DEFINITION OF TERMS

Module 1:
▪ Surveying has to do with the determining of the relative location of points on or near the surface
of the earth.

KINDS OF SURVEYING:
1. Plane Surveying – is a survey in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a flat, or in
which its spheroidal shape is neglected and the north-south lines are assumed to be parallel.
2. Geodetic Surveying – That type of surveying which takes into account the shape of the earth. This
employs the principle of geodesy, which is of high precision and generally extends over large areas.

TYPES OF SURVEYS:
1. Topographic Survey - to secure field data from which may be made a topographic map
2. Route Survey - refers to those surveys necessary for the location and construction of lines of
transportation or communication.
3. Hydrographic Survey - refers to surveying bodies of water for purposes of navigation.
4. Mine Survey - use of the principles of land, topographic, and route surveying, with modifications
in practice made necessary by altered conditions.
5. Property Survey (Cadastral Surveying, Land survey or boundary survey) - has particular
reference to extensive urban or rural surveys made for the purpose of locating property lines
and improvements in details. Cadastral is usually used with regards to surveys of public lands.
6. City or Municipal Survey - the term frequently applied to the operation of laying out lots and to
the municipal surveys.
7. Photogrammetric Survey - is the application to surveying – of the science of measurement by
means of photographs.
8. Remote Sensing - is another type of aerial survey which make use of camera.
9. Construction Survey - use of surveying methods and instruments in construction works. Also
called a layout survey or location survey, performed in order to mark the position of new points
on the ground.
10. As-built Survey - a survey made after a construction project is completed to provide the
positions and dimension of the features of the project as they actually constructed.
11. Control Survey - is a reference survey wherein the number of points are established and their
horizontal and vertical positions are accurately determined so that woks/project can be oriented
to the area.

MEASUREMENTS OF DISTANCES
Methods
1. PACING - a method of measuring horizontal distances that furnish a rapid mean of
approximately checking more precise measurement.
2. TAPING or Chaining is the common method of measuring length of a line or course with the use
of tape or chain.
3. Stadia method – a rapid indirect mean of measuring distance with the use of the telescope of
the transit.
4. Using a measuring wheel: this method uses the wheel mounted on a rod provided with
odometer which serves to count the number of turns when the rod is pushed and wheel rolled
along the line to be measured.
5. Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMIs) - the method of measuring distance using
an expensive instrument which uses the principle of electromagnetic beam of either microwaves
or light waves.
6. Electronic Tacheometer instrument (ETI) or Electronic Total Station - can automatically
measure, process and record horizontal and vertical distances, as well as station coordinates and
elevations.
 7. Global Positioning System (GPS) - The greatest surveying tools ever developed wherein the
vertical and horizontal positioning on earth could be obtained from radio signals broadcast from
earth satellites.
8. Navigational satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) - a GPS originally used to determine the
geodetic location/position of plane, ships and other military group.
9. Real-time kinematic positioning (RTK) - is the application of surveying to correct for common
errors in current satellite navigation (GNSS) systems - is a special form of Differential GPS that
gives about one-hundred times greater accuracy.

PACING
▪ PACE – the length of a single step
▪ PACING – consists of counting the number of steps in a required distance
▪ STRIDE – two paces or a double step.
▪ PACE FACTOR – a value determined by dividing the measured or known length of a line by the
mean number of paces taken to walk or traverse the line.
▪ PACED DISTANCE – the length of a course as determined by pacing.
▪ DISCREPANCY – in any measurement is the difference between any two measurements involving
the same line or course.
▪ RELATIVE PRECISION OF MEASUREMENT – a value determined by dividing the discrepancy by
the mean measured length, and where the numerator is reduced to unity or one.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN SURVEYING

▪ Angles - defined as a figure formed by the intersection of two lines or it may also viewed as
being generated by the rotation of a line about a point.

Several System of Angular Units

▪ Sexagesimal System (Degre, minutes, seconds) - the complete rotation is divided into 3600
▪ Centesimal System (grad) - The complete rotation is divided into 400 grades, or grads.
▪ Radian or rad - by definition, 1 rad is equivalent to the angle formed between two radii in a
circle wherein its length of the arc formed is equal to its radius
▪ Mil -is an angular measurement used in military.

TAPING
▪ TAPING (Chaining) – the process of measuring the length of a line or course with a tape or chain.

1. Tapes or Chains - Steel tapes and fiberglass tape

2. Range Pole, flagpole - are poles painted with bands of alternate red and white used for
sighting points, for marking ground points and for lining tape men in order to keep them
going in the right direction.
3. Chaining pins or taping pins – usually a 1 ft. long with ¼inch diameter pin used for marking
ends of the tapes or intermediate points while taping.
4. Plumb bob - is a pear shaped or globular weight which is suspended on a string or wire used
to transfer the reading of tape to the ground.
5. Hand level – a device useful to the surveyor for helping hold tapes horizontally while making
measurements.
6. Spring balance - a device attached to the end of the tape which register the amount of pull.
7. Thermometer – a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient.

Taping party
1. Head chainman (tape man) - the one that will take the zero end of the tape.
2. Rear chainman (tape man) – holding the zero end
 ▪ Breaking Tape - a procedure which involves the measurement of short horizontal distances
usually along uneven or sloping ground and accumulating these distances to total full tape
length.

METHODS of Erecting Perpendicular to a given Line:

1. 3:4:5 Method - To erect a perpendicular to the line AB, from a given point C, on line AB is
assumed to be on the perpendicular and a pin is set at (a).
2. The Chord Bisection Method: To erect a perpendicular to the line AB, from a given point C, the
position of the perpendicular is estimated, and a pin is set at d in this estimated perpendicular,
somewhat less than one tape length from the line AB

Measuring Obstructed Distance by use of Tape:

1. Swing Offset Method - To find the distance AB by the swing offset method, the head chainman
attached the end of the tape to one end of the line as at B and describes an arc with center B
and radius 100m (or the full tae length).
2. Parallel Lines Method - If the necessary distance from the line AB is short, perpendicular AA’ = BB’ are
erected by either using 3:4:5 method of the chord bisection method to clear the obstacle.
3. Similar Triangle - Let C be a point from A and B are visible.

Module 2:

COMPASS and DIRECTION:

▪ Surveyor’s Compass – an instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a
line with reference to the direction of the magnetic needle.

Essential Features of Compass:

1. Compass Box – with a circle graduated from 0°to 90° in both directions from the N. and S. points
and usually having the E and W points interchanged.
2. Sight Vanes – the line of sight in the direction of the SN points of the compass box.
3. Magnetic needle – has the property of pointing a fixed direction namely, the magnetic meridian.

Kinds of Compass:
1. Pocket compass – generally held in the hand when bearings are observed; used on
reconnaissance or other rough surveys.
2. Survey’s compass – which is mounted usually on a light tripod, or sometimes on a Jaco’s staff.
3. Transit compass – a compass box similar to the surveyor’s compass, mounted on the upper or
winner plate of the engineer’s transit.

Sources of Errors in Compass Work:

1. Needle bent – if the needle is not perfectly straight, a constant error is introduced in all
observed bearings. The needle can be corrected by using pliers.
2. Pivot bent – if the point of the pivot supporting the needle is not at the center of the graduated
circle, there is introduced a variable systematic error, the magnitude of which depends on the
direction in which the compass is sighted.
3. Plane of sight not vertical or graduated circle not horizontal –
4. Sluggish
5. Reading the needle
6. Magnetic variations
 ▪ MERIDIANS - are reference lines from which angle of directions of any line in the surveying
works are being referred.

Types of Meridians:
1. Assumed Meridian - is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for convenience.
Sometimes termed as Arbitrary Meridian.
2. True meridian- is the reference line on a plane passing through the geographical North Pole or
geographical South Pole.
o True meridian (also called as geographical meridian) - any point on the surface of the
earth
o True bearing of the line - angle between true meridian and line. It is also known as
azimuth.
3. Magnetic Meridian - is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel to the magnetic lines of force of
the earth.
4. Grid Meridian - is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates

▪ Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of
a point north or south of the Equator.
▪ Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of
a point east or west of the Prime.
▪ Magnetic declination - the angle that a magnetic meridian makes with the true meridian.
▪ Secular Variation - A long, extremely slow swing of the needle of the compass.
▪ Magnetic dip (magnetic inclination) - the vertical angle that the magnetic needle makes with the
horizontal due to uneven magnetic attraction from the magnetic poles.
▪ Isogonic lines - an imaginary line passing through places having the same magnetic declination.
▪ Isoclinic lines - an imaginary line passing through points having the same magnetic dip.
▪ Agonic lines – imaginary line passing through places having a zero declination.

HORIZONTAL ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS:

1. Interior Angle - is the angle measured on the inside of a closed polygon or traverse.
2. Exterior Angle - is the angle measured outside of a polygon or closed traverse.
3. Angle-to-the-Right - is an angle turned (measured) in a clockwise direction, from the precede
line of a course of traverse.
4. Deflection Angle - is an angle between the extension of the preceding line to the succeeding line
of a course of traverse.
5. Bearing of a line - is the angle from a reference meridian measured, that is from the north or
south meridian, whichever is nearest, to the line.
6. Azimuth of a line - is the clockwise horizontal angle between the line and a given reference
direction or meridian.

TRANSIT – TAPE SURVEY: TRAVERSING

▪ Transit - a surveying instrument designed to measure horizontal and vertical angles and
direction of a line.

Types of Transit:
1. Engineer’s transit - is the universal instrument in surveying by reason of wide variety of uses for
which it is adapted.
2. Plain transit - a transit without a vertical circle and telescope level.
3. City transit - a transit without a compass and having a U-shaped one-piece standard.
4. Mining transit - a transit provided with an auxiliary telescope, a reflector for illuminating the
cross hairs and a diagonal prismatic eyepiece for upward sighting.
5. Theodolite - a transit designed for surveying of high precision.
6. Geodimeter - a transit which can measure distances using the principles of the speed of light.
 7. Total Station - a device similar to Theodolite but somewhat heavier, and bulkier due to EDM
units that surrounds the telescope and the additional control button on the control panel and
inboard computer or microprocessor.

▪ Line of Collimation - a line segment joining the intersection of the cross hairs and the optical
center of the objective lens when in proper adjustment.
▪ Line of Sight - the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs and the optical center of the
objective lens, regardless of whether it is in adjustment or not.
▪ Focusing - consists in the adjustment of the eyepiece and the objective so that the cross hairs
and the image can be seen clearly at the same time.
▪ Hub is a peg driven flush with the ground and having a tack driven in its top to mark the exact
point of reference for measurements.
▪ Open traverse - is a type of traverse which originate from a point of known position and
terminates at the point of unknown position.
▪ Closed traverse is a type of traverse which originate at a point of known position and closed on
another point of known horizontal position.

Transit – Tape survey method.

1. Radiation - a transit tape survey method wherein the transit is set up at any convenient station
from which can be seen all points that it is desired to locate, distance from the transit station to
each of the points is measured and horizontal angles are observed.
2. Intersection - a transit tape survey method which requires two transit station from any
convenient point from which can be seen all points that it is desired to locate, distance of the
two-transit station is measured and horizontal angles from each transit stations to the desired
points are observed.
▪ Baseline - the measured distance between the two-transit station
3. Traversing - a transit-tape survey method wherein the transit is set up at every traverse station
to determine the angles and directions of the traverse line and the distance is measured directly
by tape.

BALANCING A SURVEY
1. Compass rule - the correction to be applied to the latitude or departure of any course is to the
total correction in latitude or departure as the length of the course is to the length of the
traverse.
2. Transit rule - the correction to be applied to the latitude or r departure of any course is to the
total correction in latitude or departure as the latitude or departure of that course is to the
arithmetical sum of all the latitude or departures in the traverse without regards to sign.

Module 3:

TYPES OF MISSING DATA PROBLEMS

1. Angle and length of one side unknown - Solve the unknown angle and length of the traverse by
summing up the latitude and departure.
2. Missing data on Adjoining sides - Solving this is to make a closing line from that will form a triangle
that will start from the point of any unknown side, then determine the data of this closing line which are
the bearing and the length of that line by using the latitude and departure of the other formed
traverse.
a. Bearings or lengths of the adjoining sides unknown
b. Bearing of one side & length of the other unknown
3. Missing data on non-Adjoining side
a. Bearings or lengths of the non-adjoining sides unknown
b. Bearing of one side & length of the other unknown