is
high.
When any one of the input is high (ort all inputs are high, then its corresponding
transistor is going to ON condition. Also, it is connected with ground and collector
potential which is approximately zero.
Anyhow, the base current is practically independent of the emitter junction

characteristic. When the resistors increase the input resistance and reduce the
switching speed of the circuit. This reduces the rise and fall times of any input pulse.
In practice, this approach to increase the speed of an RTL is to connect a capacitor

called a speed-up capacitor which is parallel to resistance connected in base.
Operation Table
Drawbacks:
In this logic family, some disadvantages are there, they are:
(i) It reduces current-hogging by load transistors, which is purely because of

mismatch of junction voltages. Hence it permits large fan-out.
(ii) One more problem is that load transistor in a RTL gate are driven heavily into
saturation. Hence it results in long-turn-off delays.

EnggTree.com
Characteristics of RTL Family
1. Speed of operation is low, i.e., Propagation delay is of the order 500 ns. Hence it
cannot operate the system speed above 4 MHz.
2. For switching delay of 50 ns, the fan-in is 4 (or) 5 and fan-out is 4.
3. Because of Base resistor in transistor, the power dissipation is more. This can be
reduced by introducing DCTL (Direct coupled transistor logic).
4. It is highly sensitive to temperature.
5. Poor in nose immunity
5.2 DIODE TRANSISTOR LOGIC (DTL)
This DTL logic family reduces the problem of decreasing output voltage with
increasing load.
The following diagram shows the DTL NAND logic circuit using diode and transistor.

EnggTree.com
A and B are the inputs.
D1 D2 forms AND equivalent circuit and transistor (Q) acts as a inverter.

Therefore, the combinations of AND and NOT gates forms a logical NAND circuit
hence it follows the following NAND truth table.
Operation:
As per the above circuit diagram, the operation is as follows:
When A = B = 1
Diodes D1 D2 are in reverse biased conditions [i.e., acts as open circuit].
Therefore D3 conduct. Hence the transistor base gets current flow and which is
turned ON.
Q output in low cut-off
When A = B = 0 (or) A = 0 and B = * (0 or 1)
When all inputs are zero, the D1 and D2 is in ON condition. Hence there is no input
current to base of the transistor. Q, hence it is in OFF condition. Thereby the output
in collector terminal of transistor Q is high, called saturated state.
Similarly if any one of the input is low (0) that makes the above operation. So output
is high (1)
Therefore, the final expression is Y = (A.B)‟ Then above operation is tabulated by

using functional operation table

EnggTree.com
Operation table
Characteristics of DTL Family
Propagation Delay:
The turn-off delay is considerably more than the turn-on-delay. Hence propagation
delay is 25 ns.
Fan-in and Fan-out.
Fan-in is less than 8.
Fan-out is high i.e., upto 8.
Noise immunity:
Noise margin is high. This is due to the additional diodes.
Anyhow, whatever the drawbacks, can be reduced (or) improved in TTL family.
5.3 TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR LOGIC (TTL)
The speed limitation of DTL is overcome by TTL family. It is the commonly used
saturating family and hence operating speed is high.
Basic gate for TTL logic is NAND gate

EnggTree.com
2-Input TTL NAND Gate
The figure shows the circuit diagram of 2-input NAND gate. Its input structure
consists of multiple-emitter transistor and output structure consists of totem-pole
output. Here, Q1 is an NPN transistor having two emitters, one for each input to
the gate. Although this circuit looks complex, we can simplify its analysis by using
the diode equivalent of the multiple-emitter transistor Q1, as shown in figure.
Diodes D2 and D3 represent the two E-B junctions of Q1 an d4 is the collector-
base (C-B) junction.
Diode equivalent for Q1

EnggTree.com
The input voltages A and B are either LOW (ideally grounded) or HIGH (ideally +
5 volts). If either A or B or both are low, the corresponding diode conducts and
the base of Q1 is pulled down to approximately 0.7 V. This reduces the base
voltage of Q2 to almost zero. Therefore, Q2 cuts off. With Q2 open, Q4 goes into
cut-off and the Q3 base is pulled HIGH. Since Q3 acts as an emitter follower, the
Y output is pulled up to a HIGH voltage. On the other hand, when A and B both
are HIGH, the emitter diode of Q1 are reversed biased making them off. This
causes the collector diode D4 to go into forward conduction. This forces Q2 base
to go HIGH. In turn, Q4 goes into saturation producing a low output.
Without diode D1 in the circuit, Q3 will conduct slightly when the output is low. To
prevent this diode is used; its voltage keeps the base-emitter diode of Q3 revere
biased only Q4 conducts when output is low.
3-input TTL NAND Gate

EnggTree.com
The figure shows the three input TTL NAND gate. The operation of three input
TTL NAND is same as that of two output TTL NAND gate except that is Q1 (NPN)
transistor has three emitters instead of two. For three input NAND gate if all the
inputs are logic 1 then and then only output is logic 0; otherwise output is logic 1.
The operation is similar to the 2-input NAND gate. The table show the truth table
for 3-input NAND gate.
Totem-Pole Output

EnggTree.com
The figure shows a highlighted output configuration.
Transistor Q3 and Q4 form a totem-pole. Such a configuration is known as active

pull-up or totem pole output.
The active pull-up formed by Q3 and Q4 has specific advantage.
Totem-pole transistors are used because they produce LOW output impedance
Either Q3 acts as a emitter follower (HIGH output) or Q4 is saturated (LOW

output)
When Q3 is conducting, the output impedance is approximately 70Ω; when Q4 is

saturated, the output impedance is only 12Ω.
Either way, the output impedance is low. This means that the output voltage can
change quickly from one state to the other because any stray output capacitance
is rapidly charged or discharged through the low output impedance. Thus the
propagation delay is low in totem-pole TTL logic.
Open-Collector Output
One problem with totem pole output is that two outputs cannot be tied together.
See the figure, where the totem pole outputs of two separate gates are
connected together at point X. Suppose that the output of gate A is high (Q3A ON
and Q4A OFF) and the output of gate B is low (Q3B OFF and Q4B ON). In this
situation transistor Q4B acts as a load for Q3A. Since Q4B is a low resistance
load, it draws high current around 55 mA. This current might not damage Q3A or
Q4B immediately, but over a period of time can cause overheating and
deterioration in performance and eventual device failure.

EnggTree.com
Some TTL devices provide another type of output called open collector output.
The outputs of two difference gates with open collector output can be tied
together. This known as wired logic. Figure shows a 2-input NAND gate with an
open-collector output eliminates the pull-up transistor Q3, D1 and R4. The output
is taken from the open collector terminal of transistor Q4.

EnggTree.com
Because the collector of Q4 is open, a gate like this will not work properly until you
connect an external pull-up resistor, as shown in fig. When Q4 is ON, output is low and
when Q4 is OFF output is tied to VCC through an external pull up resistor.
Comparison between Totem-Pole and Open-Collector Outputs
Totem-pole Open collector
Output stage consists of pull-up transistor Output stage consists of only pull-down
(Q3), diode resistor and pull-down transistor.
transistor (Q4)
External pull-up resistor is not required. External pull-up resistor is required for
proper operation of gate.
Output of two gates cannot be tied Output of two gates can be tied together
together. using wired AND technique.
Operating speed is high. Operating speed is low.
Table summarizes the difference between totem-pole and open collector outputs.
Tri-Slate TTL Inverter
The tristate configuration is a third type of TTL output configuration. It utilizes the high-
speed operation of the totem-pole arrangement while permitting outputs to be wired-
ANDed (connected together). It is called tristate TTL because it allows three possible
output stages: HIGH, LOW and high impedance. We know the transistor Q3 is ON when
output is HIGH and Q4 is ON when output is LOW. In the high impedance state both
transistors, transistors Q3 and Q4 in the totem-pole arrangement are turned OFF. As a
result, the output is open or floating, it is neither LOW nor HIGH.

EnggTree.com
The figure shows the simplified circuit for tristate inverter. It has two inputs A and E.
A is the normal logic output whereas E is an ENABLE input. When ENABLE input
is HIGH, the circuit works as a normal inverter. Because when E is HIGH, the state of the
transistor Q1 (either ON or OFF) depends on the logic input A, and the additional
component diode is open circuited as its cathode is at logic HIGH. When ENABLE input is
LOW, regardless of the state of logic input A, the base-emitter junction of Q1 is forward
biased and as a result it turns ON. This shunts the current through R1 away from Q2
making it OFF. As Q2 is OFF, there is no sufficient drive for Q4 to conduct and hence Q4
turns off. The LOW at ENABLE input also forward-biases diode D2 which shunt the
current away from the base of Q3, making it OFF. In this way, when ENABLE input is
LOW, both transistors are OFF and output is at high impedance state. Fig shows the logic
symbols for tristate inverter. In above case circuit operation is enabled when ENABLE
input is HIGH. Therefore, ENBLE input is active high. The logic symbol for high enable
input is shown in figure. In some circuits ENABLE input can be active LOW, i.e. circuit
operates when ENABLE input is LOW. The logic symbol for active low ENABLE input is
shown in the figure.

EnggTree.com
The internal temperature – and voltage -compensated bias network supplies a

reference voltage (Bias voltage VBB = -1.3 V) to the differential amplifier. The best
noise immunity is obtained by connecting VCC to ground and VEE to -5.2 V.
5.4 ECL – Emitter coupled logic:
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) is a non saturated digital logic family. It achieves the
propagation delay of 2ns. Its required high speed system operation. The output
provides both OR and NOR functions. Each input is connected to the base of
transistor. The two voltage levels are about -0.8 V for the high state and -1.8V for
the low state.
The circuit consists of

Differential amplifier
Temperature – and voltage -compensated bias network
Emitter follower
The Emitter follower output requires a pull down resistor for current to flow. This
is obtained from the input resistor, Rp of other similar gates or from an external
resistor connected to a negative voltage supply.

EnggTree.com
Working:
If any of the input is high the corresponding input transistor is turned ON and
transistor Q3 is OFF.
Ex: if VA = -0.8V, the transistor Q1 starts conducting, So the VBE(Q1) = 0.8V. Now
VE(Q1) = VA - VBE(Q1) = -0.8V – 0.8V = -1.6V
Next to find the VBE(Q3). VBE(Q3) = VB(Q3) – VE(Q3) = -1.3 –(-1.6) =0.3V. Thus the
transistor Q3 is OFF. So the transistor Q1 is remains ON. The output voltage of the
transistor Q1 is low. So the input voltage of transistor Q6 is Low. Since the
transistor Q6 is a Emitter follower so the output of the transistor Q6 is also Low.
This output produce the NOR output of the circuit.
The transistor Q3 is OFF. The output voltage of the transistor Q3 is high. So the
input voltage of transistor Q5 is high. Since the transistor Q5 is a Emitter follower
so the output of the transistor Q5 is also high. This output produce the OR output
of the circuit.
2. If both the inputs are low, transistors Q1 and Q2 are turned OFF and transistor
Q3 is ON.
Ex: if VA = VB = -1.8V, the transistor Q1 and Q2 = OFF, the transistor Q3 is ON. So

the VBE(Q3) = 0.8V. Now VE(Q3) = VBB - VBE(Q1) = -1.3V – 0.8V = -2.1V
Next to find the VBE(Q1) or VBE(Q2) . VBE(Q1) = VB(Q1) – VE(Q1) = -1.8 –(-2.1)
=0.3V. Thus the transistor Q1 is OFF. So the transistor Q3 is remains ON. The
output voltage of the transistor Q3 is low. So the input voltage of transistor Q3 is
Low. Since the transistor Q5 is a Emitter follower so the output of the transistor
Q5 is also Low. This output produce the OR output of the circuit.
The transistor Q1 is OFF. The output voltage of the transistor Q1 is high. So the
input voltage of transistor Q6 is high. Since the transistor Q6 is a Emitter follower
so the output of the transistor Q6 is also high. This output produce the NOR
output of the circuit.

EnggTree.com
Operation Table
5.5 CMOS Families
Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic uses the MOSFET in complementary pairs as

its basic element.
A complementary pair uses both p-channel and n-channel enhancement MOSFETs
CMOS AS INVERTER
A Q1 Q2 Y
PMOS NMOS
0 ON OFF 1
1 OFF ON 0

EnggTree.com
CMOS AS NAND LOGIC
When both inputs are LOW, Q1 and Q2 are on, and Q3 and Q4 are off.
The output is pulled HIGH through the on resistance of Q1 and Q2 in parallel.
When input A is LOW and input B is HIGH, Q1 and Q4 are on, and Q2 and Q3 are
off.
A B Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Y
(Q1 & (Q2 & PMOS PMOS NMOS NMOS

Q3) Q4)
0 0 ON ON OFF OFF 1
0 1 ON OFF OFF ON 1
1 0 OFF ON ON OFF 1
1 1 OFF OFF ON ON 0

EnggTree.com
The output is pulled HIGH through the low on resistance of Q1.
When input A is HIGH and input B is LOW, Q1 and Q4 are off, and Q2 and Q3 are
on.
The output is pulled HIGH through the low on resistance of Q2.
When both inputs are HIGH, Q1 and Q2 are off, and Q3 and Q4 are on.
The output is pulled LOW through the on resistance of Q3 and Q4 in series to

ground.
CMOS AS NOR LOGIC
When both inputs are LOW, Q1 and Q2 are on, and Q3 and Q4 are off.
The output is pulled HIGH through the on resistance of Q1 and Q2 in series.

EnggTree.com
A B Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Y
(Q1 & (Q2 & PMOS PMOS NMOS NMOS

Q3) Q4)
0 0 ON ON OFF OFF 1
0 1 ON OFF OFF ON 0
1 0 OFF ON ON OFF 0
1 1 OFF OFF ON ON 0
When input A is LOW and input B is HIGH, Q1 and Q4 are on, and Q2 and Q3 are
off.
The output is pulled LOW through the low on resistance of Q4 to ground.
When input A is HIGH and input B is LOW, Q1 and Q4 are off, and Q2 and Q3 are
on.
The output is pulled LOW through the on resistance of Q3 to ground.
When both inputs are HIGH, Q1 and Q2 are off, and Q3 and Q4 are on. The
output is
pulled LOW through the on resistance of Q3 and Q4 in parallel to ground.

Comparison between Various Digital Logic Families
EnggTree.com
Parameter RTL DTL TTL ECL CMOS
N-channel
Resistors Resistor Resistor,
Components Resistor and and P-
and diode and diode and
used transistor channel
transistor transistor transistor
MOSFET
Circuit
Simple Moderate Complex Complex Moderate
Complexity
Noise
margin
Nominal Good Very good Good Very good
[Noise
immunity]
Low Medium More High 50
Fan-out
(4) (8) (10) (25)
Power
dissipation
12 8 – 12 10 40 – 55 0.1
in mW per
gate
Basic gate NOR NAND NAND OR-NOR NAND/NOR
2 (ECL 10 K)
Propagation
12 30 10 0.75 (ECL 70
delay in ns
100K)
Speed
100 (ECL 10 K)
power 144 300 100 0.7
40 (ECL 100 K)
product (PJ)
Portable
High speed
instrument
switching
with battery
Laboratory applications
Applications Absolute Absolute supply (low
instruments (low
power
propagation
consumption
delay)
)
Number of
High Fairly high Very high High Low
functions
Clock rate
8 12 – 30 15 – 60 60 – 400 5
MHz

EC3352 Digital Systems Design Lecture Notes 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EC3352 Digital Systems Design Lecture Notes 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EC3352 Digital Systems Design Lecture Notes 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EnggTree.

EC3352-DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN

Fundamental postulates of Boolean algebra:

ii) Identity element:

iii) Commutative law:

x*y=y*x for all x, y Є S

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

iv) Distributive law:

x . (y+ z) = (x. y) + (x. z)

Similarly, + is said to be distributive over • whenever,

x + (y. z) = (x+ y). (x+ z)

POSTULATES (a) (b)

Basic theorem and properties of Boolean algebra:

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

x+ xy = x. 1 + xy------------------- by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]

Properties of Boolean algebra:

Boolean addition is commutative, given by

According to this property, the order of the OR operation conducted on the

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

The associative property of addition is given by,

The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean multiplication, given by

The Boolean addition is distributive over Boolean addition, given by

A. (B+C) = (A.B)+ (A.C)

It states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

THEOREMS (a) (b)

(A+ B)’ = A’. B’

AB+ A’C+ BC = AB+ A’C

The dual form of consensus theorem is stated as,

(A+B) (A’+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A’+C)

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of literals:

3. (x+ y) (x+ y’)

5. xy+ yz+ y’z

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

6. (x+ y) (x’+ z) (y+ z)

7. x’y+ xy+ x’y’

9. AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB + C)

10. (x’+ y) (x+ y)

11. xy+ xyz+ xy (w+ z)

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

13. xyz+ xy’z+ xyz’

14. x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xy’z’+ xyz’

15. w’xyz’+ xyz’+ xy’z’+ xy’z

16. w’xy’z+ w’xyz+ wxz

17. x’y’z’+ x’y’z+ x’yz’+ x’yz+ xy’z’

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

= x’ (1) + xy’z’ [ x+ x’= 1]

19. xy+ x (y+ z) + y (y+ z)

20. [ xy’ (z+ wy) + x’y’] z

21. x’yz+ xy’z’+ x’y’z’+ xy’z+ xyz

22. [(xy)’+ x’+ xy]’

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

= [x’+ y’+ x]’ [ x’+ xy = x’+ y]

24. xy+ xy’( x’z’)’

25. [( xy’+ xyz)’+ x (y+ xy’)]’

Downloaded from EnggTree.com

26. [ (xy+ z’) ((x+ y)’+z) ]’

27. (x+ y) (x’z’+ z) (y’+ xz)’

xy=yx for all x, y Є S