Contents

1. Revolt of 1857 ................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Revolt of 1857 - Background ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Revolt of 1857 - Causes ........................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Influence of Outside Events .................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Dissatisfaction Among the Sepoys .......................................................................................... 3
1.5 The Revolt ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Bahadur Shah - Head of the Revolt ......................................................................................... 4
1.7 Leaders of the Revolt and Storm Centres ............................................................................... 5
1.8 Contributions of Civilians ........................................................................................................ 5
1.9 Suppression of the Revolt ....................................................................................................... 6
1.10 Causes of Failure of the Revolt ............................................................................................... 6
1.11 Nature and Consequences of the Revolt ................................................................................ 7
1.12 Significance of the Revolt........................................................................................................ 7
1.13 Hindu - Muslim Unity .............................................................................................................. 8
1.14 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 8
2. Causes of Revolt of 1857................................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Revolt of 1857 ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Causes of Revolt of 1857......................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Influence of Outside Events .................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Dissatisfaction Among the Sepoys ........................................................................................ 11
2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 12
3. Economic Cause of Revolt of 1857................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Economic Causes................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Economic Exploitation of all sections ................................................................................... 13
3.3 Ruin of the Mercantile Class ................................................................................................. 13
3.4 Discontent among the Zamindars and a New Land Revenue System .................................. 14
3.5 Destruction of Indian Manufacturers ................................................................................... 14
3.6 Pressure on Land ................................................................................................................... 15
3.7 Exploitation on European Plantations .................................................................................. 15
3.8 Economic Drain ..................................................................................................................... 15
3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 15
4. Political Causes of Revolt of 1857 ................................................................................................. 17

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 4.1 Political Causes...................................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Wars and Conquests ............................................................................................................. 17
4.3 Subsidiary Alliance ................................................................................................................ 17
4.4 Doctrine of Lapse .................................................................................................................. 18
4.5 Humiliating and Rush Policy.................................................................................................. 18
4.6 Governed from Foreign Land ................................................................................................ 19
4.7 Suspension of Pension .......................................................................................................... 20
4.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 20
5. Consequences of Revolt of 1857 .................................................................................................. 21
5.1 Consequences of the Revolt ................................................................................................. 21
5.2 Positive Consequences.......................................................................................................... 21
5.3 Negative Consequences ........................................................................................................ 23
5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 25
6. Causes of Failure of Revolt of 1857 .............................................................................................. 26
6.1 Causes of Failure of Revolt of 1857 ...................................................................................... 26
6.2 All-India participation was absent ........................................................................................ 26
6.3 All classes did not join ........................................................................................................... 27
6.4 English Superiority in a Variety of Fields ............................................................................... 27
6.5 Lack of Unity and Organisation ............................................................................................. 27
6.6 No Common Goal .................................................................................................................. 28
6.7 Lack of leadership ................................................................................................................. 28
6.8 Personal rivalries exist among the mutineers....................................................................... 29
6.9 Bahadur Shah, a shattered Reed .......................................................................................... 29
6.10 Efforts of Lord Canning ......................................................................................................... 29
6.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 30
7. Kisan Sabha Movement (1857) ..................................................................................................... 31
7.1 Kisan Sabha Movement - Background .................................................................................. 31
7.2 Kisan Sabha Movement - Causes .......................................................................................... 31
7.3 Kisan Sabha Movement - Outcome ...................................................................................... 31
7.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 32
8. Namdhari Movement - Sikh Socio Religious Reform Movement ................................................. 33
8.1 Namdhari Movement - Background ..................................................................................... 33
8.2 Origin and Foundations of Namdharis .................................................................................. 33
8.3 Namdhari Movement - Features........................................................................................... 34

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 8.4 Namdhari Movement - Beliefs .............................................................................................. 34
8.5 Role of Namdharis in Indian Freedom Movement ............................................................... 35
8.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 36
9. Nana Saheb ................................................................................................................................... 37
9.1 Nana Saheb: Background ...................................................................................................... 37
9.2 Role of Nana Saheb in the Revolt of 1857 ............................................................................ 37
9.3 Attack on Wheeler's Entrenchment...................................................................................... 38
9.4 Satichaura Ghat Massacre .................................................................................................... 38
9.5 Bibighar Massacre ................................................................................................................. 38
9.6 Role of Nana Saheb in the Revolt ......................................................................................... 38
10. Revolutionary Movement in India ............................................................................................ 39
10.1 The First Case: Chapekar Brothers (1897) ............................................................................ 39
10.2 Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908) .................................................................................. 39
10.3 Curzon Wyllie's Assassination (1909).................................................................................... 40
10.4 Howrah Gang Case (1910) .................................................................................................... 40
10.5 Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy Case (1912) ................................................................................... 40
10.6 Kakori Conspiracy (1925) ...................................................................................................... 40
10.7 Chittagong Armory Raid (1930) ............................................................................................ 41
10.8 Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929) and Lahore Conspiracy Case (1931) ........................... 41
11. Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 .................................................................................................... 42
11.1 Indian Civil Service - Historical Perspective .......................................................................... 42
11.2 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 - Background .......................................................................... 42
11.3 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 - Features ............................................................................... 43
11.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 43
12. Contributions of Early Nationalists ........................................................................................... 44
12.1 Contributions by the Early Nationalists ................................................................................ 44
12.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 45
13. Socio-Religious Reform Movement (SRRM) ............................................................................. 46
13.1 Socio-Religious Reform Movements ..................................................................................... 46
13.2 Factors Influencing the Rise of Socio-Religious Reform Movements ................................... 46
13.3 Important Hindu Socio-Religious Reform Movements ......................................................... 47
13.4 Important Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements ...................................................... 49
13.5 Important Sikh Socio-Religious Reform Movements ............................................................ 51
13.6 Socio Religious Reform Movements in South India .............................................................. 53

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 13.7 Significance of the Socio-Religious Reform Movements ...................................................... 54
13.8 Impact of the Socio-Religious Reform Movements .............................................................. 55
13.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 56
14. Important Leaders of Moderate Phase ..................................................................................... 57
14.1 Important Leaders of Moderate Phase ................................................................................. 57
14.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 59
15. East India Association (1866) .................................................................................................... 60
15.1 What is the East India Association? ...................................................................................... 60
15.2 Features of East India Association ........................................................................................ 60
15.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 60
16. Indian League (1875) - Political Associations before Indian National Congress ....................... 62
16.1 About Sisir Kumar Ghosh ...................................................................................................... 62
16.2 Indian League - Features ....................................................................................................... 62
16.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 62
17. Indian National Association (1876) - Political Associations before Indian National Congress . 63
17.1 What is the Indian National Association? ............................................................................. 63
17.2 Evolution of the Indian National Association........................................................................ 63
17.3 Features of the Indian National Association ......................................................................... 63
17.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 64
18. Surendranath Banerjea (1876).................................................................................................. 65
18.1 Surendranath Banerjea – Background .................................................................................. 65
18.2 Surendranath Banerjea – Contribution & Achievements ..................................................... 65
18.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 66
19. Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1876) ........................................................................................... 67
19.1 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Background ............................................................................ 67
19.2 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Ideology ................................................................................. 67
19.3 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Contributions ......................................................................... 67
19.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 69
20. Vernacular Press Act (1878) ...................................................................................................... 70
20.1 Vernacular Press Act - Background ....................................................................................... 70
20.2 Vernacular Press Act - Provisions.......................................................................................... 70
20.3 Vernacular Press Act - Impact ............................................................................................... 71
20.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 71
21. Wahabi Movement (1830-1861)............................................................................................... 72

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 21.1 Wahabi Movement – Background ........................................................................................ 72
21.2 Wahabi Movement ............................................................................................................... 72
21.3 Suppression of Wahabi Movement ...................................................................................... 73
21.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 73
22. Bombay Presidency Association (1885) .................................................................................... 74
22.1 Bombay Presidency Association (1885) - Background .......................................................... 74
22.2 Bombay Presidency Association (1885) - Features ............................................................... 74
22.3 Bombay Presidency Association - Founders ......................................................................... 74
22.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 76
23. Indian National Congress 1885 - Foundation and Moderate Phase ......................................... 77
23.1 Indian National Congress - Background ................................................................................ 77
23.2 Foundation of INC ................................................................................................................. 78
23.3 Objectives of INC ................................................................................................................... 78
23.4 Moderate Phase (1885-1905) ............................................................................................... 78
23.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 79
24. Foundation of Indian National Congress (INC), 1885 ............................................................... 80
24.1 Foundation of INC - Background ........................................................................................... 80
24.2 Foundation of INC - Features ................................................................................................ 80
24.3 Objectives of INC ................................................................................................................... 81
24.4 Role of A.O Hume.................................................................................................................. 81
24.5 First Session of INC in 1885 ................................................................................................... 82
24.6 Foundational Theories of INC ............................................................................................... 82
24.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 83
25. First Session of Indian National Congress (1885) ...................................................................... 84
25.1 First Session of INC - Features............................................................................................... 84
25.2 Aims and Objectives of the Congress.................................................................................... 84
25.3 Resolutions Passed in the First Session................................................................................. 85
25.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 85
26. Foundational Theories of Indian National Congress (INC) ........................................................ 87
26.1 Indian National Congress - Background ................................................................................ 87
26.2 Foundation of INC ................................................................................................................. 87
26.3 Foundational Theories of INC ............................................................................................... 88
26.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 88
27. Military Demands of Moderate Class, 1885 ............................................................................. 89

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 27.1 Military Demands of Moderates ........................................................................................... 89
27.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 89
28. Constitutional Methods - Early Nationalist Methodology ........................................................ 90
28.1 Objectives of Early nationalists ............................................................................................. 90
28.2 Constitutional Methods Adopted by Early Nationalists........................................................ 90
28.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 91
29. Moderate Phase (1885-1905) ................................................................................................... 92
29.1 Moderate Phase - Features................................................................................................... 92
29.2 Moderate Phase - Objectives ................................................................................................ 92
29.3 Moderate Phase - Important Leaders ................................................................................... 93
29.4 Method used by the Moderates ........................................................................................... 94
29.5 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists ............................................................................... 94
29.6 Achievements of the Moderates .......................................................................................... 95
29.7 Limitations of the Moderates ............................................................................................... 96
29.8 Evaluation of Early Nationalist .............................................................................................. 96
29.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 96
30. Early Nationalist Methodology - Moderate Phase (1885-1905) ............................................... 97
30.1 Early Nationalists - Background ............................................................................................ 97
30.2 Methodologies Followed by Early Nationalists..................................................................... 97
30.3 Creation of Public Opinion .................................................................................................... 98
30.4 Demands of Early Nationalists .............................................................................................. 98
30.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 98
31. Demand of Moderate Class ...................................................................................................... 99
31.1 Demands of the Moderates .................................................................................................. 99
31.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 100
32. Indian Nationalism - The Moderate Phase ............................................................................. 101
32.1 Association of Landholders ................................................................................................. 101
32.2 Indian National Congress .................................................................................................... 101
32.3 Aims of Indian National Congress ....................................................................................... 101
32.4 Methods of Moderate Phase .............................................................................................. 102
32.5 Important sessions of the Indian National Congress .......................................................... 102
32.6 Partition of Bengal .............................................................................................................. 102
32.7 Swadeshi Movement Impacts ............................................................................................. 103
32.8 Conflict and Split in the Indian National Congress.............................................................. 103

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 32.9 The Moderates .................................................................................................................... 103
32.10 The Other Important Demands ....................................................................................... 104
32.11 Prominent Leaders of the Moderates............................................................................. 104
32.12 Failure of the Moderates ................................................................................................ 104
33. Experiment with truth in South Africa .................................................................................... 105
33.1 Status of Indians in South Africa ......................................................................................... 105
33.2 Phases of Struggle in South Africa ...................................................................................... 105
33.3 Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa ................................................................................... 107
33.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 107
34. Gandhi in South Africa (1893-1914)........................................................................................ 108
34.1 Gandhi’s association with South Africa............................................................................... 108
34.2 Gandhi’s Contribution to South Africa ................................................................................ 108
34.3 Natal Indian Congress (NIC) ................................................................................................ 109
34.4 Indian Opinion - The Newspaper ........................................................................................ 110
34.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 111
35. Natal Indian Congress (1894) .................................................................................................. 112
35.1 Natal Indian Congress – Background .................................................................................. 112
35.2 Formation of Natal Indian Congress ................................................................................... 112
35.3 Natal Indian Congress – Features ....................................................................................... 113
35.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 114
36. Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Vivekananda) - Socio-Religious Reform Movement (SRRM) .. 115
36.1 Ramakrishna Mission - Background .................................................................................... 115
36.2 Ramakrishna Mission - Features ......................................................................................... 115
36.3 Ramakrishna Mission - Significance .................................................................................... 116
36.4 Ramakrishna Parmahamsa.................................................................................................. 116
36.5 Swami Vivekananda ............................................................................................................ 117
36.6 Swami Vivekananda - Contributions ................................................................................... 117
36.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 118
37. Tribal Revolts........................................................................................................................... 119
37.1 Tribal Revolts - Causes ........................................................................................................ 119
37.2 Characteristics of Tribal Revolts.......................................................................................... 119
37.3 Important Tribal Revolts of Mainland ................................................................................. 120
37.4 Important Tribal Revolts of North East ............................................................................... 122
37.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 123

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38. Anti Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-05) ............................................................ 124
38.1 Anti Partition Movement under Moderates - Background................................................. 124
38.2 Anti Partition Movement under Moderates - Features ...................................................... 124
38.3 Anti Partition Movement - Congress’s Position .................................................................. 125
38.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 125
39. Growth of Militant Nationalism .............................................................................................. 126
39.1 Militant Nationalism - Background ..................................................................................... 126
39.2 Factors Responsible for the Rise of Militant Nationalism................................................... 126
39.3 Prominent Extremists ......................................................................................................... 129
39.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 129
40. Recognition of True Nature of British Rule - Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) .......... 131
40.1 Militant Nationalism - An Overview.................................................................................... 131
40.2 Factors which led to Recognition of True Nature of British Rule ....................................... 131
40.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 132
41. Partition of Bengal (1905) ....................................................................................................... 133
41.1 Partition of Bengal - Background ........................................................................................ 133
41.2 Partition of Bengal - Features ............................................................................................. 133
41.3 Partition of Bengal - Impact ................................................................................................ 134
41.4 Partition of Bengal - Annulment ......................................................................................... 134
41.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 135
42. Indian Home Rule Society (1905) ............................................................................................ 136
42.1 Indian Home Rule Society - Background ............................................................................. 136
42.2 Indian Home Rule Society - Features .................................................................................. 137
42.3 About Shyamji Krishna Varma ............................................................................................ 137
42.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 138
43. Revolutionary Activities, 1905 ................................................................................................ 139
43.1 Reasons for Emergence of Revolutionary Activities ........................................................... 139
43.2 Revolutionary Activities - Ideology ..................................................................................... 140
43.3 Revolutionary Activities in Bengal ...................................................................................... 140
43.4 Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra ............................................................................ 141
43.5 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab ...................................................................................... 142
43.6 Decline of Revolutionary Activities ..................................................................................... 142
43.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 142
44. Revolutionary Activities Abroad ............................................................................................. 143

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 44.1 Revolutionary Activities Abroad - Background ................................................................... 143
44.2 Revolutionary Activities Abroad - Features ........................................................................ 143
44.3 Indian Home Rule Society (1905) ........................................................................................ 144
44.4 Ghadar Party (1913) ............................................................................................................ 144
44.5 Komagata Maru Incident (1914) ......................................................................................... 145
44.6 Singapore Mutiny ................................................................................................................ 145
44.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 145
45. Swadeshi Movement and Boycott Movement (1905-1908)................................................... 146
45.1 Swadeshi Movement - Background .................................................................................... 146
45.2 Swadeshi Movement - Partition of Bengal ......................................................................... 146
45.3 Swadeshi Movement - Nature of the Movement ............................................................... 146
45.4 Extent of Mass Participation ............................................................................................... 147
45.5 Anti Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-1905) .................................................... 147
45.6 Anti Partition Campaign under Extremists (1905-08) ......................................................... 148
45.7 Government Acts for Repressing Swadeshi Movement ..................................................... 148
45.8 Swadeshi Movement - Significance .................................................................................... 148
45.9 Swadeshi Movement - Impact ............................................................................................ 149
45.10 Swadeshi Movement - Issues .......................................................................................... 149
45.11 Swadeshi Movement - Reasons for Failure..................................................................... 150
45.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 150
46. Nature of the Movement - Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905-08) .............................. 151
46.1 What is the Swadeshi Movement? ..................................................................................... 151
46.2 Features of the Movement ................................................................................................. 151
46.3 Nature of the Movement .................................................................................................... 152
46.4 Importance of the Movement ............................................................................................ 152
46.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 153
47. Anti Partition Campaign under Extremist (1905-08) .............................................................. 154
47.1 Anti Partition Campaign under Extremist - Background ..................................................... 154
47.2 Rise of Extremists ................................................................................................................ 154
47.3 The Extremist Programme .................................................................................................. 155
47.4 New Forms of Struggle By Extremist................................................................................... 155
47.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 156
48. Reasons for Failure of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905-1908) ................................. 158
48.1 Swadeshi Movement - Features ......................................................................................... 158

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 48.2 Swadeshi Movement - Effects............................................................................................. 158
48.3 Swadeshi Movement - Reasons for Failure......................................................................... 159
48.4 Swadeshi Movement as a Turning Point............................................................................. 160
48.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 160
49. International Influences - Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)....................................... 161
49.1 Growth of Militant Nationalism .......................................................................................... 161
49.2 International Influences - An Overview .............................................................................. 161
49.3 International Influences - Impact........................................................................................ 162
49.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 162
50. Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) ................................................................................ 163
50.1 Growth of Militant Nationalism .......................................................................................... 163
50.2 Swadeshi Movement & Boycott Movement (1905-1908) .................................................. 163
50.3 Formation of All India Muslim League (1906) ..................................................................... 164
50.4 Surat Session of INC (1907) ................................................................................................. 164
50.5 Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley Minto Reforms)............................................................. 165
50.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 165
51. Seditious Meetings Act (1907) ................................................................................................ 166
51.1 Important provisions of the Act .......................................................................................... 166
51.2 Consequences of this Act .................................................................................................... 166
51.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 166
52. Surat Split (1907)..................................................................................................................... 167
52.1 Surat Split - Background ...................................................................................................... 167
52.2 Surat Split - Causes .............................................................................................................. 167
52.3 Surat Split - Consequences.................................................................................................. 168
52.4 Ideological Differences between Moderates and Extremist .............................................. 168
52.5 Surat Split - Aftermath ........................................................................................................ 169
52.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 169
53. Government Acts for Repressing Swadeshi Movement ......................................................... 170
53.1 Seditious Meetings Act (1907) ............................................................................................ 170
53.2 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1908)............................................................................... 170
53.3 Indian Newspaper (Incitement to Offenses) Act (1908) ..................................................... 170
53.4 Explosive Substances Act (1908) ......................................................................................... 171
53.5 Indian Press Act (1910) ....................................................................................................... 171
53.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 171

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54. First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917) ............................................................... 172
54.1 Reasons for Surge in Revolutionary Activities .................................................................... 172
54.2 Revolutionary Programme .................................................................................................. 172
54.3 Revolutionary Activities During First Phase ........................................................................ 172
54.4 Revolutionary Activities Abroad ......................................................................................... 173
54.5 Decline of Revolutionary Activities ..................................................................................... 174
54.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 174
55. Decline of Revolutionary Activities - First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917) .... 175
55.1 Rise of Revolutionary Activities .......................................................................................... 175
55.2 Revolutionary Programme .................................................................................................. 175
55.3 Revolutionary Activities ...................................................................................................... 176
55.4 Government Response to Revolutionary Activities ............................................................ 177
55.5 Decline of Revolutionary Activities ..................................................................................... 177
55.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 178
56. Indian Press Act (1910) ........................................................................................................... 179
56.1 Indian Press Act - Background ............................................................................................ 179
56.2 Important Provisions of the Act .......................................................................................... 179
56.3 Implications of the Act ........................................................................................................ 179
56.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 180
57. Komagata Maru Incident (1914) ............................................................................................. 181
57.1 What is Komagata Maru? ................................................................................................... 181
57.2 Komagata Maru Incident - Background .............................................................................. 181
57.3 Komagata Maru Incident - Significance .............................................................................. 182
57.4 Komagata Maru Incident - Ghadar Party Response............................................................ 182
57.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 183
58. Indian Freedom Struggle amid World War 1 .......................................................................... 184
58.1 World War 1 – Background ................................................................................................. 184
58.2 India’s Support to British during World War 1 ................................................................... 184
58.3 Reforms and Agitation ........................................................................................................ 185
58.4 Post War Economic Hardship .............................................................................................. 186
58.5 World War 1 and Growth of Mass Nationalism .................................................................. 186
58.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 187
59. Emergence of Gandhi.............................................................................................................. 188
59.1 Gandhi – Early Career ......................................................................................................... 188

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 59.2 Gandhi’s Experiment with truth in South Africa ................................................................. 188
59.3 Phases of Struggle ............................................................................................................... 189
59.4 Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa ................................................................................... 190
59.5 Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha ..................................................................................... 190
59.6 Gandhi in India .................................................................................................................... 191
59.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 191
60. First World War and Nationalist Response (1914-1919) ........................................................ 192
60.1 Response of Nationalists to British Participation in First World War ................................. 192
60.2 Home Rule League Movement ........................................................................................... 192
60.3 Lucknow Session of INC (1916) ........................................................................................... 193
60.4 August Declaration (1917) .................................................................................................. 193
60.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 194
61. Home Rule League Movement ............................................................................................... 195
61.1 Home Rule League Movement - Background ..................................................................... 195
61.2 Factors Leading to Formation of Home Rule League .......................................................... 195
61.3 Home Rule League Movement - Objectives ....................................................................... 196
61.4 Home Rule League Movement - Significance ..................................................................... 196
61.5 Important Leagues of the Movement ................................................................................. 196
61.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 198
62. Factors Leading to Home Rule League Movement ................................................................. 199
62.1 Factors Leading To the Movement ..................................................................................... 199
62.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 199
63. Objectives of Home Rule League Movement and Tilak Home Rule Movement .................... 200
63.1 Home Rule League Movement - Objectives ....................................................................... 200
63.2 Tilak’s League ...................................................................................................................... 200
63.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 200
64. Besant Home Rule Movement ................................................................................................ 202
64.1 Besant’s League .................................................................................................................. 202
64.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 202
65. Methods Adopted by the Home Rule League Movement and Gains from the Home Rule
League 204
65.1 Methods Used by the Leaders ............................................................................................ 204
65.2 Spread of Ideas Through Writings ...................................................................................... 205
65.3 Positive Gains from Home Rule League .............................................................................. 205

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 65.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 205
66. Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress (1916) and the Lucknow Pact 1916 ............... 207
66.1 Lucknow Session - Background ........................................................................................... 207
66.2 Readmission of Extremists to Congress .............................................................................. 207
66.3 Lucknow Pact - Background ................................................................................................ 208
66.4 Nature of Lucknow Pact ...................................................................................................... 208
66.5 Analysis of Lucknow Pact .................................................................................................... 209
66.6 Outcome of the Pact ........................................................................................................... 209
66.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 210
67. Annie Besant ........................................................................................................................... 211
67.1 Annie Besant - Background ................................................................................................. 211
67.2 Annie Besant - Role in India’s Independence ..................................................................... 211
67.3 Annie Besant - Educational Reforms................................................................................... 212
67.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 213
68. Justice Movement – Socio Religious Reform Movements ...................................................... 214
68.1 Justice Movement – Background ........................................................................................ 214
68.2 Formation of Justice Movement ......................................................................................... 214
68.3 Factors Leading to Justice Movement ................................................................................ 215
68.4 Objectives of the Justice Movement .................................................................................. 215
68.5 Political Ideology of Justice Party........................................................................................ 215
68.6 Justice Movement – Significance ........................................................................................ 215
68.7 Reasons for Decline of Justice Movement .......................................................................... 216
68.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 216
69. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) ............................................................................................... 217
69.1 Champaran Satyagraha – Background ................................................................................ 217
69.2 Champaran Satyagraha – Features ..................................................................................... 217
69.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 218
70. Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)...................................................................................................... 219
70.1 Rowlatt Satyagraha – Background ...................................................................................... 219
70.2 Rowlatt Satyagraha – Features ........................................................................................... 219
70.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 220
71. Rowlatt Act (1919) .................................................................................................................. 221
71.1 Rowlatt Act - Background ................................................................................................... 221
71.2 Rowlatt Act - Features......................................................................................................... 221

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 71.3 Rowlatt Act - Outcome........................................................................................................ 222
71.4 Rowlatt Act - Criticism......................................................................................................... 223
71.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 223
72. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) .......................................................................................... 224
72.1 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Background ........................................................................... 224
72.2 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Features................................................................................. 224
72.3 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Aftermath .............................................................................. 225
72.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 225
73. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-1922)......................................................... 226
73.1 Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement - Background ................................................... 226
73.2 Khilafat Issue ....................................................................................................................... 226
73.3 Development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation ........................................................................ 227
73.4 Congress and Muslim League’s Stand on Khilafat Issue ..................................................... 227
73.5 Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement ................................................................................ 227
73.6 Special Session in Calcutta .................................................................................................. 228
73.7 Nagpur Session.................................................................................................................... 228
73.8 Role of Mahatma Gandhi .................................................................................................... 228
73.9 Spread of the Movement .................................................................................................... 229
73.10 Government Response.................................................................................................... 229
73.11 Chauri Chaura Incident ................................................................................................... 230
73.12 Evaluation of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements.............................................. 230
73.13 Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement ......................................................................... 230
73.14 Why Gandhi Withdrew the movement? ......................................................................... 231
73.15 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 231
74. Beginning of the Gandhian Movements ................................................................................. 232
74.1 About Mahatma Gandhi ..................................................................................................... 232
74.2 Rise of Mahatma Gandhi .................................................................................................... 232
74.3 Nature of Gandhian Movements ........................................................................................ 233
74.4 Gandhian Movements - Significance .................................................................................. 234
74.5 Contribution of Gandhian Movements ............................................................................... 234
74.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 235
75. Role of Mahatma Gandhi in Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement ................................ 236
75.1 Rise of Mahatma Gandhi as a Supreme Leader .................................................................. 236
75.2 Beginning of Gandhian Movements ................................................................................... 236

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 75.3 Beginning of Non-Cooperation Movement ........................................................................ 237
75.4 Khilafat Movement ............................................................................................................. 238
75.5 Why Gandhi Withdrew the movement? ............................................................................. 238
75.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 238
76. Sikh Socio Religious Reform Movements................................................................................ 240
76.1 Sikh Socio Religious Reform Movements - Background ..................................................... 240
76.2 Gurudwara Movement ....................................................................................................... 240
76.3 Nirankari Movement ........................................................................................................... 240
76.4 Namdhari Movement.......................................................................................................... 241
76.5 Akali Movement .................................................................................................................. 241
76.6 Babbar Akali Movement ..................................................................................................... 241
76.7 Singh Sabha ......................................................................................................................... 242
76.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 242
77. Beginning of Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................................ 243
77.1 Non-Cooperation Movement - Features ............................................................................ 243
77.2 Non-Cooperation Movement - Causes ............................................................................... 243
77.3 Non-Cooperation Movement - Significance ....................................................................... 244
77.4 Non-Cooperation Movement - Criticism ............................................................................ 244
77.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 245
78. Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement ................................................................................. 246
78.1 Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................................. 246
78.2 Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................................. 246
78.3 People’s Response to Non-Cooperation Movement .......................................................... 247
Peasants ...................................................................................................................................... 247
78.4 End of Non-Cooperation Movement .................................................................................. 248
78.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 248
79. Revolutionary Activities During 1920s .................................................................................... 249
79.1 Revolutionary Activities During 1920s - Background .......................................................... 249
79.2 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab, UP, Bihar ..................................................................... 249
79.3 Hindustan Republican Association (1924) .......................................................................... 250
79.4 Yugantar .............................................................................................................................. 250
79.5 Kakori Robbery (1925) ........................................................................................................ 250
79.5 Murder of Saunders (Lahore, December 1928) .................................................................. 250
79.6 Bomb in Legislative Assembly (1929).................................................................................. 251

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 79.7 Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930) ................................................................................ 251
79.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 252
80. Non-Cooperation Movement.................................................................................................. 253
80.1 Non- Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi ........................................................ 253
80.2 Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement .................................................................... 254
80.3 Causes of the Non- Cooperation Movement ...................................................................... 254
80.4 Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement Suspended? ................................................... 255
80.5 Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................... 255
80.6 Facts about Non-Cooperation Movement for UPSC ........................................................... 256
81. Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) ................................................................................................ 257
81.1 Chauri Chaura Incident - Background ................................................................................. 257
81.2 Chauri Chaura Incident - Features ...................................................................................... 257
81.3 Chauri Chaura Incident - Consequences ............................................................................. 258
81.4 Chauri Chaura Incident - Positive Aspect ............................................................................ 258
81.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 258
82. Self Respect Movement .......................................................................................................... 260
82.1 What is the Self Respect Movement? ................................................................................. 260
82.2 Self Respect Movement - Objectives .................................................................................. 260
82.3 Self Respect Movement - Significance ................................................................................ 261
82.4 Contemporary Relevance of Self Respect Movement ........................................................ 261
82.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 261
83. Kakori Robbery (1925) ............................................................................................................ 262
83.1 Kakori Robbery - Features................................................................................................... 262
83.2 Kakori Robbery - Impact...................................................................................................... 262
83.3 Kakori Robbery - Aftermath ................................................................................................ 263
83.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 263
84. Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) .............................................................................................. 264
84.1 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Features .................................................................................... 264
84.2 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Impact ....................................................................................... 265
84.3 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Support ..................................................................................... 265
84.4 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Evaluation ................................................................................. 265
84.5 Impact of Workers and Peasants Parties (WPP) ................................................................. 266
84.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 266
85. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34)................................................................................ 267

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 85.1 Civil Disobedience Movement - Background ...................................................................... 267
85.2 Civil Disobedience Movement - Features ........................................................................... 267
85.3 Civil Disobedience Movement - Causes .............................................................................. 268
85.4 Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) ........................................................................................... 268
85.5 Spread of Civil Disobedience Movement ............................................................................ 268
85.6 Civil Disobedience Movement - Impact .............................................................................. 269
85.7 Civil Disobedience Movement - Drawbacks........................................................................ 269
85.8 Civil Disobedience Movement - Government Response .................................................... 270
85.9 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) .................................................................................................... 270
85.10 Civil Disobedience Movement - Evaluation .................................................................... 270
85.11 Strategic Debates ............................................................................................................ 271
85.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 271
86. Dandi March (1930) ................................................................................................................ 272
86.1 Dandi March - Background ................................................................................................. 272
86.2 Dandi March - Spread of Salt Disobedience ....................................................................... 272
86.3 Dandi March - Significance ................................................................................................. 273
86.4 Dandi March - Impact ......................................................................................................... 273
86.5 Dandi March - British Reaction ........................................................................................... 273
86.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 274
87. First Round Table Conference (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931)............................................................. 275
87.1 First Round Table Conference - Background ...................................................................... 275
87.2 First Round Table Conference - Features............................................................................ 275
87.3 First Round Table Conference - Participants ...................................................................... 275
87.4 First Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed ............................................................... 277
87.5 First Round Table Conference - Outcome........................................................................... 277
87.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 277
88. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) ........................................................................................................ 278
88.1 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Background ......................................................................................... 278
88.2 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Features .............................................................................................. 278
88.3 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Significance ......................................................................................... 278
88.4 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Outcome ............................................................................................. 279
88.5 Comparison with Non-Cooperation Movement ................................................................. 279
88.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 279
89. Second Round Table Conference (Sep 7 - Dec 1931) .............................................................. 280

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 89.1 Second Round Table Conference - Background .................................................................. 280
89.2 Second Round Table Conference - Participants .................................................................. 280
89.3 Second Round Table Conference - Features ....................................................................... 282
89.4 Second Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed .......................................................... 282
89.5 Second Round Table Conference - Outcome ...................................................................... 283
89.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 283
90. Indian Press (Emergency Power) Act, 1931 ............................................................................ 284
90.1 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Background .................................................................................. 284
90.2 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Features........................................................................................ 284
90.3 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Outcome....................................................................................... 284
90.4 During the Second World War ............................................................................................ 284
90.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 285
91. Third Round Table Conference (Nov 17- Dec 24, 1932) ......................................................... 286
91.1 Third Round Table Conference - Background ..................................................................... 286
91.2 Third Round Table Conference - Participants ..................................................................... 286
91.3 Third Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed .............................................................. 287
91.4 Third Round Table Conference - Outcome ......................................................................... 287
91.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 287
92. Provincial Autonomy - Govt of India Act 1935........................................................................ 288
92.1 Provincial Part of Government of India Act, 1935 .............................................................. 288
92.2 Provincial Autonomy - Features .......................................................................................... 288
92.3 Provincial Autonomy - Division of power ........................................................................... 289
92.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 289
93. Government of India Act 1935 ................................................................................................ 290
93.1 Government of India Act, 1935 – Background .................................................................... 290
93.2 Overview of Government of India Act, 1935 ...................................................................... 290
93.3 Creation of All India Federation .......................................................................................... 291
93.4 How the Government of India Act 1935 Divided Powers? ................................................. 291
93.5 Changes Brought by the Government of India Act 1935 .................................................... 291
93.6 Government of India Act 1935: Other Points ..................................................................... 294
94. Causes of World War II ........................................................................................................... 295
94.1 World War II - Background.................................................................................................. 295
94.2 Causes of World War II ....................................................................................................... 295
94.3 India’s Role in the World War II .......................................................................................... 297

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 94.4 Impact of World War II on India ......................................................................................... 298
94.5 Impacts of World War II on the rest of the world............................................................... 298
94.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 299
95. Quit India Movement (1942) .................................................................................................. 300
95.1 Quit India Movement - Background ................................................................................... 300
95.2 Resolution of Quit India Movement ................................................................................... 300
95.3 Instructions of Mahatma Gandhi ........................................................................................ 300
95.4 Reasons for Quit India Movement ...................................................................................... 301
95.5 Phases of Quit India Movement ......................................................................................... 301
95.6 Impact of the Quit India Movement ................................................................................... 302
95.7 Significance of Quit India Movement.................................................................................. 303
95.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 303
96. Indian National Army and Subhash Chandra Bose ................................................................. 304
96.1 Indian National Army - Background .................................................................................... 304
96.2 Indian National Army - First Phase...................................................................................... 304
96.3 Indian National Army - Second Phase ................................................................................. 305
96.4 Subhash Chandra Bose and INA .......................................................................................... 305
96.5 Azad Hind Radio .................................................................................................................. 306
96.6 Subhash Chandra Bose - Background ................................................................................. 306
96.7 Role of Subhash Chandra Bose in India's independence .................................................... 307
96.8 Fate of the Indian National Army after World War II ......................................................... 308
96.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 308
97. C. R. Formula or Rajaji Formula of 1944 ................................................................................. 309
97.1 Background of Rajaji Formula of 1944 ................................................................................ 309
97.2 Proposals of Rajaji Formula of 1944 ................................................................................... 309
97.3 Gandhi’s talk with Jinnah – 1944 ........................................................................................ 310
97.4 Causes for the Failure of Rajaji Formula of 1944 ................................................................ 310
98. Cabinet Mission (1946) ........................................................................................................... 311
98.1 Cabinet Mission - Background ............................................................................................ 311
98.2 Cabinet Mission - Objectives............................................................................................... 311
98.3 Arrival of Cabinet Mission ................................................................................................... 311
98.4 Proposal for Cabinet Mission .............................................................................................. 312
98.5 Reaction of the Parties ........................................................................................................ 312
98.6 Reasons for Failure of Cabinet Mission............................................................................... 313

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 98.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 314
99. Mountbatten Plan (June 1947) ............................................................................................... 315
99.1 Mountbatten Plan - Background......................................................................................... 315
99.2 Mountbatten Plan - Provisions ........................................................................................... 315
99.3 Response to Mountbatten Plan .......................................................................................... 316
99.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 316
100. Independence Act 1947 .......................................................................................................... 317
100.1 Independence Act 1947 - Background ............................................................................ 317
100.2 Independence Act 1947 - Provisions............................................................................... 317
100.3 Independence Act 1947 - Impact .................................................................................... 318
100.4 Repeal of the Act ............................................................................................................. 318
100.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 319

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 1. Revolt of 1857
The Revolt of 1857 was a significant rebellion in India between 1857 and 1858 against the
government of the British East India Company, which acted as a sovereign power on behalf
of the British Crown. The uprising began on May 10, 1857, with a mutiny of Company army
sepoys at the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles northeast of Delhi. It eventually burst into
further mutinies and civilian rebellions, primarily in the upper Gangetic plain and central
India, though there were also incidents of insurrection in the north and east. This article will
explain to you about the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in Modern Indian History
preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

1.1 Revolt of 1857 - Background

 Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British took the first step toward gaining
control of northern India.
 And in 1857, there was a great 'Revolt,' which was a result of the character and
practices of colonial administration after 1757, and which resulted in significant
changes in British policy toward India.
 Over time, the cumulative effect of British expansionist tactics, economic
exploitation, and administrative innovations had harmed all—rulers of Indian
states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, traders, craftsmen, gurus, maulvis, and so on.
 In 1857, the simmering anger erupted in a violent storm that rocked the British
empire in India to its very core.
 However, there were intermittent public eruptions in the form of religiopolitical
violence, tribal movements, peasant uprisings, agrarian riots, and civil
rebellions between 1757 and 1857.
 Even in famine years, increased revenue expectations sparked resentment.
 Because the moneylenders had the protection of the police, many protests against
local moneylenders escalated into rebellions against the Company's control.
 Interference by the British in native religious/traditional rituals sparked discontent
and led to rebellions.
 Rebellions and uprisings happened almost from the beginning of the East India
Company's reign, for various reasons in various places.
 Even after the 1857 Revolt, some of the movements persisted.
 Major revolts broke out in the south, east, west, and north-eastern districts, which
the Company brutally repressed.

1.2 Revolt of 1857 - Causes

The origins of the 1857 revolt, like those of previous uprisings, arose from all facts -
sociocultural, economic, and political - of the Indian population's everyday existence,
cutting across all sectors and classes.

Economic Causes

 The East India Company's colonial practices shattered Indian society's conventional
economic foundation.

1
  Due to severe taxes, peasants were forced to take out loans from
moneylenders/traders at exorbitant interest rates, with the latter frequently evicting
the former from their property for non-payment of debt dues.
 While the issue of landless peasants and rural indebtedness has plagued Indian
society to this day, these moneylenders and businessmen emerged as the new
landlords.
 The zamindari system, which had been in place for a long time, had to be
dismantled.
 The artists and handicrafts people suffered during the British administration as well.
 Furthermore, British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts while emphasizing
British items.
 At the same time, imports of British products into India were subject to cheap duties,
which encouraged their admission.
 Cotton and silk textile exports from India had virtually ceased by the mid-nineteenth
century.
 With the frequent use of a status quo by the state, Zamindars, the traditional
landed nobility, had their property rights confiscated.
 The sepoy revolution provided a chance for these dispossessed taluqdars to confront
the British and reclaim what they had lost.
 The collapse of Indian industry exacerbated the burden on agriculture and land,
which could no longer sustain all of the country's inhabitants; the country's uneven
development led to pauperization in general.

Political Causes

 Through policies like 'Effective Control,' 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and 'Doctrine of

Lapse,' the East India Company's greedy policy of aggrandizement accompanied by
broken pledges and promises resulted in contempt for the Company
 And the loss of political prestige, as well as caused suspicion in the minds of almost
all the ruling princes in India.
 Hindu princes were denied the right of succession.
 The Mughals were mortified when, following Prince Faqiruddin's death in
1856, Lord Canning declared that, in addition to the renunciations agreed to by
Prince Faqiruddin, the next prince on succession would have to surrender the royal
title and the ancestral Mughal palaces.
 The fall of rulers - the old aristocracy - had a negative impact on those sectors of
Indian society that relied on cultural and religious pursuits for their livelihood.

Administrative Causes

 Corruption was rampant in the Company's administration, particularly among the

police, minor officials, and subordinate courts, which was a major source of
dissatisfaction.
 Many historians believe that the current levels of corruption in India are a result of
the Company's control.
 Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a distant and alien appearance in the
view of Indians: a form of absentee sovereignty.

2
Socio-Religious Causes

 The British administration's attitude toward the native Indian population had racial
overtones and a superiority mentality.
 Indians viewed the activity of Christian missionaries in India who flew the British flag
with distrust.
 A considerable segment of the populace saw initiatives at socio-religious change,
such as the elimination of sati, support for widow-marriage, and women's
education, as outsiders interfering in the social and religious spheres of Indian
culture.
 These fears were exacerbated by the government's decision to tax mosque and
temple lands and the passage of laws like the Religious Disabilities Act of
1856, which altered Hindu customs by declaring, for example, that a change of
religion did not prevent a son from inheriting his 'heathen' father's property.

1.3 Influence of Outside Events

 The revolt of 1857 occurred during the First Afghan War (1838–42), the Punjab
Wars (1845–49), and the Crimean Wars (1854–56), all of which cost the British a lot
of money.
 These have clear psychological ramifications. The British were perceived as being
weak, and it was thought that they might be vanquished.

1.4 Dissatisfaction Among the Sepoys

 The sepoys' religious views and biases increasingly clashed with the circumstances
of duty in the Company's Army and cantonments.
 Indian sepoys, who were generally conservative by nature, interpreted restrictions
on wearing caste and sectarian marks, as well as secret rumors of
chaplains' proselytizing activities (often maintained at the Company's expense,
which meant at Indian expense) as interference in their religious affairs.
 Crossing the seas meant losing one's caste to the devout Hindus of the period.
 The General Service Enlistment Act, passed by Lord Canning's administration in
1856, compelled all future recruits to the Bengal Army to submit a promise to serve
wherever the government wanted their services.
 There was animosity as a result of this.
 In comparison to his British colleague, the Indian sepoy was equally dissatisfied with
his pay.
 The edict that they would not be awarded the foreign service allowance
(Bhatta) when serving in Sindh or Punjab was a more immediate source of
displeasure for the sepoys.
 The acquisition of Awadh, the home of numerous sepoys, aggravated their emotions
even more.
 At every turn, the Indian sepoy was treated as a second-class citizen, discriminated
against ethnically and in issues of advancement and privileges.
 The sepoys' unhappiness was not restricted to military problems; it expressed a
broader dissatisfaction with and hostility to British authority.

3
  In truth, the sepoy was a "peasant in uniform" whose mindset was not separated
from that of the rural populace.

1.5 The Revolt

 The incidence of greased cartridges finally sparked the Revolt of 1857.

 There was a rumor that the new Enfield rifles' cartridges were lubricated with cow
and pig fat.
 The sepoys had to nibble off the paper on the cartridges before loading these guns.
 They were rebuffed by both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
 Lord Canning attempted to right the wrong by withdrawing the problematic
cartridges, but the harm had already been done. There was rioting in several
locations.
 The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut, 58 kilometers from Delhi, and quickly
spread across a large territory, encompassing Punjab in the north and the Narmada
in the south, as well Bihar in the east and Rajputana in the west.
 There were rumblings of dissatisfaction in many cantonments even before the
Meerut tragedy.
 In February 1857, the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore (West Bengal), which
refused to use the newly imported Enfield rifle and mutinied, was dissolved.
 Mangal Pande, a young sepoy in the 34th Native Infantry, went a step further and
shot at his unit's sergeant major at Barrackpore.
 On April 8, he was overcome and hanged, and his unit was dissolved in May.
 Then there was the blast in Meerut. The lubricated cartridges were declined by 90
troops of the 3rd Native Cavalry on April 24.
 On May 9, 85 of them were found guilty, condemned to ten years in jail, and placed
in shackles.
 The Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut erupted in a widespread mutiny as a result
of this.
 They liberated their imprisoned friends the next day, May 10, executed their
superiors, and raised the insurrection flag. After sunset, they left for Delhi.
 The greased cartridges did not establish a new source of dissatisfaction in the Army;
rather, they provided the catalyst for long-simmering resentment to surface.

1.6 Bahadur Shah - Head of the Revolt

 The Great Revolt's epicenter would soon be Delhi, and Bahadur Shah would be its
emblem.
 This spontaneous elevation of the last Mughal ruler to the throne of India was a
recognition that the Mughal dynasty's lengthy reign had become the traditional
emblem of India's political unity.
 The sepoys had turned a military mutiny into a revolutionary war with this one deed,
and all Indian chiefs who took part in the insurrection rushed to declare their
allegiance to the Mughal emperor.
 It also implied that the insurgents were acting for political reasons
 Though religion had a role, the rebels' overall worldview was shaped more by their
image of the British as the common enemy than by their religious identity.

4
1.7 Leaders of the Revolt and Storm Centres

 The uprising expanded over the whole region, from Patna's outskirts to Rajasthan's
borders.
 Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior, and Arrah in Bihar are the primary
centers of insurrection in these areas.
 Lucknow was the capital of the Awadh state. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the ex-
king of Awadh's Begum, assumed command of the insurrection.
 Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, led the mutiny at Kanpur.
 He joined the insurrection largely because the British had taken away his pension.
 The victory was fleeting. After further forces came, the British were able to
regain Kanpur. The uprising was put down with fury.
 Nana Saheb managed to flee, but his superb leader Tantia Tope fought on. Tantia
Tope was defeated, jailed, and hung in the end.
 When the British refused to acknowledge her adopted son's claim to the kingdom
of Jhansi, the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai commanded the rebels.
o She battled valiantly against the British army, but the English eventually
overpowered her.
 After Rani Lakshmi Bai fled, she was joined by Tantia Tope, and the two marched to
Gwalior, where they were arrested.
 There was a fierce battle, and the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress till she perished,
battling until the last.
 The British were able to retake Gwalior.
 Kunwar Singh, a member of a royal family from Jagdispur, Bihar, spearheaded the
insurrection.

1.8 Contributions of Civilians

 The sepoy revolt was accompanied by a civil populace uprising, mainly in the north-
western regions and Awadh.
 Their long-held complaints were quickly expressed, and they rose in force to voice
their resistance to British authority.
 The farmers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, day laborers, zamindars, religious
mendicants, priests, and public servants all participated in the insurrection, giving it
actual power and the appearance of a popular uprising.
 Peasants and petty zamindars vented their frustrations here by assaulting the
moneylenders and zamindars who had evicted them from their land.
 They took advantage of the uprising to destroy the accounts and debt records of the
moneylenders.
 They also targeted law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), tax records, and police
stations, all of which were founded by the British.
 Within a month after the rebels captured Delhi, the uprising had spread to other
regions of the country.

5
1.9 Suppression of the Revolt

 After a lengthy and bloody battle, the British finally took Delhi on September 20,
1857, and the uprising was eventually put down.
 The siege's commander, John Nicholson, was severely wounded and died as a result
of his injuries.
 Bahadur Shah was apprehended and imprisoned.
 The royal princes were apprehended and killed on the spot by Lieutenant Hudson,
who shot them at point-blank range.
 In 1862, the emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died. As a result, the
mighty Mughal dynasty was ultimately and totally destroyed.
 All of the revolt's major leaders fell one by one.
 The military operations to retake Kanpur were intertwined with those to reclaim
Lucknow.
 British control over India was largely restored by the end of 1859.
 The British government had to send massive amounts of soldiers, money, and guns
into the nation, albeit the Indians had to pay for it all afterward by suppressing
themselves.

1.10 Causes of Failure of the Revolt

 All-India participation was absent - One cause was the revolt's limited geographical
extension.
 It lacked an all-India veneer; India's eastern, southern, and western regions were
mostly unharmed.
 This was most likely due to the Company's harsh suppression of previous uprisings in
those areas.
 All classes did not join - Even Awadh taluqdars backed off after pledges of land
restoration were spelled out, and big zamindars served as storm breakers.'
 Moneylenders and merchants were particularly vulnerable to the mutineers' rage,
and their interests were better safeguarded under British patronage.
 Educated Indians saw the insurrection as backward-looking, pro-feudal, and a
backlash to modernity by old conservative forces; these individuals had great hopes
that the British would usher in a period of modernization.
 The majority of Indian kings declined to join and frequently aided the British.
 Poor Arms and Equipment - The Indian forces were inadequately armed, fighting
mostly with swords and spears, with few cannons and muskets.
 European soldiers, on the other hand, were armed with cutting-edge weaponry such
as the Enfield rifle.
 The electric telegraph kept the commander-in-chief up to date on the rebels'
movements and plans.
 Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised - The uprising was poorly organized, with no
central leadership or coordination.
 In terms of generalship, the main rebel commanders - Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope,
Kunwar Singh, and Laxmibai - were no match for their British opponents.

6
  The East India Company, on the other hand, was lucky to have persons of remarkable
ability such as the Lawrence brothers, John Nicholson, James Outram, Henry
Havelock, and others.
 No Unified Ideology - The mutineers lacked a thorough knowledge of colonial
control, as well as a future-oriented agenda, a cohesive philosophy, a political vision,
and a sociological alternative.
 The insurgents represented a variety of forces with varying grievances and political
ideologies.
 At this point in Indian history, a lack of unity among Indians was probably
inescapable.
 In India, modern nationalism was unheard of. In reality, the insurrection of 1857 was
essential in drawing the Indian people together and instilling in them a sense of
belonging to a single country.

1.11 Nature and Consequences of the Revolt

 The uprising of 1857 was a watershed moment in Indian history.

 It resulted in significant changes in the British government's administrative system
and policy.
 The revolt was described by British historians as a sepoy mutiny.
 The British historians believed that the sepoys, as well as some landholders and
princes with vested interests, organized the insurrection, ignoring the local people's
concerns and involvement in the movement.
 Self-interested reasons, according to a recent study in 1857, did not play a
significant role prior to the concerted opposition to the unpopular British
administration.
 The Revolt of 1857 is considered by some historians to be the first struggle for Indian
independence.
 Those who disagree with this perspective say that the rebel leaders did not try to
create a new social order.
 The dissatisfied devotion and intentions were shattered, and they frequently looked
back to society and policies that were no longer feasible." As a result, it was a
restoration rather than a revolution.
 Rural peasants, in addition to sepoys and Taluqdars, took part in the revolution in
considerable numbers.
 In the instance of Awadh, it has been shown that the attack was undertaken jointly
by taluqdars and peasants.
 Peasants continued to relocate even after taluqdars made peace with the British in
several locations.
 The sepoys had ties to their kinsmen in the countryside, and their insurrection
inspired the civilian populace to air their concerns against British authority.
 As a result, the 1857 Revolt took on the appearance of a popular revolt.

1.12 Significance of the Revolt

 Even though the British were able to put down the uprising, they were aware of the
intensity of the people's discontent.

7
  The events of 1857 forced the British to reconsider their stance toward India in the
aftermath of the uprising; as a result, they devised a plan to prevent future revolts.
 The British issued a pledge that they would not extend their existing geographical
conquests in order to regain the trust of local princes.
 The loyal princes received special honors. To check troops' cohesion, community,
caste, tribal, and regional loyalty were fostered during army recruiting.
 By subtly exploiting the caste, religious, and regional identities of Indians, the British
used the 'divide and rule strategy.
 The proclamation of Royal Proclamation in 1858 was another key result of the
Revolt of 1857.
 The British Crown took complete control of India's government with this
proclamation, thereby ending the East India Company's dominion.
 Even though the rebels were defeated, their valiant fight against the British Raj made
a lasting impact on the public.
 This Revolt had a significant impact on the spirit of Indian nationalism during its
formative years in the second half of the nineteenth century.

1.13 Hindu - Muslim Unity

 At all levels of the revolt - people, troops, and leaders - there was the perfect
collaboration between Hindus and Muslims.
 All rebels recognized Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as emperor, and the Hindu
sepoys in Meerut immediately began marching to Delhi, the Mughal imperial capital.
 "Two things stand out plainly in the middle of the complex tale of the Rising of
1857," Maulana Azad writes.
o The first is the incredible sense of oneness that existed in India during this
time between Hindus and Muslims.
o The other is the people's great devotion to the Mughal Crown." Both Hindus
and Muslims, rebels and sepoys acknowledged each other's feelings.
 Once the insurrection was successful in a given location, an immediate ban on cow
slaughter was imposed.
 Both Hindus and Muslims were well-represented in the leadership; for
example, Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim who specialized in political
advertising, as an advisor, while Laxmibai had Afghan warriors on her side.
 Thus, the events of 1857 revealed that, prior to 1858, India's people and politics
were not fundamentally communal or sectarian.

1.14 Conclusion
For the first time in 1857, peasant dissatisfaction, along with protests from other areas of
society, united disparate elements of society together in a coherent campaign against the
British takeover. Many parts of Indian society were brought together for a similar purpose,
although in a limited fashion. Despite the fact that the revolution failed to achieve its aim, it
did sow the seeds of Indian nationalism. Many historians see the events of 1857 as an early
indication of nationalism.

*****

8
 2. Causes of Revolt of 1857
The root causes of the revolt of 1857, like earlier revolutions, were based on all facts. The
problem of greased cartridges and military discontent has been exaggerated as a driving
force for the 1857 Revolt. Recent studies, however, have revealed that the cartridge was not
the only cause of the uprising. In actuality, a number of factors, including social, religious,
political, and economic factors, conspired to bring about the uprising. This article will
explain to you the Causes of the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in Modern Indian
History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

2.1 Revolt of 1857

 The 1857-59 Indian Revolt was a large but ultimately failed revolt against the British
East India Company's control in India, which served as a sovereign power on behalf
of the British crown.
 It was the first organized act of opposition to the British East India Company.
 It began as an uprising of the sepoys of the British East India Company's army, but
the masses gradually joined in.
 The first disturbances occurred in March 1857, when Mangal Pandey, a sepoy, called
for fellow sepoys to rise against British military commanders at Barrackpore, near
Calcutta and murdered the British Adjutant.
 Mangal Pandey was eventually captured and executed.
 Following that, in May 1857, in Meerut, Indian sepoy battalions shot down British
officials, broke open jails, liberated their companions, and crossed across to Delhi to
petition Bahadur Shah II, the retired Mughal emperor, to become their leader.
 Many local leaders, peasants, craftsmen, civil officials, and religious medics joined
this revolution out of dissatisfaction and disillusionment with the British Raj.
 Lucknow, Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, Gwalior, Jhansi,
and Bihar were all affected by the insurrection in Awadh.
 The civil populace in various places reacted violently to the uprising.

2.2 Causes of Revolt of 1857

The origins of the 1857 revolt, like those of previous uprisings, arose from all facts -
sociocultural, economic, and political - of the Indian population's everyday existence,
cutting across all sectors and classes.

Economic Causes

 The East India Company's colonial practices shattered Indian society's conventional
economic foundation.
 Due to severe taxes, peasants were forced to take out loans from
moneylenders/traders at exorbitant interest rates, with the latter frequently evicting
the former from their property for non-payment of debt dues.
 While the issue of landless peasants and rural indebtedness has plagued Indian
society to this day, these moneylenders and businessmen emerged as the new
landlords.

9
  The zamindari system, which had been in place for a long time, had to be
dismantled.
 The artists and handicrafts people suffered during the British administration as well.
 Furthermore, British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts while emphasizing
British items.
 At the same time, imports of British products into India were subject to cheap duties,
which encouraged their admission.
 Cotton and silk textile exports from India had virtually ceased by the mid-nineteenth
century.
 With the frequent use of a status quo by the state, Zamindars, the traditional
landed nobility, had their property rights confiscated.
 The sepoy revolution provided a chance for these dispossessed taluqdars to confront
the British and reclaim what they had lost.
 The collapse of Indian industry exacerbated the burden on agriculture and land,
which could no longer sustain all of the country's inhabitants; the country's uneven
development led to pauperization in general.

Political Causes

 Through policies like 'Effective Control,' 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and 'Doctrine of

Lapse,' the East India Company's greedy policy of aggrandizement accompanied by
broken pledges and promises resulted in contempt for the Company
 And the loss of political prestige, as well as caused suspicion in the minds of almost
all the ruling princes in India.
 Hindu princes were denied the right of succession.
 The Mughals were mortified when, following Prince Faqiruddin's death in
1856, Lord Canning declared that, in addition to the renunciations agreed to by
Prince Faqiruddin, the next prince on succession would have to surrender the royal
title and the ancestral Mughal palaces.
 The fall of rulers - the old aristocracy - had a negative impact on those sectors of
Indian society that relied on cultural and religious pursuits for their livelihood.

Administrative Causes

 Corruption was rampant in the Company's administration, particularly among the

police, minor officials, and subordinate courts, which was a major source of
dissatisfaction.
 Many historians believe that the current levels of corruption in India are a result of
the Company's control.
 Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a distant and alien appearance in the
view of Indians: a form of absentee sovereignty.

Socio-Religious Causes

 The British administration's attitude toward the native Indian population had racial
overtones and a superiority mentality.

10
  Indians viewed the activity of Christian missionaries in India who flew the British flag
with distrust.
 A considerable segment of the populace saw initiatives at socio-religious change,
such as the elimination of sati, support for widow-marriage, and women's
education, as outsiders interfering in the social and religious spheres of Indian
culture.
 These fears were exacerbated by the government's decision to tax mosque and
temple lands and the passage of laws like the Religious Disabilities Act of
1856, which altered Hindu customs by declaring, for example, that a change of
religion did not prevent a son from inheriting his 'heathen' father's property.

2.3 Influence of Outside Events

 The revolt of 1857 occurred during the First Afghan War (1838–42), the Punjab
Wars (1845–49), and the Crimean Wars (1854–56), all of which cost the British a lot
of money.
 These have clear psychological ramifications. The British were perceived as being
weak, and it was thought that they might be vanquished.

2.4 Dissatisfaction Among the Sepoys

 The sepoys' religious views and biases increasingly clashed with the circumstances
of duty in the Company's Army and cantonments.
 Indian sepoys, who were generally conservative by nature, interpreted restrictions
on wearing caste and sectarian marks, as well as secret rumors of
chaplains' proselytizing activities (often maintained on the Company's expense,
which meant at Indian expense) as interference in their religious affairs.
 Crossing the seas meant losing one's caste to the devout Hindus of the period.
 The General Service Enlistment Act, passed by Lord Canning's administration in
1856, compelled all future recruits to the Bengal Army to submit a promise to serve
wherever the government wanted their services.
 There was animosity as a result of this.
 In comparison to his British colleague, the Indian sepoy was equally dissatisfied with
his pay.
 The edict that they would not be awarded the foreign service allowance
(bhatta) when serving in Sindh or Punjab was a more immediate source of
displeasure for the sepoys.
 The acquisition of Awadh, the home of numerous sepoys, aggravated their emotions
even more.
 At every turn, the Indian sepoy was treated as a second-class citizen, discriminated
against ethnically and in issues of advancement and privileges.
 The sepoys' unhappiness was not restricted to military problems; it expressed a
broader dissatisfaction with and hostility to British authority.
 In truth, the sepoy was a "peasant in uniform" whose mindset was not separated
from that of the rural populace.

11
2.5 Conclusion
The revolt was mostly feudal in nature, with some nationalist components thrown in for
good measure. The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred the power of the Indian
government to the British Crown. To avoid a repeat of the incident, the army was
meticulously reformed. The Indian Revolt of 1857 was a watershed moment in Indian
history. It wasn't just a Sepoy product; it was a culmination of the people's frustrations
against the Company's management as well as their hate for the foreign rule.

*****

12
 3. Economic Cause of Revolt of 1857
Economic factors were important since they impacted a big portion of Indian culture. Since
the British were granted Diwani in 1765, land income has been a major source of concern.
The British government implemented "pocket area transformation," which included the
establishment of Permanent Settlements in Bengal, Mahalwari settlements in Central
India, and Ryotwari settlements in southern India. Peasants were poor as a result of
the 'Drain of Wealth,' and they took part in the 1857 revolt. This article will explain to you
the Economic Cause of the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in Modern Indian History
preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

3.1 Economic Causes

 The East India Company's colonial practices shattered Indian society's conventional
economic foundation.
 Due to severe taxes, peasants were forced to take out loans from
moneylenders/traders at exorbitant interest rates, with the latter frequently evicting
the former from their property for non-payment of debt dues.
 While the issue of landless peasants and rural indebtedness has plagued Indian
society to this day, these moneylenders and businessmen emerged as the new
landlords.
 The zamindari system, which had been in place for a long time, had to be
dismantled.
 The artists and handicrafts people suffered during the British administration as well.
 Furthermore, British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts while emphasizing
British items.

3.2 Economic Exploitation of all sections

 The Company's sole objective was to gather as much money as possible with the
least amount of work.
 Industry, trade, commerce, and agriculture declined as a result of their colonial
practices of economic exploitation, and India became de-industrialized, poor, and
debt-ridden.
 The annexation of Indian states resulted in the loss of employment and authority for
Indian aristocrats, as well as their economic and social standing and advantages.
 The ancient economic fabric of Indian society was undermined by British colonial
policy.
 The British policies affected peasants, Taluqdars, artisans, traders, and ordinary
people.
 "The Indians were victims of both physical and economic kinds of class oppression by
the British," Karl Marx notes.

3.3 Ruin of the Mercantile Class

 The British purposefully hampered Indian trade and commerce by levying hefty
tariffs on Indian commodities.

13
  They, on the other hand, supported the importation of British products into India.
 As a result, by the mid-nineteenth century, Indian exports of cotton and silk textiles
had all but vanished.

3.4 Discontent among the Zamindars and a New Land Revenue System

 The English administrators had brought the peasants and the British
government into touch with one another by introducing a new land revenue
system in the newly acquired States, thereby removing the middlemen between the
two parties.
 As a result, the great Talukdars and Zamindars, who used to collect land tax before
that, lost both their income and their position.
 Those who had land freeships were required to produce the letters of grant issued
to them to the government in order to confirm the validity of their proprietary rights
in that area.
 In 1852, Lord Dalhousie ordered the Inam Commission to investigate the landlords'
title papers.
 Those who failed to present documentary proof of their property rights, on the
other hand, were stripped of their rights.
 Their lands were stolen and auctioned off to the highest bidder. 20,000 properties
were therefore seized in Western India alone.
 In Awadh, the epicenter of the Revolt, 21,000 Taluqdars had their estates stolen,
leaving them without a means of income.
 Removing Indian soldiers from the army and the British government's severe
reliance on documentation proof to justify their ownership rights in the country,
Oudh became a hotbed of resistance to the British.
 The newly implemented land revenue system in freshly acquired regions drove
aristocratic households to abject poverty.

3.5 Destruction of Indian Manufacturers

 The British strategy of promoting the import of cotton goods from England to India
destroyed all Indian cotton textile businesses.
 Prior to British domination in India, communities were self-sufficient in all fields.
Villagers used to create their commodities to meet their wants and requirements.
 When British goods began to flood the Indian market, it threatened to destroy
Indian manufacturing. Because the things produced in the industries of England
were both beautiful and inexpensive, Indians began to utilize them.
 India's handicrafts could not compete with those of England. It annihilated India's
small-scale and handicraft industries.
 The East India Company's administration made no steps to avoid the disaster. It
eventually resulted in the demise of Indian manufacturers as well as the devastation
of local economies.
 It believed that free trade and the failure to apply protective duties on English-made
machine-made items destroyed Indian manufacturing.

14
3.6 Pressure on Land

 The collapse of Indian industry and trade rendered many people unemployed, and a
lack of other occupational opportunities forced a huge portion of the urban
population to rely on the rural economy.
 As a result, millions of bankrupt artisans and craftsmen, spinners, weavers,
smelters, smiths, and others from towns and villages had no choice but to engage in
agricultural activities, putting a strain on the land.
 India was turned from an agricultural country to a British Empire agricultural colony.

3.7 Exploitation on European Plantations

 They were in need of raw materials as a result of the Industrial Revolution in

England, which could not be met by the English industry.
 As a result, British colonists in India monopolized plantation businesses such
as indigo, jute, tea, and coffee.
 In addition, they used various land revenue strategies to maximize their profits. As a
result, the British administration in India made life more difficult for the planters.
 Farmers found it more difficult to make ends meet. The lives of Indigo planters, in
particular.
 Indigo producers' lives were made more difficult by the inhumane treatment and
persecution they received from European plantation owners.

3.8 Economic Drain

The British government's colonial control in India had a policy that drained India's wealth to
England by fair or unfair means or methods:

 British servants and officials enjoyed all of India's advantages and utilized all legal
and illegal ways to amass the country's wealth.
 British soldiers, civil servants, and employees who worked in India used to receive
the highest pay.
 Their savings, pensions, and other profits from India were being sent to England in
the form of wealth.
 In every way imaginable, the drain of Indian riches was transmitted to England.
 The majority of the gold, diamonds, silver, and silk had been carried to England as
tax and occasionally sold in open auctions, depleting India's formerly vast treasure in
precious stones.
 The British's continuous agenda of economic exploitation had a negative impact on
the average man.
 Furthermore, poverty, unemployment, famines, sickness, malnutrition, and
economic despair have deteriorated the economic situation.

3.9 Conclusion
The British strategy of economically exploiting India was the most significant source of
public resentment. This harmed people from all walks of life. Due to heavy tax expectations
and a stringent revenue collection program, peasants suffered. The large-scale inflow of
inexpensive British manufactured products into India devastated artisans and craftsmen,

15
making their hand-made goods uneconomical to create. People who made a living via
religious and cultural interests lost their source of income as a result of the relocation of the
old governing elites, which resulted in the removal of royal patronage.

*****

16
 4. Political Causes of Revolt of 1857
Political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of
Lapse and direct annexation. A huge number of Indian rulers and chiefs were deposed,
instilling dread in other leading families who feared a similar fate. Because of British
expansionist ambitions, most Rajas, Nawabs, and zamindars were either dispossessed of
their states or became subservient to the British. This article will explain to you the Political
Cause of the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in Modern Indian History preparation for
the UPSC Civil service exam.

4.1 Political Causes

 The East India Company's greedy policy of aggrandizement, followed by unfulfilled

vows and promises, resulted in disdain for the Company via policies such
as 'Effective Control,' 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and 'Doctrine of Lapse.'
 And the loss of political status, as well as distrust in the minds of practically all of
India's reigning lords.
 The power of succession was denied to Hindu princes.
 Following Prince Faqiruddin's death in 1856, Lord Canning ruled that in addition to
the renunciations agreed to by Prince Faqiruddin, the next prince in succession
would have to give up the royal title and the ancient Mughal palaces.
 The collapse of rulers - the ancient nobility - had a severe influence on parts of
Indian society that relied on cultural and religious activities for a living.

4.2 Wars and Conquests

 By invasion, the East India Company caused a great deal of unhappiness and
disaffection among the dispossessed reigning families and their descendants.
 A vast number of dependents on ruling families who had lost their means of
subsistence, as well as other common people, were disillusioned and dissatisfied
with the alien rule.
 Lord Dalhousie conquered Punjab, further humiliating the reigning family.
 Dalip Singh, Ranjit Singh's minor son and the founder of the Sikh Kingdom of Punjab
was ousted and banished to England.
 The Lahore Darbar's properties were auctioned off.

4.3 Subsidiary Alliance

 The British policy of territory acquisition resulted in the displacement of many rulers
and chiefs.
 The strong implementation of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse policies
enraged the ruling classes.
 Lord Wellesley's subsidiary alliance played a significant role in British expansion in
India.
 Indian rulers were not permitted to have their own armed forces under the terms of
this alliance.

17
  They were to be safeguarded by the firm, but they had to pay for the subsidiary
troops' that the company was supposed to have for this reason.
 As a result, several Indian kings who were under British protection relinquished
control of their foreign affairs to the British.
 Most subordinate armies were abolished, with British troops stationed within their
territories to safeguard them from assault.
 Discontent and unhappiness were especially prominent in regions seen to have lost
their independence.
 As a result of the Subsidiary Alliance, lakhs of soldiers and officers lost their
hereditary livelihood, spreading despair and degradation throughout the country.
 With the development of the Subsidiary Alliance System under Lord
Wellesley, the East India Company's policy of 'Effective control and progressive
extinction of the Indian native governments acquired solid shape.

4.4 Doctrine of Lapse

 The actual execution of Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse caused extraordinary

resentment in the states immediately impacted.
 As a result, a lot of kings were prohibited from adopting any son for religious rites
after their death.
 The British were seen as infringing directly on their religious customs.
 The British Empire conquered and annexed the Punjab, Pegu, and Sikkim.
 Dalhousie seized the kingdoms of Satara, Jaipur, Sambalpur, Bhagat, Udaipur,
Jhansi, and Nagpur using the Doctrine of Lapse.
 Lord Dalhousie seized the kingdom of Oudh in 1856 solely on the grounds of
mismanagement.
 Wajid Ali Shah's dethronement sparked a wave of hatred and indignation across the
country.
 The kingdom was economically abused, and the Nawabs were relegated to a position
of administration of the state, which Dalhousie used as a justification to unite it with
the British Empire.
 The dignities and royal titles of the rulers of Carnatic and Tanjore were confiscated,
and Nana Sahib, Bajirao II's adoptive son, was denied the stipend originally awarded
to Peshwa Bajirao II.
 Thus, in the perspective of the Indians, all of the governing princes were in jeopardy,
and the annexation of all of India's states was just a matter of time.
 The native states were often believed to be gobbled up by the Indian people.
 All of these activities demonstrated the British's insensitivity to the Indian rulers.

4.5 Humiliating and Rush Policy

 The British never maintained their written or verbal promises.

 Consequently, it was inevitable to result in hatred and revolts. Since 1803,
the Mughal rulers have been protected by the British.
 His claims to honor and authority were acknowledged.
 The words humble servant appeared on the seal of the Governor's General.

18
  The relationship between the Mughal emperor and the governors-general, on the
other hand, gradually shifted.
 Made it clear to the emperor that his Kingship was only ceremonial; he was called
King only out of respect.
 Lord Dalhousie said in 1849 that his successor would have to abandon the Red
Fort and stay near the Qutub Minar.
 By this time, Bahadur Shah, the Mughal emperor, who had grown elderly and was
about to die, was not in favor of the construction of an imperium imperio; yet, he
had recognized Fakir Uddin as the Mughal emperor's successor under extremely
tight terms.
 Fakruddin died in 1856, pleasantly or sadly. On his death, Viceroy Lord
Canning declared that Fakiruddin's successors would be stripped of their nominal
dignity and shadow of sovereignty in Delhi and that they would not be permitted to
sit in the royal palaces.
 This meant that the Mughals' title sovereignty was also coming to an end.
 Lord Canning's statement dealt a devastating blow to the Indian Muslims' goals, and
they grew panicked.
 They came to the conclusion that the British were hell-bent on humiliating the
princes of the Timur dynasty.
 As a result, they regarded the destruction of the British administration in India as a
holy obligation that they wished to fulfill in honor of their predecessors as well as
their faith.
 As a result of the Muslims and Hindus' resentment at the nominal Mughal
emperors' humiliation in India as a result of Dalhousie, Canning, and the East India
Company's attitude, they chose to form an alliance with the rebels.

4.6 Governed from Foreign Land

 India was ruled by a foreign nation, which meant that the rulers of India were
administering the country hundreds of miles away; this was another major political
issue that infuriated Indians against the British.
 The Turkish and Mughal empires had established themselves in India and had
settled down.
 They used the money they gathered from the people in India to fund
administration, the military, public works, and the construction of monuments, all
of which produced jobs for Indians.
 As a result, any fortune they accumulated over time was squandered in India.
 The British, on the other hand, dominated India from England and siphoned India's
resources into their own nation.
 India's riches were being used to benefit the English people in both England and
India.
 As a result, the Indians could not help but feel irritated by the Britishers, and as a
result, they joined the rebels in the Mutiny of 1857.

19
4.7 Suspension of Pension

 The company's directors wanted their dividends to rise, and they wanted the
company's management in India to follow the economy.
 As a result, several Indian chiefs' pensions were reduced or suspended, and the firm
was forced to sell them.
 Rani Jindan, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's Queen, has had her annual pension lowered
from 15,000 pounds to 1,200 pounds. Nana Sahib's and Lakshmi Bai's pensions in
Jhansi were suspended.
 The Nawab of Carnatic and Tanjore's nominal sovereignty was likewise dissolved. As
a result, they began to oppose the British.

4.8 Conclusion
The policy of Doctrine of Lapse was the fundamental political reason of the Great Revolt of
1857. Any princely state or area under the British East India Company would be
automatically annexed if the king died without a male successor, according to an annexation
strategy supposedly implemented by Lord Dalhousie. Most Rajas, Nawabs, and zamindars
were dispossessed of their states or became British subjects as a result of the British
expansionist policy.

*****

20
 5. Consequences of Revolt of 1857
The Revolt of 1857 was a watershed moment in modern Indian history. It had a significant
impact on British policies in India. The revolt's widespread popularity and the threat it
represented to British authority in India during the year 1857 led the British to reconsider
their entire relationship with India. The consequences of the revolt of 1857 may be divided
into two categories: positive and negative impacts. This article will explain to you
the Consequences of the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in Modern Indian History
preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

5.1 Consequences of the Revolt

 The 1857 rebellion marked a turning point in Indian history.

 It led to considerable changes in the administrative system and policies of the British
government.
 British historians referred to the uprising as a sepoy mutiny.
 The insurgency was organized by the sepoys, as well as some landowners and
princes with vested interests, according to British historians, who ignored the local
people's concerns and participation in the movement.
 According to new research from 1857, self-interested considerations did not play a
large role prior to the organized opposition to the unpopular British authority.
 Some historians regard the 1857 Revolt to be the first battle for Indian
independence.

5.2 Positive Consequences

Transfer of power

 The Act for the Good Government of India, passed in 1858, transferred political and
administrative control from the East India Company to the British crown.
 India will be ruled directly by the Queen through a Secretary of State under this Act.
He was given direct authority over the British Parliament.
 A council known as the India Council was established to help and advise him in
conducting the affairs of this kingdom.
 The India Council was to be made up of fifteen members, with at least nine of them
having spent at least 10 years in India.
 The Secretary of State was to preside over the India Council.

The Queen’s Proclamation, 1858

 At a Durbar held in Allahabad on November 1, 1858, Queen Victoria issued a

proclamation, which was read out by Lord Canning, the Governor-General of India,
who declared the acquisition of the Indian administration by the British crown.
 They have resolved to take up the government of the Indian territory, according to
the document.
 In her proclamation, the Queen urged all of her people in British India to be loyal
and devoted to the British government.
 The Governor-General was renamed Viceroy under the new system.
21
  As a result, the last Governor-General, Lord George Canning, became the first
Viceroy of the British holdings in India.
 The Queen promised the local princes in her proclamation that all contracts and
engagements established by the East India Company with the native princes would
be properly preserved by the British Government, and that they would, in turn,
respect the same.
 The proclamation guaranteed India's citizens religious freedom.
 They would be free to follow their own religious views, customs, and
worship without interference from the British government.

Home Government for India

 The Crown's power was to be exerted by the Home Government in England, which
consisted of the secretary of state for India, aided by the Council of India, also known
as the Indian Council, under the Act for good Government of India.
 The Council of India was a permanent body of civil servants with extensive
knowledge of Indian conditions and administration.
 Although the Secretary of State could override the Council's majority decision in
some cases by recording reasons for doing so, the Council's majority decision was
binding on him in others.
 Such as the grant or appropriation of any part of Indian revenues, patronage division
and distribution, contracting, sales and purchases for and on behalf of the Indian
Government, and all matters relating to Government of India property.
 This was the era of direct authority over British India.
 Its lofty emotions and sparkling goals conveyed in rich and dignified language went
a long way toward pacifying the Indian people and establishing a favorable
environment for the British Government's efficient functioning in India.
 For the next sixty years, it laid the groundwork for a new British policy in India.

Reorganisation of the Indian Army

 Following the uprising, the British attitude toward the Indian army shifted
dramatically.
 The British could no longer expect that the Indian people would support their
government in its hour of need.
 To ensure loyalty and effectiveness, the British element in the Indian army was
reinforced.
 These British troops were constantly stationed alongside Indian battalions in all of
India's major cities as a kind of internal security and to prevent disruption among
Indian soldiers and civilians.
 As a result of all of these efforts, the Indian army acquired a strong feeling of loyalty
and discipline.

The Annexation Policy was Abandoned

 The Queen stated that she had no ambition to expand the British Empire by
annexing new lands.

22
  The British rulers recognized the Princely States' importance and desired their
support for British control in India.
 The Queen committed to preserving the tribal rulers' rights.
 As a result, the British dominion's strategy of annexing the princely state was
abandoned, and many other local monarchs who were loyal to the British were
made free and independent.
 Many Indians who supported the British authority in India were also awarded
feoffees.
 The union and the British administration, as well as the rulers of the native states,
made efforts to improve contacts and develop connections.

Equal Treatment and Religious Freedom are Protected

 The queen's proclamation stated that we should strongly depend on the truth to
renounce both the right and desire to develop our conviction on any of our subjects.
 It declared to be our royal will and pleasure that none shall be favored or disturbed
because of their religious faith and observance, but that all shall enjoy the equal and
impartial protection of the law.
 Charge and enjoin all those who may be in authority under us to abstain from all
interference with the religious belief or worship of any of our subjects in pain of our
greatest displeasure.
 As a result of the Queen's Proclamation, all people in India were allowed religious
freedom, and the government committed not to hurt the religious sensitivities
and sensibilities of any community.

5.3 Negative Consequences

Increase in Racial Animosity

 The revolt left a legacy of racial enmity in its wake. Indians were seen as
untrustworthy by the British.
 As a result, the Indians were humiliated and degraded. As a result, there was racial
tension between the English and the Indians.
 The social division between the races in this country began on this date.
 During the suppression of the Mutiny, English officers performed innumerable and
terrible oppressions throughout Punjab and North India.
 As a result of this campaign of terror, great emotions of enmity developed between
the English and the Indians in post-mutiny India.
 In India, the British had established a distinct community.
 During the Revolt of 1857, the British were astonished and shocked to see the loyal
sepoys suddenly become rebellious.
 As a result, the British believed that safety could only be found among their own
countrymen.

Setback to Social Reforms

 The 1857 Revolt persuaded the British that tampering with India's established socio-
religious practices was futile.

23
  The British were forced on the defensive by considerable resistance to social
regulation, particularly from conservative sections in both the Hindu and Muslim
communities.
 The British's self-confidence was destroyed, as were their hopes for quick
westernization of India through social reforms.
 Following the Revolt of 1857, the British opted to focus on establishing a strong and
efficient administration rather than imposing Western ideals and changing into
a traditional Asian culture.

The Policy of Divide and Rule

 Following the Revolt of 1857, the British patronized and implemented the most
heinous policies to separate Indians into castes and classes.
 The British pitted one social class against another.
 Muslims were forced to combat Hindus, while Hindus of higher castes were enraged
against Hindus of lower castes.
 As a result, the overall state of the country deteriorated.

Misunderstanding between Hindus and the Muslims

 The Mutiny's failure resulted in a misunderstanding between Hindus and Muslims.

 Muslims have shown stronger and more widespread support for the insurgents.
 Between 1857 and 1859, even in South India, where their numbers were modest,
various plots against the British were organized among them.
 Both Hindus and Muslims participated in the insurrection in considerable numbers
when it began.
 Muslims, on the other hand, were more aggressive toward the British than Hindus.
 Muslims were a greater threat to the British than Hindus. As a result, the Muslims
were targeted more than the Hindus in terms of repression.
 The majority of the attacks were concentrated on Muslim neighborhoods. Property
belonging to Muslims was extensively seized.
 This sparked animosity and misunderstanding between Muslims and Hindus.

Economic Loot

 With the collapse of the Great Rebellion, the age of British territorial conquest came
to an end, and the Britishers turned their attention to the economic exploitation of
Indians.
 The British administration no longer feared feudal India in any way. Economically,
the English exploited India to a large extent.
 The British administration now faced a fresh challenge from progressive forces in
Indian society, a challenge that was being met positively thanks to John Stuart Mill's
and other progressive components in England's progressive ideas.

The Muslim Renaissance received a set-back

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  Another negative consequence of the Mutiny was that the Muslim renaissance in
Delhi, which had been blossoming before the Mutiny, suffered an irreversible
setback.
 The cultural blossoming had been stifled. It's not difficult to see how one year of
Mutiny wreaked havoc on the nascent spiritual life.
 The resurgence of learning in Delhi was quickly overtaken by decay, from which it
never recovered.
 Calcutta, the epicenter of Hindu revival, was rescued from the Mutiny's atrocities.

5.4 Conclusion
The Revolt of 1857 was a watershed moment in modern Indian history. It had a significant
impact on British policies in India. The events of 1857 affected the nature of the Indian
empire in the latter decades of the nineteenth century to a great extent. The revolt's
widespread popularity and the threat it represented to British authority in India during the
year 1857 led the British to reconsider their entire relationship with India.

*****

25
 6. Causes of Failure of Revolt of 1857
The Revolt of 1857 in India was a massive but short-lived uprising against the rule of the
British East India Company, which acted as an autonomous entity on behalf of the British
crown. A year after it erupted, it was put down. Many factors contributed to the failure of
this great revolt, including the lack of a single leader, unity, and backing from all rulers and
castes in India. One of the key reasons for the revolt's failure was that it was poorly
coordinated. The success of the British was due to a number of causes. This article will
explain to you the Causes of the Failure of the Revolt of 1857 which will be helpful in
Modern Indian History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

6.1 Causes of Failure of Revolt of 1857

 The Revolt of 1857 lasted almost a year. By the middle of 1858, it had been put
down.
 Lord Canning declared peace on July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the uprising at
Meerut.
 Despite the fact that the revolution was extremely broad, a substantial portion of
the country remained unscathed.
 The insurgents lacked a strong commander. Despite the fact that Nana Saheb, Tantia
Tope, and Rani Lakshmi Bai were courageous leaders, they were unable to provide
effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
 The insurgents lacked resources, both in terms of soldiers and money. In India, on
the other hand, the English got a regular supply of soldiers, money, and weaponry.
 The affluent merchants, businessmen, and zamindars of Bengal, as well as
the English-educated middle class, aided the British in suppressing the insurrection.

6.2 All-India participation was absent

 Even though the revolt was massive and widespread, it was mostly localized,
confined, and poorly organized.
 The Mutiny was not widespread. It was never a pan-India character, but rather a
regional, confined, and poorly organized one.
 The Punjab, the United Provinces, Rohilkhand, Oudh, the Territory between
the Narmada and the Chambal, and the Western sections of Bengal, as well as Bihar
in the northeast, were all devastated.
 Under Dost Mohammad, Afghanistan was a friendly country. Sindh was quiet, and
Rajputana was devoted.
 Though local regiments mutinied at Kolhapur in the Southern Maratha area, and
there were numerous violent eruptions of sentiments in Hyderabad, the Nizam's
Capital, there was no significant movement south of the Narmada River.
 Central and Eastern Bengal were unaffected, and Nepal aided the British in putting
down the rebellion.
 As a result, the uprising was limited to a local level rather than a national one.

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6.3 All classes did not join

 Certain classes and groups refused to join the uprising and, in fact, worked against it.
 Even Awadh taluqdars backed off after pledges of land restoration were spelled out,
and big zamindars served as storm breakers.'
 Moneylenders and merchants were particularly vulnerable to the mutineers' rage,
and their interests were better safeguarded under British patronage.
 Educated Indians saw the revolt as backward-looking, pro-feudal, and response to
modernity by old conservative forces; they had great hopes that the British would
usher in a period of modernization.
 The majority of Indian kings declined to join and frequently aided the British.
 The Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh, and other
Sikh chieftains, and the Maharaja of Kashmir were among those who did not
participate.
 According to one estimate, the area impacted was less than one-fourth of the entire
area, while the population was less than one-tenth of the total population.

6.4 English Superiority in a Variety of Fields

 The resources of British Imperialism were limitless.

 Fortunately for them, the Crimean War and other wars in which Britishers were
participating had ended by 1856, allowing them to return to their homeland.
 The British army was excessive in size, having been transported into India in vast
numbers from many parts of the world, and many more men were recruited in India
itself to put down the Mutiny.
 The British possessed better weapons than the insurgents.
 The British possessed sophisticated rifles and cannons. The Indians had canons, but
they were ancient and scarce in number. They were usually using swords and spears
to combat.
 The British Navy was superior.
 The Electric System also contributed to the success of the British. The British
Commander-in-Chief obtained full information about the rebels' preparations
through this mechanism, allowing him to make appropriate arrangements.
 The Indians were unable to succeed as a result of the British's superiority.

6.5 Lack of Unity and Organisation

 The Indian rebels were poorly organized, or if they were organized at all, their
central command was ineffective.
 There was no shortage of daring and audacity among its leaders, but one thing that
stood out was their lack of expertise in organizing and coordinated action.
 It was impossible for them to reclaim their lost freedom through small-scale
depredations and surprise attacks, which are particularly noticeable in Gorilla
warfare techniques.
 The British Crown and provincial governments conducted an investigation into the
mutiny through commissions and boards, but these commissions and boards were

27
 unable to find any clues that would allow them to determine the genesis of any
organized plot of mutiny.
 Rather, the lawsuit was brought against Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal emperor, who
claimed that the rebellion had come as a surprise to him as it did to the Britishers.
 To put it another way, there was no organization among the rebellion's leaders. Then
there was a lack of unity of purpose among the mutineers.
 The rebellion had sprung out of nowhere, and no one could have predicted the
course it would take; there was no understanding between the Hindus and the
Muslims.
 They were split in their goals, and there was no unifying political goal. There was no
unity among them, and they were unable to work together effectively to carry out
the joint plan or achieve the same goal.
 In terms of generalship, the main insurgent leaders - Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope,
Kunwar Singh, and Laxmibai - were no match for their British opponents.
 The East India Company, on the other hand, was lucky to have persons of
remarkable ability such as the Lawrence brothers, John Nicholson, James Outram,
Henry Havelock, and others.

6.6 No Common Goal

 The revolt had no overarching ideology or objective. After seizing control of

numerous provinces, leaders and rebels had no long-term strategy for India.
 Every rebellion joined it for its own reasons: rulers joined because they were losing
power in the region, Sepoys because they felt inferior and wanted to restore the
glory of the Mughals, civilians because of religious interference, peasants because
they wanted to remove zamindars and moneylenders, and so on.
 This made it simple for the British to put down the rebellion.

6.7 Lack of leadership

 Another major factor that contributed to the mutiny's failure was a lack of leadership
among the rebels.
 The Rani of Jhansi, Tatya Tope and Nana Sahib were the only qualified commanders
of the mutineers. With the exception of a few noble individuals, the most notable of
whom was Ahmed Ullah and Tatya Tope, most of the leaders that participated in
the war did so for personal reasons.
 They did not revolt against the British until their personal interests were jeopardized
by the British government's policies.
 There were no masterminds behind the 1857 insurrection, nor was it the result of
meticulous preparation.
 Aside from indigenous spying for the British, there were other natives working
within and outside the fort, the most well-known of whom was Molvi Raza Ali.
 The English, on the other hand, had the benefit of having extremely skilled
commanders such as Lord Lawrence, Outram, Havelock, Nicholson Neil, and
Edwards who were successful in defeating the revolt in every manner conceivable.

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  These British leaders and generals were the ones that stood firm against the
mutineers in the early phases of the mutiny, allowing them to maintain control of
the situation.
 In the final phases of the rebellion, they had received significant assistance from
their homeland.
 They were also significantly superior to the Indian leaders in terms of military and
political abilities.
 All of them had just one goal in mind: to understand the differences between the
British and Indian governments.

6.8 Personal rivalries exist among the mutineers

 They were always jealous of one another. In truth, these people's jealousies were
primarily to blame for the Indian defeat.
 Personal jealousies of Indian leaders have always stood in the way of collective
effort under a single supreme leader.
 In contrast, the English had the benefit of a supreme commander who was no less
heroic and unfazed than the rebel leaders.
 Thus, the mutual jealousy among the native leaders was another factor that greatly
damaged their unity and finally contributed to their downfall.
 The leaders of the revolt were united solely by a shared hatred for the alien
authority.
 They ousted British power and established new institutions in their stead. Every
leader battled for their own domain rather than a consolidated power for the entire
country.
 The rebels lacked a viable alternative to the East India Company.

6.9 Bahadur Shah, a shattered Reed

 The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, was unprepared for the magnitude of the
upheaval that had occurred throughout the kingdom.
 One of the most crucial reasons for the mutiny's failure was Bahadur Shah's inability
to adequately lead the country due to his mental unpreparedness for such a huge
upheaval.

6.10 Efforts of Lord Canning

 Another important factor that contributed to the English's success in the mutiny was
the noble efforts of Lord Canning and Sir John Lawrence in the early stages to quell
the outcry both in England and in India for their ruthless and indiscriminate
vengeance policy that the English in England and India advocated.
 Thus, Lord Canning's restraining effect during and after the war was a significant
contributory cause to British triumph.
 Throughout the frenzy of the rebellion, Lord Canning never lost his sense of
equilibrium.
 As a result, his policy of mercy and moderation contributed significantly to the
cessation of hostilities and the restoration of order.

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6.11 Conclusion
The character and practices of colonial control, the peoples' accumulated resentments
against the management of society, and their dislike to the foreign ruler all contributed to
the revolution. However, the insurrection was put down by the British, but the revolt of
1857 was essential in unifying the Indian people and instilling in them a sense of belonging
to a single country.

*****

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 7. Kisan Sabha Movement (1857)
Kisan Sabha Movement was a peasant movement which happened in the Awadh region of
the erstwhile United Provinces (U.P). The main cause of this movement was the miserable
conditions of the U.P peasants because of the policies of the British Government and
the Awadh Taluqdars. There was a progressive rise in the land revenue of the whole of
India, after the political transfer of India from the East India Company to the British Crown.
In this article, we will discuss the Kisan Sabha Movement (1857), which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

7.1 Kisan Sabha Movement - Background

 The Awadh taluqdars reclaimed their lands following the 1857 revolt. This
strengthened the taluqdars' or big landlords' grip on the province's agrarian society.
 The vast majority of cultivators faced high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali),
illegal levies, renewal fees, or nazrana.
 Food and other necessities had become more expensive as a result of the First World
War. This exacerbated the plight of the UP peasants.
 The districts of Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur were the main hubs of activity.
 The movement faded quickly, owing in part to government repression and in part to
the passage of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.

7.2 Kisan Sabha Movement - Causes

 Following the annexation of Avadh in 1856, the taluqdars, or big landlords,

strengthened their grip on the province's agrarian society in the second half of the
nineteenth century.
 Exorbitant rents, illegal levies, renewal fees or nazrana, and arbitrary evictions or
bedakhli had resulted, making life miserable for the majority of cultivators.
 The high cost of food and other necessities that accompanied and followed World
War I exacerbated the oppression, and the tenants of Avadh were primed for a
message of resistance.

7.3 Kisan Sabha Movement - Outcome

 Kisan Sabhas were organised in UP primarily as a result of the efforts of Home Rule
activists. Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi founded the United
Provinces Kisan Sabha in February 1918.
 Madan Mohan Malaviya backed them up in their endeavours. The UP Kisan Sabha
had 450 branches by June 1919.
 Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra were among the other
prominent leaders. Baba Ramchandra urged Nehru to visit these villages in June
1920. During these visits, Nehru made close friends with the villagers.
 Because of disagreements among nationalists, the Awadh Kisan Sabha was formed in
October 1920.

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  The Awadh Kisan Sabha urged kisans to refuse till bedakhali land, to refrain from
offering hari and begar (forms of unpaid labour), to boycott those who refused to
accept these conditions, and to settle their disputes through panchayats.
 In January 1921, the patterns of activity shifted rapidly from earlier forms of mass
meetings and mobilisation to looting of bazaars, houses, and granaries, as well as
clashes with police.

7.4 Conclusion
Farmers have often agitated for their demands even during colonial rule.The presence of
kisans from both the upper and lower castes were a distinguishing feature of the Kisan
Sabha movement. The Kisan Sabha Movement died out quickly, owing to government
repression. The passage of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act also suppressed the
movement.

*****

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 8. Namdhari Movement - Sikh Socio Religious Reform
Movement
The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857 after
becoming a disciple of Balak Singh of the Kuka movement in 1841. The movement was
founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa, with
the requirement of wearing the five symbols but carrying a stick instead of a sword. The
followers of the movement were required to abandon their worship of gods, idols, tombs,
trees, snakes, and so on, as well as to refrain from drinking, stealing, falsehood, slandering,
backbiting, and so on. Furthermore, because cattle protection was important, beef
consumption was strictly prohibited. This article will explain to you about the Namdhari
Movement which will be helpful in Modern Indian History preparation for the UPSC Civil
service exam.

8.1 Namdhari Movement - Background

 After the fall of Maharaja Ranjit Singh's kingdom, several attempts were made to
restore the Khalsa's former glory. Several reform movements were launched in order
to reform Sikhism.
 The first was the Namdhari movement, which was founded by Baba Ram Singh
Namdhari following the Anglo-Sikh wars. He was a Khalsa army soldier.
 The Namdhari movement was also referred to as the Kuka movement.
 The Namdhari movement arose in the north-west corner of the Sikh kingdom, away
from the places of royal pomp and grandeur.
 The movement grew into a potent tool of socio-religious awakening among Sikhs
under Baba Ram Singh.
 Its main goal was to spread the true spirit of Sikhism, free of the tawdry customs and
mannerism that had grown on it since the beginning of Sikh monarchy.
 This movement extolled the religious obligation for a pious and simple life in the
midst of national pride born of military glory and political power.
 Namdhari Khalsas were dubbed ‘Kukas’ because of their unique way of reciting the
Gurbani (Sayings of the Gurus). They spoke in a high pitched voice, known as Kook in
Punjabi.

8.2 Origin and Foundations of Namdharis

 According to some sources, on the day of Baisakhi in 1857, Baba Ram Singh founded
the Namdhari sect in village Bheni.
 He established 22 preaching centres in various parts of the country, each of which
was overseen by a deputy named Suba.
 These Subas began spreading Baba Ram Singh's teachings in places such as Gwalior,
Bananas, Lucknow, Kabul, and Hyderabad.
 As a result, by the 1860s, the Namdhari sect had begun to take on a political form.
Parts of today's Pakistan's Punjab and Sindh provinces were important centres for
this sect.

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  The movement began to attract not only Sikhs, but also Hindus. The number of
followers increased by lakhs, with many of them working in government, business,
and trading.
 This was followed by a rise in Baba Ram Singh's pomp and splendor to the point
where he was widely regarded as Guru Nanak Dev's successor, despite Baba Ram
Singh's protests.
 His supporters have also produced a "Pothi" that was most likely written during
Guru Gobind Singh's reign, in which it was written that one Ram Singh would appear,
who would become the spiritual leader of the Sikhs and establish his rule in the
country.
 This was later condemned by Baba Ram Singh, who was in exile in Rangoon at the
time.

8.3 Namdhari Movement - Features

 Baba Ram Singh founded the Namdhari movement in 1857 as one of the most
influential and transitional socio-religious movements in Punjab.
 Initially, the movement followed a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh's
founding of Khalsa.
 For entry into the new community, he recited Gurbani (hymns from the Granth
Sahib), Ardas (the Sikh prayer), a flag, and baptism.
 With the exception of the Kripan, the Namdharis were required to wear the five
Sikhism symbols (sword). They were, however, required to carry a Lathi.
 The Namdharis rejected the worship of gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, trees,
and snakes, as well as popular saints and rituals performed by Brahman priests.
 The Namdharis also rejected the authority of the hereditary custodians of Sikh
Gurdwaras (places of worship).
 The Namdharis were instructed to refrain from drinking, stealing, adultery,
falsehood, slandering, backbiting, and cheating, and beef consumption was strictly
prohibited.
 Cattle protection was one of the Namdharis' most fervently held values.
 The Namdharis treated women as equals, initiating them through baptism and
allowing widows to remarry.
 Dowries were frowned upon by the Namdharis, and child marriage was also
prohibited.
 They emphasized strength and martial qualities in the men, drawing on Guru Gobind
Singh's teachings.
 Namdhari's vision of restructured Sikhism called for a complete transformation of
the Sikh community into a militant and religious-political dominion.

8.4 Namdhari Movement - Beliefs

 The sect considers Adi Granth to be the only true holy book of their religion.
 The only Guru is Gobind Singh.
 Anyone, regardless of caste or religion, can become a Namdhari convert.

34
  Sodhis, Bedis, Mahants, Brahmins, and others are forgeries, as are all Gurus except
Gobind Singh. It's worth noting that during those times, Sikhs began to worship the
Sodhis and Bedis.
 Devidwaras, Shivdwaras, and Mandirs are a form of extortion that should be
avoided at all costs.
 Idols and idolatry are an affront to God and will not be forgiven. The Namdharis
were rebels.
 Converts are only permitted to read Gobind Singh's Grantha.
 Vegetarianism at its purest. It was against the slaughter of cattle and kine.
 There is no caste system.
 Namdharis are not permitted to drink tap water; instead, water must be drawn from
a lake or captured from rain or a well.
 Only white clothes are permitted; no other colors are permitted.

8.5 Role of Namdharis in Indian Freedom Movement

 Some Namdharis are recognised as freedom fighters for their attacks on cow
slaughters, which resulted in the deaths of many innocent Muslims in Amritsar and
Ludhiana in Vikrami Samvat 1928 at midnight on July 15, 1871.
 On May 5, 1849, the British established a slaughterhouse near Amritsar's Golden
Temple.
 Namdhari Sikhs - Bhai Lehna Singh, Bhai Fateh Singh, Bhai Hakam Singh Patwari,
and Bhai Beehla Singh- took it upon themselves to murder Muslims in retaliation for
cow slaughter.
 As a result, the aforementioned Namdharis were sentenced to death by hanging
at Ram Bagh in Amritsar, where a Namdhari Shaheedi Samarak (memorial) is now
located in their honor.
 They attempted to blame Nihang Panth for the incident by erecting a Blue Dummala
and Chakrams outside the scene of the crime.
 On the 17th and 18th of January 1872, 66 Namdhari Sikhs were executed by cannons
for the murder of two British policemen and a soldier. There is a memorial for them
at Namdhari Shidi Smarg Malerkotla in Indian Punjab.
 Satguru Ram Singh and his servant (Nanu Singh) were sent to Allahabad by special
train from Ludhiana on January 18, 1872.
o Satguru Ram Singh was transferred to Calcutta on March 10, 1872.
o On March 11, 1872, he was transferred to Rangoon, British Burma.
o Satguru Ram Singh was kept there until 18 September 1880, when he was
transferred to Megui, Burma, to make contact with him more difficult.
o Even in exile, Satguru Ram Singh worked tirelessly to keep the freedom
struggle alive, even sending his Suba (Lieutenant) Bishan Singh to Moscow to
gain Czar Nicholas II of Russia's support in removing British rule in India.
o Suba Bishan had made contact with Maharaja Duleep Singh, who was also in
Moscow at the time, in order to gain the Russian Czar's support in order to
expel the British from India and re-establish the once-thriving Sikh Empire.
o However, because of the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878), the Russians
were hesitant to support any Indian nationalist who went to war against the
British Empire.

35
8.6 Conclusion
Despite the fact that Baba Ram Singh's mission was notable for its teachings of righteous
living, tolerance, and mercy, some of his followers became out of control and, in a religious
frenzy, committed excesses that resulted in a clash with the government. Some of his more
zealous followers, enraged by the slaughter of cows, murdered butchers in Amritsar, Rajkot,
and Malerkotla. They were blown off the cannon's mouth as a punishment. Scholars
disagree on whether the movement was social or political, but the official action against the
Kukas undoubtedly instilled a strong dislike of British rule in the minds of the people of
Punjab. This aided in preparing the ground for the Akalis' subsequent struggle in the early
twentieth century.

*****

36
 9. Nana Saheb
The First War of Independence (1857-58) was the most violent uprising against the British
East India Company. The Doctrine of Lapse, issue of cartridges lubed with animal fat to
Indian officers, presentation of British arrangement of training and various social changes
had angered an extremely wide part of the Indian public, who rose up at various places all
over India. The East India Company was brought under the immediate control of the British
Crown because of this uprising. There were several leaders of this revolt at different
locations. Nana Saheb was one among them who led the revolt in Kanpur, Awadh. He was a
Maratha. Nana Saheb was born in 1824 to Narayan Bhatt and Ganga Bai. In 1827 he was
adopted by the last Peshwa Baji Rao.

9.1 Nana Saheb: Background

 He was born in Bithoor of Kanpur District in present day Uttar Pradesh in May 1824.
 He was initially named as Nana Govinda Dhondu Pant.
 His father travelled to the court of the Peshwa Baji Rao II in Pune and became his
court official.
 He and his brother were adopted by the last Peshwa who in 1827. Nana Saheb’s
mother was Peshwa's sister-in-law.
 Tatya Tope and Manikarnika Tambe (later Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi) were his
childhood friends.
 Peshwa Baji Rao II then lived in an estate in Bithoor after the Third Anglo-Maratha
War.
 He was given an annual pension by the British government.

 The Doctrine of Lapse established by Lord Dalhousie ahd the rule that any Indian
State under the control of the British or any vassal of the British without its ruler
having an heir would be annexed by the British.
 Hence after the death of Peshwa, the British stopped giving pension to his adopted
son Nana Saheb and refused to accept him as the heir (since he was adopted).
 Britishers refused the claim of Nana Saheb to be the next peshwa, despite being
stated as the heir in the will of Baji Rao II.
 This incident led Nana Saheb to take part in the revolt of 1857.

9.2 Role of Nana Saheb in the Revolt of 1857

 During the earlier phases of the First War of Independence in 1857, Nana Sahib
pronounced his devotion to the British.
 He won the confidence of Charles Hillersdon, the governor of Kanpur.
 Nana Sahib promised to protect British with his 1,500 fighters, on the chance that
the resistance spread to Kanpur.
 On June 5, 1857, at the hour of resistance by powers of the East India Company at
Kanpur, the British had taken shelter at an entrenchment.

 In the midst of the overall disarray in Kanpur, Nana Sahib and his force entered the
British safehouse.

37
  The warriors of the 53rd Native Infantry, which was guarding it, believed that Nana
Sahib had come to watch them for the benefit of the British.
 When he entered there, Nana Sahib declared that he was a member in the
disobedience to the British.

9.3 Attack on Wheeler's Entrenchment

 On 5 June 1857, Nana Saheb sent a letter to General Wheeler warning him to expect
an assault next morning at 10 am.
 On 6 June, his force assaulted the Company entrenchment at 10:30 am.
 The Company powers were not enough ready for the assault however figured out
how to protect themselves as the assaulting powers were hesitant to enter the
entrenchment.

9.4 Satichaura Ghat Massacre

 The victims of the Assault were asked to go to Allahabad which was safe at that time.
 Boats were arranged on the Ganges, and they were asked to enter into the boats
one by one to go to Allahabad.
 While they were going on board, men of Nana Saheb started to fire on them
indiscriminately killing men, women, and children.
 Those who were not killed were later taken to Bibighar.
 This incident is known as the Satichaura Ghat massacre.

9.5 Bibighar Massacre

 Ladies and children who survived were taken to Bibighar.

 They had to be used as a bait against the British. However, when this plan by nana
Saheb failed, he ordered his forces to execute them.
 These women and children were killed because of those orders.
 Dead bodies of these women and children were thrown into a nearby well.
 It became one of the darkest blotches in the First War of Independence.

9.6 Role of Nana Saheb in the Revolt

 In June 1857, Nana Saheb attacked the British entrenchment at Kanpur and captured
it.
 In July 1857, the British successfully recaptured Kanpur by defeating Nana Saheb’s
forces.
 It is said that Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal after this.
 There is no information about his death even today.

*****

38
 10. Revolutionary Movement in India
Although the Indian opportunity battle post-1857 was generally liberated from viciousness,
there was a progressive development additionally pointed toward winning India autonomy
including a great deal of youthful Indian people. They accepted that an equipped battle
against the public authority would convey India from British guidelines. They utilized rough
methods. They were squashed by the British specialists, yet they were effective in
motivating numerous Indians towards the opportunity battle. Their accounts of bravery and
penance for the homeland propelled and keeps on persuading individuals to live and pass
on for the nation.

The progressive development in India is a significant subject for the IAS Exam. The
progressive development in India for the opportunity battle-

10.1 The First Case: Chapekar Brothers (1897)

 The principal political death of a British official in India post-1857 Revolt.

 Siblings Damodar, Balkrishna, and Vasudeo Chapekar took shots at WC Rand, ICS,
Chairman of the Special Plague Committee in 1897.
 Rand's military escort Lieutenant Ayers kicked the bucket on the spot though Rand
passed on a couple of days after the fact because of wounds.

 The siblings were against the outrages submitted by the British specialists under
Rand during the plague pandemic in Pune.
 The public authority to check the spread of the pandemic wound up badgering
Indians and utilizing outrageous measures.
 All three siblings were hanged for death.

10.2 Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case (1908)

 Additionally called the Muraripukur scheme or Manicktolla bomb intrigue.

 Douglas Kingsford was a disliked British Chief Magistrate who was the objective of
the bomb tossed at Muzaffarpur (Northern Bihar).
 Sadly, the carriage on which the bomb was focused contained two English women
and not Kingsford. The two ladies passed on in the assault.
 Progressives who tossed the bomb were Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose.
 Chaki ended it all while Bose, at that point just 18 years old, was contracted and
condemned to the terrible bug by hanging.

 The others who were attempted for the situation were Aurobindo Ghosh and his
siblings Barin Ghosh, Kanailal Dutt, Satyendranath Bose, and more than 30 others.
 They were all individuals from the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta.
 Aurobindo Ghosh was cleared because of the absence of proof, and others served to
change life-terms in jail.

39
10.3 Curzon Wyllie's Assassination (1909)

 The India House was an association in London engaged with the opportunity battle
of India fundamentally captivating Indian understudies in the UK as its members.
 Benefactors of this association included Shyamji Krishna Varma and Bhikaiji Cama.
 India House turned into the focal point of progressive exercises for Indian freedom
outside India.
 The association was sold after the death of a military official Curzon Wyllie by its part
Madan Lal Dhingra in 1909.

10.4 Howrah Gang Case (1910)

 Otherwise called the Howrah-Shibpur Conspiracy case.

 For this situation, 47 progressives related to the Anushilan Samiti were captured and
gone after for the homicide of Inspector Shamsul Alam.
 Alam was researching the progressive exercises of the Samiti and was attempting to
connect and solidify the homicides and burglaries into a solitary case.
 The case uncovered was crafted by progressive Jatindranath Mukherjee.
 Notwithstanding endeavours, the case couldn't set up the connections,
predominantly because of the decentralized idea of the Samiti.
 Of all the blamed, just Jatindranath Mukherjee and Narendranath Bhattacharjee
were condemned to one-year detainment.

10.5 Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy Case (1912)

 Otherwise called the Delhi Conspiracy Case.

 This was a death endeavour on Lord Hardinge, the then Viceroy of India.
 The progressives were driven by Rashbehari Bose.
 A custom made bomb was tossed into the emissary's howdah (elephant carriage)
during a stately parade in Delhi. The event was the exchange of the British capital
from Calcutta to Delhi.

 Master Hardinge was harmed while an Indian chaperon was executed.

 Bose avoided being convicted while a couple of others were indicted for their
functions in the connivance.

10.6 Kakori Conspiracy (1925)

 This was an instance of a train theft that happened close to Kakori in Uttar Pradesh.
 The assault was driven by the young people of the (later renamed Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association) Hindustan Republican Association. The youths were namely
Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajendra Lahiri, Thakur
Roshan Singh, and others.
 It was accepted that the train conveyed cash sacks having a place with the British
government.
 One individual was executed during the theft.
 The progressives were captured and investigated in court.

40
  Bismil, Khan, Lahiri, and Roshan Singh were condemned to death. Others were
condemned to extradition or detainment.

10.7 Chittagong Armory Raid (1930)

 Otherwise called Chittagong Uprising.

 This was an endeavor by progressives to assault the police ordnance and the
assistant powers arsenal from Chittagong (presently in Bangladesh).
 They were driven by Surya Sen. Others included were Ganesh Ghosh, Lokenath Bal,
Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutta, Ambika Chakraborty, Subodh Roy, and so forth
 The thieves couldn't find any arms however had the option to cut the phone and
broadcast wires.
 After the assault, Sen lifted the Indian banner at the police arsenal.
 A considerable lot of the progressives included got away, yet some were captured
and attempted.
 The public authority descended vigorously on the progressives. Many were
condemned to detainment, expelled to the Andaman, and Surya Sen was
condemned to death by hanging. Sen was severely tormented by the police before
he was hanged.

10.8 Central Assembly Bomb Case (1929) and Lahore Conspiracy Case (1931)

 Progressives Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt looked to cause to notice their
upset by tossing a bomb alongside pamphlets in the Assembly House at Delhi.
 They didn't endeavor to get away and were captured and imprisoned for the
demonstration.
 Their goal was not to hurt anybody but rather to advocate their progressive
exercises and reasoning.
 Bhagat Singh was re-captured regarding the homicide of a British cop, JP Saunders.
This case was known as the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
 Saunders was murdered erroneously as the genuine objective was another cop,
James Scott, who was answerable for the lathi charge that killed Lala Lajpat Rai.
 Others engaged with this slaughtering were Sukhdev, Rajguru, and Chandrashekhar
Azad.
 They were all individuals from the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
 While in jail, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev alongside other political detainees
went on a craving strike to request better states for detainees in the prisons.
 After the preliminary, each of the three was condemned and executed by hanging in
March 1931. Azad was martyred the very year in February in a weapon fight with the
police in a recreation centre in Allahabad.

*****

41
 11. Indian Civil Service Act, 1861

Indian Services Act, 1861 reserved certain positions for covenanted civil servants, but the
examination were held in England in English, based on classical Greek and Latin learning.
The Indian Civil Services Act was enacted in 1861 during Lord Canning's Viceroyalty. It
provided for the reservation of certain key positions for covenant service members. As a
result, the Principal positions were reserved for the British. Satyendra Nath Tagore was the
first Indian to qualify for the Indian Civil Service in 1863. In this article, we will discuss
the Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

11.1 Indian Civil Service - Historical Perspective

 Civil servants for the East India Company were nominated by the company's
directors, trained at Haileybury College in London, and then sent to India.
 In 1854, the concept of a merit-based modern civil service in India has introduced in
response to Lord Macaulay's Report of the Select Committee of the British
Parliament.
 The report recommended that the East India Company's patronage-based system be
replaced by a permanent Civil Service based on merit, with entry through
competitive examinations.
 A Civil Service Commission was established in London in 1854 for this purpose, and
competitive examinations began in 1855. Initially, Indian Civil Service examinations
were only held in London.
 The maximum age was 23 years old, and the minimum age was 18 years old. The
syllabus was designed in such a way that European Classics received a
disproportionate share of the marks.
 All of this made it difficult for Indian candidates to compete. Nonetheless, the first
Indian, Shri Satyendranath Tagore, the brother of Shri Rabindranath Tagore,
succeeded in 1864.
 Three years later, four more Indians were successful. Throughout the next 50 years,
Indians petitioned for simultaneous examinations to be held in India, but they were
denied because the British government did not want many Indians to succeed and
enter the ICS.

11.2 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 - Background

 Following the demise of the East India Company's rule in India in 1858, the British
civil service assumed administrative responsibilities.
 The Indian Rebellion of 1857, which came dangerously close to overthrowing British
rule in the country, prompted the change in governance.
 In 1853, a competitive examination was held, but Indians were barred from
participating.
 However, in 1858, the system of reserving principal posts for members of the
covenant service (meaning British) was implemented.
 The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 validated a number of irregular appointments
made in India to meet the needs of the company's service in India, despite the

42
 restriction that all offices in the civil cadre of the company's service in India were
reserved for the civil services of the Presidency.
 The civil service recruitment was scheduled, as was the number of appointments to
be filled "only by members of the covenanted Civil Service in the future."
 As a result, the Principal positions were reserved for British citizens.

11.3 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 - Features

 The civil services act of 1861 stated that any person, whether Indian or European,
could be appointed to any of the offices (specified in the schedule annexed) if he had
lived in India for a minimum of seven years.
 The individual was required to pass an exam in the vernacular language of the
district in which he worked.
 The appointment was also made conditional on passing departmental tests or
meeting other qualifications.
 All appointments were now to be reported to the Secretary of State and, if not
approved within twelve months, were declared null and void.
 The maximum permissible age gradually decreased from 23 (in 1859) to 22 (in 1860),
21 (in 1866), and 19 (in 1878).

11.4 Conclusion
The Indian Civil Service (ICS), officially known as the Imperial Civil Service, was the British
Empire's highest civil service in India between 1858 and 1947. Civil services were classified
into two types: covenanted and uncovenanted. The covenanted civil service was made up of
British civil servants who held positions of power in the government. The uncovenanted civil
service was established to facilitate the entry of Indians into lower-level administration
positions. The provisions of this Act clearly did not satisfy the Indian public's growing
demand for the Indianisation of services. The Act essentially remained a 'dead letter,' partly
due to authorities' unwillingness to give it effect, and largely due to the inherent difficulty in
implementing the Act's recruitment requirements.

*****

43
 12. Contributions of Early Nationalists
The early nationalists, also known as the moderates, made a crucial contribution to India's
independence struggle. Though the moderates believed in British justice and were loyal to
them, they made constant efforts to demand political representation and better
governance, which caused the development of anti-British sentiments among the masses.
They resorted to constitutional means for raising their protest, through petitioning and
non-violent protest. G.K Gokhale, W.C Banerjee, Feroz Shah Mehta, etc. were some of the
most prominent names among the early nationalists. This article will deal with the major
contributions made by these national leaders in the freedom struggle which will be helpful
for UPSC exam preparation.

12.1 Contributions by the Early Nationalists

Economic Critique of British Imperialism

 Early nationalists such as Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, and others
carefully examined the political economy of British rule in India and proposed
the "drain theory" to explain British exploitation of India.
 They were opposed to the transformation of an essentially self-sufficient Indian
economy into a colonial economy.
 As a result, the Moderates were able to create an all-India public opinion that British
rule in India was a major cause of poverty and economic backwardness in India.

Constitutional Reforms

 Until 1920, India's legislative councils had no real official power. Nonetheless, the
work done in them by nationalists aided the growth of the national movement.
 The Imperial Legislative Council, established by the Indian Councils Act (1861), was
an impotent body whose purpose was to disguise official measures as having been
passed by a representative body.
 Only 45 Indians were nominated to it in the 30 years from 1862 to 1892, with the
majority of them being wealthy, landed, and with loyalist interests.
 Only a few political figures and independent intellectuals were nominated,
including Syed Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal, V.N. Mandlik, K.L. Nulkar, and
Rashbehari Ghosh.

Campaign for Administrative Reforms

 Indianisation of Government service.

 Demand that judicial and executive functions be separated.
 Criticism of a tyrannical and oppressive bureaucracy, as well as an expensive and
time-consuming judicial system.
 Criticism of an aggressive foreign policy that resulted in the annexation of Burma, an
attack on Afghanistan, and the suppression of tribals in the North West—all of which
cost the Indian treasury a lot of money.
 Demand an increase in spending on welfare (such as health and sanitation),
education, irrigation projects, and agricultural development, among other things.
44
Defence of Civil Rights

 Civil rights included the freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press.
 The nationalists were able to spread modern democratic ideas through an unending
campaign, and soon the defense of civil rights became an integral part of the
freedom struggle.
 The arrest of Tilak and several other leaders and journalists in 1897, as well as the
arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial, sparked widespread
public outrage.

12.2 Conclusion
The early nationalists aimed for democratic self-government as a long-term goal. They aided
in the extension of councils, i.e., greater participation of Indians in councils, as well as the
reform of councils, i.e., giving councils additional authority, particularly over money. They
criticized a totalitarian and repressive bureaucracy, as well as an expensive and time-
consuming judicial system. Through constitutional means and constant petitioning, the
moderates kept demanding the British government for better governance and political
participation.

*****

45
 13. Socio-Religious Reform Movement (SRRM)
Social and religious reform movements occurred throughout all Indian communities. They
fought against intolerance, superstition, and the power of the clergy elite. They campaigned
for the removal of castes and untouchability, as well as the purdah system, sati, child
marriage, socioeconomic disparities, and illiteracy. Some of these reformers were directly
or indirectly sponsored by British authorities, and some of the reformers also supported
reformative measures and laws formulated by the British Government.

13.1 Socio-Religious Reform Movements

 In the first part of the nineteenth century, Indian society was caste-ridden, decadent,
and strict.
 It followed some activities that were contrary to humanitarian emotions or beliefs
but were nonetheless carried out in the name of religion.
 Some enlightened Indians, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar,
Dayanand Saraswati, and others, began to implement reforms in society in order for
it to confront the challenges of the West.
 Reform movements may be roughly divided into two types:
o Reformist movements
o Revivalist movements
 Examples of reformist movements are Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, and the
Aligarh Movement.
 Arya Samaj and the Deoband movement are examples of revivalist movements.
 To differing degrees, both the reformist and revivalist movements relied on an
appeal to the lost purity of the religion they wanted to improve.
 The only distinction between reform movements was the extent to which they relied
on tradition vs reason and conscience.

13.2 Factors Influencing the Rise of Socio-Religious Reform Movements

 The presence of a colonial government on Indian territory; when the British arrived
in India, they brought with them the English language as well as some contemporary
ideals.
 These concepts, which included liberty, social and economic equality, fraternity,
democracy, and justice, had a significant effect on Indian society.
 In the nineteenth century, Indian society was entangled in a terrible web of religious
beliefs and social obscurantism.
 Women's Depressing Situation: The position of women was the most disturbing.
 Female newborns were often killed upon birth.
 In society, child marriage was common.
 Polygamy was common in various sections of the country.
 Widow remarriage was not permitted and sati pratha was often practiced.
 Education and Global Awareness: Beginning in the late nineteenth century, a
number of European and Indian researchers began studying ancient India's history,
philosophy, science, religions, and literature.

46
  The Indian people gained pride in their civilization as they gained a better
understanding of India's former splendor.
 It also aided religious and social reformers in their fight against all kinds of cruel
practices, superstitions, and so forth.
 International / global Thinking: The increasing tide of nationalism and democracy
found expression in initiatives to reform and democratize the Indian people's social
structures and religious viewpoints throughout the later decades of the nineteenth
century.
 Factors such as the rise of nationalist feelings, the creation of new economic forces,
the expansion of education, the influence of contemporary Western ideas and
culture, and enhanced global awareness intensified the drive to reform.

13.3 Important Hindu Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Socio-Religious
Reform Leaders Significance
Movement
 Its primary goal was to worship the eternal
God.
 It was opposed to the priesthood,
ceremonies, and sacrifices.
 It centered on prayers, meditation, and
scripture reading. It was a firm believer in
the oneness of all religions.
 It was contemporary India's first intellectual
Raja Rammohan Roy, reform movement.
Keshub Chandra Sen,  It resulted in the rise of rationality and
Brahmo Samaj
led by Debendranath enlightenment in India, which aided the
Tagore. nationalist cause indirectly.
 It was the progenitor of all contemporary
India's social, religious, and political
movements.
 In 1866, it separated into two organizations:
the Brahmo Samaj of India, led by Keshub
Chandra Sen, and the Adi Brahmo Samaj,
led by Debendranath Tagore.

 To promote Vedanta's monotheistic ideas

and to fight idolatry, caste rigidities, useless
rituals, and other societal problems.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who was heavily
Atmiya Sabha Raja Rammohan Roy inspired by rationalist beliefs, said that
Vedanta is founded on reason and that, if
reason demanded it, even deviation from
the scriptures is allowed.

Tattvabodhini  Tattvabodhini Sabha was founded in 1839

Debendranath Tagore
Sabha by Debendranath Tagore, the father of

47
 Rabindranath Tagore.
 When he joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1842,
he gave it fresh vitality.
 He committed himself to a methodical and
reasonable study of India's past.
 He spread Roy's views.

 Keshab Chandra Sen assisted Atmaram

Pandurang in establishing the Prarthana
Samaj in Bombay in 1867.
 The Paramahansa Sabha, a kind of secret
club that promoted liberal ideals and
encouraged the dissolution of caste and
Atmaram Pandurang, communal boundaries, was a forerunner of
Prarthana Samaj
Keshab Chandra Sen the Prarthana Samaj.
 The samaj's strategy was based on teaching
and persuasion rather than conflict with
Hindu orthodoxy.
 Along with Ranade, Dhondo Keshav Karve
and Vishnu Shastri were social reformers.

 The Hindu College of Calcutta intellectuals

were at the forefront of the new Bengal
movement.
 These philosophers were also referred to as
Derozians.
 Derozio supported radical views through his
teaching and by forming a debate and
Young Bengal
Henry Vivian Derozio discussion group on literature, philosophy,
Movement
history, and science.
 They revered the ideas of the French
Revolution (1789 A.D.) and British
liberalism.
 The Derozians were also advocates for
women's rights and education.

 The Arya Samaj focused on the mission of

modernizing Hinduism in western and
northern India.
 Swami Dayanand thought that greedy and
stupid priests had distorted Hinduism with
Swami Dayanand
Arya Samaj the help of the Puranas, which he said
Saraswati
contained erroneous doctrines.
 Swami Dayanand sought inspiration from
the Vedas, which he believed infallible as
the divine word of God and the font of all
knowledge.

48
  Some of Swami Dayanand's disciples
eventually established a network of schools
and universities around the country to
provide western-style education.
 Lala Hansraj was a driving force behind this
endeavor.

 Ramakrishna's religious lessons were

popularised through Vivekananda.
 He attempted to adapt it to the demands of
current Indian society.
 Simultaneously, he was convinced of the
superiority of the Indian philosophical
Ramakrishna tradition's approach.
Swami Vivekananda
Mission  Vivekananda chastised Indians for becoming
static and mummified after losing contact
with the rest of the world.
 Vivekananda was an outspoken opponent of
the caste system and the Hindu emphasis
on rituals and superstitions.

13.4 Important Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Socio-Religious
Reform Leaders Significance
Movements

 Syed Ahmed criticized Western influences on

Islam and argued for the restoration of genuine
Islam and Arabian culture as it was during the
Prophet's time.
 Syed Ahmed was hailed as the ideal leader
(Imam).
 A nationwide organization was established, with
an extensive secret code for operating under
Wahabi
Syed Ahmed spiritual vice-regents (Khalifas).
Movement  The Wahabis played a significant role in instilling
anti-British attitudes.
 A series of British military assaults on the Wahabi
base at Sithana in the 1860s, as well as many
court proceedings of sedition against the
Wahabis, weakened the Wahabi resistance, while
intermittent interactions with the government
lasted until the 1880s and 1890s.

49
  The Ahmadiyya are a Muslim group that emerged
in India.
 It referred to itself as the standard-bearer of the
Mohammedan Renaissance.
 Like the Brahmo Samaj, it was founded on the
ideas of universal religion for all humanity,
Ahmadiyya Mirza Ghulam rejecting jihad (holy war against non-Muslims).
Movement Ahmad  The initiative provided Indian Muslims with
Western liberal education.
 The Ahmadiyya community is the only Islamic
group that believes the Messiah, Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad, came to end religious strife and
bloodshed and to restore morality, peace, and
justice.

 Syed Ahmad Khan was a fervent believer in

religion's essential underlying oneness, often
known as 'practical morality.'
 He also spoke on the inherent similarities
between Hindu and Muslim objectives.
 In 1862, he founded the Scientific Society to
Aligarh translate English literature on science and other
Syed Ahmad Khan
Movement subjects into Urdu.
 He also founded an English-Urdu periodical
through which he propagated ideas for social
transformation.
 His endeavor led in the founding of the
Mohammedan Oriental College, which expanded
into the Aligarh Muslim University.

 Deobandis saw Islam as having two primary

points: Shariat (law based on texts and religious
knowledge) and tariqah (religious knowledge)
Muhammad  As a result, they embraced Sufism and its different
Deoband Qasim Nanautavi, kinds of discipline, as well as the function of the
Movement Rashid Ahmad ulama in interpreting Islamic law's four schools.
Gangohi  While they accepted Sufism, the Deobandis
rejected certain rites as well as the authority of
pirs who claimed holiness via lineage rather than
learning.

 Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi was India's leading

Wahhabi exponent, a firm proponent of
Barelvi Syed Ahmad Rai
puritanical extremism and physical jihadism.
Movement Barelvi  Sufi organizations and silsilas such as
Naqsyabandiyah, Chishtiya, and Qadriyah first
influenced him.

50
  For Indian Muslims, Syed Ahmad's Mujahidin
movement is now gone, but his religious
exhortations for jihad as "an act of devotion
greater than spiritual prayer in merit and rewards"
continue to impact millions.
 As a result, some extreme jihadist organizations
have declared the resurrection of Rai Barelvi's
Mujahidin movement in the subcontinent.

13.5 Important Sikh Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Sikh Socio-
Religious
Leader Significance
Reform
Movement

 The Akali Movement (also

known as the Gurdwara
Reform Movement) sprang
out of the Singh Sabha
Movement.
 Its goal was to free the Sikh
gurudwaras from the grip of
corrupt Udasi mahants (the
position had become
hereditary).
 These mahants were a
Akali
faithful and conservative
Movement bunch who benefited from
official favor.
 It passed the Sikh Gurdwaras
Act in 1922 (amended in
1925), which gave the Sikh
masses control of
gurudwaras to be
administered through the
Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabandhak Committee
(SGPC) as the apex body.

 The Nirankaris emphasized

Nirankari appropriate religious practice,
Baba Dayal Das
Movement producing hukamnamas to clarify
what was acceptable and
establishing a network of worship

51
 centers staffed by their own
priests.
 They did not clash or fight the
British but grew as a result of
British control in Punjab, which
liberated them from the
restraints of the Sikh
government.
 As a result, the Nirankaris
became a permanent subgroup
of the Sikh faith, assisting in the
clarification of the lines that
separate Sikhs from Hindus.

 Initially, the movement followed

a series of ceremonies fashioned
by Guru Gobind Singh's
foundation of Khalsa.
 With the exception of the Kripan,
the Namdharis were compelled
to wear the five Sikhism insignia
(sword). They were, however,
forced to carry a Lathi (bamboo
Namdhari stave).
Baba Ram Singh
Movement  The Namdharis repudiated the
worship of gods, goddesses, idols,
cemeteries, tombs, trees, and
snakes, as well as popular saints
and ceremonies performed by
Brahman priests.
 The Namdharis also opposed the
authority of the hereditary
caretakers of Sikh Gurdwaras
(places of worship).

 The Sabha's goals were to restore

Sikhism to its original purity, to
print historical religious literature
and magazines, spread
information, to sing Punjabi, to
Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani
Singh Sabha return Sikh apostles to their
Gian Singh religion, and enlist Englishmen in
the Sikh educational program.
 Later, the Amritsar Singh Sabha
was imitated by a newer, more
democratic institution, the
Lahore Singh Sabha.

52
  After a time, the Singh Sabhas
were swamped by other
organizations like Khalsa Diwani
and, in 1920, a fight for control
over Sikh places of worship.

13.6 Socio Religious Reform Movements in South India

Socio Religious
Reform Leaders Significance
movement

 Sree Narayana Guru Dharma

Paripalana Movement (SNDP) was
a Kerala-based regional movement
founded by Shree Narayan Guru
Swami.
SNDP (Sree  This movement was fueled by
antagonism between the lower and
Narayana Guru
Sree Narayana Guru, Dr. upper castes.
Dharma
Padmanabhan Palpu  He maintained mirrors instead of
Paripalana idols in one of the temples he
Movement) dedicated at Kalavancode.
 This represented his message that
the divine existed inside every one
of us.
 In Kalady, he also established an
Advaita Ashram.

 In Mysore, the
Vokkaligara Sangha
started an anti-Brahmin
movement in 1905.
 It is an Indian caste from
the state of Karnataka.
Vokkaligara  As a warrior and farmer
Sangha community, they have
traditionally wielded
tremendous
demographic, political,
and economic
dominance in Old
Mysore.

Justice C.N. Mudaliar, T.M.Nair, P.  It started in the Madras Presidency

53
Movement Tyagaraja to secure jobs and participation in
the parliament for non-brahmins
 In 1917, the Madras Presidency
Association was created to urge
that the lower classes be given
distinct representation in the
legislature.

 It was an egalitarian movement

that advocated for the abolition of
Brahminical rule, equal rights for
backward groups and women in
society, and the resuscitation of
Dravidian languages such as
Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and
Malayalam.
Self Respect  The Self-Respect Movement's aims
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker
Movement have been articulated and stated in
two booklets, "Namathu Kurikkol"
and "Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam.’
 The movement seeks to eliminate
societal structures in which one
class of people claims to be
superior to another and some
males claim to be of higher birth
than others.

13.7 Significance of the Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Positive Aspect

 The orthodox parts of society were unable to accept the socio-religious

rebels' scientific ideological attack.
o As a result, the reactionaries subjected the reformers to insults, persecution,
fatwas, and even assassination attempts.
o Despite the opposition, these groups were able to contribute to the
emancipation of the individual from fear-based obedience and
unquestioning surrender to exploitation by priests and other classes.
 Worship became a more personal experience with the translation of religious
writings into common languages, the focus on each individual's right to interpret
the scriptures, and the simplicity of rituals.
 The movements emphasized the ability of the human intellect to think and reason.
 The reformers allowed their adherents to confront the official criticism that their
faiths and culture were decadent and inferior by clearing out corrupt aspects,
religious beliefs, and behaviors.

54
  The reform movements provided the burgeoning middle classes with much-needed
cultural roots to adhere to, as well as a means of alleviating the sense of humiliation
caused by a foreign power's annexation.
 A fundamental contribution of these reform movements was recognizing the unique
demands of modern times, particularly in terms of scientific knowledge, and so
encouraging a modern, this-worldly, secular, and rational attitude.
 Socially, this attitude was mirrored in a fundamental shift in the concepts of
'pollution and purity.'
 Although traditional beliefs and practices were a primary focus of reformers' attacks,
the reformers sought modernization rather than outright westernization based on
mindless imitation of alien Western cultural ideals.
 Indeed, reform movements tried to foster a favorable social atmosphere
for modernization.

Negative Aspects

 One of the primary disadvantages of religious reform movements was that they had
a small social basis, notably the educated and urban middle classes, while the great
majority of peasants and urban poor were disregarded.
 The reformers' proclivity to appeal to the glories of the past and to depend on
biblical authority encouraged mysticism in new guises and fostered pseudo-scientific
thinking while putting a brake on full recognition of the necessity for a contemporary
scientific approach.
 Above all, these inclinations contributed, to some extent, to the
compartmentalization of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis, as well as the
alienation of high-caste Hindus from low-caste Hindus.
 The emergence of a composite culture, which had been seen throughout Indian
history, appeared to be stalled with the growth of another type of awareness,
community consciousness, alongside national consciousness among the middle
classes.
 Many other causes were likely responsible for the rebirth of communalism in
contemporary times, but the character of religious reform organizations also played
a role.
 Overall, regardless of the net outcome of these reform movements, it was through
this battle that a new society emerged in India.

13.8 Impact of the Socio-Religious Reform Movements

 The British intended to satisfy the top crust of society. As a result, just
two significant pieces of legislation were enacted.
 Some legal measures were enacted to improve women's standing. Sati, for example,
was banned (1829). Infanticide has been made illegal.
 Legislation approved in 1856 allowed widow remarriage. A law passed in 1860
elevated the marriageable age of females to 10.
 Inter-caste and inter-communal marriages were legalized in 1872 by legislation.
 The other regulation, enacted in 1891, was intended to discourage underage
marriage.

55
  The Sharda Act was enacted in 1929 to discourage child marriage. It said that a girl
under the age of 14 and a boy under the age of 18 could not marry.
 The Indian national movement became the primary propagator of social reform in
the twentieth century, particularly after 1919.
 To reach the masses, the reformers increasingly relied on propaganda in the Indian
language.
 They also employed books, plays, short tales, poetry, the press, and, in the 1930s, a
film to promote their message.
 Numerous people, reform societies, and religious organizations worked hard to
expand education among women, prevent young children from marrying, bring
women out of the purdah, enforce monogamy, and enable middle-class women to
enter professions or public service.
 As a result of all of these efforts, Indian women played an active and essential part
in the country's war for independence.
 As a consequence, many superstitions vanished, and many more were on their way
out. Traveling to other nations was no longer a sin.

13.9 Conclusion
In the 1800s and 1900s, more and more individuals appreciated the benefits of Indian
culture, but they were also loud in rejecting its negative aspects. Many leaders arose in
order to change Indian society. They mostly wished to instill contemporary principles in
Indian society. These concepts, which included liberty, social and economic equality,
fraternity, democracy, and justice, had a significant effect on Indian society. Fortunately for
our nation, there were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand
Saraswati, and many more who were willing to struggle and bring about social changes in
order for our country to confront the challenges of the West.

*****

56
 14. Important Leaders of Moderate Phase
The national leaders who dominated Congress policies during the early period (1885–
1905), such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, and
S.N. Banerjea, were staunch believers in 'liberalism' and 'moderate' politics and came to be
referred to as Moderates to distinguish them from the neo-nationalists of the early
twentieth century. The moderates made significant contributions to the Indian freedom
struggle. The Moderates' main goal was to achieve self-government within the British
Empire. They chose a middle path rather than an extreme path against the British Empire. In
this article, we will learn about important leaders of the moderate phase which will be
helpful for the preparation for the UPSC exam.

14.1 Important Leaders of Moderate Phase

Dadabhai Naoroji

 He is known as India's Grand Old Man and the country's Unofficial Ambassador.
 He was the first Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons.
 He was a founding member of the Indian National Congress and served as president
of three congress sessions.
 In his book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,' he proposed the drain theory and
explained the British exploitation of India.

Pherozeshah Mehta

 He was dubbed the "Lion of Bombay."

 He was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1890.
 He founded the Bombay Chronicle, an English weekly newspaper, in 1910.
 For his legal services, he was knighted by the British.

P. Ananda Charlu

 P. Ananda Charlu was a well-known public figure in South India who was in charge of
organizing several political campaigns prior to the arrival of the Indian National
Congress.
 In 1884, with the assistance of his associates (M. Viraraghavachari and G.
Subramaniya Aiyer), he established the Madras Mahajan Sabha, a political
organization aimed at creating public opinion.
 The efforts of leaders such as P. Ananda Charlu laid the groundwork for the
formation of the Indian National Congress, an all-India organization.
 In fact, P. Ananda Charli was one of the 72 delegates (dubbed the "brave-72") who
attended the INC's first session (held in 1885 in Bombay) and established the
organization's goals and objectives.
 In 1891, he presided over the Congress's annual session in Nagpur. He served on the
Madras Legislative Council from 1903 to 1905.

Surendranath Banerjea

57
  He was also known as Rashtraguru.
 In order to bring about political reforms, he founded the Indian National Association
in 1876.
 He founded The Bengalee, a newspaper.
 In 1869 and 1871, he passed the Indian civil service examination.
 He was barred in 1869 due to an age dispute, and he was fired in 1871 due to racial
discrimination.
 He advocated for the civil disobedience movement.

Romesh Chandra Dutt

 Ishanchandra and Thakamani Dutt had a son named Romesh Chunder Dutt.
 They belonged to one of the Calcutta families that had prospered as a result of their
commercial ties with the British East India Company.
 In 1868, he traveled to Britain in secret with two friends, Bihari Lal Gupta and
Surendranath Banerjea.
 In 1871, Dutt was admitted to University College in London and sat for the Indian
Civil Service examination. In the same year, Dutt was called to the Bar at the Middle
Temple.
 He became an assistant magistrate and collector in the Indian Civil Service.
 He was the first Indian to be appointed district magistrate in 1883, and after serving
in many districts throughout Bengal, he was appointed divisional commissioner, first
in Burdwan and later in Kolkata.

Ananda Mohan Bose

 Ananda Mohan Bose, India's first Wrangler, Brahmo Samaj leader, freedom fighter,
educationist, and social reformer was born on September 23, 1847, in Mymensingh,
Bengal to an upper-middle-class family.
 After finishing his education, he moved to England and enrolled as a student of
Higher Mathematics at Christ Church College, Cambridge. In 1874, he was called to
the Bar at the same time.
 When he returned home, he launched his political career alongside Surendranath
Banerjea and Sivanath Sastri.
 During this time, he was also influenced by Devendranath Tagore and Keshab
Chandra Sen, both of whom he held in high regard.
 Bose's interest in India's political scene can be traced back to 1871 when he first met
Surendranath Banerjea in England.
 From his return to India in 1874 to the days of the Swadeshi movement in 1905, the
two were inseparably linked in all of their political endeavors.

G.K Gokhale

 Gopal Krishna Gokhale was born on May 9, 1866, in Kotluk village, Maharashtra
(then part of the Bombay Presidency), to a Brahmin family.

58
  For three decades, Gokhale worked for social empowerment, education expansion,
and the struggle for freedom in India, and he rejected the use of reactionary or
revolutionary methods.
 Between 1899 and 1902, he was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council, and
from 1902 until his death, he worked at the Imperial Legislative Council (1915).
 Gokhale was a key figure in the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909, which were drafted
in the Imperial legislature.
 He was a member of the Indian National Congress's Moderate Group (joined in
1889).
 In the Banaras session of 1905, he was elected president of the INC.
 He founded the Servants of Indian Society.
 He advocated for Indian self-government.

Badruddin Tyabji

 On October 10, 1844, Badruddin Tyabji (Tyab Ali) was born in Bombay. His father
descended from an old Cambay emigrant Arab family.
 He joined the Middle Temple after passing the London matriculation, became a
Barrister in April 1867 - the first Indian Barrister in Bombay - and rose quickly in the
profession.
 In July 1871, he was a leading figure in the campaign for an elective Bombay
Municipal Corporation, and he was at the top of the list of those subsequently
elected to that body.
 Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and Kashinath Telang became known as 'The
Triumvirate' or 'The Three Stars' of Bombay's public life.
 In 1882, he was elected to the Bombay Legislative Council but due to health reasons
resigned in 1886.

14.2 Conclusion
These leaders were dubbed moderates because they made public declarations of loyalty to
the British Raj through petitions, speeches, and articles. Moderates served as a safety valve
between the masses and the British. However, their Indian blood rejuvenated over time,
and their leaders urged them to overthrow the British through an institutional method.

*****

59
 15. East India Association (1866)
The East India Association was established by Dadabhai Naoroji in London in 1866. It
established its branches in various Indian cities such as Bombay, Kolkata, and
Madras in 1869. The main goal of the association was to raise awareness among British
people about the conditions in India and to generate popular support for Indian welfare.
This organization is also known as the predecessor to Indian National Congress. In this
article, we will learn about east India association which will be helpful for the preparation
for the UPSC exam.

15.1 What is the East India Association?

 The East India Association was formed to focus on the problem and questions
pertaining to India and to influence the British leaders to undertake the
development of India seriously.
 This association advocated promoting public interests and the welfare of Indians.
 It worked towards presenting a correct picture of India to the British Public and
voicing Indian concerns in the British press.
 The Ethnological Society of London attempted to prove Asians were inferior to
Europeans in 1866. The East India Association's work aimed to challenge this notion
as well.

15.2 Features of East India Association

 The London Indian Society formed by drawing inspiration from Dadabhai Naoroji
was superseded by the East Indian Association. Lord Lyveden became the first
president of the organization.
 Initially, the organization had around 1000 members but only after 1912, females
were allowed to be admitted into it.
 It advocated its ideology about India to the British public through two journals
as Journal of East India Association and the Asiatic Quarterly Review.
 Various papers and proceedings of the association were produced in the Asiatic
Quarterly Review which superseded the Journal of the East India Association.
 The East India Association involved a wide range of audiences, for instance, the
association would listen to lectures from various Indian and British men and women
on diverse matters such as the economic development of Indian literature to
suffrage.
 This Association incorporated within its ambit the National Indian Association in
1949 and became the Britain, India, and Pakistan Association.
 It merged with the former India Society, now Royal India, Pakistan, and Ceylon
Society, to become the Royal Society for India, Pakistan, and Ceylon in 1966.

15.3 Conclusion
The East India Association was formed by Dadabhai Naroji with a view to awakening the
British population to a due sense of their responsibilities as rulers of India, and therefore,
most of the endeavors of the organization were guided to the dissipation of that colossal

60
ignorance of India. It wanted to promote public interests and the welfare of Indians by
presenting a correct picture of India to the British population.

*****

61
 16. Indian League (1875) - Political Associations before
Indian National Congress
The Indian League was founded in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh with the goal of "stimulating
a sense of nationalism among the people" and encouraging political education. This
organization was associated with nationalist leaders such as Ananda Mohan Bose,
Durgamohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, Surendranath Banerjee, and others.

16.1 About Sisir Kumar Ghosh

 Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840–1911) was a well-known Indian journalist, the founder of
the Amrita Bazar Patrika, a well-known Bengali language newspaper in 1868, and
a Bengali freedom fighter.
 In 1875, he founded the Indian League with the goal of instilling a sense of
nationalism in the people.
 He was also a Vaishnavite, best known for his writings on the mystic-saint Lord
Chaitanya, and he published Lord Gauranga or Salvation for All in 1897.
 He was among the first students to pass Calcutta University's first entrance
examination in 1857.

16.2 Indian League - Features

 In the late sixties and early seventies of the 19th century, the Indian National
Movement became more broad-based and received wider publicity through the
medium of the press.
 In 1868, Sisir Kumar Ghosh published the Amrita Bazar Patrika, the most powerful
organ of national opinion.
 Describing the misrule of the English, he wrote on 31st December 1868, “The
Bengalis are determined to oppose the tyranny of Englishmen at every step”.
 In some of the articles published in 1870, he held out the parliamentary government
in India as the only solution to the problem.
 Sisir Kumar Ghosh along with a group of progressive leaders founded the India
League in 1875.
 The League aspired to represent not only the middle class but the masses as well and
to stimulate a sense of nationalism among the people.

16.3 Conclusion
The Indian National Congress was not India's first political organization. However, wealthy
and aristocratic elements dominated most political associations in the early half of the
nineteenth century. In Bengal, there were numerous political organizations. Sisir Kumar
Ghosh founded the Indian League in 1875. Later, in 1876, the India League of Sisir Kumar
Ghosh was superseded by the Indian National Association, which was founded by
Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose.

*****

62
 17. Indian National Association (1876) - Political
Associations before Indian National Congress
The Indian National Association was established in 1876 as one of the first nationalist
organizations by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose. It is also known as
the Indian Association of Calcutta. It advocated for the promotion of various legitimate
means such as the political, intellectual, and material advancement of the people of India.
The Indian Association was the most powerful of the pre-Congress organizations. This article
will discuss the various aspects of the Indian National Association which are important for
aspirants preparing for the UPSC examination.

17.1 What is the Indian National Association?

 The Indian National Association was originally established as Bharat Sabha and held
its first annual conference in Calcutta.
 This association later merged with the Indian National Congress in 1886.
 Indian National Association was formed amid the growing political consciousness
leading to the emergence of political associations and national movements to attain
independence.
 Various nationalist leaders were associated with the organization such as Anand
Mohan Bose, Durga Mohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, Surendranath Banerjee, etc.
 Its main objectives were:
o build a strong public opinion on political issues; and
o unite Indians behind a common political agenda.

17.2 Evolution of the Indian National Association

 Social and economic changes started occurring in the 19th century that also led to an
increase in the political consciousness leading to the birth of political associations
and national movements for independence.
 In 1875 Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Sambhu Charan Mukherjee founded the ‘The India
League’ to represent the middle class and work towards a sense of nationalism
among the people.
 However, the League was dismembered and afterward, Surendranath Banerjee
founded the Indian Association along with his friend Ananda Mohan Bose on 26 July
1876.

17.3 Features of the Indian National Association

 It represented the interests of the middle class and worked to promote a sense of
nationalism among the people and encourage political education.
 This association had a broad outlook due to which the leaders kept the organization
above narrow political and communal interests.
 They worked towards political unity among the educated middle class of India.
 The association advocated for the creation of a strong body of public opinion in the
country.

63
  It wanted to bring about the unity of the Indian races and peoples on the basis of
common political interests and aspirations
 It promoted brotherhood among the two communities of Hindus and Muslims.
 It ensured the inclusion of the masses in the great public movement of that time.
 It objected to the removal of the age limit for candidates for the Indian Civil Service
examination in 1877.
 The association advocated for simultaneous civil service examinations in England and
India, as well as the Indianization of higher administrative positions.
 It spearheaded a campaign to repeal the repressive Arms Act and the Vernacular
Press Act.
 The association established branches in other towns and cities throughout Bengal, as
well as outside of Bengal.
 The membership fee was kept low in order to attract members from the poorer
sections of society.
 The association sponsored the first all-India conference, which was held in Calcutta
from December 28 to 30, 1883. More than a hundred delegates from across the
country attended.

17.4 Conclusion
As an all-India nationalist organization, the association was, in some ways, a forerunner of
the Indian National Congress. It envisioned creating a strong body of public opinion in the
country and bringing about the unity of the Indian races and peoples on the basis of
common political interests and aspirations. In 1886, it merged with the Indian National
Congress.

*****

64
 18. Surendranath Banerjea (1876)
Surendranath Banerjea was also known as Rashtraguru. In order to bring about political
reforms, he founded the Indian National Association in 1876. He founded The Bengalee, a
newspaper. In 1869 and 1871, he passed the Indian civil service examination. He was barred
in 1869 due to an age dispute, and he was fired in 1871 due to racial discrimination. He
advocated for the civil disobedience movement. In this article we will learn
about Surendranath Banerjea which will be helpful for preparation of UPSC exam.

18.1 Surendranath Banerjea – Background

 Sir Surendranath Banerjea was born in Calcutta on November 10, 1848.

 He attended the Parental Academic Institution, which was primarily attended by
Anglo-Indian boys. In 1868, he graduated from Calcutta University and went to
England to compete for the Indian Civil Services.
 He passed the competitive examination, but because there was some confusion
about his exact age, he was disqualified.
 Banerjea began his new career as a Professor of English upon his return to India
in June 1875.

18.2 Surendranath Banerjea – Contribution & Achievements

 He made full use of his teaching position to instill a new spirit in Indian students. He
was India's most eloquent speaker up to that point.
 This shift in Bengali youth interest and energy toward national regeneration is his
first significant contribution to India's national cause.
 His second major contribution was the establishment of the Indian Association on
July 26, 1876, with the intention of serving as the focal point of an all-India political
movement.
 For the first time, the concept of India as a political unit emerged.
 Thus, he had set the stage for a more practical demonstration of the newly
awakened sense of political unity in the form of an all-India political conference
sponsored by the Indian Association.
 More than a hundred delegates from various parts of India attended the first session
of the National Conference, which was held in Calcutta on December 28-30, 1883.
 The second session was more representative than the first, and the plan to hold
annual Conference sessions in different parts of India was approved.
 For the first time in history, a realistic picture of India's political unity was presented
to the public, effectively putting an end to the Indian National Congress.
 The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay immediately
following the conclusion of the second session of the National Conference in Calcutta
(December 28, 1885).
 The Congress's Calcutta session in 1886 marked a significant advance in its tone and
spirit, and from then on, he played a leading role in the National Congress, becoming
its President twice in 1895 and 1902.
 In 1906, he reached the pinnacle of his political career and then began to decline.

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18.3 Conclusion
The schism between the Moderates and the Extremists resulted in the steady decline of the
Moderate Party, of which Surendranath Banerjea was the most powerful pillar. The Home
Rule League and the emergence of Gandhi ji caused people to lose faith in the Moderate
Party's program, and the publication of the Montagu Chelmsford Report signaled the start
of a war between the Moderates and the rest. With the passage of time, Banerjea's political
sensibilities became more moderate. He left Congress after the Montagu-Chelmsford
reforms of 1919 because he supported the reforms rather than Gandhi's non-cooperation.
In 1919, he accepted a knighthood from the British.

*****

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 19. Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1876)
Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj, a Vedic dharma reform movement,
and was an Indian philosopher and social leader. He was the first to demand Swaraj as
"India for Indians" in 1876, a call that Lokmanya Tilak later echoed. While opposing idolatry
and ceremonial devotion, he attempted to resurrect Vedic principles. This article focuses on
the life and ideologies of Swami Dayanand Saraswati.

19.1 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Background

 Swami Dayananda Saraswati, a social and religious reformer, was born on February
12, 1824.
 He was born in the town of Tankara, Gujarat.
 Karanji Lalji Kapadia, a tax collector, and his wife Yashodabai raised him in a well-to-
do household.
 In his childhood, he learned Sanskrit and the Vedas.
 After his sister and uncle died, he began to explore the purpose of life. He was
engaged to be married when he was in his teens but decided to embrace an ascetic
life and ran away from home.
 He wandered the Himalayas and other religious sites in northern India for 25 years
as a traveling ascetic.
 He was seeking the truth about life and had given up all of his earthly possessions in
order to pursue it. During this time, he also began practicing Yoga.
 Dayananda recognized that Hinduism has deviated from its origins. He promised his
Guru that he would do everything in his power to restore the Vedas to their due
place in Hindu religion and culture.
 He also took on prominent intellectuals and won disputes against them using the
Vedas as a weapon.
 He was a fervent opponent of superstitions and rituals.
 Some of the reforms incorporated in the Indian Constitution were influenced by
Dayananda, according to S Radhakrishnan.
 Dayananda was poisoned while staying at the palace of the Maharaja of
Jodhpur, Jaswant Singh II, and died on October 26, 1883, at Ajmer, where he was
transported for medical treatment. He was 59 years old at the time.

19.2 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Ideology

 He was a firm believer in the Vedas' infallibility.

 Dayananda was a proponent of the karma and reincarnation theories.
 He emphasized the Vedic values of brahmacharya, such as celibacy and devotion to
God.
 He claimed that divergence from the Vedic basic principles had degraded Hinduism
and that the priesthood had misled Hindus for the priests' personal self-
aggrandizement.

19.3 Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Contributions

Swami Dayananda attempted to reform Hindu society and religion through the Arya Samaj.

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Religious Reforms

 The Arya Samaj emphasized Hindu society's liberation. Only the Vedas, according to
Dayananda, were the repositories of true knowledge, and the only religion was the
religion of the Vedas.
 The Vedas contain principles of economics, politics, social sciences, and humanities.
 His clarion call to "Return to the Vedas" raised awareness among the people. Other
scriptures and Puranas were rejected by him.
 He was vehemently opposed to idol worship, ritualism, animal sacrifice, the concept
of polytheism, the concept of heaven and hell, and fatalism.
 The Arya Samaj distilled Hinduism and made Hindus aware of their glorious heritage
and the superior value of Vedic knowledge. Hindus should not seek guidance from
Christianity, Islam, or Western culture.
 The Arya Samaj, by emphasizing Hinduism's superiority, could counteract Islamic and
Christian propaganda against it.
 Dayananda founded the "Shuddhi Movement" to convert people of other religions
to Hinduism and to re-convert those who had converted from Hinduism to other
religions. This campaign discouraged low-caste Hindus from converting to
Christianity or Islam.
 The Shuddhi Movement opposed Christian missionaries who attempted to convert
Hindus who were uneducated, poor, and depressed.

Social Reforms

 The Arya Samaj provided valuable services to Hindu society by opposing various
social evils. He was an outspoken opponent of the caste system and the Brahmins'
social superiority.
 He also questioned the Brahmins' monopoly on reading the Vedas and advocated for
the right of all people, regardless of caste, creed, or color, to study the Vedas.
 Dayananda was also a vocal opponent of the practice of untouchability. He
advocated for female education and protested against women's injustices.
 He was adamantly opposed to child marriages, polygamy, purdah, and the practice
of ‘Sati,’ among other things. He demonstrated that women should have equal rights
with men by citing Vedic teachings.
 Members of the Arya Samaj engaged in intercaste marriages and interdining.
 For the education of both males and females, the Arya Samaj established a number
of educational institutions such as Gurukuls, Kanya Gurukuls, D.A.V. Schools, and
Colleges.
 These educational institutions safeguarded Hindu religion and society while also
promoting the advancement of knowledge and education in the modern scientific
line.
 Though Arya Samaj did not actively participate in politics, it did indirectly contribute
to the advancement of national consciousness. Dayananda was the first to
advocate "Swadeshi," or the rejection of foreign goods.
 He aided the development of an all-India national spirit by recognizing Hindi as the
national language.

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  He also coined the term 'Swaraj' to refer to a state founded on Vedic principles
before any Indian national leader did.
 As a result, Arya Samaj became a fervent supporter of Hinduism and an organ of
militant Hinduism. Because of such militancy, the spread of extremism within the All
India National Congress was made possible.
 The Arya Samaj was instrumental in bringing about socio-religious changes in pre-
independence India.
 Though Dayananda was criticized as a conservative and sectarian activist who
claimed Hinduism's superiority over all other religions, he was one of the architects
of modern India.
 In truth, he was not opposed to Christianity or Islam, but rather to the evil practices
of all religions.

Arya Samaj

 Arya Samaj is an Indian monotheistic Hindu reform movement that promotes

principles and practices based on the indisputable authority of the Vedas.
 The samaj was founded on April10,1875, by sannyasi Dayanand Saraswati.
 The Arya Samaj was the first Hindu organization to engage in proselytization.
 Since 1800, the organization has also worked to advance India's civil rights struggle.

19.4 Conclusion
Every year, Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati Jayanti is observed to commemorate the birth
anniversary of Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati. Dayanand Saraswati fought to abolish many
evils from our society and through Arya Samaj worked to promote female education and
intercaste marriage, built missions, orphanages, and widow homes, established a network
of schools and colleges, and provided famine relief and medical care.

*****

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 20. Vernacular Press Act (1878)
The Vernacular Press Act (1878) was enacted in British India to limit the freedom of the
Indian press and prevent the expression of criticism toward British policies, particularly the
opposition that had grown since the start of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–
80). Lytton, then Viceroy of India, proposed the Act, which was unanimously approved by
the Viceroy's Council on March 14, 1878. The Vernacular Press Act (VPA) was enacted in
order to "better control" the vernacular press and effectively punish and repress "seditious
writing" in "publications in oriental languages." As a result, the British treated the (non-
English language) Indian press with complete hostility. In this article, we will discuss
the Vernacular Press Act, 1878 which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

20.1 Vernacular Press Act - Background

 The racial animosity between the ruler and the ruled was a bitter legacy of the 1857
revolt.
 Following 1858, the European press always supported the government in political
controversies, whereas the vernacular press was critical of the government.
 There was a strong public backlash against Lytton's imperialistic policies, which were
exacerbated by a terrible famine (1876–77), on the one hand, and lavish spending on
the imperial Delhi Durbar, on the other.
 The country's vernacular press expanded dramatically in the latter half of the
nineteenth century, and newspapers served as a catalyst for the new socio-political
consciousness.
 Previously, newspapers were only published in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and
Allahabad, but later, newspapers began to be published in smaller towns as well.
 Because most of the newspapers were published in small towns, they were all
written in vernacular languages.
 When this act was passed in 1878, there were 20 English newspapers and 200
vernacular newspapers.
 People became more aware of political issues as a result of these vernacular
newspapers, and they gradually began to ask questions about their rights.
 As a result, Lord Lytton enacted the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 in the best
interests of the government.

20.2 Vernacular Press Act - Provisions

 The magistrates of the districts were empowered by this act to call upon a printer
and publisher of any kind to enter into a bond, undertaking not to publish anything
that might "rouse" feelings of dissatisfaction against the government without the
prior permission of the government.
 The magistrate was also given the authority to deposit a security deposit, which
could be confiscated if the printer violated the Bond. If a printer commits the same
offense again, his press may be seized.
 The magistrate's decision was final, and there could be no appeal in a court of law.
 A vernacular newspaper could obtain an exemption from the Act's application by
submitting proof to a government censor.

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20.3 Vernacular Press Act - Impact

 The act became known as "the Gagging Act."

 The most heinous aspects of this act were:
o discrimination between English and vernacular press, and
o no right of appeal.
 Som Prakash, Bharat Mihir, Dacca Prakash, and Samachar were charged under the
VPA.
 Incidentally, to avoid the VPA, the Amrita Bazar Patrika morphed overnight into an
English newspaper.
 Later, the pre-censorship clause was repealed, and a press commissioner was
appointed to provide the press with authentic and accurate news.
 The act was met with strong opposition, and Ripon eventually repealed it in 1882.

20.4 Conclusion
As a result of the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, the press was silenced, and some vernacular
press people were prosecuted. There was now a widespread public outcry against this act.
Lord Ripon, who succeeded Lord Lytton, later repealed the act. However, the resentment it
engendered among Indians became one of the driving forces behind India's growing
independence movement.

*****

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 21. Wahabi Movement (1830-1861)
Wahabi Movement, also known as the 'Walliullah Movement,' was a Muslim socio-religious
reform movement which began in response to western influences and was inspired by the
teachings of Shah Walliullah, considered the first Indian Muslim leader. The Wahabi
Movement in India was founded by Sayyid Ahmad (1786-1831) of Rae Bareli. The entire
movement revolved around Islam's legacy — "Quran and Hadis." The Wahabi movement
sought to purify Islam and return to the simplicity of religion. This article will explain to you
about the Wahabi Movement which will be helpful in Modern Indian History preparation
for the UPSC Civil service exam.

21.1 Wahabi Movement – Background

 The Wahabi Movement in India was founded by Sayyid Ahmad (1786-1831) of Rae
Bareli.
 Sayyid Ahmad's writings demonstrate an awareness of the growing British presence
in the country, and he viewed British India as a daru'l harb (abode of war).
 In 1826, he migrated to the North Western Frontier area and established an
operational base in the independent tribal belt.
 After his death in the battle of Balakot, the Movement slowed for a while, but his
followers, particularly Wilayet Ali and Enayat Ali of Patna, revitalized the work and
broadened its scope.
 The Ambala War (1863), in which the English army suffered heavy losses at the
hands of the Wahhabis, marked the culmination of the Movement.
 As a result, the government took harsh measures to suppress the Movement.
 Investigations were launched, the leaders were apprehended and sentenced to long-
term incarceration, and their properties were confiscated.
 The Movement's back was broken, but it remained a potential source of trouble for
the government.

21.2 Wahabi Movement

 The teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the sermons of Shah Walliullah (1702–
63) inspired this essentially revivalist reaction to Western influences and the
degeneration that had set in among Indian Muslims, calling for a return to the true
spirit of Islam.
 He was the first Indian Muslim leader of the 18th century to organize Muslims
around the two-fold ideals of this movement:
o the desire for harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence
than had divided Indian Muslims (he sought to integrate the best elements of
the four schools); and
o recognition of the role of individual conscience in religion in situations
where conflicting interpretations of the Quran and the Hadis were derived.
 Walliullah's teachings were popularised further by Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmad
Barelvi, who also gave them a political context.
 Un-Islamic practices that had infiltrated Muslim society were intended to eliminate.

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  Syed Ahmad advocated for a return to pure Islam and the type of society that existed
in Arabia during the Prophet's time.
 Dar-ul-Harb (the land of the kafirs) was considered India, and it needed to be
converted to Dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam).
 Initially, the movement was aimed at the Sikhs of Punjab, but following the British
annexation of Punjab (1849), the movement shifted its focus to the British.
 During the 1857 Revolt, the Wahabi's played a significant role in instilling anti-British
sentiment.
 The Wahabi Movement faded away in the face of British military might in the 1870s.

21.3 Suppression of Wahabi Movement

 During the 1857 Revolt, the Wahabi's played a significant role in spreading anti-
British sentiments.
 The British rulers of India saw the potential danger of the Wahabi's base of
operations from Sithana in the context of a possible war between the United
Kingdom and Afghanistan or Russia.
 In the 1860s, the government launched a multi-pronged attack on the Wahabi base
of operations in Sithana by organizing a series of military operations, while a number
of court cases for sedition were filed against Wahabis in India.
 General Bakht Khan, the leader of the mutineers in Delhi during the 1857 revolt, was
also a Wahabi.
 In the 1870s, the British military superiority crushed the movement.
 Between 1863 and 1865, there were a series of trials in which all of the main leaders
of the Wahabi movement were arrested.
 The Ambala trial in 1864 and the Patna trial in 1865 were inextricably linked.
 Though the Wahabi fanatics continued to assist the frontier hill tribes in their
encounters with the English in the 1880s and 1890s, the movement lost its vitality.

21.4 Conclusion
The Wahabi movement was a movement of the Muslims, by Muslims, and for Muslims, with
the goal of establishing Dar-ul-Islam in India. It never took on the characteristics of a
nationalist movement. Instead, it left a legacy of isolationist and separatist tendencies
among Indian Muslims.

In the nineteenth century, there was a vigorous movement for socio-religious reforms in
Indo-Islamic society, with strong political undercurrents. Following the 1857 revolt, it
devolved into an armed struggle against the British, prompting them to launch extensive
military operations against the movement's adherents. By 1870, the movement had been
completely crushed.

*****

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 22. Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
The Bombay Presidency Association was established by Pherozshah Mehta, K.T Telang,
and Badruddin Tyabji in 1885. It was founded in response to Lytton's reactionary policies
and the Ilbert Bill controversy. The Bombay Presidency or Bombay Province, also known
as Bombay and Sind (1843–1936), was an administrative subdivision (province) of British
India, with its capital in Bombay, the first mainland territory acquired in the Konkan region
with the Treaty of Bassein (1802). The summer capital was Mahabaleshwar. In this article,
we will learn about the Bombay Presidency Association which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

22.1 Bombay Presidency Association (1885) - Background

 Following the establishment of the British Indian Association in Calcutta, a public

meeting of Indian Citizens of Bombay was held at the Elephantine Institute, where
the groundwork for the first political association in the Bombay Presidency was laid.
 People from all walks of life mingled freely and openly with Hindus, including
Parsees, Jews, and Portuguese.
 The meeting was presided over by Jagannath Shankar Sheth, and it was decided that
the Bombay Association would be the people's representative to the presidency,
with an annual fee of twenty-five rupees set.
 Suddenly, a donation of thirty thousand rupees was received to launch the
association.
 The first resolution stated that the association's goal was to "ascertain the wants of
the natives of India in the Bombay Presidency."

22.2 Bombay Presidency Association (1885) - Features

 The Bombay Presidency Association was founded in January 1885 by three

prominent Bombay leaders: Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and Badurddin Tyabji.
 The association has always had cordial relations with the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
 The Bombay Presidency Association, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Madras
Mahajana Sabha, and the Indian Association of Calcutta sent a joint deputation to
England in September 1885 to present India's case to the British electorate.
 The delegation was led by Bombay's N. Chandavarkar, Madras' Ramaswami
Mudaliar, and Calcutta's Manmohan Ghosh.
 The first Congress was hosted three months later by the Bombay Presidency
Association.
 Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and Kashinath Telang were known as 'The
Triumvirate' or 'The Three Stars' of Bombay's public life.

22.3 Bombay Presidency Association - Founders

Pherozeshah Mehta

 Sir Pherozeshah Merwanjee Mehta (August 4, 1845 – November 5, 1915) was a

Bombay-based Indian Parsi politician and lawyer. The British Government in India
knighted him for his services to the law.
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  In 1873, he was appointed Municipal Commissioner of Bombay Municipality and
served as its President four times: in 1884, 1885, 1905, and 1911.
 Mehta was a founding member and President of the Indian National Congress in
Calcutta in 1890.
 When the Bombay Presidency Association was formed in 1885, Mehta was elected
president and served in that capacity for the rest of his life.
 He urged Indians to pursue Western education and embrace Western culture in
order to better India.
 He supported numerous social causes in the city and throughout India, including
education, sanitation, and health care.

Badruddin Tyabji

 On October 10, 1844, Badruddin Tyabji (Tyab Ali) was born in Bombay. His father
descended from an old Cambay emigrant Arab family.
 He joined the Middle Temple after passing the London matriculation, became a
Barrister in April 1867 - the first Indian Barrister in Bombay - and rose quickly in the
profession.
 Tyabji made his public debut after three years at the Bar. In July 1871, he was a
leading figure in the campaign for an elective Bombay Municipal Corporation, and he
was at the top of the list of those subsequently elected to that body.
 From then on, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and Kashinath Telang were
known as 'The Triumvirate' or 'The Three Stars' of Bombay's public life (in that
order).
 He was elected to the Bombay Legislative Council in 1882 but resigned in 1886 due
to health concerns.
 He helped found the Bombay Presidency Association in 1885 and ran it almost
entirely on his own.
 Soon after, the Indian National Congress held its first session in Bombay under its
auspices, with Tyabji and his brother, Camruddin Tyabji, among its delegates.
 Their attendance was hampered by urgent business in Cambay, which their
opponents exploited by alleging that Muslims were boycotting the Congress.
 He vehemently denied this, claiming to have "denounced all communal and sectarian
prejudices."

K.T Telang

 Kashinath Trimbak Telang was born in 1850 to a Marathi Brahmin family. He

received his primary and secondary education in a Marathi school. He earned his
M.A. and L.L.B. from Elphinstone College.
 K.T. Telang rose to prominence as a lawyer in Bombay in a relatively short period of
time. In 1889, he was appointed as a judge in the Bombay High Court.
 His extensive knowledge of ancient Hindu scriptures, as well as his command of
Sanskrit and English, made him a household name in Hindu law.
 He was a member of the Indian National Congress from its inception. He was
appointed as INC’s first secretary.

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  He was also a social reformer who advocated for women's education and the
upliftment of the lower classes. He was a prominent leader of the INC's moderate
faction.

22.4 Conclusion
Political organizations emerged in the first half of the nineteenth century. They were initially
dominated by the wealthy and educated intelligentsia. The Bombay Presidency was
established in 1885 as a result of the reactionary policies of Lytton and Ilbert Bill. The
Association advocated for Indian interests and hosted the first meeting of the Indian
National Congress in Bombay in late 1885.

*****

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 23. Indian National Congress 1885 - Foundation and
Moderate Phase
Allan Octavian Hume(A.O Hume), a retired British civil servant, founded the Indian National
Congress (INC) in 1885. Dadabhai Naoroji and Dinshaw Wacha were also the founding
members. In 1885, the first session was held in Bombay under the presidency of Womesh
Chandra Bonnerjee. The first session drew 72 delegates from across the country. Lord
Dufferin, the Viceroy of India at the time, granted Hume permission for the first session.
The Congress was formed with the intention of discussing issues that all citizens of the
country face, regardless of caste, creed, religion, or language. In its moderate phase, it was
primarily a movement of upper and middle-class, western-educated Indians. In this article,
we will discuss the foundation and moderate phase of the Indian National Congress which
will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

23.1 Indian National Congress - Background

 Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British Indian Civil Service (ICS) officer, founded the
Indian National Congress to create a forum for civil and political dialogue among
educated Indians.
 Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company relinquished control
of India to the British Empire.
 The British Raj worked to support and justify its governance of India with the help of
English-educated Indians, who were more familiar with and friendly to British culture
and political thinking.
 Ironically, one of the ways the Congress grew and survived, particularly during the
19th-century era of undisputed British dominance or hegemony, was through the
patronage of British authorities and the rising class of Indians and Anglo-Indians
educated in the English-based British tradition.
 Hume obtained the viceroy's approval in May 1885 to establish an "Indian National
Union," which would be affiliated with the government and serve as a forum for
Indian public opinion.
 On October 12, Hume and a group of educated Indians published "An Appeal from
the People of India to the Electors of Great Britain and Ireland," which asked British
voters in the 1885 British general election to support candidates sympathetic to
Indian positions.
 These included opposition to Indian taxation to fund British campaigns in
Afghanistan, as well as support for legislative reform in India.
 The appeal, on the other hand, was a failure, and many Indians interpreted it as "a
rude shock, but a true realization that they had to fight their battles alone."
 The Indian National Congress was founded on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas
Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attendance.
 Hume was appointed General Secretary, and Calcutta's Womesh Chandra Bannerjee
was elected President.
 In addition to Hume, two other British members (both Scottish civil servants) were
founding members: William Wedderburn and Justice (later, Sir) John Jardine.

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  The remaining members were mostly Hindus from the Bombay and Madras
Presidency.

23.2 Foundation of INC

 The INC was India's first national political movement, with the initial goal of involving
more Indians in the country's governance.
 Its purpose was later upgraded to complete independence. After independence, it
grew into a major political party in the country.
 The INC was a moderate organization in its early years, limiting its methods to
constitutional methods and dialogue.
 Its demands were restricted to increasing the number of Indians in the civil service
and armed forces. It never mentioned independence.
 After a few years, the party's demands and approach became more radical.
 By 1905, there was a clear schism in the party, which was now split between old
moderates and the newer group, the extremists – so named because of their radical
methods.
 The nationalist activity was carried out through provincial conferences and
associations, newspapers, and literature in addition to the Indian National
Congress.

23.3 Objectives of INC

 To promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from various

parts of the country.
 To develop and consolidate a sense of national unity regardless of caste, religion, or
province.
 To formulate popular demands and present them to the government.
 To train and organize public opinion in the country.
 To provide an outlet—"a safety valve"—for the growing popular discontent with
British rule.
 Through a pan-India organization, establish a democratic, nationalist movement.
 To raise awareness about colonial exploitative policies and Indian political rights. To
that end, Congress focused on increasing representation in councils, the
Indianization of civil services, and other issues.

23.4 Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

 Between 1885 and 1905, the Early Nationalists, also known as the Moderates, were
a group of political leaders in India whose appearance signaled the beginning of
India's organized national movement.
 Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji were two important moderate leaders.
 Members of the group were drawn from educated middle-class professionals such as
lawyers, teachers, and government officials, with many of them having received
their education in England.
 The moderate political activity involved constitutional agitation within the bounds of
the law and demonstrated a slow but orderly political progression.

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  The moderates believed that the British essentially wanted to be fair to the Indians
but were unaware of the actual circumstances.
 As a result, if public opinion could be formed in the country and public demands
presented to the government through resolutions, petitions, meetings, and so on,
the authorities would gradually concede these demands.
 To accomplish these goals, they used a two-pronged strategy:
o First, they created a strong public opinion to arouse consciousness and
national spirit, and then they educated and united people on common
political issues;
o Second, they persuaded the British Government and British public opinion
to implement reforms in India along the lines laid out by the nationalists.
 In order to accomplish this, a British committee of the Indian National Congress was
formed in London in 1899, with India serving as its organ.
 Dadabhai Naoroji devoted a significant portion of his life and fortune to advocating
for India's cause abroad.
 It was decided in 1890 to hold a session of the Indian National Congress in London in
1892, but due to the British elections in 1891, the proposal was postponed and
never revived.

23.5 Conclusion
From 1885 to 1905, the Moderates dominated the affairs of the Indian National Congress.
They were Indians in appearance, but British in taste, intellect, opinions, and morals. They
believed in patience, consistency, conciliation, and unity. As a result, we can say that the
Moderates served as a safety valve between the masses and the British. However, their
Indian blood rejuvenated over time, and their leaders urged them to overthrow the British
through an institutional method.

*****

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 24. Foundation of Indian National Congress (INC), 1885
Indian National Congress (INC) was formed by A.O Hume in the year 1885. It was originally
known as the Indian Nation Union. The formation of the Indian National Congress
in 1885 was not a coincidental occurrence. It was the culmination of a process of political
awakening that began in the 1860s and 1870s and reached a tipping point in the late 1870s
and early 1880s. The year 1885 was a watershed moment in this process. Modern
intellectuals interested in politics, who saw themselves as representatives of national
interests rather than narrow group interests, saw their efforts bear fruit. The all-India
nationalist body that they established was to serve as the platform, organizer,
headquarters, and symbol of the new national spirit and politics.

24.1 Foundation of INC - Background

 The groundwork for the establishment of an all-India organization had been laid in
the late 1870s and early 1880s.
 A retired English civil servant, A.O. Hume gave this idea a final shape by mobilizing
leading intellectuals of the time.
 Hume obtained permission from the then-Viceroy of India, Lord Dufferin, for the
first session. It was supposed to be held in Poona, but it was moved to Bombay due
to a cholera outbreak in Poona.
 Hume had written an open letter to Calcutta University graduates in 1883,
expressing his desire to establish a body for educated Indians to demand greater
participation in government and to provide a platform for dialogue.
 In 1890, Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University,
addressed the Congress session, symbolizing the freedom struggle's commitment to
granting women in India their due status in national life.

24.2 Foundation of INC - Features

 The INC was India's first national political movement, with the initial goal of involving
more Indians in the country's governance.
 Its purpose was later upgraded to complete independence. After independence, it
grew into a major political party in the country.
 The INC was a moderate organization in its early years, limiting its methods to
constitutional methods and dialogue.
 Its demands were restricted to increasing the number of Indians in the civil service
and armed forces. It never mentioned independence.
 After a few years, the party's demands and approach became more radical.
 By 1905, there was a clear schism in the party, which was now split between old
moderates and the newer group, the extremists – so named because of their radical
methods.
 The Nationalist activity was carried out through provincial conferences and
associations, newspapers, and literature in addition to the Indian National
Congress.

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24.3 Objectives of INC

 To promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from various

parts of the country.
 To develop and consolidate a sense of national unity regardless of caste, religion, or
province.
 To formulate popular demands and present them to the government.
 To train and organize public opinion in the country.
 To provide an outlet—"a safety valve"—for the growing popular discontent with
British rule.
 Through a pan-India organization, establish a democratic, nationalist movement.
 To raise awareness about colonial exploitative policies and Indian political rights. To
that end, Congress focused on increasing representation in councils, Indianization of
civil services, and other issues.

24.4 Role of A.O Hume

 The idea for an all-India Congress is said to have originated in a private meeting of
seventeen men following the Theosophical Convention in Madras in December
1884.
 Hume's Indian union, which he founded after retiring from the Civil Service, is also
said to have played a role in convening the Congress.
 Whatever the origin, and whoever the originator of the idea, we can conclude that
there was a need for such an organization, and A.O Hume took the initiative.
 Hume was the son of Joseph Hume, a British radical leader. He inherited his father's
political views and was initially interested in European revolutionary organizations.
 In 1849, he joined the East India Company's civil service and served in the
Northwestern Provinces.
 He became involved in projects such as spreading education, combating social evils,
and encouraging agricultural progress. Hume even started a newspaper in 1861 to
educate the people of Etawah on political and social issues.
 Hume's pro-Indian stance and efforts to promote Indian welfare did not go down
well with his fellow British officers.
 In 1870, Hume was appointed Secretary to the Government of India. Viceroy
Northbrook threatened Hume with dismissal for his opinions.
 He also did not get along with Lord Lytton and was demoted in 1879 before retiring
from the army in 1882. Hume settled in Shimla and became interested in Indian
politics.
 He sympathized with the Bombay and Poona groups more than with Calcutta leaders
such as Surendranath Banerjee and Narendra Nath Sen.
 Hume also met Viceroy Lord Ripon and became interested in the latter's scheme of
local self-government.

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24.5 First Session of INC in 1885

 With the cooperation of leading intellectuals of the time, A.O. Hume organized the
first session of the Indian National Congress in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal
Sanskrit College in Bombay.
 As a prelude to this, the Indian National Conference held two sessions in 1883 and
1885, with representatives from all major towns in India.
 The Indian National Conference was founded by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda
Mohan Bose.
 The first session drew 72 delegates from all Indian provinces. There were 54 Hindus,
2 Muslims, and the remaining members were Jain and Parsi.
 Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee presided over the first session.
 Following that, the Congress met in December every year, in a different part of the
country each time.
 Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta,
P.Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjea, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan
Bose, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were some of the great Congress presidents during
this early period.
 Mahadev Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Motilal Ghosh,
Madan Mohan Malaviya, G. Subramania Aiyar, C. Vijayaraghavachariar, and Dinshaw
E. Wacha were among the other prominent leaders.

24.6 Foundational Theories of INC

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai)

 The fact that the INC was founded by a retired English civil servant, A.O.Hume,
rather than an Indian, has led to speculation that Hume founded the INC to provide
a "safety value" to the growing discontent with British rule.
 It is also reported that Hume received the idea for an annual conference of educated
Indians for political discussions from Viceroy Dufferin.
 This may be true in part, but there is no reliable evidence that Dufferin suggested
the formation of the INC or that the INC was intended as a "safety value."

Conspiracy Theory (R P Dutt)

 The Marxist historian's conspiracy theory arose from the 'safety valve' concept.
 According to R.P. Dutt, the Indian National Congress arose from a conspiracy to
suppress a popular uprising in India, and the bourgeois leaders were complicit in it.

Lightning Conductor Theory (G.K Gokhale)

 The Indian National Congress represented the desire of politically conscious Indians
to establish a national body to express Indian political and economic demands.
 If the Indians had formed such a body on their own, the officials would have been
vehemently opposed; such an organization would not have been allowed to form.
 The early Congress leaders used Hume as a 'lightning conductor,' i.e., a catalyst to
bring together nationalistic forces, even if under the guise of a'safety valve.'

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24.7 Conclusion
With the establishment of the National Congress in 1885, the struggle for India's
independence from foreign rule was launched in a small but organized way. The national
movement would grow, and the country and its people would not be able to rest until
freedom was achieved.

*****

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 25. First Session of Indian National Congress (1885)
The first session of the Indian National Congress (INC) was planned for Poona, but due to a
plague outbreak in Poona, the venue was changed to Bombay. With the cooperation of
leading intellectuals of the time, A.O. Hume organized the first session of the Indian
National Congress in December 1885 in Bombay. As a prelude to this, the Indian National
Conference held two sessions in 1883 and 1885, with representatives from all major towns
in India. W.C. Bonnerjee, a prominent lawyer by profession, was the first president of this
session. Sessions were held at the end of each year in various cities across India, and it was
described as a "memorandum" to present the Indian political viewpoint to the British
Government. As a result, the memorandum was presented at each session. In this article,
we will discuss the First Session Held in 1885 (Bombay) which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

25.1 First Session of INC - Features

 Although several other conferences were held in various parts of India during the
latter half of December 1885, the most important conference held during this
fortnight was the First Indian National Congress, which met from December 28 to
30, 1885.
 The location of the Congress was changed from Poona to Bombay due to a cholera
outbreak in Poona.
 The Indian National Congress held its first session in the hall of Gokuldas Tejpal
Sanskrit College in Bombay. It was a vibrant gathering.
 The total number of delegates who attended the session was approximately 72, but
they fairly represented India's various regions.
 Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta,
P.Anandacharlu, Surendranath Banerjea, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Ananda Mohan
Bose, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were some of the great Congress presidents during
this early period.
 Mahadev Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Motilal Ghosh,
Madan Mohan Malaviya, G. Subramania Aiyar, C. Vijayaraghavachariar, and Dinshaw
E. Wacha were among the other prominent leaders.

25.2 Aims and Objectives of the Congress

 The first major goal of the Indian national movement's founders was to promote the
process, to weld Indians into a nation, to create an Indian people.
o It was common for colonial administrators and ideologues to claim that
Indians could not be untied or freed because they were not a nation, but
rather a geographical expression.
 To reach out to people of all faiths and alleviate the fears of minorities, a rule was
established at the 1888 session that no resolution could be passed to which an
overwhelming majority of Hindu or Muslim delegates objected.
o In 1889, a minority clause was included in a resolution calling for legislative
council reform.

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  The Congress's subsequent major goal was to create a standard platform around
which political workers from various parts of the country could gather and conduct
their political activities, educating and mobilizing people on an all-India basis.
o This was to be accomplished by taking over the grievances and fighting for
the rights that all Indians shared in relation to the rulers.
 The president of the Congress, Dadabhai Naoroji, established a rule in its second
session, stating that the National Congress must limit itself to issues in which the
entire nation has direct participation.
o For the same reason, Congress was not to consider social reform issues.
 It was necessary to build a common all-India national-political leadership as part of
the basic goal of giving birth to a national movement. Nations and other groups can
only take meaningful and effective political action if they are organized.
 As the first Congress President, W.C. Bannerji stated that one of the Congress's goals
was to "eradicate all possible race, creed, or provincial prejudices among all lovers
of our country."
 The primary goals of the first nationalist leaders were to lay the groundwork for a
secular and democratic national movement, politicize and politically educate the
people, to establish the movement's headquarters, form an all-India leadership
group, and develop and spread an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.

25.3 Resolutions Passed in the First Session

The first session of Congress debated and approved nine resolutions.

 The establishment of a Royal Commission to investigate the functioning of the

Indian administration.
 To abolish the Indian Council of Secretary of State for India.
 Expansion and reform of the Imperial and local Legislative Councils created by the
Indian Councils Act of 1861.
 Establishing Legislative Councils for the Northwest Province, Oudh, and Punjab, as
well as establishing a Standing Committee in the House of Commons to consider
formal protests.
 Implementation of simultaneous Public Service Examinations in England and India,
as well as an increase in the minimum age for candidates.
 Military spending should be reduced.
 Protest against the annexation of Upper Burma and its proposed merger with India.
 All resolutions were to be distributed to political organizations across the country for
discussion and formulation of views.
 The Congress's next session was scheduled for December 28, 1886, in Calcutta.

25.4 Conclusion
Despite the fact that the Indian leaders were meeting for the first time on a political
platform, their knowledge of public problems of the day appeared to be broad enough in
many dimensions. In their speeches, they demonstrated exceptional knowledge of the
administration. Though Muslims did not constitute a sizable proportion of the Congress, the
Congress did not discriminate against adherents of any religion or sect. The Congress's
second annual session was presided over by a Parsi, the third by a Muslim, and the fourth by

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a Christian. In its first session in 1885, the leaders of the Indian National Congress firmly
believed in the British sense of justice and demanded political reforms.

*****

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 26. Foundational Theories of Indian National Congress (INC)
If an Indian had founded a body like the Indian National Congress, it would have been
accepted as normal and logical. However, the fact that an Englishman - A.O. Hume - gave
concrete and final shape to the idea of an all-India political organization has given rise to
many speculations and various foundational theories of the Indian National Congress have
been created. INC was formed by A.O Hume in the year 1885. It was originally known as
the Indian Nation Union. A.O Hume was appointed General Secretary, and
Calcutta's Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee was elected President. In this article, we will discuss
the Foundational Theories of the Indian National Congress which will be helpful for UPSC
exam preparation.

26.1 Indian National Congress - Background

 The Indian National Congress was founded as a result of a series of unfortunate

events that began in the 1860s.
 During the 1860s and 1870s, the Indian Subcontinent was subjected to recurrent
famines, which resulted in large-scale deaths from starvation as well as wreaking
havoc on the local population's purchasing power.
 Colonial legislation also played a significant role in widening the chasm between the
people of India and the British Colonial Government in the post-Revolt era.
 The defeat of the Ilbert Bill, among other things, made Indians realize for the first
time that sporadic efforts of individuals were useless and fruitless; thus, they learned
the importance and value of the organization.
 This was a significant factor in the formation of the first organized national political
party speaking with one voice and representing the entire population of India.

26.2 Foundation of INC

 By 1880, India had developed a new middle class that was dispersed throughout the
country.
 This class's encouragement stemmed from its educational success and ability to reap
the benefits of that education, such as employment in the Indian Civil Service.
 They were especially encouraged when Canada was granted dominion status and
established a self-governing democratic constitution in 1867.
 A solid foundation had been laid for the formation of an all-India organization. A
retired English civil servant, A.O. Hume gave this idea a final shape by mobilizing
leading intellectuals of the time.
 With the cooperation of these leaders, he organized the first session of the Indian
National Congress in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in
Bombay with permission from the then viceroy Lord Dufferin.
 The membership was made up of the westernized elite, and no effort was made to
broaden the base at the time.
 Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee presided over the first session of the Indian National
Congress, which was attended by 72 delegates.
 Following that, the Congress met in December every year, in a different part of the
country each time.

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  The Congress held its second session in Calcutta in 1886, and its third in Madras in
1887.

26.3 Foundational Theories of INC

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai)

 According to this theory, Hume founded the Congress with the hope that it would
serve as a "safety valve" for the Indians' growing discontent.
 Extremist leaders, such as Lala Lajpat Rai, believed in the safety valve theory.

Conspiracy Theory (R.P Dutt)

 Rajani Palme Dutt was the founder of Conspiracy Theory.

 Conspiracy theory arose from the ‘safety valve’ concept.
 According to R.P. Dutt, the Indian National Congress arose from a conspiracy to
suppress a popular uprising in India, and the bourgeois (middle-class) leaders were
complicit in it.

Lightning Conductor Theory (G.K Gokhale)

 The lightning conductor theory was given by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

 According to modern Indian historians, the Indian National Congress represented the
desire of politically conscious Indians to establish a national body to express the
Indians' political and economic demands.
 The early Congress leaders used Hume as a 'lightning conductor,' i.e., a catalyst to
bring together nationalistic forces, even if under the guise of a 'safety valve.'

26.4 Conclusion
Because the Indian National Congress played such an important role in Indian history, it was
natural for a contemporary opinion as well as subsequent historians to speculate on the
reasons for its formation. In fact, this issue has been debated since the establishment of
Congress. Many scholars have worked hard to identify the efforts of an individual or
individuals or the specific circumstances that can be considered the primary immediate
factors behind the event. However, the evidence is contradictory. A hundred years after the
event, historians are still debating the issue.

*****

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 27. Military Demands of Moderate Class, 1885
The military policies followed by the British were unjust, undemocratic and draconian in
nature which the moderates opposed and demanded changes in the policy. The moderates
worked with the long-term objective of a democratic self-government. They followed
the pray-petition-protest method to persuade the British to bring in necessary
constitutional reforms. After the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885,
there were increased demands for reforms in the British Indian administration. This article
will deal exclusively with the military demands made by the moderates which will be
helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

27.1 Military Demands of Moderates

 It was pointed out that the Indian army was utilized in imperial wars all over the
world, with India bearing the brunt of the costs. The moderates urged that the
British government split the military costs equally.
 They objected to the government's disarmament strategy. The Arms Act passed in
1878 was demanded to be repealed.
 The Act prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without licenses.
 They urged the government to place faith in the people and grant them the right to
bear arms, allowing them to defend themselves and their country in times of crisis.
 Aggressive foreign interventions made by the British that led to the acquisition of
Burma, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the repression of tribals in the northwestern
United States, etc. were criticized.

27.2 Conclusion
The British conceded to the nationalist leaders’ persuasion against military spending. The
government agreed to contribute a portion of their military spending worth 1 million
pounds. These demands made by the moderates had a crucial role in harnessing the anti-
British sentiments among the masses.

*****

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 28. Constitutional Methods - Early Nationalist Methodology
The early nationalists used constitutional methods to put forward their demands. The Early
Nationalists used the three P's – Petitions, Prayers, and Protest – to achieve their goals
while relying on constitutional and peaceful methods and avoiding violence and
confrontation. Early nationalists instilled a sense of belonging to a single nation, and they
educated people in politics by popularizing ideas such as democracy, civil liberties,
secularism, and nationalism, among others. The moderate political action involved
constitutional agitation within the bounds of the law, and it demonstrated slow but orderly
political growth. The British, according to the Moderates, genuinely wished to be fair to the
Indians but were unaware of the true situation. In this article, we will detail
the constitutional methods adopted by early nationalists which will be helpful for UPSC
exam preparation.

28.1 Objectives of Early nationalists

 The early nationalists believed that if public opinion could be developed in the
country, and popular demands brought to the government through resolutions,
petitions, meetings, and other means, the authorities would gradually give in to
these requests.
 The early nationalists resorted to a two-tiered methodology:
o create a strong public opinion to arouse consciousness and national spirit
and then educate and unite people on common political questions;
o persuade the British Government and British public opinion to introduce
reforms in India on the lines laid out by the nationalists.

28.2 Constitutional Methods Adopted by Early Nationalists

 They provided education to the masses in India.

 They held meetings and delivered speeches in order to press their demands.
 They used the press to criticize the government's policies.
 They sent memorandums and petitions to government officials and the British
Parliament.
 Rather than violence and hostility, they believed in patience and reconciliation. They
adhered to the three P's: Petition, Prayer, and Protest.
o This was accomplished through the distribution of petitions and request
letters in protest of the government's unjust policies.
o These methods could be categorized as constitutional and nonviolent.
 In 1889, the Indian National Congress established a British Committee in London,
which published a weekly journal, India, to present India's case to the British public.
 They concentrate on teaching people, raising their political awareness, and forming
public opinion.
 They also requested that the government conduct an investigation and provide
solutions to the people's concerns.
 They met and discussed issues of social, economic, and cultural importance.

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  Indian leaders were sent to Britain on deputation to achieve their goals.
o For example, Dadabhai Naoroji dedicated a significant portion of his life to
raising awareness of the plight of Indians among British citizens and
parliamentarians.

28.3 Conclusion
The constitutional methods adopted had a huge impact on creating an anti-British
sentiment across the country. However, the efforts were not sufficient, as they failed to
ensure the participation of the masses. The relative inaction by the moderates gave way to
the rise of the extremists towards leading the Congress policies and national politics after
1905.

*****

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 29. Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the Moderate Phase and moderates were the
leaders of this phase. The national leaders who dominated the Congress policies during this
period, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, and
S.N. Banerjea, were staunch believers in 'liberalism' and moderate politics and came to be
referred to as Moderates to distinguish them from the neo-nationalists of the early
twentieth century who were called extremists. Indian nationalism emerged in the latter half
of the nineteenth century as a result of a variety of factors such as western education, socio-
religious reforms, British policies, and so on. In this article, we will discuss the Moderate
Phase which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

29.1 Moderate Phase - Features

 Between 1885 and 1905, the Early Nationalists, also known as the Moderates, were
a group of political leaders in India whose appearance signaled the beginning of
India's organized national movement.
 Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji were two important moderate leaders.
 Members of the group were drawn from educated middle-class professionals such as
lawyers, teachers, and government officials, with many of them having received
their education in England.
 The moderate political activity involved constitutional agitation within the bounds of
the law and demonstrated a slow but orderly political progression.
 The moderates believed that the British essentially wanted to be fair to the Indians
but were unaware of the actual circumstances.
 As a result, if public opinion could be formed in the country and public demands
presented to the government through resolutions, petitions, meetings, and so on,
the authorities would gradually concede these demands.
 To accomplish these goals, they used a two-pronged strategy:
o First, they created a strong public opinion to arouse consciousness and
national spirit, and then they educated and united people on common
political issues;
o Second, they persuaded the British Government and British public opinion
to implement reforms in India along the lines laid out by the nationalists.
 In order to accomplish this, a British committee of the Indian National Congress was
formed in London in 1899, with India serving as its organ.
 Dadabhai Naoroji devoted a significant portion of his life and fortune to advocating
for India's cause abroad.
 It was decided in 1890 to hold a session of the Indian National Congress in London in
1892, but due to the British elections in 1891, the proposal was postponed and
never revived.

29.2 Moderate Phase - Objectives

 To establish a democratic, nationalist movement.

 Politicize and politically educate people.
 Establish a movement's headquarters.

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  To promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers from various parts
of the country.
 To create and spread an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
 Formulate and present popular demands to the government in order to unite the
people around a common economic and political program.
 Develop and consolidate a sense of national unity among people of all religions,
castes, and provinces.
 To promote and cultivate Indian nationhood with care.

29.3 Moderate Phase - Important Leaders

Dadabhai Naoroji

 He was dubbed the "Grand Old Man of India."

 He was the first Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons.
 Authored the book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,' which focused on India's
economic drain as a result of British policies.

Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee

 The first president of the Indian National Congress (INC).

 Lawyer by profession and the first Indian to serve as Standing Counsel.

G.Subramania Aiyer

 He founded the newspaper 'The Hindu,' in which he criticized British imperialism.

 In addition, he founded the Tamil newspaper 'Swadesamitran.'
 Madras Mahajana Sabha was co-founded by him.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

 He was known as Mahatma Gandhi's political mentor.

 The Servants of India Society was founded by him.

Surendranath Banerjee

 Also known as 'Rashtraguru' and 'Indian Burke.'

 The Indian National Association was founded by him and it later merged with the
INC.
 Banerjee was cleared for the Indian Civil Service but was fired due to racial
discrimination.
 The Bengalee newspaper was founded by him.

Rash Behari Ghosh, R C Dutt, M G Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, P R Naidu, Madan Mohan
Malaviya, P. Ananda Charlu, and William Wedderburn were among the other moderate
leaders.

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29.4 Method used by the Moderates

 In order to achieve their goal, they made a number of reform demands and criticized
government policies.
 They valued patience and reconciliation over violence and confrontation.
 They relied on constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their goal.
 They concentrate on educating people, raising their political consciousness, and
forming public opinion.
 The Moderates organized lectures in various parts of England in order to create
public opinion. In England, a weekly journal called India was published for
distribution among the British people.
 Moderates used various types of newspapers and chronicles to criticize government
policies, including the Bengali newspaper, the Bombay Chronicle, the Hindustan
Times, Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the weekly journal India.
 They also asked the government to conduct an investigation and find ways and
means to solve the problems that people were experiencing.
 They got together and talked about social, economic, and cultural issues.
 Meetings were held in England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, among
other places.

29.5 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists

Economic Critique of British Imperialism

 Early nationalists such as Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, and others
carefully examined the political economy of British rule in India and proposed
the "drain theory" to explain British exploitation of India.
 They were opposed to the conversion of a largely self-sufficient Indian economy into
a colonial economy.
 As a result, the Moderates were able to create an all-India public opinion that British
rule was the primary cause of India's poverty and economic backwardness.
 To alleviate the deprivation that pervades Indian life, early nationalists advocated for
the end of India's economic dependence on Britain and the development of an
independent economy through the involvement of Indian capital and enterprise.
 The early nationalists demanded a reduction in inland revenue, the abolition of the
salt tax, better working conditions for plantation laborers, a reduction in military
spending, and so on.

Constitutional Reforms

 Until 1920, India's legislative councils had no real official power. Nonetheless, the
work done in them by nationalists aided the growth of the national movement.
 The Imperial Legislative Council, established by the Indian Councils Act (1861), was
an impotent body created to pass official measures as if they had been passed by a
representative body.
 From 1862 to 1892, only forty-five Indians were nominated to it, with the majority of
them "being wealthy, landed, and with loyalist interests."

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  Only a few political figures and independent intellectuals were nominated, including
Syed Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal, V.N. Mandlik, K.L. Nulkar, and Rashbehari Ghosh.
 From 1885 to 1892, nationalist demands for constitutional reform centered on:
o council expansion—that is, greater participation of Indians in councils; and
o council reform—that is, more powers to councils, particularly greater control
over finances.

Campaign for General Administrative Reform

The moderates campaigned on the following grounds:

 Indianisation of government service on :

o on economic grounds, because British civil servants received very high
emoluments while including Indians would be more economical;
o on political grounds, because salaries of British bureaucrats were remitted
back home and pensions paid in England (all drawn from Indian revenue), this
amounted to an economic drain of national resources; and
o on moral grounds, because Indians were being discriminated against by
being kept away from positions of power.
 Separation of judicial and executive powers.
 An oppressive and tyrannical bureaucracy, as well as an expensive and time-
consuming judicial system, have been criticized.
 Criticism of an aggressive foreign policy that resulted in the annexation of Burma,
the invasion of Afghanistan, and the suppression of tribals in the North West.
 Increased spending on welfare (i.e., health, sanitation), education (especially
elementary and technical), irrigation works and agricultural improvement,
agricultural banks for cultivators, and so on.
 Better treatment for Indian laborers in other British colonies, where they faced
oppression and racial discrimination.

Protection of Civil Rights

 These rights included the freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press.
 The nationalists were able to spread modern democratic ideas through an unending
campaign, and soon the defense of civil rights became an integral part of the
freedom struggle.
 The arrest of Tilak and several other leaders and journalists in 1897, as well as the
arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial, sparked widespread
public outrage.

29.6 Achievements of the Moderates

 Their demands for constitutional reform were supposed to be met by the Indian
Councils Act of 1892.
 The Indian Councils Act of 1892 increased the number of members in the Imperial
Legislative Councils and Provincial Legislative Councils.

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  Legislative Councils were given additional responsibilities, such as budget debate
and questioning the executive.
 In the central and provincial legislative councils, indirect elections (nominations)
were implemented.
 During Congress sessions, these reforms were harshly criticized. They now
demanded a majority of elected Indians, as well as control over the budget, i.e. the
ability to vote on and amend the budget.
 They coined the phrase "No taxation without representation."

29.7 Limitations of the Moderates

 The educated elites dominated this stage of the national movement.

 They never sought or felt compelled to involve the masses in the way Gandhi did.
 Their attachment to Western political thought further distanced them from the
people.
 They never sought complete independence from the British and were content with
dominion status with increased autonomy and self-rule.

29.8 Evaluation of Early Nationalist

 They represented the most progressive forces in the country at the time.
 They were able to create a widespread national awakening of all Indians who shared
common interests and the need to unite behind a common cause against a common
foe, and above all, a sense of belonging to one nation.
 They educated people about politics and popularized modern ideas.
 They exposed colonial rule's fundamentally exploitative nature, undermining its
moral foundations.
 Their political work was founded on hard realities rather than shallow sentiments,
religion, and so on.
 They were successful in establishing the fundamental political truth that India should
be governed in the interests of Indians.
 They laid the groundwork for a more vigorous, militant, mass-based national
movement in the years that followed.
 They did not, however, broaden their democratic base or the scope of their
demands.

29.9 Conclusion
The Moderate leaders believed that political ties with Britain were in India's best interests at
the time and that the time had not come for a direct challenge to British rule. As a result, it
was thought appropriate to attempt to transform colonial rule into something resembling
national rule. The Moderates were unable to take significant political positions against the
authorities due to a lack of mass participation. On this point, the later nationalists differed
from the Moderates. Nonetheless, early nationalists fought for the emerging Indian nation
against colonial interests.

*****

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 30. Early Nationalist Methodology - Moderate Phase (1885-
1905)
The early nationalists or moderates used constitutional agitational methods to put
forward their demands. The leaders of the Early Nationalists believed in moderate politics
and loyalty to the British crown. They requested constitutional and other reforms within
the framework of British rule because they trusted the British sense of justice and fair play.
Their requirements were reasonable. They believed that Englishmen were eager to put India
on the path of democracy and self-government. They praised the English language as well
as modern modes of communication and transportation. This article will discuss the early
nationalists and their methodologies toward the national movement which will be helpful
for the preparation for the UPSC exam.

30.1 Early Nationalists - Background

 The early nationalists dominated the Indian National Congress from its inception in
1885 to 1905. These early nationalists were well-known figures.
 They worked as lawyers, barristers, teachers, and government officials.
 They believed in the British sense of justice and fair play because many of them
were educated in England. They were, however, unaware of the actual conditions of
Indians.
 W. C. Bonnerjee, Rashbehari Ghosh, Surendranath Banerjee, R. C. Dutt, Dadabhai
Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Justice Ranade, P. R. Naidu, Ananda Charlu, Madan
Mohan Malviya, and A. O. Hume were among the early nationalists.

30.2 Methodologies Followed by Early Nationalists

 They provided education to the masses in India.

 They held meetings and delivered speeches in order to press their demands.
 They used the press to criticize the government's policies.
 They sent memorandums and petitions to government officials and the British
Parliament.
 Rather than violence and hostility, they believed in patience and reconciliation. They
adhered to the three P's: Petition, Prayer, and Protest.
o This was accomplished through the distribution of petitions and request
letters in protest of the government's unjust policies.
o These methods could be categorized as constitutional and nonviolent.
 In 1889, the Indian National Congress established a British Committee in London,
which published a weekly journal, India, to present India's case to the British public.
 They concentrate on teaching people, raising their political awareness, and forming
public opinion.
 They also requested that the government conduct an investigation and provide
solutions to the people's concerns.
 They met and discussed issues of social, economic, and cultural importance.
 Indian leaders were sent to Britain on deputation to achieve their goals.

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 o For example, Dadabhai Naoroji dedicated a significant portion of his life to
raising awareness of the plight of Indians among British citizens and
parliamentarians.

30.3 Creation of Public Opinion

 The moderate leaders and other early nationalists organized talks in various
locations of England in an attempt to build public opinion.
 In England, a weekly periodical titled ‘India’ was established for distribution among
the British populace.
 Moderates utilized a variety of newspapers and chronicles to criticize government
policies, including the Bengali Daily, the Bombay Chronicle, the Hindustan Times,
Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the like.

30.4 Demands of Early Nationalists

 Legislative councils should be expanded and reformed.

 Conducting the ICS examination in both England and India at the same time, in order
to give Indians more prospects in higher positions in the administration.
 Separation of powers between the executive and the judiciary.
 More authority for local governments.
 Land revenue reduction and peasant protection from unscrupulous landlords.
 Salt and sugar taxes are being abolished.
 The right to free speech and expression, as well as the right to create associations
 The Arms Act is being repealed.
 Reduced spending on the army.
 Permanent Settlement was introduced to various parts of India.

30.5 Conclusion
The early nationalists were thus able to develop a national movement while undermining
the political and moral impact of the imperial regime. This contributed to the public's anti-
imperialist views. At the same time, the nationalists failed to broaden the democratic
foundation of the movement by failing to include the masses, particularly women, and by
failing to seek universal voting rights.

*****

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 31. Demand of Moderate Class
The 'moderates' dominated the Congress (or national movement) during its moderate
phase. The Congress made moderate demands during its first twenty years. The members
always presented their demands to the government in the form of petitions and worked
within the confines of the law. During the first phase (1885-1905), the Congress programme
was very limited. It called for moderate constitutional reforms, economic relief,
administrative reorganization, and civil rights protection. The Congress incessantly raised
several demands which could not be left unnoticed by the British. There were economic,
constitutional, administrative, and military demands. This article will discuss in detail all the
demands made by the moderates.

31.1 Demands of the Moderates

1. Constitutional Demands

 One of the major constitutional demands of the moderate class was the expansion
of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assemblies at the national and provincial
levels.
 The Moderates desired a larger share of their country's government.
 They believed that, in the long run, India should move closer to democratic self-
government.
 Their demands for constitutional reforms were conceded in 1892 in the form of the
Indian Councils Act.
 The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first step towards a representative form of
government in modern India although there was nothing in it for the common man.

2. Economic Demands

 The Moderates also desired a reduction in land revenue and the protection of
peasants from the zamindars' unjust demands.
 They demanded the development of banking industrial growth through trade
protection.
 The moderate leaders of Congress severely criticized the partial and unjust
economic policies adopted by the British which imposed a brutal tax burden on the
peasants and drained India’s wealth to Britain.

3. Administrative Demands

 The Moderates advocated for Indianisation services to be provided through

simultaneous Indian Civil Services Examinations in both England and India.
 They wished to repeal the Arms Act and the Licensing Act, as well as to provide
primary education to the majority of India's population.
 They demanded complete separation of the Executive and the Judiciary, greater
employment of Indians in higher ranks, and a gradual transition to democratic self-
government in India.

4. Military Demands

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  It was pointed out that the Indian army was utilized in imperial wars all over the
world, with India bearing the brunt of the costs. The moderates urged that
the British government split the military costs equally.
 The moderates objected to the government's disarmament strategy.
 The Arms Act passed in 1878 was demanded to be repealed.
 The Act prohibited Indians from carrying weapons of any kind without licenses.

31.2 Conclusion
Though the demands made were not effective in the short run, what mattered is how the
people of India responded to these demands raised. The moderates were able to boost the
developing anti British sentiment among the masses, which strengthened the national
movement. Contents like the drain theory and the consequent economic demands attracted
the attention of the peasants and the working class who were in deep despair due to heavy
taxation and a stagnant market.

*****

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 32. Indian Nationalism - The Moderate Phase
There were different reasons behind the emergence of nationalism among the people of
India due to which people wanted to free their country from the British. British were
capturing and controlling different kingdoms across India. They introduced various new laws
and constructed administrative institutions. Creating troubles and controlling the lives of
peasants and tribals.

Changes occurred in the education system during the nineteenth century. Huge declination
of crafts and increase in the number of industries. Social and religious reforms and The
Revolt of 1857 occurred.

This consciousness among people leads to begin some political associations -

32.1 Association of Landholders

 Landholders Society formed in 1837 and Bengal British India society in 1843 merged
together and formed the British Indian Association.
 Bengal Association and Madras Native Association established in 1852 sent some
petitions to end the Company’s monopoly of salt and indigo.
 To promote reforms and political consciousness among people, associations like
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha were established.
 In 1884, Madras Mahajan Sabha and Bombay Presidency Association were
established.
 National Conference (1883) and Indian National(1884) merged to form the Indian
National Congress.

32.2 Indian National Congress

 This was formed in the year 1885.

 Their first meeting in Bombay was set up by A.O. Hume at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit
College on 28 December 1885.
 The first president of the Indian National Congress was W.C. Banerjee.
 The main purpose of A.O. Hume to establish and encouraging this association was
probably to provide a “safety valve” to the growing discontent among the educated
Indians.

32.3 Aims of Indian National Congress

 Contribution and willingly participation of countrymen in the struggle.

 To create a feeling of unity among the people of India irrespective of their caste,
race, religion, or provinces.
 Presenting demands against the Government through petitions.
 To organize public opinion and training.
 Making the sentiments of national unity together.
 Listening and making records of the people with problems and their opinions.
 Formation of future plans in the public interest.

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32.4 Methods of Moderate Phase

 Early congressmen wanted to work peacefully and constitutional agitation was their
motto.
 Their instruments were petitions and prayers.
 Their sessions lasted only for three days a year.
 They believed that there is some good in the British nation and all things would go
easy on us if the British started taking into consideration public affairs in India.
 Also, a British Committee of INC was founded in 1889.

32.5 Important sessions of the Indian National Congress

Year Presidents Venue
1885 W.C. Bonnerjee Bombay
1886 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1887 Badruddin Tyabji Madras
1889 Sir William Wedderburn Bombay
1890 Pherozshah Mehta Calcutta
1891 P. Anand Charlu Nagpur
1892 W.C. Bonnerjee Allahabad
1893 Dadabhai Naoroji Lahore
1905 G.K. Gokhale Banaras
1906 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1907 Rash Behari Ghosh Surat
1917 Annie Besant Calcutta
1924 Mahatma Gandhi Belgaun
1925 Sarojini Naidu Kanpur
1931 Vallabhbhai Patel Karachi
1934 Rajendra Prasad Bombay
1936 Jawaharlal Nehru Lucknow
1947 Acharya J.B. Kripalani Meerut
1948 B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya Jaipur
The repressive measures adopted by The British Government gave rise to extremists within
Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).

The Indian National Congress split into Extremist and Moderates. Moderates are those who
confided in British justice and generosity.

Due to the following events, the Indian National Congress was divided into moderates and
extremists, and the event is known as the Surat split.

32.6 Partition of Bengal

 Lord Curzon in 1905, after a royal proclamation, ordered Partition of Bengal. Also
creating Assam and East Bengal out of the rest of Bengal.

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  The aim was to set up a religious gap between the Hindus and Muslims.
 Indian National Movement entered into the second phase after this partition.

32.7 Swadeshi Movement Impacts

 Swadeshi Movement is a stepping stone of the Nationalist Movement. It led to the

beginning of the organized political movement in India.
 There is a rise in the Neo-Nationalist Movement.
 Boycott of Foreign Goods.
 The split of Indian National Congress in Surat session.
 There arises a concept of National Education.
 The emergence of Indian literature and art.

32.8 Conflict and Split in the Indian National Congress

 Among the Moderates of Bombay, Bal Ganghadhar Tilak was unpopular due to his
revolutionary actions and ideas.
 In the Calcutta session of Congress in 1906, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh
wanted Tilak to become the President of the Congress. But the others were not
ready for this.
 Other members think that Tilak’s thinking was different. He has different thoughts
about the British.
 So, the Moderates were in no mood of accepting him.
 Ultimately there is a decision made hurriedly and taking considerations of partitions
of Bengal, Swadeshi, and Boycott they made a clear oar=th out of the open session.
 With the foundation of Deccan Sabha, there occurs a division of Extremists and the
Moderates in Maharashtra.

In the first two decades (1885-1905) the Indian National Congress was quite moderate.

32.9 The Moderates

 The early programs of Congress during the first phase of the Freedom movements,
that is, from 1885 to 1905, were very moderate.
 They demanded constitutional reforms which are mild. They also demanded
economic relief, administrative reorganization, and the protection of civil rights.
 The nationalists during this time focus on a strong point about the economic drain of
India. They were concerned about the economic conditions of India and its people.
 Political methods of the Moderates were confined under the constitutional
agitations. They believed in the goodness of the British Government.
 Moderates believed that the British people don’t know about the true state affairs of
India and if they know about them they will surely take certain measures to improve
it.
 They use petitions to aware the government of the reforms and public interests.

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32.10 The Other Important Demands

 There should be an organization of the provincial councils.

 Simultaneous Holding of Examinations for the I.C.S. in India and England.
 Demand for the reconstitution of the Indian Council, 1892.
 There should be appointments of Indians in the commissioned ranks of the army.

 More Indians should be appointed in the higher posts of officer ranks as on

economic, political and moral grounds.
 The moderates were cautious during the demands. They don’t want to annoy the
government and risk their suppression.

32.11 Prominent Leaders of the Moderates

 Surendranath Banerjee – He merged the Indian National conference with the Indian
National Congress in 1886. He becomes president over the two sessions in 1895 and
1902.
 Dadabhai Naoroji – He is also going by the name, “Grand Old Man of India”. He was
elected as president of the INC in 1886,1893. He also founded the London Indian
Society.
 Gopal Krishna Gokhale – He is known as the “Political Guru of Gandhi” as he was the
one who guided Mahatma Gandhi to travel across India to fight against the British.
 Some other leaders were Madan Mohan Malviya, P. Ananda Charlu, William
Wedderburn, M G Ranade, Pherozshah Mehta, and Rash Behari Ghosh.

32.12 Failure of the Moderates

For their generous methods towards the British, they were often criticized. Their methods of
sending petitions and passing resolutions were also a point of criticism by some people.

They were seemed to forget that the Britishers were the ones using India’s resources to
increase their wealth. Due to their limited influence on the people, they were failed to
gather mainstream masses.

*****

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 33. Experiment with truth in South Africa
Gandhi travelled to South Africa in 1893 in connection with a case involving his client, Dada
Abdullah. In South Africa, he witnessed the ugly face of white racism, as well as the
humiliation and contempt shown to Asians who had come to South Africa as labourers. He
chose to remain in South Africa in order to organise the Indian workers and enable them to
fight for their rights. Gandhi spent 20 years of his life (1893 - 1914) in South Africa working
as an attorney and a public worker. There he developed the idea of Satyagraha and used it
against the Asiatic Registration Law. It also resulted in the first jail sentence in Mahatma
Gandhi's life. In this article, we will discuss the instances of Gandhi’s experiment with truth
in South Africa which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

33.1 Status of Indians in South Africa

 The Indians in South Africa were divided into three groups:

1. Indentured Indian labourers, primarily from South India, who had migrated to South
Africa after 1890 to work on sugar plantations;
2. Merchants—mostly Meman Muslims who had followed the labourers; and
3. Ex-indentured labourers who had settled down with their children in South Africa
after their contracts expired.

 These Indians were mostly illiterate and spoke little or no English. They accepted
racial discrimination as a normal part of life.
 These Indian immigrants had to deal with a slew of handicaps.
 They were not allowed to vote.
 They could only live in designated areas that were unsanitary and congested.
 Asians and Africans in some colonies were unable to leave their homes after dark
and nor were they allowed to use public footpaths.

33.2 Phases of Struggle in South Africa

Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906)

 During this period, Gandhi relied on petitions and memorials to South African and
British authorities.
 He hoped that once the authorities were made aware of the plight of Indians, they
would take genuine steps to address their grievances, as Indians were, after all,
British subjects.
 To unite various sections of Indians, he founded the Natal Indian Congress and
launched the newspaper Indian Opinion.

Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-1914)

 The second phase, which began in 1906, was distinguished by Gandhi's use of the
method of passive resistance or civil disobedience known as satyagraha.
 After a series of negotiations involving Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, and
General Smuts, an agreement was reached.

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  The South African government conceded the major Indian demands relating to the
poll tax, registration certificates, and marriages solemnised according to Indian rites,
and promised to treat the issue of Indian immigration sympathetically.

Satyagraha Description

 In South Africa, new legislation requires Indians to carry

registration certificates with their fingerprints at all times.
 The Indians, led by Gandhi, decided not to submit to this
discriminatory measure.
 Gandhi established the Passive Resistance Association to
Satyagraha against
carry out a campaign of defying the law and suffering the
Registration
consequences of such defiance.
Certificates (1906)  Thus, was born satyagraha, or devotion to truth, the
technique of resisting opponents without resorting to
violence.
 Gandhi and others who refused to register were imprisoned
by the government.

 The previous campaign was expanded to include opposition

Campaign against to new legislation restricting Indian migration.
restrictions on Indian  The Indians defied the law by crossing from one province to
migration the next and refusing to produce licences.
 Many of these Native Americans were imprisoned.

 All ex-indentured Indians were subjected to a three-pound

poll tax.
 The demand for the abolition of the poll tax broadened the
campaign's base.
 Then, in response to a Supreme Court order that invalidated
Campaign against Poll all marriages not conducted according to Christian rites and
Tax and Invalidation of registered by the registrar of marriages, Indians and others
Indian Marriages who were not Christians were outraged.
 By extension, Hindu, Muslim, and Parsi marriages were
illegal, and children born from such unions were illegitimate.
 The Indians saw this decision as an insult to women's
honour, and many women were drawn into the movement
as a result of this humiliation.

 Indians illegally migrated from Natal to Transvaal in protest

of the Transvaal Immigration Act.
Protest against
 These Indians were imprisoned by the government.
Transvaal Immigration  Miners and plantation workers were struck by lightning.
Act  Gokhale toured the entire country of India, rallying public
support for Indians in South Africa.
 Even the viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned the repression

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 and demanded an impartial investigation.

33.3 Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa

 Gandhi discovered that the masses have an enormous capacity to participate in and
sacrifice for a cause that moves them.
 Under his leadership, he was able to bring together Indians of various religions and
classes, as well as men and women.
 He also realised that leaders must sometimes make decisions that are unpopular
with their ardent supporters.
 He was able to develop his own leadership and political style, as well as new
techniques of struggle on a small scale, unhindered by the opposition of competing
political currents.

33.4 Conclusion
During his time in South Africa, Gandhi developed the Satyagraha technique. It was founded
on the truth and nonviolence. He combined elements of Indian tradition with the Christian
requirement of turning the other cheek and Tolstoy's philosophy, which stated that
nonviolent resistance was the best way to combat evil.

*****

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 34. Gandhi in South Africa (1893-1914)
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi worked as an attorney and public servant from 1893 to
1914 in South Africa before leading the Indian freedom movement to fight injustice and
class division. Within ten years, Gandhi had spread the Satyagraha philosophy throughout
the country, propelling the country toward a society free of class and ethnic discrimination.
In 1893, Gandhi arrived in Durban aboard the SS Safari. Gandhi quickly rose to prominence
as the leader of the South African Indian community. His involvement in the nonviolent
movement in South Africa had such an impact that he is still regarded as a leader there.
Gandhi stated at a meeting in New Delhi that he was born in India but raised in South Africa.
In this article, we will discuss the contributions of Gandhi while he was in South Africa
which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

34.1 Gandhi’s association with South Africa

 As Gandhi himself stated, South Africa was critical to his personal success.
 This timid young man who had just passed the bar examination became the man
who would lead India to independence and instigate the global decolonization
movement during the 21 years he spent in South Africa, from 1893 to 1914,
interrupted by a few visits to India and England.
 Gandhi's arrest for defending his right to travel in the whites-only waggon at
the Pietermaritzburg train station – a routine procedure at the time – would later
change the world.
 This event sparked Gandhi's interest in racial discrimination and marked the
beginning of his philosophy of nonviolent protest and numerous arrests in defence
of the Indian people.

34.2 Gandhi’s Contribution to South Africa

 Despite having a first-class ticket, Gandhi was thrown off a train to Pretoria by
authorities because a white man complained about an Indian sharing the space with
him.
o It was this incident that marked the beginning of active non-violence by
Gandhi.
 It is fair to say that at the time, Indians in South Africa were primarily concerned with
their status as traders, and many lacked not only education but also political
sophistication.
o Gandhi raised political awareness through regular comments in Indian
Opinion (his newspaper) and petitions to the governments of Natal, India,
and Britain.
 Gandhi formed the Natal Indian Congress in response in 1894. This organisation
led nonviolent protests against white people's oppressive treatment of native
Africans and Indians.
 In 1896, he visited India briefly and gathered 800 Indians to serve alongside him in
South Africa. An enraged mob greeted them, and Gandhi was injured in the attack.

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  During the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899, Gandhi gathered approximately 1,100
Indians and organised the Indian Ambulance Corps for the British, but ethnic
discrimination and torture against Indians persisted.
 Gandhi was inspired by English artist John Ruskin's book Unto This Last, and he
established Phoenix Farm near Durban.
o Gandhi would come here to train his cadres in nonviolent Satyagraha, or
peaceful restraint. Satyagraha is said to have begun at Phoenix Farm.
 Satyagraha, on the other hand, was shaped into a weapon of protest at the Tolstoy
Farm, Gandhi's second camp in South Africa.
 Gandhi organised the first Satyagraha campaign in September 1906 to protest
the Transvaal Asiatic ordinance, which was enacted against the local Indians. In June
1907, he held another Satyagraha against the British.
 He was imprisoned in 1908 for organising nonviolent movements. He was released,
however, after meeting with General Smuts, a British Commonwealth statesman.
 However, he was later attacked for this and sentenced to prison again, prompting
him to organise Satyagraha once more.
 He was also in long-term negotiations with the Attorney-General of Transvaal, Jan
Smuts, first on behalf of Indians in that Province, and later, after the Union was
established in 1910, on behalf of all South African Indians.
 He was sentenced to three months in prison in Volkshurst and
Pretoria in 1909. Following his release, Gandhi travelled to England to seek the help
of the Indian community there.
 In 1913, he also fought against the nullification of non-Christian marriages.
 Gandhi organised yet another peaceful resistance campaign in Transvaal against the
oppression of Indian minorities. He led a group of approximately 2,000 Indians
across the Transvaal border.
 Gandhi spent a total of 21 years in South Africa. By the end of his stay, the
government had passed the Indian Relief Act, which granted many of Gandhi's and
his colleagues' demands.
 For the first time in the 1950s, all racial groups banded together to protest the
apartheid government through the Defiance Campaign, which was also the largest
nonviolent resistance movement ever seen in South Africa.
 This historic campaign also saw the emergence of a new generation of African
National Congress leaders, including Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and Oliver
Tambo.

34.3 Natal Indian Congress (NIC)

 The Natal Indian Congress (NIC), founded by Gandhi in 1894 in South Africa, was
the dominant political organisation among Indians throughout the twentieth
century.
 It campaigned against discrimination against Indians.
 On August 22, 1894, a constitution was drafted and later the NIC formed an alliance
with the African National Congress (ANC), breaking the mould of racially exclusive
mobilizations.
 Since the 1920s, the organisation has operated under the auspices of the SAIC (South
African Indian Congress).

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  However, when Dr G.M. Naicker arrived on the scene in the 1930s-1940s, the NIC
experienced more radical leadership.
 In 1945, Dr Naicker was elected to the organization's leadership.
 Because of more militant protests, several NIC leaders were imprisoned by the
1950s and 1960s.
 Although the NIC was not outright banned, the harassment of its leaders,
combined with the repressive conditions of the time, forced a halt to its
operations.
 The NIC was only resurrected in 1971, with a focus on civic work.
 In the mid-1980s, the organisation was instrumental in the formation of the United
Democratic Front (UDF).

34.4 Indian Opinion - The Newspaper

 Mohandas Gandhi ("Mahatma"), M.H. Nazar, and Madanjit Viyavaharik founded

and published Indian Opinion, a weekly newspaper, in Natal Province in 1903.
 The newspaper focused on Indian rights, indentured labourer living conditions, and
racial discrimination.
 It served as an important historical record of the social and political lives of the
Indian community in South Africa, as well as disseminated information about Indians
in the colonies to India.
 Articles in four different languages were included in the paper: English, Hindi,
Gujarati, and Tamil.
 The majority of the writing was done by Gandhi, and the first editor was Mansukhlal
Hiralal Nazar.
 Indian Opinion was published at the Phoenix Settlement's printing press, which
Gandhi established in 1904.
 When Manilal Gandhi (Gandhi's son) took over as editor in the 1950s, the
newspaper's focus shifted to human rights in general (rather than just Indian rights).
 Other people who have served as the editor of the Indian Opinion newspaper over
the years include:
o Hebert Kitchin
o Henry Polak
o Albert West
o Manilal Gandhi
o Sushila Gandhi
 It played an important role in the civil rights movement and evolved into a tool for
political activism. Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolent resistance, Satyagraha, was
encouraged.
 After Manilal's death in 1957, Indian Opinion was renamed "Opinion" and was
edited by Sushila Gandhi (Manilal's wife). This was done to promote nationalism and
to symbolise the "oneness of man."
 After 58 years of publication, this newspaper published its final issue in August 1961.
 It was revived 39 years later in October 2000. It is now run by a trust and published
in English and Zulu.

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34.5 Conclusion
Satyagraha was born and evolved in South Africa before spreading to India and, eventually,
the rest of the world. When Gandhi left the country at the age of 46, he left behind a way of
thinking and acting that has found resonance in many of the country's struggles, most
notably Nelson Mandela's. Even though Gandhi's journey in South Africa began in Durban, it
is in Johannesburg that he faces his most difficult challenges.

*****

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 35. Natal Indian Congress (1894)
The Natal Indian Congress (NIC), founded by Gandhi in 1894 in South Africa, was the
dominant political organisation among Indians throughout the twentieth century. It
campaigned against discrimination against Indians. On August 22, 1894, a constitution was
drafted and later the NIC formed an alliance with the African National Congress
(ANC), breaking the mould of racially exclusive mobilizations. In this article, we will discuss
the formation and features of Natal Indian Congress which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

35.1 Natal Indian Congress – Background

 The NIC (Natal Indian Congress) was the first Indian Congress to be established.
Mahatma Gandhi founded it in 1894 to combat discrimination against Indian traders
in Natal.
 Since the 1920s, the organisation has operated under the auspices of the SAIC (South
African Indian Congress).
 However, when Dr. G.M. Naicker arrived on the scene in the 1930s-1940s, the NIC
experienced more radical leadership.
 In 1945, Dr. Naicker was elected to the organization's leadership.
 Because of more militant protests, several NIC leaders were imprisoned by the
1950s and 1960s.
 Although the NIC was not outright banned, the harassment of its leaders,
combined with the repressive conditions of the time, forced a halt to its
operations.
 The NIC was only resurrected in 1971, with a focus on civic work.
 In the mid-1980s, the organisation was instrumental in the formation of the United
Democratic Front (UDF).

35.2 Formation of Natal Indian Congress

 Mahatma Gandhi founded the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in 1894 to combat
discrimination against Indian traders in Natal.
 The Natal Indian Congress (NIC) was the first of the Indian Congresses, followed by
the Transvaal Indian Congress (TIC) and the Cape Indian Congress, which later
merged to form the South African Indian Congress (SAIC) in 1919.
 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who would later play a pivotal and decisive role in
India's independence struggle, arrived in South Africa as a fledgling lawyer in May
1893.
 Gandhi read about the Natal Legislative Assembly's intentions to disenfranchise
Indians at a farewell dinner in his honour in 1894, and immediately suggested to the
Indians present that they should resist this attack on their rights.
 The Indians agreed and persuaded him to delay his departure in order to lead the
struggle.
 He drafted a petition and formed a temporary committee on the night of the
farewell party.

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  Within a month, a massive petition with 10,000 signatures was presented to Lord
Ripon, Colonial Secretary, and the ensuing agitation forced the British Government
to reject the Bill. However, the Bill was finally passed into law in 1896.
 To address the Imperial Government's concerns, the Act did not mention Indians,
instead disqualifying those who were not of European origin and the indigenous
population who had previously been denied the right to vote.
 This was the first time that Indians not only participated in, but also organised, an
agitational campaign.
 The temporary committee evolved into the Natal Indian Congress (NIC), which
Gandhi assisted in establishing in May 1894.

35.3 Natal Indian Congress – Features

 The membership in the Congress required a minimum annual subscription of £3, it

was limited to the trading class.
 According to Gandhi, about 300 Hindus, Muslims, Parsees, and Christians joined in
less than a month. There were recruitment drives, and Indians from all over Natal
were contacted.
 The NIC met at least once a month to discuss current events, finances, and other
issues. Congress also included self-improvement as a component of its programmes.
 In line with this, Congress meetings discussed and debated issues ranging from
sanitation to the need for richer Indians to live in greater opulence and to
differentiate between business and residential uses.
 The Gandhi campaigns of 1908 and 1913 were two of the most important
campaigns organised by the NIC in its early years.
 During these campaigns, a sizable segment of the Indian community demonstrated
its willingness to engage in militant struggles.
 In the 1930s and 1940s, the NIC, like the TIC, was influenced by more radical leaders
such as G.M. Naicker, who believed that the South African Indian Congress could
only advance in their struggle if they collaborated with national organisations
representing African and Coloured people.
 Naicker was elected to the NIC leadership in 1945 and led the NIC in the
1946 Indian Passive Resistance Campaign in Durban.
 As a result of Naicker's leadership, the organisation made agreements to collaborate
with other liberation organisations, and the majority of the NIC's political
involvement at the time was done through their national umbrella organisation, the
SAIC.
 Dr. Naicker was elected President of the SAIC in September 1948, and the
organisation was involved in the Defiance Campaign in 1952.
 Because of these more militant protests, several NIC leaders were imprisoned by the
1950s and 1960s.
 Although the NIC was not outright banned, the harassment of its leaders, combined
with the repressive conditions of the time, forced a halt to its operations.
 The NIC was only resurrected in 1971, with a focus on civic work.
 The most visible campaigns launched by NIC in the 1980s were the anti-South
African Indian Council campaign in 1981 and the anti-Tricameral Parliament
Campaign against the establishment of the House of Delegates in 1984.

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  The NIC was also a founding member of the United Democratic Front (UDF) and
remained an affiliate until the UDF was disbanded.
 After the ANC was unbanned in 1990, the NIC and TIC met with the ANC on a
number of occasions to discuss the roles of the two Indian Congresses.
 Both organisations were later disbanded, and many of their leaders became involved
in the newly formed ANC branches as well as its provincial and national
organisations.

35.4 Conclusion
The Natal Indian Congress was dedicated to the achievement of South Africa has a
democratic society. It believed that only a government that is based on the will of all its
citizens will be able to bring about racial harmony and peace.

*****

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 36. Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Vivekananda) - Socio-
Religious Reform Movement (SRRM)
The Ramakrishna Mission is a Hindu religious and spiritual organization that is at the heart
of the Ramakrishna Movement, also known as the Vedanta Movement. The mission was
created on May 1, 1897, by Ramakrishna Paramahamsa's principal follower Swami
Vivekananda, and is named after and inspired by the Indian spiritual Guru Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa. The organization primarily promotes Advaita Vedanta, a Hindu philosophy,
as well as four yogic ideals: Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, and Raja yoga. This article will explain to
you about the Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Vivekananda) which will be helpful in Modern
Indian History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

36.1 Ramakrishna Mission - Background

 Swami Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897.

 Vivekananda was a renowned humanitarian who used the Ramakrishna Mission to
help people in need.
 The Mission is an organization dedicated to religious and social improvement.
 Vivekananda preached the doctrine of service, which he defined as the service of all
creatures.
 The worship of Siva is the service of jiva (living objects). Life is religion in and of
itself. The Divine resides inside man via service.
 Vivekananda advocated for the application of technology and contemporary science
to the benefit of humanity.
 At Baranagar, the first Math was founded. Another math was established in Belur in
1899, and it became the central math.
 It is responsible for the organizing and operation of all maths' located across India
and even beyond the country.
 It is also the educational center for the Ramakrishna Mission's saints.
 The Mission has attracted everyone to the values and principles of Sri Ramakrishna's
life and teachings.
 Ramakrishna's childhood name was Gadadhar Chattopadhyay, and he was born into
an impoverished Brahmin household.
 He is recognized as one of India's most illustrious spiritual gurus. He resided and
worshipped in the Dakshineswar temple as a devotee of Goddess Kali.

36.2 Ramakrishna Mission - Features

 The mission's goals included assisting the impoverished, improving women's

situation, combating untouchability and superstition, and overhauling
the educational system.
 Swami Vivekananda emphasized the Hindu religion's and culture's primacy.
 Hinduism, he said, would be centered on spiritual ideals, whereas western culture
and civilization would be materialistic.
 He was a firm believer in the equality and oneness of all religions.

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  In terms of economics, he favored agro-based small-scale enterprises.
 His religious, spiritual, and social ideals were all based on humanism.
 Ramakrishna Mission made monasticism socially relevant and spiritually relevant to
ordinary people's lives.
 Vivekananda was the first to request that priests make it their mission to
alleviate human suffering.
 He thought that Indian nationalism might be built on four pillars: awareness of
India's past splendor, the awakening of countrymen, development of moral and
physical strength, and unity based on similar spiritual concepts.
 He wished for the Indian young to come up, awaken, and struggle to end hunger
and illiteracy in the country.

36.3 Ramakrishna Mission - Significance

 Vivekananda was a renowned humanitarian who used the Ramakrishna Mission to

help people in need.
 The Mission is an organization dedicated to religious and social improvement.
 Vivekananda preached the doctrine of service, which he defined as the service of all
creatures.
 Vivekananda advocated for the use of technology and contemporary science to
benefit humanity.
 The Mission has operated a variety of schools, hospitals, and clinics since its
founding.
 It assists those who are affected by natural disasters like earthquakes, famines,
floods, and diseases.
 The Mission has grown into a global organization. It is a strongly religious
organization, yet it is not a proselytizing organization.
 Unlike the Arya Samaj, the Mission recognizes the importance of image worship in
cultivating spiritual ardor and worship of the eternal Almighty God, however, it
places a greater focus on the vital spirit rather than symbols or rituals.
 It claims that Vedanta philosophy will help a Christian become a better Christian and
a Hindu become a better Hindu.
 Swami Vivekananda purchased a big plot of land in Belur in 1898, where
the Ramakrishna Math was ultimately relocated and registered.
 All males are welcome to join the monastic order, regardless of their caste or belief.

36.4 Ramakrishna Parmahamsa

 Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya, a poor Brahmin priest who later became known

as Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
 On the 18th of February 1836, Sri Ramakrishna was born into a poor Brahmana
family in the Bengali hamlet of Kamarpukur.
 Khudiram Chatterjee, his father, was a man of tremendous piety and moral
uprightness.
 Chandramani Devi, his mother, was also a model of feminine characteristics.
 He had no formal education in philosophy or Shastras, and his schooling ended at
the primary level.

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  Ramakrishna was a priest at the Dakshineswar Kali Temple who drew a large
number of monastic and lay followers.
 He schooled himself in a deeper sense by understanding the Hindu epics,
emulating India's great spiritual values by listening to academics recite and explain
them, and, most of all, by going directly to Nature to observe men and things.
 Sarada Devi, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa's spiritual companion, was also his wife.
 Narendra Nath Datta (1863-1902), later known as Swami Vivekananda, was
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa's most ardent disciple who spread Ramakrishna's
teachings throughout the world, particularly in America and Europe.
 On Christmas Eve in 1886, after Ramakrishna's death, the young followers took
informal monastic vows.

36.5 Swami Vivekananda

 On January 12, 1863, he was born Narendranath Datta.

 Every year, National Youth Day is observed to commemorate Swami Vivekananda's
birth anniversary.
 In 1893, he acquired the name 'Vivekananda' at the invitation of Maharaja Ajit
Singh of the Khetri State.
 Vivekananda was the first spiritual leader to consider issues other than religious
change.
 He believed that the Indian masses needed secular as well as spiritual understanding
to be able to trust in themselves.
 Vivekananda named the Ramakrishna Mission after his master, Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa.
 He conveyed the essence of Hindu culture and religion via his talks and writings. He
believed in the spirit of Vedanta as well as the fundamental unity and equality of all
religions.
 In 1893, he attended the All World Religious Conference (Parliament of
Religions) in Chicago, Illinois, USA. He contended that Vedanta was a religion for all
people, not only Hindus.
 He was the principal disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a 19th-century saint,
and founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897.
 Ramakrishna Mission is a non-profit organization that works in the areas of value-
based education, culture, health, women's empowerment, youth and tribal
welfare, as well as relief and rehabilitation.
 In 1899, he founded the Belur Math, which became his permanent residence. He
died in 1902 in Belur Math.
 Ramakrishna Math & Ramakrishna Mission's headquarters are in Belur Math, West
Bengal.

36.6 Swami Vivekananda - Contributions

 Introduced the Indian ideas of Vedanta and Yoga to the rest of the world.
 He advocated 'neo-Vedanta,' a Westernised view of Hinduism, and believed in
blending spirituality with material advancement.

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  Placed the greatest focus on education in order to regenerate our homeland.
Advocated for a character-building, man-making education.
 His most famous address was given before the World Parliament of Religions in
Chicago in 1893.
 In his works, he outlined four paths to liberation from worldly pleasure and
attachment: Raja-yoga, Karma-yoga, Jnana-yoga, and Bhakti-yoga.
 Vivekananda was dubbed the "creator of modern India" by Netaji Subhas Chandra
Bose.

36.7 Conclusion
The organization does considerable educational and humanitarian activity in India and
internationally, in addition to religious and spiritual instruction. Many other Hindu groups
adopted this characteristic as well. The mission's activity is based on the ideals of karma
yoga, which is the principle of selfless service to God. The Ramakrishna Mission is a
worldwide organization that publishes several major Hindu books. It is associated with a
monastic community. Ramakrishna, Vivekananda's guru (teacher), had a significant impact
on him.

*****

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 37. Tribal Revolts
The tribal revolts and uprisings by Indian tribal communities rose against the British's
forcible and disastrous incursions into their lives and territories. Prior to the entry of
colonial forces, the tribals had been living quietly and in harmony with nature in their own
woods for hundreds of years. The British arrived and brought numerous changes to their
way of life, as well as strangers into their domain. They went from being masters of their
own land to becoming slaves and debts as a result of this. The revolutions were primarily
motivated by a desire to reclaim their freedom from this unwelcome incursion. This article
will explain to you about the Tribal Revolts which will be helpful in Modern Indian History
preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

37.1 Tribal Revolts - Causes

 Shifting agriculture, hunting, fishing, and the usage of forest products were the
tribals' mainstays.
 The practice of settled agriculture was established with the inflow of non-tribals into
the tribals' customary territories.
 The tribal population lost land as a result of this.
 The tribals were confined to working as agricultural laborers without land.
 Moneylenders were introduced by the British into tribal communities, resulting in
serious exploitation of the native tribes. Under the new economic structure, they
were forced to work as bonded laborers.
 The concept of joint ownership of land was supplanted by the concept of private
property in tribal communities.
 Forest products, changing agriculture, and hunting techniques were all subject to
limitations. For the tribals, this resulted in a loss of livelihood.
 In contrast to mainstream culture, which was characterized by caste and class
divisions, tribal life was typically egalitarian. The arrival of non-tribals or outsiders
pushed the tribals to the bottom of society's ladder.
 Police, traders, and moneylenders (most of whom were 'outsiders') exploited the
tribals, exacerbating their plight.
 Some general laws were also despised because they were intrusive, as tribals had
their own customs and traditions.
 The government established a Forest Department in 1864, primarily to manage the
vast riches of Indian forests.
 The Government Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1878 gave the
government total control over wooded territory.
 The Christian missionaries' activity also caused social instability in tribal civilization,
which the tribes hated.

37.2 Characteristics of Tribal Revolts

 The unity displayed by these organizations was motivated by tribal or ethnic

connections.
o However, not all 'outsiders' were viewed as enemies: the poor who
supported the community via physical labor or profession were left alone.

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 o The violence was focused on moneylenders and businessmen who were
perceived as extensions of the colonial administration.
 One prevalent motive was hatred of the 'foreign government' imposing regulations
that were regarded as an attempt to dismantle the tribals' traditional socioeconomic
structure.
 Many tribal revolutions were sparked by the erosion of tribal rights to land and
forest as a result of British-imposed laws.
o The land was gradually alienated from tribes as non-tribe people gradually
took over the land as land became private property and market forces
dominated.
o This was especially true with the construction of roads and trains linking
tribal territories.
 Many revolutions were led by messiah-like personalities who pushed their people to
revolt and promised that they would be able to eliminate their misery caused by
"outsiders."
 Given the antiquated guns they fought with vs the sophisticated weapons and
strategies utilized by their opponents, tribal uprisings were doomed from the start.

37.3 Important Tribal Revolts of Mainland

Tribal Revolts Significance

 Due to their geographical isolation, the Paharias had always

preserved their independence before the British arrived.
 The Paharias invaded the plains populated by settled agriculturists
frequently because their means of existence were insufficient,
Paharias especially during times of famine.
Rebellion  These attacks also served as a means of establishing control over
(1778) the established populations.
 The British launched a savage onslaught on the Pahariyas in the
1770s, with the goal of tracking them out and murdering them.
 The Pahariyas uprising, headed by Raja Jagganath in 1778, is
noteworthy. The British began a pacification campaign in the 1780s.

 The Chuar uprising was a series of peasant rebellions against the

East India Company that took place between 1771 and 1809 in the
area around the West Bengali villages of Midnapore, Bankura, and
Manbhum.
 Chuar uprising erupted in response to the jungle zamindars'
increased earnings. The money was difficult to generate because the
Chuar Uprising
forest region produced little.
(1776)  The East India Company's tax and administrative policies (including
the Permanent Settlement) as well as the police restrictions
enforced in rural Bengal rendered the practice of employing local
paiks obsolete since they were eventually replaced by professional
police.
 In 1799, the British violently repressed the insurrection.

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  The Kols were a tribe that lived in the Chotanagpur region.
 Moneylenders and merchants arrived alongside the British.
 The Kols were forced to sell their holdings to outside farmers and
Kol Mutiny pay exorbitant taxes as a result. As a result, many people became
(1831) bound laborers.
 The Kols were especially irritated by British judicial policies.
 In 1831-1832, the Kols organized themselves and revolted against
the British and moneylenders, resulting in an insurgency.

 The revolt lasted until the Ho tribes were forced to succumb in

1827.
 However, in 1831, they staged another insurrection, this time with
Ho and Munda the help of the Mundas of Chotanagpur, to oppose the newly
Uprisings implemented farming tax policy and the influx of Bengalis into their
(1820–37) district.
 Despite the fact that the uprising ended in 1832, the Ho activities
continued until 1837.
 The Mundas were not going to remain silent for long.

 The landlords exploited the Santhals ruthlessly, charging excessive

interest rates (often as high as 500 percent) that insured the tribals
would never be able to repay their loans.
 They were stripped of their land and forced to work as bonded
The Santhal laborers.
Rebellions  Extortion, forcible deprivation of property, abuse and violence,
(1833; 1855– deceit in business agreements, willful trampling of their crops, and
56) so on were all things they had to cope with.
 They assassinated a large number of moneylenders and Company
agents. The uprising was ferocious and huge in scope.
 The British brutally quashed the insurrection, killing around 20000
Santhals, including the two leaders.

 Between 1837 and 1856, the Khonds of the mountainous areas

spanning from Odisha to the Andhra Pradesh districts of Srikakulam
and Visakhapatnam revolted against Company control.
Khond
 Chakra Bisoi, a youthful raja, led the Khonds, who were supported
Uprisings
by the Ghumsar, Kalahandi, and other tribes, in their opposition to
(1837–56) the abolition of human sacrifice, increased taxes, and the arrival of
zamindars into their territories.
 The insurrection came to an end with Chakra Bisoi's disappearance.

 The Koyas of the eastern Godavari track (now Andhra) revolted in

1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, and 1862, aided by Khonda Sara
Koya Revolts leaders.
 Under Tomma Sora, they climbed once again in 1879–80.
 Their grievances included police and moneylender persecution, new
restrictions, and rejection of their traditional rights to forest regions.

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  After Tomma Sora's death, Raja Anantayyar organized another
revolt in 1886.

 The Bhils of the Western Ghats controlled the mountain routes that
connected the north with the Deccan.
 They rose against Company control in 1817–19 due to starvation,
economic suffering, and misgovernment.
 To quell the insurrection, the British utilized both force and
Bhil Revolts
conciliatory measures.
 The Bhils, however, revolted again in 1825, 1831, and 1846.
 Later, a reformer named Govind Guru assisted the Bhils of south
Rajasthan (Banswara and Sunth states) in organizing to fight for a
Bhil Raj by 1913.

 The Kolis of Bhils rose up in revolt against the Company's control in

1829, 1839, and again in 1844–48.
Koli Risings  They opposed the imposition of the Company's control, which
resulted in widespread unemployment and the removal of their
fortifications.

 The Ramosis, or Western Ghats hill tribes, had not accepted British
control or the British system of administration.
 They emerged in 1822 under Chittur Singh and devastated the land
around Satara.
 There were other eruptions in 1825–26 under Umaji Naik of Poona
Ramosi Risings and his follower Bapu Trimbakji Sawant, and the unrest lasted until
1829.
 The commotion flared again in 1839 at the deposition and exile of
Raja Pratap Singh of Satara, and it exploded again in 1840–41.
 Finally, a stronger British force was able to restore order in the
region.

37.4 Important Tribal Revolts of North East

Revolts Significance

 After occupying the steep terrain between the Garo and Jaintia Hills,
the East India Company desired to construct a route connecting the
Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet.
 A considerable number of outsiders, including Englishmen, Bengalis,
Khasi
and plains laborers, were imported to these regions for this purpose.
Uprising  The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, and Singphos banded together under
Tirath Singh to drive the outsiders out of the plains.
 The movement grew into a widespread revolt against the British
administration in the region.
 By 1833, the overwhelming English armed force had put down the

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 rebellion.

 The Singphos movement in Assam in early 1830 was quickly put down,
but they continued to organize revolts.
Singphos
 The British political agent was killed in an insurrection in 1839.
Rebellion  In 1843, Chief Nirang Phidu organized a rebellion that resulted in an
attack on the British garrison and the deaths of numerous troops.

Smaller movements included the Mishmis (in 1836), the Khampti insurrection in Assam
between 1839 and 1842, and the Lushais' revolt in Manipur in 1842 and 1844 when they
assaulted villages.

37.5 Conclusion
The Colonial invasion, as well as the trio of a merchant, moneylender, and revenue farmer,
all damaged tribal identity to varying degrees. In reality, ethnic links were a fundamental
aspect of tribal rebellions. The insurgents considered themselves not as a distinct class, but
as possessing a tribal identity. The amount of solidarity displayed was of the highest kind.
Unless they had colluded with the enemy, fellow tribals were never attacked.

*****

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 38. Anti Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-05)
The Anti-Partition Movement under Moderates was led by men like Surendranath
Banerjea, K.K.Mitra and Prithwishchandra Ray. The decision to Partition Bengal was made
public by the government in December 1903. The official reason given for the decision was
that Bengal, with a population of 78 million (roughly a quarter of British India's population),
had grown too large to be administered. To some extent, this was correct, but the real
reason for the partition plan was the British desire to weaken Bengal, the nerve center of
Indian nationalism. In this article, we will discuss the Anti Partition Campaign under
Moderates (1903-05) which will be useful for UPSC exam preparation.

38.1 Anti Partition Movement under Moderates - Background

 The movement arose from the anti-partition movement, which was formed in
response to Lord Curzon's decision to divide the province of Bengal.
 Moderates launched the Anti-Partition Campaign to put pressure on the
government to prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from taking place.
 Petitions were sent to the government, public meetings were held, and ideas were
disseminated through newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee.
 The partition sparked protests in Bengal, where they pledge to boycott foreign goods
was first made.

38.2 Anti Partition Movement under Moderates - Features

 The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement was made on August 7, 1905,
with the passage of the Boycott Resolution in a massive meeting held in
the Calcutta Townhall.
 After this, the leaders dispersed to other parts of Bengal to propagate the message
of a boycott of Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
 The day the partition was formally implemented, October 16, 1905, was observed as
a day of mourning throughout Bengal.
 People fasted, bathed in the Ganga, and marched in processions barefoot while
singing Vande Mataram (which almost spontaneously became the theme song of the
movement).
 Rabindranath Tagore composed the national anthem of modern-day
Bangladesh, 'Amar Sonar Bangla,' which was sung by huge crowds marching in the
streets.
 Rakhis were tied to each other's hands as a symbol of Bengal's two halves' unity.
 Later in the day, Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose delivered
speeches to large crowds. Within a few hours of the meeting, 50,000 rupees had
been raised for the movement.
 Soon after, the movement spread to other parts of the country, with Tilak leading in
Poona and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Ajit Singh leading in Punjab, Syed Haider
Raza leading in Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai leading in Madras.

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38.3 Anti Partition Movement - Congress’s Position

 In 1905, the Indian National Congress presided over by Gokhale, resolved to

o condemn the partition of Bengal and Curzon's reactionary policies, and
o support the anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement of Bengal.
 The militant nationalists led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo
Ghosh wanted the movement to spread beyond Bengal and go beyond a boycott of
foreign goods to become a full-fledged political mass struggle with the goal of
achieving swaraj.
 However, the Moderates, who dominated Congress at the time, were unwilling to go
that far.
 However, a significant step forward was made at the Calcutta Congress session
(1906), presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, when it was declared that the goal of the
Indian National Congress was "self-government or swaraj like the United Kingdom
or the colonies" of Australia or Canada.
 The Moderate-Extremist schism over the pace of the movement and tactics of
struggle reached a stalemate at the INC's Surat session (1907), when the party split,
with serious consequences for the Swadeshi Movement.

38.4 Conclusion
The Boycott and Swadeshi movement arose from the anti-partition movement, which was
formed in response to the British decision to divide Bengal. The Indian National Movement
took a significant step forward with the launch of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the
century. In the Benaras Session of 1905, presided over by G.K. Gokhle, the INC took up the
Swadeshi call and supported the Bengal Swadeshi and Boycott Movement. At a meeting of
the INC in Calcutta on August 7, 1905, a resolution to boycott British goods was adopted. It
began as a purely economic measure to aid in the development of Indian industry.

*****

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 39. Growth of Militant Nationalism
The growth of militant nationalism ushered in a new era in the national movement by
employing more radical methods of agitation than the earlier moderates. Bal Gangadhar
Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bipan Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai were among the prominent
leaders of this phase of the national movement. Militant nationalism represented a distinct
phase in the anti-colonial struggle. It introduced new methods of political agitation, used
popular symbols for mobilization, and thus attempted to broaden the movement's base. In
this article, we will discuss the Growth of Militant Nationalism which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

39.1 Militant Nationalism - Background

 Militant nationalism (also known as extremism) has gradually grown in the country
over the years. It manifested itself in the Bengal anti-partition movement of 1905.
 Even in its early days, the Indian national movement had made a large number of
people aware of the dangers of foreign dominance and the importance of cultivating
patriotism.
 It had provided educated Indians with the necessary political training. It had, in fact,
changed the mood of the people and given birth to a new way of life in the country.
 Simultaneously, the British government's refusal to accept any of the major demands
of the nationalists led to disillusionment among the politically conscious with the
principles and methods of the dominant moderate leadership.
 Instead of appeasing moderate nationalists, the British rulers denigrated and
mocked them.
 As a result, there was a strong demand for more aggressive political action and
methods than meetings, petitions, memorials, and speeches in legislative councils.

39.2 Factors Responsible for the Rise of Militant Nationalism

Recognition of the True Nature of the British

 Recognition that the true nature of British rule was exploitative, and that the British
India government, rather than conceding more, was taking away even what was
already there.
 The moderate nationalists' politics were based on the belief that British rule could be
reformed from within. However, the spread of knowledge about political and
economic issues gradually undermined this belief.
o To a large extent, this was caused by the moderates' political agitation.
 Nationalist writers and agitators blamed British rule for the people's poverty.
 Politically aware Indians were convinced that the purpose of British rule was to
economically exploit India, that is, to enrich England at the expense of India.
 They realized that unless British imperialism was replaced by a government
controlled and run by the Indian people, India would make little economic progress.
 Nationalists, in particular, came to realize that Indian industries could not thrive
without an Indian government to protect and promote them.

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  The disastrous famines that ravaged India from 1896 to 1900, killing over 90 lakh
people, symbolized the evil economic consequences of foreign rule in the eyes of the
people.
 The political events of 1892—1905 also disappointed nationalists and prompted
them to consider more radical politics. On the other hand, even the people's existing
political rights were under attack.
 In 1898, a law was passed making it a crime to incite "disaffection" toward a foreign
government.

Growth of Confidence and Self Respect

 There was a growing belief in one's own ability.

 Tilak, Aurobindo, and Bipin Chandra Pal urged nationalists to rely on the character
and capabilities of the Indian people.
 Indian nationalists had gained self-esteem and confidence by the end of the
nineteenth century.
 They had gained confidence in their ability to govern themselves as well as in the
future development of their country.
 They taught the people that the solution to their plight lay in their own hands, and
that as a result, they should become fearless and strong.
 Swami Vivekananda, despite not being a political leader, repeatedly emphasized this
point.

Growth of Education

 The impact of educational growth, increased awareness and unemployment among

the educated drew attention to the poverty and the underdeveloped state of the
country.
 The number of educated Indians had increased noticeably by the end of the
nineteenth century.
 Many of them worked in the administration for extremely low pay, while many
others faced increasing unemployment.
 Their economic plight compelled them to question the nature of British rule. Many
were drawn in by radical nationalist politics.
 Even more significant was the ideological aspect of education's spread.
 The greater the number of educated Indians, the greater the influence of western
ideas of democracy, nationalism, and radicalism.
 Because they were low-paid or unemployed, and because they were educated in
modern thought and politics, as well as European and world history, educated
Indians became the best propagators and followers of militant nationalism.

International Influences

 Several events in the world during this time period aided the growth of militant
nationalism in India.
 After 1868, the rise of modern Japan demonstrated that a backward Asian country
could develop independently of Western influence.

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  In just a few decades, Japanese leaders transformed their country into a world-class
industrial and military power, implemented universal primary education, and
established an efficient, modern administration.
 The defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and the defeat of Russia by
Japan in 1905 shattered the myth of European superiority.
 People all over Asia rejoiced at the news of a small Asian country's victory over one
of Europe's most powerful military powers.
 International influences and events that shattered the myth of white/European
supremacy include:
o Rise of Japan as an industrial power
o Abyssinia's (Ethiopia) victory over Italy
o The British suffered setbacks during the Boer Wars (1899-1902)
o Japan's victory over Russia (1905)
o Nationalist movements exist all over the world

Response to Growing Westernization

 The new leadership sensed colonial designs to submerge Indian national identity in
the British Empire and felt the stranglehold of excessive westernization.
 The new leadership's intellectual and moral inspiration was Indian.
 Intellectuals such as Swami Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and Swami
Dayananda Saraswati inspired many young nationalists with their forceful and
articulate arguments, painting India's past in more vivid colors than British
ideologues.
 By referring to the richness of Indian civilization in the past, these thinkers debunked
the myth of western superiority.
 'India for the Indians,' was Dayananda's political message.

Dissatisfaction with Achievements and Methods of Moderates

 The younger members of Congress were dissatisfied with the Moderates'

achievements during the first 15–20 years in office.
 They were harshly critical of the peaceful and constitutional agitation methods
popularly known as the "Three 'P's"—prayer, petition, and protest—and referred to
them as "political mendicancy."

Curzon's Reactionary Policies

 Curzon's seven-year rule in India, which was full of missions, commissions, and
omissions, elicited a strong reaction in the Indian mind.
 He refused to recognize India as a country and insulted Indian nationalists and
intellectuals by referring to their activities as "letting off gas."
 He made disparaging remarks about Indians in general.
 Administrative measures adopted during his rule include:
o Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
o Official Secrets Act (1904)
o Indian Universities Act (1904)

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 o Partition of Bengal (1905)

Existence of Militant School of Thought

 By the dawn of the 20th century, a band of nationalist thinkers had emerged who
advocated a more militant approach to political work.
 In Bengal, these included Raj Narain Bose, Ashwini Kumar Datta, Aurobindo Ghosh,
and Bipin Chandra Pal; in Maharashtra, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar and Tilak; and in
Punjab, Lala Lajpat Rai.
 Tilak rose to prominence as the most outstanding representative of this school of
thought.
 This school of thought's fundamental tenets were:
o Hatred for foreign rule; since no hope can be derived from it, Indians must
work out their own salvation;
o Swaraj to be the goal of the national movement;
o Direct political action is required;
o Belief in the ability of the masses to challenge authority;
o Personal sacrifices are required, and a true nationalist must always be
prepared to make them.

The emergence of a Skilled Leader

 This leadership could provide a proper channel for the enormous potential for the
political struggle that the masses possessed and, as militant nationalists believed,
were ready to express.
 This popular energy was channeled during the movement against Bengal's partition,
which took the form of the Swadeshi agitation.

39.3 Prominent Extremists

 Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He is also known as 'Lokamanya.' In 1916, he founded

the Poona Home Rule League and gave the slogan, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I
shall have it."
 Lala Lajpat Rai: He is also known as the 'Lion of Punjab.' He was a pivotal figure in
the Swadeshi Movement. 'Go back, Simon,' was his well-known catchphrase.
 Bipan Chandra Pal: He went from being moderate to becoming an extremist. He was
a pivotal figure in the Swadeshi Movement. Through his powerful speeches and
writings, he spread his nationalism ideas throughout India.
 Aurobindo Ghosh: He was another extremist leader who actively participated in the
Swadeshi Movement. “Political freedom is the lifebreath of a nation”, was declared
by Aurobindo Ghosh.

39.4 Conclusion
The moderate leaders' inability to obtain meaningful results from British authorities was the
main cause of the rise of extremism. The partition of Bengal in 1905 revealed the true colors
of the British rulers to the Indians. Some leaders were concerned that the moderates, with
their westernized ideas, we're attempting to create an India in the image of the West. At the

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time, there was a resurgence of national pride. The rise of spiritual nationalism at the time
also had an impact on extremist leaders. The extremists believed that independence was to
be achieved through self-sacrifice.

*****

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 40. Recognition of True Nature of British Rule - Era of
Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
The 1890s saw the emergence of a militant nationalist approach to political activity, which
was visible by 1905. In addition to this trend, a revolutionary wing emerged. The politically
conscious Indians were now able to see and recognize the true nature of British rule and
were convinced that its main purpose was to exploit India economically and to enrich
England at the cost of India. They were now able to see that the Indian economy and
industry could progress only under an Indian government which would protect and promote
it. In this article, we will discuss the Recognition of True Nature of British Rule which will be
helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

40.1 Militant Nationalism - An Overview

 Militant nationalism (also known as extremism) has gradually grown in the country
over the years. It manifested itself in the Bengal anti-partition movement of 1905.
 Even in its early days, the Indian national movement had made a large number of
people aware of the dangers of foreign dominance and the importance of cultivating
patriotism.
 It had provided educated Indians with the necessary political training. It had, in fact,
changed the mood of the people and given birth to a new way of life in the country.
 Simultaneously, the British government's refusal to accept any of the major demands
of the nationalists led to disillusionment among the politically conscious with the
principles and methods of the dominant moderate leadership.
 Instead of appeasing moderate nationalists, the British rulers denigrated and
mocked them.
 As a result, there was a strong demand for more aggressive political action and
methods than meetings, petitions, memorials, and speeches in legislative councils.

40.2 Factors which led to Recognition of True Nature of British Rule

 The moderate nationalists' politics were based on the belief that British rule could be
reformed from within.
 However, the spread of knowledge about political and economic issues gradually
undermined this belief. To a large extent, this was caused by the moderates' political
agitation.
 Nationalist writers and agitators blamed British rule for the people's poverty.
 Politically aware Indians were convinced that the purpose of British rule was
to economically exploit India, that is, to enrich England at the expense of India.
 They realized that unless British imperialism was replaced by a government
controlled and run by the Indian people, India would make little economic progress.
 Nationalists, in particular, came to realize that Indian industries could not thrive
without an Indian government to protect and promote them.
 The disastrous famines that ravaged India from 1896 to 1900, killing over 90 lakh
people, symbolized the evil economic consequences of foreign rule in the eyes of the
people.

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  The political events of 1892-1905 also disappointed nationalists, prompting them to
consider more radical politics. Even the existing political rights of the people were
attacked.
 In 1898, a law was passed making it a crime to incite "disaffection" toward a foreign
government.
 The number of Indian members in the Calcutta Corporation was reduced in 1899.
 The Indian Official Secrets Act, which limited press freedom, was passed in 1904.
 The Natu brothers were deported without being tried in 1897, and the charges
against them were never made public.
 The same year, Lokamanya Tilak and other newspaper editors were sentenced to
long prison terms for inciting people to oppose the foreign government.
 As a result, the people discovered that, rather than expanding their political rights,
the rulers were removing even their few existing ones.
 Thus, an increasing number of Indians were persuaded that self-government was
necessary for the country's economic, political, and cultural progress, and that
political enslavement meant stunting the Indian people's growth.

40.3 Conclusion
The extremists appeared out of nowhere in the first decade of the twentieth century. The
extremist ideology had been simmering since the Revolt of 1857, and it finally surfaced in
1905 during the Bengal partition. Moderate politics had already trained educated Indians in
political agitation. Some of them were becoming disillusioned with the moderates' methods,
which had yielded little and elicited a cold and contemptuous response from the British. As
a result, there was a strong demand for more vigorous political action than just prayers,
petitions, and protests.

*****

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 41. Partition of Bengal (1905)
The Partition of Bengal (1905) was a territorial reorganization of the Bengal Presidency
carried out by British Raj authorities. The reorganisation divided the predominantly Muslim
eastern areas from the predominantly Hindu western areas. Lord Curzon, the then-Viceroy
of India, announced it on 20 July 1905, and it went into effect on 16 October 1905, only to
be reversed six years later. The Hindus of West Bengal objected to the division, claiming that
it would make them a minority in a province that would include Bihar and Orissa. Hindus
were outraged by what they saw as a "divide and rule" policy, despite Curzon's assurances
that it would result in administrative efficiency. In this article, we will discuss the Partition
of Bengal which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

41.1 Partition of Bengal - Background

 The Bengal Presidency included the states of Bengal, Bihar, and parts of
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Assam. It was British India's largest province, with a
population of 78.5 million people.
 For decades, British officials claimed that the massive size made effective
management difficult and resulted in neglect of the poorer eastern region. The
partition had been proposed solely for administrative purposes.
 As a result, Curzon intended to divide Orissa and Bihar and unite fifteen eastern
districts of Bengal with Assam.
 The eastern province had a population of 31 million people, the majority of whom
were Muslims, and its capital was Dhaka. Curzon stated after the Partition that he
considered the new province to be Muslim.
 Lord Curzon's intention was not to separate Hindus and Muslims, but rather to
separate Bengalis.
 The Western districts, along with Orissa and Bihar, formed the other province.
 The union of western Bengal with Orissa and Bihar reduced Bengali speakers to a
minority.
 Muslims, led by Dhaka's Nawab Sallimullah, supported partition, while Hindus
opposed it.

41.2 Partition of Bengal - Features

 The British Government decided to partition Bengal in December 1903. Lord Curzon
was the viceroy of India at that time who made this decision.
 Bengal was divided into two provinces:
o First was Bengal comprising of Western Bengal as well as the provinces of
Bihar and Orissa.
o The second was Eastern Bengal and Assam.
 Bengal retained Calcutta as its capital while Dacca was chosen as the capital for
Eastern Bengal.
 The real motive of partition was the desire to weaken Bengal which was at the
center of Indian Nationalism in the early 20th century.
 The official reason given for the decision of partition was that Bengal with a
population of 78 million had become difficult to administer.

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  The administrative division was on the basis of:
o Linguistic Basis: Reducing the Bengalis to a minority in Bengal itself. The new
proposal of Bengal was provisioned to have 17 million Bengalis and 37 million
Hindi and Oriya speakers.
o Religion Basis: The western Bengal was to be a Hindu majority area and the
Eastern Bengal was to be a Muslim majority area.
 Lord Curzon was trying to woo Muslims. He argues that Dacca could become the
capital of the new Muslim majority province which would provide them with unity.
 Thus, the British wanted to create Muslim communalists to counter the Congress
and national movement.

41.3 Partition of Bengal - Impact

 After Curzon announced the partition, there was widespread political unrest in the
province. Many Bengalis saw the partition as an insult to their motherland. There
was a huge outpouring of support for Bengal's unity.
 Rabindranath Tagore wrote the famous song 'Amar Sonar Bangla,' which later
became Bangladesh's national anthem.
 The Indian National Congress objected to the move to divide the province along
communal lines.
 The majority of Bengalis in the western part of the province protested this move,
which would also make them a linguistic minority in their own province. There would
be more people speaking Odia and Hindi than Bengalis.
 Many Muslims in the Bengali Muslim community welcomed the move, believing that
becoming the majority in the new province would advance their educational,
economic, and political interests.
 The rest of the country was united in its opposition to this partition. The British
authorities' 'divide and rule' policy was exposed by the people.
 The main goal of such a partition was to create a schism between the two
communities, thereby undermining the country's unity and nationalism.
 The agitation had begun long before the date of the partition. People observed a day
of mourning on the anniversary of the partition. Tagore asked Hindus and Muslims
to protest by tying rakhis to each other.
 As a result of the partition, the Swadeshi and Boycott movements in the national
struggle began.
 People began boycotting British goods, which had flooded the Indian market and
harmed indigenous industry.
 The partition succeeded in causing a communal schism in the country and even
aided in the formation of the Muslim League in 1906.

41.4 Partition of Bengal - Annulment

 The partition was declared unconstitutional in 1911 as a result of widespread

political protests.
 New provinces were established along linguistic rather than religious lines. Bengal
was divided into the provinces of Bihar and Orissa. Assam was separated into its own
province.

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  The authorities, unable to put an end to the protests, agreed to reverse the
partition.
 On December 12, 1911, King George V announced at the Delhi Durbar that eastern
Bengal would be absorbed into the Bengal Presidency.
 Districts where Bengali was spoken were reunited, while Assam, Bihar, and Orissa
were divided.
 Lord Hardinge annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911. It was done in response to
the Swadeshi movement's riots against the policy.
 The capital was moved to New Delhi, clearly to provide a stronger base for the
British colonial government.
 Bengal's Muslims were shocked because they had seen the Muslim majority East
Bengal as a sign of the government's eagerness to protect Muslim interests.
 They saw this as the government sacrificing Muslim interests in order to appease
Hindus and make administrative life easier.
 Muslim leaders were initially opposed to the partition. After the creation of the
Muslim-majority provinces of Eastern Bengal and Assam, prominent Muslims began
to see it as advantageous.
 During the United Bengal period, Muslims, particularly in Eastern Bengal, were
backward. The Hindu protest against partition was interpreted as meddling in a
Muslim province.
 The British attempted to appease Bengali Muslims who were dissatisfied with the
loss of eastern Bengal by relocating the capital to a Mughal site.
 Despite the annulment, the partition did not create a communal divide between
Bengal's Hindus and Muslims.

41.5 Conclusion
The uproar caused by Curzon's controversial decision to split Bengal, as well as the
emergence of the 'Extremist' faction in the Congress, became the final impetus for
separatist Muslim politics. Separate elections for Muslims and Hindus were established in
1909. Previously, many members of both communities had advocated for national unity
among all Bengalis. With separate electorates, distinct political communities emerged, each
with its own set of political goals. Muslims, too, dominated the Legislature, owing to their
overall population of approximately 22 to 28 million people. Muslims began to demand the
establishment of independent Muslim states in which their interests would be protected.

*****

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 42. Indian Home Rule Society (1905)
The Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS) was a British-based Indian organization that sought
to promote self-rule in British India. It was founded in London in 1905. Shyamji Krishna
Varma founded the organization with the support of a number of prominent Indian
nationalists in Britain at the time, including Bhikaji Cama, Dadabhai Naoroji, and S.R. Rana,
and was intended to be a rival organization to the British Committee of the Indian National
Congress, which was the main avenue of loyalist opinion at the time. In this article, we will
discuss the Indian Home Rule Society (1905) which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

42.1 Indian Home Rule Society - Background

 Lokmanya Tilak's work left a lasting impression on Shyamji Krishna Varma. During
the Age Bill Controversy of 1890, he was a staunch supporter of Tilak.
 Shyamji established friendly relations with Tilak, inspiring him to join the Nationalist
Movement in the following decade.
 The Congress Party's timid and futile cooperative policy did not appeal to Shyamji.
He despised the Congress Party's petitioning, praying, protesting, cooperating, and
collaborating policy, which he saw as demeaning and shameful.
 The British Government's atrocities against Indians during the Poona plague crisis in
1897 stunned and shocked Shyamji. At this point in his life, he saw full justification
for the Nathu brothers' and Tilak's Nationalist stance.
 When he saw them sentenced to barbaric imprisonment, he saw his future as well,
ending up in prison-like others. His immediate decision was to abandon his lucrative
career and immigrate to England in order to fight for freedom from afar.
 He had only one goal in mind: to train and inspire India's young sons and daughters
to fight for the liberty of their Motherland.
 He resolved to devote all of his money, time, scholarship, literary power, and, most
importantly, his life to selflessly serving his Motherland.
 He intended to launch uncompromising propaganda in order to gain support for
India's independence in England and Europe.
 When he first arrived in London, he stayed at the Inner Temple and spent his spare
time reading Herbert Spencer's writings. He purchased an expensive house in
HighGate in 1900.
 His house became a base for all of India's political leaders. Gandhiji, Lenin, Tilak,
Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and other leaders of the Indian Independence
Movement paid him visits to discuss the Indian Independence Movement.
 He avoided the Indian National Congress by maintaining contact with rationalists,
free thinkers, national and social democrats, socialists, Irish republicans, and others.
 When a free press defense committee was formed in 1898 to resist police attacks on
the liberty of all opinions, Shyamji generously contributed to its funds.
 Shyamji began a new career as a full-fledged propagandist in 1905. He made his
debut with the publication of the first issue of his English monthly "The Indian
Sociologist," an organ of liberty and political, social, and religious reform.

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  This powerful ideological monthly played a significant role in mobilizing the masses
against British rule and inspiring many more intellectual revolutionaries in India and
abroad to fight for India's independence.
 Shyamji founded a new organization called "The Indian Home Rule Society" on
February 18, 1905.

42.2 Indian Home Rule Society - Features

 On February 18, 1905, the Indian Home Rule Society, or IHRS, was founded in
London to promote the cause of self-rule in British India.
 It was meant to be a rival organization to the British Committee of the Indian
National Congress, which was the main outlet for loyalist sentiment at the time.
 The Indian Home Rule Society was a metropolitan organization modeled after
Victorian-era public institutions.
 It had a written constitution and stated goals of securing Home Rule for India and
promoting genuine Indian propaganda in this country by any means possible.
 The IHRS was open to Indians only and enjoyed widespread support among Indian
students and other Indian populations in the United Kingdom.
 It recruited young Indian activists and maintained close ties with Indian
revolutionary movements.
 The first meeting was held at Shyamji's residence in Highgate, and the meeting
unanimously decided to establish "The Indian Home Rule Society" with the goal of:
o Ensuring India's sovereignty.
o Carrying out propaganda in England using all available means in order to
achieve the same goal.
o Spreading of knowledge of freedom and national unity among the people of
India.

42.3 About Shyamji Krishna Varma

 Shyamji Krishna Varma (4 October 1857 – 30 March 1930) was a London-based

Indian revolutionary fighter, patriot, lawyer, and journalist who founded the Indian
Home Rule Society, India House, and The Indian Sociologist.
 Krishna Varma, a Balliol College graduate, was a well-known scholar of Sanskrit and
other Indian languages. He had a brief legal career in India and served as the Divan
of several Indian princely states.
 He had disagreements with Crown authority, was dismissed as a result of a rumored
conspiracy of British colonial officials in Junagadh, and chose to return to England.
 Shyamji founded the:
o Indian Home Rule Society: The Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS) was an
Indian organization founded in London in 1905 to promote self-rule in British
India. Shyamji Krishna Varma founded the organization with the help of
Bhikaji Cama, Dadabhai Naoroji, and S.R. Rana.
o India House: In London, he founded India House. It was a student residence
that operated between 1905 and 1910 in order to promote nationalist views
among Indian students in the United Kingdom.

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 o Indian Sociologist: In London, he founded ‘The Indian Sociologist’, a monthly
publication that became a forum for nationalist ideas.

42.4 Conclusion
Shyamji founded the "Indian Home Rule Society" which served as the epicenter for
recruiting young Indian activists and carrying on the propaganda in England for securing
home rule for India by maintaining close ties with Indian revolutionary movements. It
helped in spreading knowledge of freedom and national unity among the people of India.

*****

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 43. Revolutionary Activities, 1905
India’s struggle for independence was accompanied by many revolutionary activities that
had been raised from different parts of the country. Revolutionaries are those people who
believed in overthrowing the British Government by means of mass movements. Several
internal and external influences worked on the minds of the youth in India during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, resulting in the emergence of revolutionary
ideology. The revolutionary movement in India began in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, and Madras provinces, but it was primarily active in Bengal,
Maharashtra, and Punjab because these regions were more politically active than the rest
of the country. In this article, we will discuss the Revolutionaries Activities which will be
helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

43.1 Reasons for Emergence of Revolutionary Activities

 The activities of revolutionary heroism started as a by-product of the growth of

militant nationalism. The first phase acquired a more activist form as a fallout of the
Swadeshi and Boycott movement and continued till 1917.
 The second phase began as a result of the fallout of the Non-
cooperation Movement.
 After the open movement's demise, the younger nationalists who had been a part of
it found it impossible to drop out and fade into the background.
 The 1905 Bengal Partition was forced in the teeth of moderate protest. A group of
nationalism had now realized the futility of prayer and petition to the Government.
 They were convinced with the extremist’s critique of moderate politics and sneered
at the political mendicancy of Congress moderates.
 The extremist had rightly emphasized the need to go beyond prayer and petition and
advocate the need for a more militant program. They had put forward the ideas of
boycott and passive resistance. They had aroused the youth for direct and self-
sacrifice.
 The extremists were unable to give a practical expression to these ideas. They had
also failed to organize any effective body that could direct the revolutionary energies
of the youth in a positive direction.
 Moreover, the youth had participated actively in the Swadeshi Movement in the
hope that the extremist's methods of boycott, swadeshi and passive resistance
would lead the country to Swaraj.
o Instead, the Swadeshi Movement not only failed in achieving the goal of
Swaraj, but it could also even reverse the partition of Bengal.
 Another factor that contributed to the rise of revolutionary terrorism was the brutal
repression of the Swadeshi by the government. The Congress split in
1907 facilitated this further and the government launched an all-out attack on the
extremists.
 Since all avenues of peaceful political protest were closed to them due to
government repression, the youth believed that in order to achieve nationalist goals
of independence, the British had to be physically expelled.

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43.2 Revolutionary Activities - Ideology

 The activities, writings, and speeches of this period's revolutionaries reveal a strong
religious bias, romanticism, and emotionalism.
 Many of them were convinced that "pure political propaganda would not suffice for
the country, and that people needed to be spiritually prepared to face dangers."
However, their religion was not the same as that of the majority of the country's
people.
 There were flaws in the early revolutionaries' ideology, as well as flaws in their
reliance on religious teachings to advance the cause of revolution, but it is also
beyond doubt that the emancipation of India through armed struggle was the
supreme goal for the staunch revolutionaries.
 This aspect should not be overlooked or undervalued when evaluating the early
stages of the revolutionary movement.
 Individual heroic actions such as organizing assassinations of unpopular officials as
well as traitors and informers among the revolutionaries themselves; conducting
swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities; and (during the First
World War) organizing military conspiracies with the expectation of assistance from
Britain's enemies were all part of the revolutionary methodology.
 The plan was to instill fear in the rulers' hearts, rouse the people, and remove their
fear of authority.
 The revolutionaries hoped to inspire the populace by appealing to patriotism,
particularly among the idealistic youth who would eventually drive the British out.
 They began the search for a revolutionary ideology and a revolutionary program by
drawing lessons from our own history as well as the histories of other countries'
revolutions.
 They did not preach social reform, but rather broke down the barriers of time-
honored customs. They revolted against anything that attempted to obstruct the
revolutionary movement's onward march.

43.3 Revolutionary Activities in Bengal

 The first revolutionary organizations were formed in 1902 in

Midnapore (under Jnanendra Nath Basu) and Calcutta (under Promotha Mitter and
including Jatindranath Banerjee, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, and others).
 In April 1906, Anushilan's inner circle (Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Bhupendranath
Dutta) launched the weekly Yugantar and staged a few ill-fated 'actions.' By 1905-06,
a number of newspapers were advocating revolutionary violence.
 Sandhya and Yugantar in Bengal, and Kal in Maharashtra, were among the
newspapers and journals advocating revolutionary activity.
 The Yugantar group made an abortive attempt on the life of a very unpopular British
official, Sir Fuller (the first Lieutenant Governor of the new province of Eastern
Bengal and Assam, though he had resigned from the post on August 20, 1906).
 There were attempts to derail the train carrying the lieutenant-governor, Sri
Andrew Fraser, in December 1907.
 Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a carriage carrying a particularly
sadistic white judge, Kingsford, in Muzaffarpur in 1908.

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 o There was no sign of Kingsford in the carriage. Instead, two British ladies
were assassinated.
o Prafulla Chaki committed suicide, while Khudiram Bose was tried and
executed.
 The entire Anushilan group was apprehended, including the Ghosh brothers,
Aurobindo and Barindra, who were tried in the Alipore conspiracy case, which was
also known as the Manicktolla bomb conspiracy or the Muraripukur conspiracy.
 Barrah dacoity was founded in 1908 by Dacca Anushilan under the leadership
of Pulin Das to raise funds for revolutionary activities.
 In December 1912, Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal staged a spectacular bomb
attack on Viceroy Hardinge as he made his official entry into the new capital of Delhi
in a procession through Chandni Chowk.
 The western Anushilan Samiti found a good leader in Jatindranath Mukherjee, also
known as Bagha Jatin, and rose to prominence as the Jugantar (or Yugantar).
 Jatin revitalized connections between the central organization in Calcutta and other
locations in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
 During World War I, the Jugantar party arranged for the import of German arms and
ammunition through sympathizers and revolutionaries in other countries.
 In what has come to be known as the 'German Plot' or the 'Zimmerman Plan,' Jatin
asked Rashbehari Bose to take command of Upper India in order to foment an all-
India insurgency.

43.4 Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra

 The first of the revolutionary activities in Maharashtra was the organization of

the Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879, which aimed to rid
the country of the British by instigating an armed revolt by disrupting the
communication lines.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak spread a spirit of militant nationalism, including the use of
violence, through Ganpati and Shivaji festivals, as well as his journals Kesari and
Mahratta, during the 1890s.
o In 1897, two of his disciples, the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and
Balkrishna, murdered the Poona Plague Commissioner, Rand, and one Lt.
Ayerst.
 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar founded
the Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society) in 1904.
o It was founded as "Mitra Mela" in Nasik while Vinayak Savarkar was still a
student at Fergusson College in Pune.
o The society grew to include several hundred revolutionaries and political
activists with branches in various parts of India, eventually extending to
London after Savarkar went to study law.
 Following a few assassinations of British officials, the Savarkar brothers were
convicted and imprisoned. In 1952, the society was formally disbanded.
 Madanlal Dhingra assassinated Lt. Col. William Curzon-Wyllie, the political aide-de-
camp to the Secretary of State for India, on the evening of 1 July 1909, at a meeting
of Indian students at the Imperial Institute in London. Dhingra was arrested, tried,
and executed.

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  Anant Laxman Kanhare assassinated AMT Jackson, the district magistrate of Nasik,
in India in the historic "Nasik Conspiracy Case" in 1909.

43.5 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab

 Extremism in Punjab was fueled by issues such as frequent famines combined with
an increase in land revenue and irrigation tax, zamindars' practice of 'begar,' and
events in Bengal.
 Lala Lajpat Rai, who brought out Punjabi, and Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh's uncle), who
organized the extremist Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in Lahore with its
journal, Bharat Mata, were among those active here.
 Extremism in Punjab died down quickly after the governments struck in May 1907
with a ban on political meetings and the deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.
 After this, Ajit Singh and a few others associates- Sufi Ambaprasad, Lalchand, Bhai
Parmanand, Lala Hardayal developed into full-scale revolutionaries.

43.6 Decline of Revolutionary Activities

After 1918, the Revolutionary Activities came to a temporary halt due to several reasons:

 Stern Government repression along with a series of draconian laws.

 Lack of popular response.
 World War-I ended and the government released all political prisoners arrested
under the Defense of India Act.
 The discussion began on the new Constitutional Reforms (Government of India Act
1919) which generated an atmosphere of compromise.
 Gandhi arrived on the national scene and emphasized non-violent means which also
halted the place of revolutionary activities.

43.7 Conclusion
Revolutionary activities emerged as the most significant legacy of Swadeshi Bengal, having
an impact on educated youth for a generation or more. However, an overemphasis on
Hinduism kept Muslims at bay. Furthermore, it fostered irrational heroism. The lack of mass
participation, combined with the movement's narrow upper-caste social base in Bengal,
severely limited the scope of revolutionary activity. In the end, it crumbled under the weight
of state repression.

*****

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 44. Revolutionary Activities Abroad
Revolutionary activities continued unabated even abroad. Following the assassination of
District Magistrate Rand, Shyamji Krishna Verma of Kathiawar traveled to London and
established the Home Rule Society. V.D. Savarkar went to London in 1906 and joined
the 'Indian Society.' It advocated for revolutionary terrorism. The role of the Gadar Party in
revolutionary activities around the world cannot be overstated. Lala Hardayal, a
revolutionary young man from Punjab, founded the Gadar Party and also published The
Gadar, a weekly newspaper. Its goal was to spark a revolution in India that would liberate
the country from British rule. In this article, we will discuss the Revolutionary Activities
Abroad which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

44.1 Revolutionary Activities Abroad - Background

 During World War I, Indian revolutionaries in exile sought assistance from the
German government.
 They also sought assistance from Muslims in Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan to overthrow
the British empire in India.
 Sardar Ajit Singh and Sufi Amba Prasad traveled to the Middle East to rally the
defeated Indian soldiers.
 Raja Mahendra Pratap led an Indo-German mission to Afghanistan, where he
established a free government.
 The Komagata Maru case fueled revolutionary terrorism. This Japanese ship, which
had brought revolutionary Sikhs to Canada, was denied anchoring in a Canadian port
and was forced to return to Calcutta.
o The passengers protested by refusing to board a train bound for Punjab,
which had been arranged by the British government.
o Some of them died as a result of the government's harsh measures. All of
these events fueled the terrorist movement in Punjab.
o In Punjab, revolutionary terrorists committed political atrocities in Amritsar,
Jullundur, and Ludhiana.
 These revolutionary activities continued until 1945 when Subhas Chandra Bose died
mysteriously.
 Revolutionary activities, both domestic and international, were thwarted because
they were limited to India's educated middle class. There were specific causes that
contributed to the failure of revolutionary activities.

44.2 Revolutionary Activities Abroad - Features

 The need for shelter, the possibility of publishing revolutionary literature that would
be exempt from the Press Acts, and the desire for arms drove Indian revolutionaries
to travel abroad.
 Shyamji Krishna Varma founded the Indian Home Rule Society - 'India House' - in
London in 1905 as a center for Indian students, a scholarship scheme to bring radical
youth from India, and a journal called 'The Indian Sociologist.'
 Members of India House included revolutionaries such as Savarkar and Hardayal.

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  In 1909, Madanlal Dhingra of this circle assassinated India Office bureaucrat Curzon-
Wyllie. Soon, London became too dangerous for the revolutionaries, especially after
Savarkar was extradited and imprisoned for life in the Nasik conspiracy case in 1910.
 New centers emerged on the continent - Paris, and Geneva from where Madam
Bhikaji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary who had developed contacts with French
socialists and who brought out Bande Mataram, and Ajit Singh operated.
 After 1909 when Anglo-German relations deteriorated, Virendra Chattopadhyaya
chose Berlin as his base.

44.3 Indian Home Rule Society (1905)

 The Indian Home Rule Society was an informal Indian Nationalist movement that
started in London.
 It was founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma.
 After the assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie by an India House member
named Madan Lal Dhingra, the India House ceased to be a powerful organization.
 This event marked the start of the London Police's crackdown on the house's
activities, and a number of its activists and patrons, including Shyamji Krishna Varma
and Bhikaji Cama, fled to Europe to continue their work in support of Indian
nationalism.
 Har Dayal was one of the Indian students who moved to the United States.
 During World War I, the House's network was critical to the nationalist revolutionary
conspiracy in India.

44.4 Ghadar Party (1913)

 The Ghadar Movement was a pivotal event in the history of the Indian freedom
struggle. The Ghadar Party was a political revolutionary organization founded in
the United States of America by migrated Indians.
 The formation of the Ghadar Party was primarily the work of Sikhs.
 Sohan Singh, Kartar Singh, Abdul Mohamed Barakatullah, and Rashbehari
Bose were among the prominent leaders who laid the groundwork for the
establishment of an Indian political organization in the United States and Canada.
 Due to India's poor economic situation in the nineteenth century, hundreds of
Indians migrated to western countries.
 They moved to economically strong countries such as the United States, the United
Kingdom, Canada, and Australia in search of better economic opportunities.
 Thousands of Sikhs immigrated to the United States and Canada in the nineteenth
century and settled there permanently. There were numerous reasons for Indians to
migrate to western countries.
 One of the major reasons for emigration was the British Indian Government's
exploitative policy, which worsened the economic conditions of the poor and middle
classes.

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44.5 Komagata Maru Incident (1914)

 The Komagata Maru incident involved the Japanese steamship Komagata Maru, on
which a group of British Raj citizens attempted to emigrate to Canada in 1914 but
were denied entry.
 When they were forced to return to Calcutta (present-day Kolkata), India, they were
fired upon by British police, resulting in the deaths of 20 Sikhs. Gurdit Singh, a
wealthy Punjabi businessman, chartered the ship.
 In 1914, the Komagata Marus sailed from British Hong Kong to Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, via Shanghai, China, and Yokohama, Japan, carrying 376
passengers from Punjab, British India.
 Only 24 of them were admitted to Canada, but the remaining 352 passengers were
not allowed to disembark, and the ship was forced to return to India.
 The passengers included 340 Sikhs, 24 Muslims, and 12 Hindus, all of whom were
British subjects.
 This was one of several instances in the early twentieth century when exclusion laws
in Canada and the United States were used to keep Asian immigrants out.

44.6 Singapore Mutiny

 The 1915 Singapore Mutiny, also known as the 1915 Sepoy Mutiny or the Mutiny of
the 5th Light Infantry, was a mutiny against the British in Singapore by up to half of a
regiment of 850 Indian Muslims sepoys during World War I.
 Among the scattered mutinies during this period, the most notable was in Singapore
on February 15, 1915, by Punjabi Muslim 5th Light Infantry and the 36th Sikh
battalion under Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Gani, and Subedar Daud Khan.
 It was crushed after a fierce battle in which many were killed. Later, 37 persons were
executed and 41 were transported for life.

44.7 Conclusion
The revolutionary terrorist movement in India had a significant impact on Congress and the
British government. Revolutionary terrorist organizations limited their strengths in order to
remain more agile and effective. However, the movement had an impact on India: its
people, the Congress, and the British rulers. The revolutionary activities spread throughout
the country. Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, and Madras were transformed into revolutionary
hotspots. Revolutionary activities continued unabated even abroad. Following the
assassination of District Magistrate Rand, Shyamji Krishna Verma of Kathiawar traveled to
London and established the Home Rule Society.

*****

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 45. Swadeshi Movement and Boycott Movement (1905-
1908)
The Swadeshi movement was a self-sufficiency movement that was a part of the Indian
independence movement and helped to shape Indian nationalism. The Swadeshi movement
began in 1905 as a unified reaction to Bengal's partition and lasted until 1908. It was, in
fact, the most successful of the pre-Gandhian movements. After the British Government's
decision to partition Bengal was made public in December 1903, there was widespread
dissatisfaction among Indians. In response, the Swadeshi movement was formally launched
on August 7, 1905, from Town Hall Calcutta, with the goal of reducing reliance on foreign
goods in favor of domestic production. In this article, we will discuss the Swadeshi and
Boycott Movement (1905-1908), which will be useful for UPSC exam preparation.

45.1 Swadeshi Movement - Background

 The movement arose from the anti-partition movement, which was formed in
response to Lord Curzon's decision to divide the province of Bengal.
 Moderates launched the Anti-Partition Campaign to put pressure on the
government to prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from taking place.
 Petitions were sent to the government, public meetings were held, and ideas were
disseminated through newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee.
 The partition sparked protests in Bengal, where the pledge to boycott foreign
goods was first made.

45.2 Swadeshi Movement - Partition of Bengal

 The partition of Bengal was the most significant event during Lord Curzon's reign. It
was done primarily for administrative convenience. From 1899 to 1905, Lord Curzon
served as Viceroy of India.
 On October 16, 1905, the partition of Bengal province took effect during his
viceroyalty.
 Some people recognised Lord Curzon's true motivation and launched the anti-
partition movement.
 They made the anti-partition movement not to be divided, and because this was the
spirit of nationalism among Indians, they dubbed it the Swadeshi movement.
 The Swadeshi movement was a popular strategy for ending British rule and
improving the country's economic conditions.

45.3 Swadeshi Movement - Nature of the Movement

 The Bengal leaders believed that demonstrations, public meetings, and resolutions
would have little impact on the rulers.
 More positive action was required to reveal the intensity of popular feelings and
display them at their best. Swadeshi and boycott were the solutions.

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  Swadeshi, or the use of Indian goods, and the boycott of British goods were
declared and pledged at mass meetings held throughout Bengal.
 Public burnings of foreign cloth were organized in many places, and shops selling
foreign cloth were picketed.
 During its peak, Swadeshism infused the entire fabric of our social and domestic
lives. Marriage presents containing foreign goods, the likes of which could be
manufactured in the United States, were returned.
 The emphasis on self-reliance, or Atma Sakti, was an important aspect of the
Swadeshi Movement.
 National Education was another self-sufficient, constructive activity undertaken at
the time.

45.4 Extent of Mass Participation

 Bengali students played an important role in the Swadeshi agitation. They practiced
and propagated Swadeshi and led picketing campaigns against shops selling foreign
clothing.
 The government made every effort to silence the students. Orders were issued to
penalize schools and colleges whose students participated actively in the Swadeshi
agitation.
 Students who were found guilty of participating in nationalist agitation faced
disciplinary action. Many of them were fined, expelled from schools and colleges,
arrested, and occasionally beaten with lathis by police.
 The active participation of women in the Swadeshi agitation was a notable feature of
the movement.
 Women from the urban middle classes, who are traditionally home-centered, joined
processions and picketing. They were to take an active role in the nationalist
movement from then on.
 Many prominent Muslims, including Abdul Rasul, a well-known barrister, Liaquat
Hussain, a well-known agitator, and Guznavi, a businessman, joined the Swadeshi
Movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad joined a revolutionary terrorist organisation.
 Many other middle- and upper-class Muslims, led by the Nawab of Dhaka (who was
given a loan of Rs 14 lakh by the Government of India), remained neutral or even
supported Partition on the grounds that East Bengal would have a Muslim majority.
 The officials encouraged the Nawab of Dhaka and others to adopt a communal
attitude.
 Lord Curzon stated in a speech in Dhaka that one of the reasons for partition was "to
invest the Mohammedans in Eastern Bengal with a unity which they have not
enjoyed since the days of the old Mussalman Viceroys and Kings."

45.5 Anti Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-1905)

 During this time, men like Surendranath Banerjea, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra
Ray provided leadership.
 Petitioning the government, holding public meetings, writing memoranda, and
spreading propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers such as Hitabadi,
Sanjibani, and Bengalee were all used.

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  Their goal was to put enough pressure on the government through an educated
public in India and England to prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from taking
place.
 The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement was made on August 7,
1905, with the passage of the Boycott Resolution in a massive meeting held in the
Calcutta Townhall.
 Soon after, the movement spread to other parts of the country, with Tilak leading in
Poona and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh in Punjab, Syed Haider Raza in
Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai in Madras.

45.6 Anti Partition Campaign under Extremists (1905-08)

 After 1905, the Extremists gained control of the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
 The moderate-led movement had produced no results.
 The divisive tactics of both Bengal governments had irritated nationalists.
 The government had resorted to suppressive measures, which included atrocities on
students-
o many of whom were given corporal punishment;
o ban on public singing of Vande Mataram;
o restriction on public meetings;
o prosecution and long imprisonment of swadeshi workers;
o clashes between the police and the people in many towns;
o arrests and deportation of leaders; and
o suppression of freedom of the press.

45.7 Government Acts for Repressing Swadeshi Movement

 Repressive measures were taken by the government to suppress the Swadeshi and
the Boycott Movement.
 The Government Banned Holding of rallies, taking out processions, censored
newspapers and imprisoned the leaders of the national movement.
 The Government passed various acts to curb the growth of movement:
o Seditious Meeting Act (1907)
o Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908)
o Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offenses) Act (1908)
o Explosive Substances Act (1908)
o Indian Press Act (1910)

45.8 Swadeshi Movement - Significance

 The Swadeshi movement was quite different from previous movements led by
national leaders. This movement pursued a programme of direct political action in
opposition to the policy of 'prayer and petition.'
 During its early stages, the Swadeshi movement attempted to have Bengal's
partition annulled.
 However, its efforts eventually expanded to include the goal of achieving complete
freedom from foreign domination itself.

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  The 'boycott' aspect of the Swadeshi movement aimed at economically pressuring
Manchester mill-owners so that they could put pressure on the British government
to annul Partition.
 However, as time passed, the 'boycott' did not remain limited to British goods alone.
It was used on a larger scale to encompass everything foreign, particularly British.
 The Swadeshi movement's cultural significance was also significant. During the
Swadeshi period, Bengali literature flourished.
 Rabindranath Tagore and Rajanikanto Sen's patriotic compositions and creations
magically touched the patriotic sense of the masses.

45.9 Swadeshi Movement - Impact

 It resulted in a significant decrease in foreign imports from 1905 to 1908.

 The movement resulted in the rise of extreme nationalism among young people,
who turned to violence in order to put an end to British dominance.
 It compelled the British regime to make some concessions to Indians in the form
of Morley-Minto reforms in 1909. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was instrumental in
developing these reforms.
 Swadeshi Institutions have been established. The Bengal National College, as well as
a number of national schools and colleges across the country, were founded in the
spirit of Rabindranath Tagore's Shantiniketan.
 The National Council of Education was established in August 1906 to organize the
national education system. A Bengal Institute of Technology was established to
provide technical education.
 It resulted in the establishment of swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories,
tanneries, banks, insurance companies, and shops, amongst other things.
 It also helped to revitalize the Indian cottage industry. The revival of Indian
industries coincided with a resurgence in the use of indigenous goods.
 Foreign goods such as clothing, sugar, salt, and other luxury items were not only
boycotted, but also burned.
 The Swadeshi movement also resulted in a social boycott of both buyers and sellers
of foreign goods.

45.10 Swadeshi Movement - Issues

 The Swadeshi movement was poorly directed and failed to unite Hindus and
Muslims as a result of the work of Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and the establishment
of the Muslim League.
 Separate electorates became an issue in order to gain political mileage for Muslims.
As a result, the Swadeshi movement lacked a large mass base.
 The peasants' grievances, such as the lack of uniformity in the land revenue system,
tenant rights, and the prevention of land grabbing, were not addressed by the
Swadeshi movement, and thus the peasants did not become a part of the Swadeshi
movement.
 However, the partition of Bengal from 1903 to 1908 served as a catalyst for the
Swadeshi Movement.

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45.11 Swadeshi Movement - Reasons for Failure

 The British government repressed the revolutionaries. This severe repression

caused the movement to withdraw from the public sphere.
 There was no formal party structure, and as a result, an important part of the
movement that could have been led by its office bearers was missing.
 The movement's prominent leaders were arrested, leaving the movement without a
leader.
 Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal, two towering leaders, were also retired.
 The Surat split in 1907 shattered the leadership's unity.
 The movement was unable to keep the masses enthralled.
 It was only confined to the upper middle class and could never truly reach the
masses because it had no effect on the peasantry.
 Non-cooperation and passive resistance could not be put into practise.
 The movement was unable to maintain the high pitch that it had achieved.

45.12 Conclusion
The social composition of the Swadeshi movement defied easy categorization on the basis
of class. While sympathy from zamindars or landlords was widely discussed, the mid-level
tenure holder was more active. The movement was led by the Bengali middle class, but
unlike its British counterpart, this middle class had no ties to capitalist industry or
agriculture. The only thing that distinguished the early nationalist leadership was their
exposure to Western education and, as a result, their attraction to nationalist ideology.

Initially, the partition plan was opposed using traditional 'moderate' methods such as press
campaigns, numerous meetings and petitions, and large conferences. The obvious and total
failure of such techniques prompted a search for new forms, including a boycott of British
goods, rakhi bandhan, and arandhan.

*****

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 46. Nature of the Movement - Swadeshi and Boycott
Movement (1905-08)
The Swadeshi movement was a popular strategy for ending British rule and improving the
country's economic conditions. According to Mahatma Gandhi, the concept of Swadeshi is
the employment of unemployed or semi-employed people through the encouragement of
village industries, with the overall goal of building a nonviolent society. Thus, the Swadeshi
movement's main policies included boycotting all types of British products and restoring
all domestic products. The 1905 popular Partition of Bengal Uprising was unprecedented. In
this article, we will discuss the Nature of Swadeshi Movement which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

46.1 What is the Swadeshi Movement?

 Swadeshi is a Sanskrit word that combines the words swa' (self) and 'desh' (country).
Thus, Swadeshi refers to products made in one's own country, i.e., India. Boycotting
is the act of refusing to purchase, use, or participate. It's a form of protest.
 The Swadeshi movement in Bengal (1905-1908) is regarded as a pivotal historical
event in the episodic narrative of the Indian Nationalist Movement, which propels
the story forward to its eventual climax in 1947.
 Lord Curzon's unpopular decision to partition made the initiative of the Swadeshi
Movement.
 Bengal in 1905 sparked this popular movement, which was organized around the
effective use of ‘swadeshi' and 'boycott' as methods of agitation under Extremist
leadership.
 The subsequent unification of Bengal in 1911 was seen as a sign of the movement's
success.

46.2 Features of the Movement

 On October 16, 1905, the day Bengal's partition came into effect was observed as
a day of mourning in Bengal. There was no cooking, and stores and markets were
closed.
 Thousands of people marched barefoot in silent procession to Kolkata for a massive
meeting where the cornerstone of a federation hall, monument to united Bengal,
was laid.
 The RakshaBandhan ceremony was given a new twist, with the yellow thread that
the people tied to one another's wrists symbolizing the brotherhood of one to all.
 The Swadeshi movement quickly gained traction throughout the country. Songs
written by Rabindra nath Tagore and others fueled popular enthusiasm.
 Furthermore, the Swadeshi movement contributed significantly to the growth of
Indian Industries. Simultaneously, Indian labor took its first real steps toward
organization.

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46.3 Nature of the Movement

 The Bengal leaders believed that demonstrations, public meetings, and resolutions
would have little impact on the rulers.
 More positive action was required to reveal the intensity of popular feelings and
display them at their best. Swadeshi and boycott were the solutions.
 Swadeshi, or the use of Indian goods, and the boycott of British goods were declared
and pledged at mass meetings held throughout Bengal.
 Public burnings of foreign cloth were organized in many places, and shops selling
foreign cloth were picketed. The Swadeshi Movement was a resounding success.
 During its peak, Swadeshism infused the entire fabric of our social and domestic
lives. Marriage presents containing foreign goods, the likes of which could be
manufactured in the United States, were returned.
 Priests would frequently refuse to officiate at religious ceremonies where foreign
objects were offered as oblations to the gods. Guests would refuse to participate in
celebrations that used foreign salt or sugar.
 The emphasis on self-reliance, or Atma sakti, was an important aspect of the
Swadeshi Movement. Self-sufficiency meant asserting national dignity, honor, and
self-assurance. In terms of economics, it meant encouraging indigenous industrial
and other enterprises.
 There were numerous textile mills, soap and match factories, handloom weaving
concerns, national banks, and insurance companies established.
 Acharya EC Ray set up his well-known Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores. Even the
great poet Rabindranath Tagore assisted in the establishment of a Swadeshi store.
 In terms of culture, the Swadeshi Movement had a number of ramifications.
Nationalist poetry, prose, and journalism flourished.
 Patriotic songs written by poets such as Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kant Sen, Syed
Abu Mohammed, and Mukunda Das at the time are still sung in Bengal today.
 National Education was another self-sufficient, constructive activity undertaken at
the time.
 National educational institutions that provided literary, technical, or physical
education were established by nationalists who saw the existing educational system
as denationalizing and, in any case, insufficient.
 A National Council of Education was established on August 15, 1906. Calcutta saw
the establishment of a National College, led by Aurobindo Ghose.

46.4 Importance of the Movement

 The Swadeshi and boycott movements were India's first 20th-century movements
that encouraged widespread participation in modern nationalist politics.
 For the first time, women came out of their homes to join processions and picket
lines at stores selling foreign-made goods.
 The Swadeshi and boycott movements also shifted the character of the Indian
National Congress (INC) from being largely driven by moderates to the main agenda
now being set by the Extremists who gave the Congress's 1906 Calcutta session's call
for 'Swaraj' or self-government.

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  The ideas of non-cooperation and passive resistance, which Mahatma Gandhi
successfully applied many years later, originated in the early twentieth century
Swadeshi and boycott movements.

46.5 Conclusion
Many parts of the country saw the organization of movements in support of Bengal's unity,
as well as the swadeshi and boycott agitation. Tilak, who was instrumental in spreading the
movement outside of Bengal, saw this as the beginning of a new chapter in the history of
the national movement. He recognised a challenge and an opportunity to organize a popular
mass struggle against British rule in order to unite the country in a bond of common
sympathy.

*****

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 47. Anti Partition Campaign under Extremist (1905-08)

The Anti-Partition Campaign under Extremist started from 1905 onwards. Extremist
politics emerged within the Congress during the anti-partition Bengal agitation. When the
British government refused to annualize the partition of Bengal in the face of mass protests
from the people of Bengal, arousing sympathy from the Indian people, many young leaders,
known as Neo-Nationalists or Extremists, became disillusioned. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh were important extremist
leaders. They were labeled extremists because they believed that only by taking risks could
they achieve success. In this article, we will discuss the Anti Partition Campaign under
Extremist which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

47.1 Anti Partition Campaign under Extremist - Background

 The Extremists had no faith in British benevolence and firmly believed that the
remedy to Indian problems lay in the hands of Indians themselves. They demanded a
clear-cut manner of swaraj or self-rule.
 After 1905, in Bengal, the leadership of the anti-partition movement soon passed
into the hands of extremists like B.G Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh, etc.
This was due to several reasons-
o The Moderate methods had yielded no results;
o The government of East Bengal was actively supporting communalism and
even tried to crush the nationalist movement;
 The government had resorted to suppressive measures, including atrocities against
students, many of whom were subjected to corporal punishment;
o a ban on public singing of Bande Mataram;
o restrictions on public meetings;
o prosecution and long imprisonment of swadeshi workers;
o clashes between police and citizens in many towns;
o arrests and deportation of leaders;
o and suppression of press freedom.

47.2 Rise of Extremists

 From 1905 until 1908, the Extremists (or the Garam Dal) gained a dominant
influence over the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal; this period is also known as
the "Era of Passionate Nationalists."
 This Extremist group was led by Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin
Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal).
 As the leadership of the movement came into the hands of the extremist, they gave
a call for extending the boycott movement from foreign goods and educational
institutions to other areas such as legislative councils and municipalities,
government services, etc which would shake the foundation of British hegemony in
India.
 This was called Non-cooperation and termed as Passive Resistance or refusal to
render any voluntary service to the government by Bipin Chandra Pal.

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  In April 1904, Aurobindo Ghosh further extended the idea in a series of articles in
Vande Mataram and propounded the theory of ‘organized and relentless
boycott’ including civil disobedience of unjust laws.
 The Extremist call for swaraj relegated all other matters to the background,
including the demand for unification of Bengal.
 Now the central question of Indian politics was independence from foreign rule
while the partition of Bengal became the secondary one.
 Clearly, it was the partition of Bengal that occasioned the emergence of Swaraj as
the national goal.
 Tilak coined the phrase "Freedom is my birthright, and I will have it."

47.3 The Extremist Programme

 The Extremists, emboldened by Dadabhai Naoroji's declaration at the Calcutta

session (1906) that the Congress's goal should be self-government or swaraj, called
for passive resistance in addition to swadeshi and a boycott of government schools
and colleges, government service, courts, legislative councils, municipalities, and
government titles, among other things.
 As Aurobindo put it, the goal was to "make administration under present conditions
impossible by an organized refusal to do anything that will help either British
commerce in the exploitation of the country or British officialdom in the
administration of it."
 The militant nationalists attempted to turn the anti-partition and Swadeshi
Movement into a mass struggle, coining the slogan "India's Independence from
Foreign Rule."
 As a result, the Extremists elevated the concept of the Indian independence to the
center of Indian politics. Independence was to be attained through self-sacrifice.

47.4 New Forms of Struggle By Extremist

 Boycott of Foreign Goods included the boycott and public burning of foreign cloth,
the boycott of foreign-made salt or sugar, the refusal of priests to perform ritual
marriages involving the exchange of foreign goods, and the refusal of washermen to
wash foreign clothes.
 Major methods of mass mobilization, public meetings, and processions emerged
which were forms of popular expression.
 Samitis, such as Ashwini Kumar Dutta's Swadesh Bandhab Samiti (in Barisal), has
emerged as a popular and effective means of mass mobilization.
 V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva, and a group of lawyers founded
the Swadeshi Sangam in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, to inspire the local people.
 Through magic lantern lectures, swadeshi songs, physical and moral training for their
members, social work during famines and epidemics, school organization, swadeshi
craft training, and arbitration courts, this Samiti raised political consciousness among
the masses.
 The plan was to use traditional festivals and events to reach out to the public and
spread political messages.

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 o Tilak's Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, for example, became a vehicle for
swadeshi propaganda not only in western India but also in Bengal.
o Traditional folk theater forms were also used in Bengal for this purpose.
 Self-sufficiency, or 'Atma shakti,' was promoted. This implied re-establishment of
national dignity, honor, and confidence, as well as the social and economic
revitalization of the villages.
o In practice, it entailed social reform and campaigns against caste oppression,
early marriage, the dowry system, alcohol consumption, and so on.
 Bengal National College was founded in the spirit of Tagore's Shantiniketan, with
Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. Soon after, national schools and colleges sprouted
up all over the country.
 Satishchandra Mukherjee's contribution to national education should not be
overlooked. His newspaper Dawn, which had been in circulation since 1897, and
his Dawn Society, which had been founded in 1902, had already been spreading
the message of self-help in industry and education.
o Mukherjee established the Bhagabat Chatuspathi in 1895, laying the
groundwork for the national education movement.
o He was a key figure in the formation of the National Council of
Education and later became a lecturer at the Bengal National College,
eventually becoming its principal after Aurobindo resigned.
 The National Council of Education was established on August 15, 1906, to organize a
system of literary, scientific, and technical education along national lines and under
national control.
 Education was to be delivered through the use of vernaculars.
 For technical education, a Bengal Institute of Technology was established, and funds
were raised to send students to Japan for advanced study.
 The swadeshi spirit was also manifested in the establishment of swadeshi textile
mills, soap and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, and shops,
among other things. These businesses were founded on patriotism rather than
business acumen.
 Songs were written by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray,
Mukunda Das, Syed Abu Mohammad, and others inspired nationalists of all stripes.
 Tagore's Amar Sonar Bangla, written on this occasion, later inspired Bangladesh's
liberation struggle and was adopted as the country's national anthem.
 In painting, Abanindranath Tagore defied Victorian naturalism's hegemony over the
Indian art scene by drawing inspiration from Ajanta, Mughal, and Rajput paintings.
 Nandalal Bose, who had a significant impact on Indian art, was the first recipient of
a scholarship from the Indian Society of Oriental Art, which was founded in 1907.

47.5 Conclusion
When the partition of Bengal was announced in 1905, the conditions for the emergence of
militant nationalism had thus been created, and the Indian national movement had entered
its second stage. All other issues, including the demand for Bengal's unification, were
pushed to the sidelines by the extremist call for Swaraj. With the partition of Bengal
becoming a secondary issue, the central question of Indian politics became independent of

156
foreign rule. Clearly, the partition of Bengal was the catalyst for the emergence of swaraj as
a national goal.

*****

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 48. Reasons for Failure of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
(1905-1908)
There were many reasons which led to the failure of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.
The open phase (as opposed to the underground revolutionary phase) of the Swadeshi and
Boycott movement was nearly over by 1908. This is supported by the fact that by
1908, mass agitation had ceased, and anti-imperialist protest had evolved
into revolutionary acts of violence carried out by small groups of educated young men.
The Swadeshi Movement arose from the anti-partition movement, which was in opposition
to the British administration's decision to partition Bengal. However, the reason for
the partition of Bengal was more political, as Indian nationalism grew stronger. The
partition took effect in 1905 and was intended to weaken Bengal, which was regarded at the
time as the nerve center of Indian nationalism. In this article, we will discuss the reasons for
the failure of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

48.1 Swadeshi Movement - Features

 After all other forms of constitutional agitation, such as vocal protests, appeals,
petitions, and conferences, failed to persuade the British to concede the unanimous
national demand, the Bengalis turned to the boycott movement as a last resort.
 The boycott's original intent was primarily economic. It had two distinct but related
goals in mind.
 The first was to put pressure on the British public by threatening them with a
financial loss if British goods were boycotted, particularly Manchester cotton goods,
for which Bengal provided the richest market in India.
 Second, the boycott was regarded as necessary for the revival of indigenous
industry, which, being in its infancy, could never grow in the face of free competition
from foreign countries with highly developed industries.
 With the passage of time, the economic boycott faded into the background, and it
evolved into an idea of non-cooperation with the British in all fields, with the goal of
political regeneration of the country and the distant goal of absolute freedom
looming large in the eyes of the more advanced section.
 Similarly, Swadeshi has outgrown its original goal of promoting Indian industry.

48.2 Swadeshi Movement - Effects

Positive Effects

 As a result of the movement, indigenous goods have been revitalized.

 The boycott of foreign goods increased the demand for domestic goods. The mill
owners of Bombay and Ahmedabad came to the movement's aid.
 The Boycott movement in Bengal provided a driving force and momentum to India's
cotton mills, and the opportunity that this provided was capitalized on by mill
owners.

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  It complained at the time that the Bombay mill-owners made a huge profit at the
expense of what they called "Bengali Sentimentalism," or the practice of buying
indigenous cloth at any cost.
 Bengal had to supplement the supply from Bombay mills with coarse handloom
production.
 The weaving industry in Bengal was thriving until the British wrecked it after
establishing their rule over the province in the 18th century.
 The economic boycott movement appeared to be a good opportunity to revitalize
that industry. The clothes produced were coarse, but the Bengalis accepted them in
the true spirit of the Swadeshi Movement.

Negative Effects

 The boycott and burning of foreign goods were two of the movement's negative
consequences.
 Though Manchester cloth was the primary target, the movement expanded to
include other British manufacturers such as salt and sugar, as well as luxury goods in
general.
 The ideas of Swadeshi and economic boycott were kept alive and brought to every
door through newspaper articles, processions, popular songs, the enlistment of
volunteers to keep vigil, and on occasion bonfires of foreign cloth, salt, and sugar.
 The flames were regarded as a unique way of amusing prominent public figures, and
the bonfires that greeted them were regarded as extremely valuable in terms of
instilling enthusiasm for the movement.
 Anyone caught using foreign sugar received a fine. Foreign cigarettes were
purchased and consumed on the streets.
 Brahmins refused to participate in religious ceremonies in homes where European
salt and sugar were used, and Marwaris were warned against importing foreign
items.

48.3 Swadeshi Movement - Reasons for Failure

 Recognizing the revolutionary potential, the government reacted harshly. Between

1907 and 1908, the majority of the movement's key leaders were either imprisoned
or deported.
 Any mass movement, especially when confronted with severe repression, cannot
continue indefinitely at the same level of militancy and self-sacrifice.
 Internal squabbles, particularly the split in the Congress, the apex all-India
organization, weakened the movement.
 It lacked an effective organizational structure and a party structure.
 The movement was unable to establish an effective organization or party structure.
 It introduced a slew of techniques associated with Gandhian politics, such as non-
cooperation, passive resistance, filling British jails, social reform, and constructive
work, but it failed to give these techniques a disciplined focus.
 The movement remained largely confined to the upper and middle classes and
zamindars, failing to reach the masses, particularly the peasantry.

159
  It was unable to gain the support of the majority of Muslims, particularly the
Muslim peasantry. Hindus and Muslims were divided along class lines, with the
former as landlords and the latter as peasants.
 Though the Swadeshi Movement had spread beyond Bengal, the rest of the country
was not yet ready to embrace the new political style and stage.
 People were roused by the movement, but they didn't know how to channel the
newly released energy or how to find new ways to express popular resentment.
 By 1908, most of the movement's leaders had been arrested or deported, and
Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal had retired from active politics.
 Tilak was sentenced to six years in prison, Punjab's Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai were
deported, and Chidambaram Pillai was detained.

48.4 Swadeshi Movement as a Turning Point

 It was a 'leap forward in more ways than one. Students, women, workers, and some
urban and rural residents who had previously been excluded from participation took
part.
 During the Swadeshi Movement, all of the major trends of the national movement
emerged, from conservative moderation to political extremism, from revolutionary
activities to incipient socialism, from petitions and prayers to passive resistance and
non-cooperation.
 The richness of the movement was not limited to politics, but also included art,
literature, science, and industry.
 People were awakened from their slumber, and they learned to take bold political
stands and participate in new forms of political work.
 The Swadeshi campaign challenged colonial ideas and institutions' hegemony.
 The future struggle would rely heavily on the gained experience.

48.5 Conclusion
The movement was led by the Bengali middle class, but unlike its British counterpart, this
middle class had no ties to capitalist industry or agriculture. The only thing that
distinguished the early nationalist leadership was their exposure to Western education and,
as a result, their attraction to nationalist ideology. The category of bhadralok was thus more
of a social category referring to educated men rather than a specific class, despite the fact
that they were mostly well-off. Their nationalist ideology sought to reach out to the masses,
but its limitations were determined by their class position, resulting in the movement's
failure.

*****

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 49. International Influences - Era of Militant Nationalism
(1905-1909)
The international influences and the events outside India had a significant impact on the
rise of militant nationalism in India. The humiliating treatment of Indians in British colonies,
particularly in South Africa, created British fillings. Further national movements in Egypt,
Persia, Turkey, and Russia gave Indians new hope and inspiration. The rise of modern
Japan after 1868 demonstrated that a backward Asian country could develop independently
of Western influence. In this article, we will discuss the International Influences on Militant
Nationalism which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

49.1 Growth of Militant Nationalism

 Politically conscious Indians were convinced that the purpose of the British Rule was
to exploit India economically.
 The moderates' traditional methods of praying, petitioning, and holding public
meetings had failed, and by 1908, political extremism had also declined, giving way
to militant nationalism.
 During the 1890s, a series of events such as severe famine (1896-1900), bubonic
plague in Deccan, and riots caused Indians to become anxious and dissatisfied with
the colonial government.
 A slew of repressive laws were passed. Section 124A was strengthened, and the
Criminal Procedure Code and the Post Office Act were amended to give the
government more authority.
 Curzon's costly Durbars in the midst of famines, his Indian Universities Act of 1904,
his attack on the elected members of the Calcutta Corporation, his expedition to
Tibet at the expense of Indian revenue, and finally the partition of Bengal in the face
of strong national opposition sparked outrage across the country.
 The Western educational system increased societal awareness. However, increased
education has resulted in increased unemployment and poverty, causing people to
be dissatisfied and fueling the trend of radical nationalism.
 As a result of the spread of westernization, a number of leaders emerged who
recognised the loss of Indian cultural and national identity that was submerging into
the colonial pattern.
 A number of leaders, including B.C.Chatterjee, Swami Vivekananda, and Dayanand
Saraswati, portrayed the better side of Indian culture and tradition, dispelling the
myth of western superiority.
 International events also had an impact. Russia and Italy were defeated by Japan
and Ethiopia respectively. Such occurrences shattered the myth of Western
superiority and invincibility.

49.2 International Influences - An Overview

 Several events in the world during this time period aided the growth of militant
nationalism in India.

161
  After 1868, the rise of modern Japan demonstrated that a backward Asian
country could develop independently of Western influence.
 In just a few decades, Japanese leaders transformed their country into a world-class
industrial and military power, implemented universal primary education, and
established an efficient, modern administration.
 The defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and the defeat of Russia by
Japan in 1905 shattered the myth of European superiority.
 People all over Asia rejoiced at the news of a small Asian country's victory over one
of Europe's most powerful military powers.
 The popular sentiment was expressed in the Karachi Chronicle on June 18, 1905, as
follows: "What one Asiatic has done, others can do."
o If Japan can easily defeat Russia, India can easily defeat England.
o Let us drive the British into the sea and join the ranks of the world's great
powers alongside Japan.
 Revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey, and China, as well as
the South African Boer War, convinced Indians that a united people willing to make
sacrifices could challenge even the most powerful despotic governments.
 Patriotism and self-sacrifice were more important than anything else.

49.3 International Influences - Impact

Contemporary international events exercised a powerful influence on the middle of younger
generations in India-

 They despised the humiliating treatment meted out to Indians in other British
colonies, particularly in South Africa.
 The Boer War (1899-1902) in South Africa showed the Indians that united people
willing to make sacrifices could challenge even the most despotic governments.
 They felt inspired by the nationalist movements in Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Ireland,
China and Russia.
 The confidence of Indians immensely increased upon seeing the defeat of the Italian
army and Russia. It showed that even a small Asian country could defeat the biggest
military power of Europe.
 Such events pricked the balloon of British superiority and gave the Indians new hope
and aspirations.

49.4 Conclusion
'Swaraj' was the extremist goal. At that time, this meant either complete autonomy or
independence from British control, or total Indian control over administration but not
necessarily independence from Britain's imperial reign. They were vehemently opposed to
Britain's imperialistic policies in India. They were proud of their Indian culture and history.
They sought inspiration and courage from the ancient scriptures.

*****

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 50. Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)
The era of militant nationalism started from 1905 onwards till 1909. In the 1890s, a radical
trend of a militant nationalist approach to political activity began to emerge, and by 1905, it
had taken concrete form. As a result of this trend, a revolutionary wing emerged. The
militant nationalists caused a break in the national movement by employing more radical
methods of agitation than the earlier moderates. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh,
Bipan Chandra Pal, and Lajpat Rai was prominent leaders during this period of the national
movement. In this article we will discuss the various facets of Era of Militant
Nationalism which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

50.1 Growth of Militant Nationalism

 Militant nationalism (also known as extremism) has gradually grown in the country
over the years. It manifested itself in the Bengal anti-partition movement of 1905.
 Even in its early days, the Indian national movement had made a large number of
people aware of the dangers of foreign dominance and the importance of cultivating
patriotism.
 It had provided educated Indians with the necessary political training. It had, in fact,
changed the mood of the people and given birth to a new way of life in the country.
 Simultaneously, the British government's refusal to accept any of the major demands
of the nationalists led to disillusionment among the politically conscious with the
principles and methods of the dominant moderate leadership.
 Instead of appeasing moderate nationalists, the British rulers denigrated and
mocked them.
 As a result, there was a strong demand for more aggressive political action and
methods than meetings, petitions, memorials, and speeches in legislative councils.

50.2 Swadeshi Movement & Boycott Movement (1905-1908)

 The Swadeshi movement was a self-sufficiency movement that was a part of

the Indian independence movement and helped to shape Indian nationalism.
 The Swadeshi movement began in 1905 as a unified reaction to Bengal's partition
and lasted until 1908. It was, in fact, the most successful of the pre-Gandhian
movements.
 After the British Government's decision to partition Bengal was made public
in December 1903, there was widespread dissatisfaction among Indians.
 In response, the Swadeshi movement was formally launched on August 7,
1905, from Town Hall Calcutta, with the goal of reducing reliance on foreign
goods in favor of domestic production.
 Moderates launched the Anti-Partition Campaign to put pressure on the
government to prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from taking place.
 Petitions were sent to the government, public meetings were held, and ideas were
disseminated through newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee.
 The partition sparked protests in Bengal, where the pledge to boycott foreign
goods was first made.

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50.3 Formation of All India Muslim League (1906)

 The All India Muslim League (also known as the Muslim League) was a political
party founded in British India in 1906.
 Its strong advocacy, beginning in 1930, for the establishment of a separate Muslim-
majority nation-state, Pakistan, resulted in the British Empire partitioning India in
1947.
 The party arose from the need for political representation of Muslims in British
India, particularly in the event of massive Hindu opposition to Bengal's partition in
1905, which was sponsored by the Indian National Congress.
 During the annual meeting of the All India Muslim Education Conference in Ahsan
Manzil in 1906, the Nawab of Dhaka, Khwaja Salimullah, proposed the formation of
a political party to protect the interests of Muslims in British India.
 All India Muslim League, was a political organisation that led the movement for the
establishment of a separate Muslim nation during the partition of British India
(1947).
 Initially encouraged by the British and generally supportive of their rule, the league
adopted self-government for India as its goal in 1913.
 For decades, the league and its leaders, most notably Mohammed Ali Jinnah,
advocated Hindu-Muslim unity in a united and independent India.
 It wasn't until 1940 that the League of Nations called for the establishment of a
separate Muslim state from India's planned independent state.
 Because it feared that an independent India would be dominated by Hindus, the
league advocated for a separate nation for India's Muslims.
 Jinnah and the Muslim League led the fight for the partition of British India into
separate Hindu and Muslim states, and the league became Pakistan's dominant
political party after the country's independence in 1947.

50.4 Surat Session of INC (1907)

 At the Surat session of INC in 1907, held on the banks of the Tapti River, the Indian
National Congress split into two factions: extremists and moderates.
 Lokmanya Tilak, Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal led the extremists, while Gopal
Krishna Gokhale led the moderates.
 The moderate and extremist delegates of the Congress met in Surat in an
atmosphere charged with excitement and anger.
 The ridicule and venom heaped on the moderates by the extremists in the mass
meetings held in Surat a few days before the session, and the extremists were
energized by the rumor that the moderates wanted to scuttle their Kolkata
resolutions.
 The Congress session began with extremists objecting to the duly elected president
for the year, Rash Behari Ghosh.
 The split was unavoidable because both sides came to the session prepared for a
fight.
 The extremists initially dominated the session, but they soon accepted Dr. Rash
Behari Ghosh as president and offered to cooperate. However, the meeting was
called to a halt. Congress became divided.

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50.5 Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley Minto Reforms)

 The Indian Councils Act (1909), also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, were a
set of reforms devised by and named after the Viceroy Lord Minto and the
Secretary of State for India, John Morley.
 They both agreed that reforms were needed to appease both moderates and
Muslims. They were preceded by two major events.
 This act amended the Indian Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892.
 It significantly increased the size of the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils.
The Central Legislative Council's membership was increased from 16 to 60. The
number of members in provincial legislative councils varied.
 It kept the Central Legislative Council's official majority but allowed provincial
legislative councils to have a non-official majority.
 It increased the deliberative powers of legislative councils at both levels. Members
could, for example, ask supplementary questions, move budget resolutions, and so
on.
 It allowed Indians to join the executive councils of the Viceroy and Governors for the
first time. Satyendra Prasad Sinha was the first Indian to be appointed to
the Viceroy's Executive Council. He was appointed to the position of law member.

50.6 Conclusion
Militant nationalism was a distinct stage in the anti-colonial struggle. It introduced new
methods of political agitation, used popular symbols for mobilisation, and attempted to
broaden the movement's base.

*****

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 51. Seditious Meetings Act (1907)
Seditious Meetings Act 1907 was one of the acts which were rolled out to curtail the
progress of the Swadeshi movement. It is an Act to consolidate and amend the law relating
to the prevention of public meetings likely to promote sedition or to cause a disturbance of
public tranquility. In this article, we will discuss the Seditious Meetings Act 1907 in detail
which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

51.1 Important provisions of the Act

 The Seditious Meetings Act was a 1907 act of the Imperial Legislative Council of the
British Raj enabling the government to prohibit political meetings.
 It was enacted to make better provision for the prevention of public meetings likely
to promote sedition or to cause a disturbance of public tranquility.
 This act was passed when British Government intelligence discovered the presence
of the Ghadar Movement which had formed for the purpose of fomenting political
violence in India.
 Vickerman Rutherford raised the act in the British House of Commons in February
1908, questioning its effects on "the interests of good relations between the rulers
and the ruled."
 The Act was defended by Donald Mackenzie Smeaton, who stated that
"the Regulation of 1818 and Subsidiary Local Regulations conferring similar powers
were of immense value in and after the pacification of Burma in ridding the country
not only of enemies of the Government, but of enemies of the people."

51.2 Consequences of this Act

 The Act, along with other series of oppressive acts against Press freedom and liberty
resulted in the suppression of the extremists.
 They were not in position to organize a strong political party at that time.
 Fizzling out of the Swadeshi movement
 Arubindo Ghosh, one of the extremists left the ground and went to Pondicherry.
 Bipin Chandra Pal also left politics temporarily.
 Lala Lajpat Rai went to England.
 The idea of extremist nationalism was put down temporarily. It later rose as Militant
Nationalism.
 Barindra Ghosh and Ullaskar Dutt were sentenced to rigorous imprisonment.
 Senapati Bapat and Ras Behari bose went underground.⁣

51.3 Conclusion
The act was extended until March 31, 1911, when it was replaced by the Prevention of
Seditious Meetings Act, 1911. No Court lower than that of a Presidency Magistrate, a
Magistrate of the First Class, or a Sub-Divisional Magistrate shall hear any case under this
Act.

*****

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 52. Surat Split (1907)
The conflict between the various nationalist strands culminated in the Surat Split in
December 1907. Rash Behari Ghosh presided over the Surat Congress session in 1907,
despite opposition from Tilak and others. At the Surat session, Congress leaders were
divided into two factions: Moderates and Extremists. This schism was also visible at
the Banaras Session of Congress (1905), when some leaders, such as Tilak, criticized the
moderates' methods and suggested passive resistance. They also believed that boycotting
British goods and government institutions was a good idea. In this article, we will discuss
the Surat Split (1907) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

52.1 Surat Split - Background

 Congress leaders split into two groups at the Surat Session in 1907: moderates and
extremists.
 The schism between these two groups became clear at the Banaras Session (1905).
 Lokmanya Tilak and his supporters held a separate conference at the end of this
session and announced the formation of the Extremist Party. They did, however,
decide to work as part of the Indian National Congress.
 The schism between Moderators and Extremists widened further in 1906 at the
Calcutta Session.
 Both parties nominated candidates for the presidency, but Dadabhai Naoroji was
accepted as a compromise candidate by both parties.
 The Extremists were also successful in obtaining a resolution emphasizing the
principles of swadeshi, boycott, and national education.
 However, the Moderators refused to accept what had occurred at the Calcutta
session in 1906 and were determined to undo it at the Surat Session in 1907.
 Extremists were equally determined to ensure that the Moderates did not get their
way.
 In Surat, extremists attempted to push Lala Lajpat Rai's candidacy for Congress
President, while moderates supported Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh.
 Lala Lajpat Rai saved the situation by stepping down, and Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh took
over as President.

52.2 Surat Split - Causes

 The partition of Bengal in 1905 provided impetus for the Extremists to openly
criticize the Moderates' methods. As a result, the Partition promoted extremist
ideology.
 The moderate method of constitutional agitation, which included petitioning,
praying, and protesting, had exhausted the Indian masses, giving rise to extremist
tendencies that emphasized direct action against the British.
 The Extremists set two main goals for the Surat Session of Congress.
o The extremists demanded that Lala Lajpat Rai be appointed President of the
INC.
o The second demand was for Swaraj's resolution.
 Both demands were rejected by the Moderates.

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52.3 Surat Split - Consequences

 Rabindranath Tagore's efforts to reconcile the Moderates and Extremists following

the Surat Split were futile.
 Furthermore, the adoption of resolutions for permanently disqualifying the
Congress's Extremist section at the 1908 Allahabad convention aggravated the
situation.
 Following the Surat Split in 1907, the Moderates demanded colonial self-government
in contrast to the Extremists' demand for total independence.
 The moderates' constitutional politics did not impress the British government, as
evidenced by the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909.
 The Moderates had lost touch with the nationalism's younger generation. The
younger generation desired results, which fueled the rise of revolutionaries.
 To suppress militant nationalists, the British used a divide and rule strategy.
 Extremism was mostly confined to Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab, where the rise
in terrorist activity allowed the government to unleash repression.
 Following the incarceration of leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the moderate-
dominated Congress went dormant.
 Separate electorates were granted to Muslims in 1909. This was a setback for
Congress because the most critical and vocal elements were not included in the INC.

52.4 Ideological Differences between Moderates and Extremist

 Even when they were working together to oppose Bengal's partition, there was a
great deal of public debate and disagreement between Moderates and Extremists in
1905-1907.
 The extremists wished to expand the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement beyond
Bengal into the rest of the country.
 They also intended to gradually broaden the boycott of foreign goods to include any
form of association or cooperation with the colonial government.
 The Moderates wished to limit the boycott portion of the movement to Bengal and
were vehemently opposed to its extension to the Government.
 The question of the Presidentship of the Calcutta Congress nearly came to a head in
1906. By selecting Dadabhai Naoroji, a schism was avoided.
 Four compromise resolutions were passed on the Swadeshi, Boycott, National
Education, and Self-Government demands.
 Throughout the year 1907, the two sides fought over differing interpretations of the
four resolutions.
 By the end of 1907, the Extremists were convinced that the fight for liberty had
begun, as the people had been roused.
 The majority of them believed that the time had come to part ways with the
Moderates.
 The majority of the Moderates, led by Pherozeshah Mehta, were equally adamant
about a split. They were afraid that the Congress organization, which had been
carefully built over the previous twenty years, would be shattered.

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52.5 Surat Split - Aftermath

 The British Divide and Rule policy resulted in the Surat Split.
 After a significant period of time, the British believed they had gained control of the
INC's affairs.
 While the Congress' leadership remained in the hands of the Moderates for some
time longer, as the Extremists worked separately until 1916.
 Due to the efforts of the leaders of the Home Rule movement, both groups later
reunited at the Lucknow session of Congress in 1916.
 The moderates and the extremists were like the brain and heart of the nation-one
was the law and the other impulse. Their unified function was a prerequisite for the
growth of the national movement.
 The exit of the Extremist left the Congress paralysed for more than a decade as the
Moderates could achieve very little.
 It was only in 1916 after re-entry of the Extremists and exit of the Moderates (1918)
that the Congress was reactivated.
 But now it was a different story all together. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi had
entered the political scene and associated himself with the programme of the
Extremist.
 He represented a new synthesis of faith and reason, law and impulse and
inaugurated a new era in Modern India History.

52.6 Conclusion
The Surat Split was a watershed moment in the history of India's Nationalist Movement. It
represented a shift in the government's policy and attitude toward nationalist moderates on
the government side. The Surat Split was the direct cause of the Minto-Morley Reform of
1909. Both parties have been greatly weakened as a result of the split. Extremists faced
official repression, while liberals were abandoned by their own people.

*****

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 53. Government Acts for Repressing Swadeshi Movement
The government launched a massive offensive against the extremists.Between 1907 and
1911, various government acts were enacted for repressing Swadeshi movement and to
curb anti-government activity. The Seditious Meetings Act of 1907, the Indian Newspapers
(Incitement to Offenses) Act of 1908, the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908, and the
Indian Press Act of 1910 were among the laws enacted. In this article, we will discuss in
brief about various Acts which were enacted for repressing the Swadeshi Movement.

53.1 Seditious Meetings Act (1907)

 The Seditious Meetings Act was a 1907 act of the Imperial Legislative Council of the
British Raj enabling the government to prohibit political meetings.
 It was enacted to make better provision for the prevention of public meetings likely
to promote sedition or to cause a disturbance of public tranquility.
 This act was passed when British Government intelligence discovered the presence
of the Ghadar Movement which had formed for the purpose of fomenting political
violence in India.

53.2 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1908)

 It is an act to provide for the more speedy trial of certain offences, and for the
prohibition of associations dangerous to the public peace.
 Here “unlawful association” means an association:
o which encourages or aids persons to commit acts of violence or intimidation
or of which the members habitually commit such acts, or
o which has been declared to be unlawful by the State Government.
 The state could arrest and imprison, and/or impose fine on people if s/he is a
member of an unlawful association, or takes part in meetings of any such
association, or contributes or receives or solicits any contribution for the purpose of
any such association.
 This Act may be called the Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908.

53.3 Indian Newspaper (Incitement to Offenses) Act (1908)

 This act was triggered by the Extremist nationalist activity during and after the
Swadeshi movement of 1906.
 The Act was passed in 1908 which empowered the magistrates to confiscate the
press for publishing articles that promoted violence.
 The local government was authorized to terminate any declaration made by the
printer and publisher of the newspaper which had been found offender under
the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867.
 Newspapers were allowed to move to the High Courts within 15 days.

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53.4 Explosive Substances Act (1908)

 The Explosives Substances Act was passed under the Governor Generalship of Minto
of Earl, in 1908.
 Government was apprehensive about imminent violent uprisings after the Swadeshi
Movement. The act banned Indians from keeping explosive substances.
 In this Act, the expression “explosive substance” shall be deemed to include any
materials for making any explosive substance; also any apparatus, machine,
implement or material used, or intended to be used, or adapted for causing, or
aiding in causing, any explosion in or with any explosive substance; also any part of
any such apparatus, machine or implement.

53.5 Indian Press Act (1910)

 It was an act to provide for better control of the press. This act resurrected the worst
aspects of the Vernacular Press Act (VPA).
 The British government's attitude toward the Indian press changed over time.
 From 1908 to 1935, numerous press laws were enacted in an attempt to curb the
anti-British tone of the Indian press.
 The resurgence of political terrorism forced the British to take a hard line against
Indian nationalists.
 On February 4, 1910, Lord Ridley, the Home Member, introduced a Bill to prohibit
the distribution of anti-government literature.
 On February 9, 1910, Lord Minto II, Viceroy of India, enacted the Indian Press Act of
1910.
 The Indian Press Act of 1910 was enacted in British India, and it imposed rigorous
censorship on all types of publications.
 The principal tools of control imposed by the Press Act were financial securities that
could be confiscated if any of the legislation's extraordinarily broad provisions were
broken.

53.6 Conclusion
These acts resulted in the suppression of the extremists. They were not in position to
organize a strong political party at that time. Many of the nationalist leaders gave a break to
their activism while many others were imprisoned. However, the movement was able to
popularize the ideas of nationalism and awakened the common man to the questions of
liberty. Students and professionals became, for the first time, active members of the
national movement.

*****

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 54. First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917)
The first phase of revolutionary activities lasted from 1907 to 1917. The activities of
revolutionary heroism arose as a result of the rise of militant nationalism. The first phase,
which lasted until 1917, took on a more activist tone as a result of the Swadeshi and
Boycott Movement. As a result of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the second phase
began. In this article, we will discuss various activities that took place during the first phase
of revolutionary activities which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

54.1 Reasons for Surge in Revolutionary Activities

 After the open movements demise, the younger nationalists who had been a part of
it found it impossible to drop out and fade into the background.
 They looked for ways to express their patriotic energies, but were disillusioned by
the failure of the leadership, including the Extremists, to find new forms of struggle
to put the new militant trends into practise.
 Although the extremist leaders called on the youth to make sacrifices, they were
unable to establish an effective organisation or find new forms of political work to
channel these revolutionary energies.
 Because all avenues of peaceful political protest were closed to them due to
government repression, the youth believed that if nationalist goals of independence
were to be met, the British had to be expelled by force.

54.2 Revolutionary Programme

 The revolutionaries considered, but did not find it practical to implement, the
options of launching a violent mass revolution across the country or attempting to
undermine the Army's loyalties.
 Rather, they chose to follow in the footsteps of Russian nihilists or Irish nationalists.
 Individual heroic actions included organising assassinations of unpopular officials as
well as traitors and informers among the revolutionaries themselves.
 They conducted swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities; and
(during the First World War) organized military conspiracies with the expectation of
assistance from Britain's enemies.
 The plan was to instill fear in the hearts of the rulers, arouse the people, and remove
their fear of authority.
 The revolutionaries hoped to inspire the people by appealing to patriotism,
particularly among the idealistic youth who would eventually drive the British out.
 Extremist leaders failed to ideologically counter the revolutionaries because they
failed to distinguish between a revolution based on mass activity and one based on
individual violent activity, allowing individualistic violent activities to take root.

54.3 Revolutionary Activities During First Phase

 India’s struggle for independence was accompanied by many revolutionary

activities that had been raised from different parts of the country.

172
  Revolutionaries are those people who believed in overthrowing the British
Government by means of mass movements. Several internal and external influences
worked on the minds of the youth in India during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, resulting in the emergence of revolutionary ideology.
 The revolutionary movement in India began in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, and Madras provinces, but it was primarily active in Bengal,
Maharashtra, and Punjab because these regions were more politically active than
the rest of the country.
 The activities, writings, and speeches of this period's revolutionaries reveal a strong
religious bias, romanticism, and emotionalism.
 Many of them were convinced that "pure political propaganda would not suffice for
the country, and that people needed to be spiritually prepared to face dangers."
 The first revolutionary organizations were formed in 1902 in
Midnapore (under Jnanendra Nath Basu) and Calcutta (under Promotha Mitter and
including Jatindranath Banerjee, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, and others).
 The first of the revolutionary activities in Maharashtra was the organization of
the Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879, which aimed to rid
the country of the British by instigating an armed revolt by disrupting the
communication lines.
 Extremism in Punjab was fueled by issues such as frequent famines combined with
an increase in land revenue and irrigation tax, zamindars' practise of 'begar,' and
events in Bengal.

54.4 Revolutionary Activities Abroad

 Revolutionary activities continued unabated even abroad.

 The need for shelter, the possibility of publishing revolutionary literature that would
be exempt from the Press Acts, and the desire for arms drove Indian revolutionaries
to travel abroad.
 Following the assassination of District Magistrate Rand, Shyamji Krishna Verma of
Kathiawar travelled to London and established the Home Rule Society - 'India
House' - in London in 1905 as a center for Indian students, a scholarship scheme to
bring radical youth from India, and a journal called 'The Indian Sociologist.'
 The Indian Home Rule Society was an informal Indian Nationalist movement that
started in London.
 V.D. Savarkar went to London in 1906 and joined the 'Indian Society.' It advocated
for revolutionary terrorism.
 The role of the Gadar Party in revolutionary activities around the world cannot be
overstated.
 The Ghadar Movement was a pivotal event in the history of the Indian freedom
struggle. The Ghadar Party was a political revolutionary organization founded in
the United States of America by migrated Indians.
 The formation of the Ghadar Party was primarily the work of Sikhs.
 Lala Hardayal, a revolutionary young man from Punjab, founded the Gadar
Party and also published The Gadar, a weekly newspaper. Its goal was to spark a
revolution in India that would liberate the country from British rule.

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  The Komagata Maru incident involved the Japanese steamship Komagata Maru, on
which a group of British Raj citizens attempted to emigrate to Canada in 1914 but
were denied entry.
 The 1915 Singapore Mutiny, also known as the 1915 Sepoy Mutiny or the Mutiny of
the 5th Light Infantry, was a mutiny against the British in Singapore by up to half of a
regiment of 850 Indian Muslim sepoys during World War I.

54.5 Decline of Revolutionary Activities

After 1918, the Revolutionary Activities came to a temporary halt due to several reasons:

 Stern Government repression along with a series of draconian laws.

 Lack of popular response.
 The World War-I ended and the government released all political prisoners arrested
under the Defense of India Act.
 Discussion began on the new Constitutional Reforms (Government of India Act 1919)
which generated an atmosphere of compromise.
 Gandhi arrived on the national scene and emphasized non-violent means which also
halted the place of revolutionary activities.

54.6 Conclusion
Revolutionary activities emerged as the most significant legacy of Swadeshi Bengal, having
an impact on educated youth for a generation or more. The revolutionary activities spread
throughout the country. Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, and Madras were transformed into
revolutionary hotspots. Revolutionary activities continued unabated even abroad. The lack
of mass participation, combined with the movement's narrow upper-caste social base in
Bengal, severely limited the scope of revolutionary activity. In the end, it crumbled under
the weight of state repression.

*****

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 55. Decline of Revolutionary Activities - First Phase of
Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917)
The causes of the rise of revolutionary activities are largely similar to the ones that gave
rise to Extremist Nationalism. The emergence of revolutionary ideology in India during the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was the result of several internal and external
influences working on the minds of the youth. The revolutionary movement in India began
in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, and Madras provinces, but it
was primarily active in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab because these regions were more
politically active than other parts of the country. In this article, we will discuss the reasons
for the Decline of Revolutionary Activities which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

55.1 Rise of Revolutionary Activities

 The activities of revolutionary heroism arose as a result of the rise of militant

nationalism.
 The first phase, which lasted until 1917, took on a more activist tone as a result of
the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.
 As a result of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the second phase began.
 After the open movement's demise, the younger nationalists who had been a part of
it found it impossible to drop out and fade into the background.
 They looked for ways to express their patriotic energies but were disillusioned by the
failure of the leadership, including the Extremists, to find new forms of struggle to
put the new militant trends into practice.
 Although the extremist leaders called on the youth to make sacrifices, they were
unable to establish an effective organization or find new forms of political work to
channel these revolutionary energies.
 Because all avenues of peaceful political protest were closed to them due to
government repression, the youth believed that in order to achieve nationalist goals
of independence, the British had to be physically expelled.
 Liberation through revolution, heroism, and supreme sacrifice, assassinating
unpopular British officials, instilling fear in rulers, and inciting people to expel the
British with force drew in new nationalists.

55.2 Revolutionary Programme

 The revolutionaries considered but did not find it practical to implement, the options
of launching a violent mass revolution across the country or attempting to
undermine the Army's loyalties.
 Rather, they chose to follow in the footsteps of Russian nihilists or Irish nationalists.
 Individual heroic actions included organizing assassinations of unpopular officials as
well as traitors and informers among the revolutionaries themselves.
 They conducted swadeshi dacoities to raise funds for revolutionary activities; and
(during the First World War) organized military conspiracies with the expectation of
assistance from Britain's enemies.

175
  The plan was to instill fear in the hearts of the rulers, arouse the people, and remove
their fear of authority.
 The revolutionaries hoped to inspire the people by appealing to patriotism,
particularly among the idealistic youth who would eventually drive the British out.
 Extremist leaders failed to ideologically counter the revolutionaries because they
failed to distinguish between a revolution based on mass activity and one based on
individual violent activity, allowing individualistic violent activities to take root.

55.3 Revolutionary Activities

Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra

 The Chapaker brothers (Deodar and Balkrishana Chapeau) assassinated Lt. Ayerst in
Poona in 1897, but Rand, the president of the Plague Committee, was the intended
target.
 They were apprehended, tried, and hanged.
 Similarly, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned for inciting terrorism through his
writings.

Revolutionary Activities in Bengal

 Bengal became a hotspot for terrorist activity. In 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram
Bose threw a bomb at Kennedy's carriage, mistaking it for that of
Muzaffarpur's judge, Kingsford.
 Previously, the concerned judge had sentenced a number of young people to death.
 Two women were killed in the incident, and Prafulla shot himself dead before he
could be apprehended by police. Khudiram, on the other hand, was tried and
executed.

Revolutionary Activities in Punjab

 Under the leadership of Lala Hardayal, Avado Bihar, Amir Chandra, J.M. Chatterjee,
and others, Punjab also became a hotbed of revolutionary activity.
 There were also revolutionary organizations such as the 'Kitty Kinas Party and the
'Naujawan Sabha.'
 The 'Hindustan Republic Association' was founded by Chandra Shekhar Azad. Later,
it was renamed the 'Hindustan Socialist Republic Association.'
 Its leaders, including Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru, and Sukh Dev, were executed for their
roles in the Kakori train robbery, the bombing of the Assembly hall, and other
terrorist activities.
 In fact, for the British government, Punjab became a raging volcano.

Revolutionary Activities Abroad

 Revolutionary activities continued unabated even abroad. Following the

assassination of District Magistrate Rand, Shyamji Krishna Verma of Kathiawar
traveled to London and established the Indian Home Rule Society.

176
  V.D.Savarkar went to London in 1906 and joined the 'Indian Society.' It advocated
for revolutionary terrorism.
 Madan Lal Dhingra, a member of this society, assassinated Sir William Curzon Willy,
the ADC to India's Secretary of State.
 Lala Hardayal, a revolutionary young man from Punjab, founded the Gadar
Party and also published The Gadar, a weekly newspaper.
o Its goal was to spark a revolution in India that would liberate the country
from British rule.
o The United States government ordered Lala Hardayal to leave the country
due to his involvement in anti-British propaganda.
 The Komagata Maru case fueled revolutionary terrorism. This Japanese ship, which
had brought revolutionary Sikhs to Canada, was denied anchoring in a Canadian port
and was forced to return to Calcutta.

55.4 Government Response to Revolutionary Activities

In order to meet revolutionary activities, the government of India passed several repressive
legislations including:

 The Prevention of Seditious Meeting Act, 1907

 The Explosives Substances Act, 1908
 The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908
 The Newspaper (Incitement to Offenses Act), 1908
 The Press Act, 1910
 The Defense of India Rules, 1915

55.5 Decline of Revolutionary Activities

 There was no central, all-India organization that could control the activities in an
organized manner.
 These movements appealed to the youth who had faced the hostilities of British rule,
but the mass following in the rural belt was unavailable.
 After the First World War, there was a brief respite in revolutionary activity as
prisoners held under the Defense of India Rules were released.
 There was an atmosphere of conciliation following Montagu's August 1917
statement and talk of constitutional reforms, and the arrival of Gandhi on the scene
with the program of nonviolent non-cooperation promised new hope.
 After 1918 the revolutionary activities came to a temporary halt. There was stern
government repression along with a series of harsh and severe laws. There was also
a lack of popular response.
 Discussions began on the new Constitutional Reforms (Government of India Act
1919) which generated an atmosphere of compromise.
 Germany failed to deliver on its promises of arms and funds to be used against
Britain.
 The United States' entry into the war and subsequent dominance in the war
demoralized Germany and the allies, making it difficult for them to assist the Indian
cause.

177
  Montagu's package of self-government for Indians dampened the revolutionary
activists' enthusiasm.
 The Congress Party and other upper-middle-class politicians and leaders have always
been critical of these movements' methods.
 Gandhiji arrived on the national scene and emphasized non-violent means which
also halted the pace of revolutionary activities.
 On account of the very nature of revolutionary terrorism, it could be taken up by
only a handful of individuals while the masses still awaited a form of political action
that could accommodate their weaknesses while utilizing their strength
simultaneously.

55.6 Conclusion
Although they did not achieve their stated goal of achieving independence through armed
revolt, they were successful in arousing people, removing their fear of authority from their
minds, and striking terror into the hearts of the rulers. The Revolutionaries organized
rebellions against the British government, and they grew stronger and more determined as
they gained support from foreign nations hostile to the British. Despite gaining popularity
and a dedicated following, both the terrorist and revolutionary movements were unable to
achieve their goals of liberating India from British rule.

*****

178
 56. Indian Press Act (1910)
Indian Press Act (1910) was one of the acts which were rolled out to curtail the progress of
the Swadeshi movement. It was an act to provide for better control of the press. This act
resurrected the worst aspects of the Vernacular Press Act (VPA). The British government
constantly feared the growing dissatisfaction among the masses and how the growing
educated gentry from among the masses was spreading ideas that brought the people
against the government. Since the disturbances of 1857, the government vigilantly
suppressed the freedom of the press and other vital liberties through legal means. This
article will exclusively deal with the Indian Press Act, which was one of the most
undemocratic laws enacted by the British in India.

56.1 Indian Press Act - Background

 The British government's attitude toward the Indian press changed over time.
 From 1908 to 1935, numerous press laws were enacted in an attempt to curb the
anti-British tone of the Indian press.
 The resurgence of political terrorism forced the British to take a hard line against
Indian nationalists.
 On February 4, 1910, Lord Ridley, the Home Member, introduced a bill to prohibit
the distribution of anti-government literature.
 On February 9, 1910, Lord Minto II, Viceroy of India, enacted the Indian Press Act of
1910.

56.2 Important Provisions of the Act

 The Indian Press Act of 1910 was enacted in British India, and it imposed rigorous
censorship on all types of publications.
 The principal tools of control imposed by the Press Act were financial securities that
could be confiscated if any of the legislation's extraordinarily broad provisions were
broken.
 Proprietors were required to deposit between 500 and 5000 rupees, according to
the Magistrate's discretion.
 The authority to detain and investigate the suspected substance was given to
customs and postal authorities.
 Section 12(1) of the Act empowered Local Governments to issue warrants against
any newspaper or book containing seditious matters, which were to be forfeited to
his Majesty.
 The Indian Press Act of 1910 prohibited the publication of a large amount of
nationalist press and political literature.

56.3 Implications of the Act

 Attempts to incite murder or anarchical outrages, to tamper with the loyalty of the
Army or Navy, to excite racial, class, and religious animosity, hatred, and contempt
of the Government or a native prince, to incite criminal intimidation and

179
 interference with law and order, and to intimidate public servants with threats of
injury were all defined as press offenses in the bill.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak was prosecuted for sedition and sentenced to six years in
Mandalay (Burma).
 Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, the Law Member of the Government of India, headed a
committee to examine the working of the Indian Press Act, 1910. On the
recommendation of the Committee, the Act was repealed.
 Lord Reading (1921-1926) later abolished the Indian Press Act of 1910.

56.4 Conclusion
From the turn of the twentieth century forward, the issue of press freedom became
intertwined with nationalist politics. The Press Acts and restrictions, ostensibly aimed at
suppressing revolutionary and "seditious" activities, had a broader scope than even the
harsh Indian Penal Code.

*****

180
 57. Komagata Maru Incident (1914)
The Komagata Maru incident occurred in 1914, when the Japanese steamship 'Komagata
Maru' sailed from Hong Kong (part of the British Empire) to Vancouver, British Columbia in
Canada, passing through Shanghai, China to Yokohama (Japan), carrying 376
passengers from Punjab, part of British India. The incident gained attention because, while
24 of the passengers were admitted to Canada, the remaining 352 passengers were denied
entry and the ship was forcibly returned to India. The significance of this event stems from
the fact that it sparked an explosive situation in Punjab. In this article, we will discuss
the Komagata Maru Incident (1914) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

57.1 What is Komagata Maru?

 In May 1914, a Japanese steamship sailed from Hong Kong to Vancouver, Canada
via Japan.
 It was carrying 376 passengers, all of whom were Punjabi immigrants. Only 24 of
them were allowed to enter Canada when the ship docked in Vancouver.
 At the time, Canada had strict laws prohibiting Asian migrants from entering the
country. After a two-month standoff, the ship and its 352 passengers were escorted
out of the dock by Canadian military personnel and forced to sail back to India.
 The ship returned to Calcutta and was intercepted by British forces. Passengers were
placed under guard, and the ship was permitted to dock in Budge Budge, Calcutta.
 The passengers were thought to be lawbreakers and political agitators by the British.
When the police attempted to arrest the people they considered to be the group's
leaders, they were met with resistance, and a riot broke out.

57.2 Komagata Maru Incident - Background

 Canada had imposed strict restrictions on Indian immigration. Its law forbade entry
to all except those who made a continuous journey from India to Canada - ’direct
passage in their own ship’.
 In November 1913, the Supreme Court of Canada had allowed entry to 35 Indians
who had made a continuous journey.
 Encouraged by this judgment, Gurdit Singh, an Indian contractor living in Singapore,
decided to charter a ship and carry it to Vancouver, Indians living in East and
southeast India.
 Thus, a Japanese ship named Komagata Maru, carrying 376 Indians (351 Sikhs and
21 Punjabi) began its journey to Vancouver.
 At Yokohama, in Japan, Ghadirites visited the ship, gave lectures, and distributed
Ghadar literature.
 On its arrival, the ship was not allowed to land in Vancouver. To fight for the rights of
the passengers, a ‘Shore Committee’ was formed in Vancouver led by Hussain
Rahim, Sohan Lal Pathak, and Balwant Singh.
 A powerful campaign was carried out in the USA led by Barkatullah, Bhagwan Singh,
Ram Chandra, and Sohan Singh Bhakna. Yet, Komagata Maru was forced out of
Canadian waters.

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  On its way back, First World War broke out and before the ship could reach
Yokhama, the British Government passed orders that no passengers be allowed to
disembark anywhere on the way, but only at Calcutta.
 On 27th Sep 1914, the ship reached Budge Budge, Calcutta. The harassed
passengers resisted the hostile attitude of the police when it escalated into a clash
resulting in the death of 18 passengers.
 This created widespread discontentment in Punjab and political dacoities erupted in
the districts of Jalandhar, Amritsar, and Ludhiana

57.3 Komagata Maru Incident - Significance

 Human rights violations such as arbitrary detention aided Indian independence

fighters in exposing the true face of the British administration.
 During the course of the voyage, the Komagata Maru stopped at various ports where
the delivery of political lectures helped rally the support of other countries.
 Exposition of the Asian Exclusion Act - the discriminatory immigration laws for
Asians only allowed the leaders to cast doubt on Whiteman's burden theory because
they refused to accept that "burden."
 The Ghadar Party used the incident to rally support for a massive uprising against
the British Empire.

57.4 Komagata Maru Incident - Ghadar Party Response

 Various Indian groups used the 'Komagata Maru' incident to highlight inconsistencies
in Canadian immigration laws at the time.
 The emotions sparked by this incident were used by Indian revolutionaries,
particularly Ghadar Party members, to rally public support for their cause.
 Ghadirites held numerous meetings with the Indian community in California in
1914, and the Ghadar leaders used this incident to enlist the community's support
for their cause.
 In the aftermath of this unfortunate incident, people were also recruited to the
movement. Tarak Nath Das, Barkatullah, and Sohan Singh were among the
prominent Ghadar leaders.
 They encouraged fighters to travel to India. Raghubar Dayal Gupta and Kartar Singh
Saraba left for India.
 Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal, both Bengal revolutionaries, were contacted and
asked to lead the movement.
 Political dacoits were determined to raise funds. The Punjab political squabbles of
January–February 1915 featured some novel social content.
 Before fleeing with the cash, the raiders targeted moneylenders and debt records in
at least three of the five major causes. As a result, an explosive situation developed
in Punjab.
 The Ghadrites set February 21, 1915, as the date for an armed revolt in the garrisons
of Ferozepur, Lahore, and Rawalpindi.
 Due to treachery, the plan was thwarted at the last minute.

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  The authorities acted quickly, aided by the Defence of India Rules, 1915. Rebel
regiments were disbanded, leaders were arrested and deported, and 45 were
executed.
 Rashbehari Bose fled to Japan (where he and Abani Mukherji made numerous
attempts to send arms), while Sachin Sanyal was imprisoned for life.
 The British responded to the wartime threat with a formidable arsenal of repressive
measures, the most extensive since 1857, led by the Defence of India Act, which was
passed in March 1915 primarily to crush the Ghadr movement.
 There were large-scale detentions without trial, special courts that handed down
extremely harsh sentences, and a slew of court-martials of army personnel.
 Aside from the Bengal revolutionaries and the Punjab Ghadrites, radical pan-
Islamists such as the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, and Hasrat Mohani were
imprisoned for years.

57.5 Conclusion
The Komagata Maru incident was widely used by Indian groups at the time to highlight
inconsistencies in Canadian immigration laws. Furthermore, the Ghadar Party, an Indian
revolutionary organization, used the incident's inflamed passions to rally support for its
goals. In a series of meetings ranging from California in 1914 to the Indian diaspora,
prominent Ghadarites such as Barkatullah, Tarak Nath Das, and Sohan Singh used the
incident as a rallying point to recruit members for the Ghadar movement, most notably in
support of plans to coordinate a massive uprising in India. Their efforts were thwarted due
to a lack of public support.

*****

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 58. Indian Freedom Struggle amid World War 1
The First World War began in June 1914, with the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Russia,
Japan, and the United States of America on one side and Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Turkey on the other. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the world's industrialized
capitalist countries began to compete for, and struggle for, exclusive markets and colonies.
This struggle had become very intense and bitter by the beginning of the twentieth century,
as the area of the world still available for conquest began to shrink. Very quickly, the
powers were divided into hostile alliances or power blocs. Finally, the war began in August
1914, and world politics began to shift rapidly. The years of war in India marked
the maturation of nationalism. In this article, we will discuss the Indian Freedom Struggle
amid World War 1 and its economic hardship which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

58.1 World War 1 – Background

 Powers such as Germany and Italy, who arrived late on the world stage were unable
to seize as much as the early starters, such as Britain and France, now demanded a
redistribution of the colonies.
 They were willing to use force to achieve such a division.
 Every major country in the world began to prepare for a possible war in order to
keep or acquire new possessions.
 The powers engaged in a fierce armament race in the early years of the twentieth
century.
 The people of these countries became emotionally involved in the struggle for
colonies after their rulers told them that a nation's prestige, power, and fame
depended on the extent of its colonial holdings.
 Finally, the war began in August 1914, and world politics began to shift rapidly.

58.2 India’s Support to British during World War 1

 When World War I broke out, the British were taken aback by the outpouring of
sympathy, loyalty, and goodwill for them.
 They had feared that the Indians would seize the opportunity to revolt. India
generously supplied the British with men and resources.
 Nearly 1.3 million Indian soldiers and laborers served in Europe, Africa, and the
Middle East.
 The Indian government, as well as the princes, provided massive amounts of food,
money, and ammunition.
 However, the high rate of casualties, rising inflation fuelled by heavy taxation, an
influenza outbreak, and trade disruptions increased suffering in India. The nationalist
movement experienced a resurgence.
 The moderate and extremist factions in Congress put aside their differences to form
a unified front.
 Initially, Indian nationalist leaders, including Lokmanya Tilak, who had been released
in June 1914, decided to back the war.

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  The nationalists adopted an actively pro-British stance, erroneously believing that a
grateful Britain would repay India's loyalty with gratitude, allowing India to take a
significant step forward on the road to self-government.
 They were unaware that the various powers were igniting the First World War
precisely to protect their existing colonies.
 These were also temporary alliances formed in 1916 by the Congress and the Muslim
League. The Lucknow Pact was the name given to the alliance.
 The alliance was formed over the issue of political power devolution and the
treatment of Islam in the Middle East.
 When it came to acknowledging India's support during the war, the British used
a "carrot and stick" strategy.
 In August 1917, Edwin Montague, the Secretary of State for India, was 'increasing
the association of Indians in every branch of administration and the gradual
development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization
of a responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.'
 The methods for implementing the proposed measure were later incorporated into
the Government of India Act of 1919.

58.3 Reforms and Agitation

 In India, the return of Punjabi soldiers after the war sparked political activity against
colonial rule in that province, which sparked further wider protests.
 After the war, Punjab, which supplied a large proportion of the troops, became a
hotbed of nationalism.
 When the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms failed to deliver on the expectation of
home rule that had led to popular support for the British war effort, there was a
surge of nationalism and a rise in mass civil disobedience.
 As the war dragged on, casualties piled up, and recruitment methods became more
coercive, resentment grew, fuelling nationalism.
 Gandhiji called for satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, which the British had just
passed, in 1919. The Act restricted fundamental rights such as freedom of
expression and increased police powers.
 Another cause was the Khilafat dispute in which the British imposed a harsh treaty
on the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifa, in 1920. People were outraged, just as they had
been after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
 Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, the leaders of the Khilafat agitation, now wished to
launch a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement.
 During 1921-22, the Non-Cooperation Movement gained traction.
 Muslim traders and peasants in Sind (now Pakistan) were ecstatic about the Khilafat
call.
 The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance provided enormous communal unity and
strength to the national movement in Bengal as well.
 The Sikh Akali agitation in Punjab sought to remove corrupt mahants – supported
by the British – from their gurdwaras. This movement became inextricably linked
with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 Patidar peasants in Kheda, Gujarat, organized nonviolent campaigns against the
British's high land revenue demand.

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  Liquor stores were picketed in coastal Andhra Pradesh and the interior of Tamil
Nadu.
 Tribals and poor peasants in Andhra Pradesh's Guntur district staged a number
of "forest satyagraha," sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying
grazing fees.

58.4 Post War Economic Hardship

Following the war, the conditions in India, combined with foreign influences, created a
situation ripe for a national uprising against foreign rule.

 India provided both men and money to the British war effort. Thousands of Indian
men died on various fronts during the war.
 The money raised by taxing Indians was used to pay for food, ammunition, and the
army's keep. When the war ended, all segments of the Indian population were facing
hardships on multiple fronts.
 Price increases, followed by a recession and increased foreign investment, pushed
many industries to the brink of closure and loss. In addition to government
assistance, they now demand protection from imports.
 Artisans and workers - This segment of the population was affected
by unemployment and high prices.
 Peasants Faced with high taxes and poverty, waited for a leader to protest.
 Soldiers who returned from foreign battlefields shared their experiences with the
rural populace. They were also taken aback by the fact that they had returned to a
country that was impoverished and had less liberty than before.
 Urban Educated Classes were facing unemployment as well as an acute awareness
of racism in the British attitude.
 It resulted in a significant increase in the Government of India's defense spending.
 In turn, the government raised taxes on individual income and business profits.
 Increased military spending and demand for war supplies resulted in a sharp rise in
prices, causing great hardship for the general public.

58.5 World War 1 and Growth of Mass Nationalism

 After 1919, the struggle against British rule grew into a mass movement, involving
large numbers of peasants, tribals, students, and women, as well as factory workers
on occasion.
 In the 1920s, certain business groups also began to actively support Congress.
 The war also prompted the British to increase the size of their army.
 Villages were coerced into supplying soldiers for a foreign cause. A large number of
soldiers were sent abroad to serve.
 Many returned from the war with a better understanding of how imperialist powers
exploited the peoples of Asia and Africa, as well as a desire to oppose colonial rule in
India.
 In addition, Russia experienced a revolution in 1917. News of peasant and worker
struggles, as well as socialist ideas, spread widely, inspiring people.
 The contribution of Indians to the British war effort was enormous, though it went
unnoticed.

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  Gandhi and most nationalists lent their support to the war effort, and a large
number of Indian troops died on the battlefields.
 As a result, there were high expectations of political gains from the British
government following the war, which contributed to the country's charged
atmosphere.
 In these circumstances, Mahatma Gandhi rose to prominence as a mass leader.

58.6 Conclusion
Towards the end of World War I, a variety of forces were at work in India and on the
international stage. After the war, there was a resurgence of nationalist activity in India and
many other Asian and African colonies. With the emergence of Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi on the Indian political scene, the Indian struggle against imperialism took a decisive
turn toward a broad-based popular struggle.

*****

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 59. Emergence of Gandhi
The emergence of Gandhi was a watershed moment in the history of Indian nationalism.
Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. During his early years, he spent his time
at the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, which was relatively unknown to the general
public. In taking his political stance, he sought advice from Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale
advised Gandhi to first thoroughly research the socio-political situation in the country and
then act accordingly. However, Gandhi quickly rose to prominence in the political arena as a
result of his capable leadership in a number of local conflicts. In this article, we will
discuss various aspects of the emergence of Gandhi which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

59.1 Gandhi – Early Career

 On October 2, 1869, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar,

Gujarat's princely state of Kathiawar. His father was a state diwan (minister).
 After studying law in England, Gandhi traveled to South Africa in 1893 in connection
with a case involving his client, Dada Abdullah.
 In South Africa, he witnessed the ugly face of white racism, as well as the
humiliation and contempt, showed to Asians who had come to South Africa as
laborers.
 He chose to remain in South Africa in order to organize the Indian workers and
enable them to fight for their rights.
 Gandhi spent 20 years of his life (1893 - 1914) in South Africa working as an attorney
and a public worker.
 There he developed the idea of Satyagraha and used it against the Asiatic
Registration Law. It also resulted in the first jail sentence in Mahatma Gandhi's life.
 Although it couldn't stop him from evolving into one of the most impactful and
respected leaders in South Africa.
 He remained there until 1914 when he returned to India.

59.2 Gandhi’s Experiment with truth in South Africa

 The Indians in South Africa were divided into three groups:

o indentured Indian laborers, primarily from South India, who had migrated to
South Africa after 1890 to work on sugar plantations;
o merchants—mostly Meman Muslims who had followed the laborers; and
o ex-indentured laborers who had settled down with their children in South
Africa after their contracts expired.
 These Indians were mostly illiterate and spoke little or no English. They accepted
racial discrimination as a normal part of life.
 These Indian immigrants had to deal with a slew of handicaps.
o They were not allowed to vote.
o They could only live in designated areas that were unsanitary and congested.
 Asians and Africans in some colonies were unable to leave their homes after dark
and nor were they allowed using public footpaths.

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59.3 Phases of Struggle
Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906)

 During this period, Gandhi relied on petitions and memorials to South African and
British authorities.
 He hoped that once the authorities were made aware of the plight of Indians, they
would take genuine steps to address their grievances, as Indians were, after all,
British subjects.
 To unite various sections of Indians, he founded the Natal Indian Congress and
launched the newspaper Indian Opinion.

Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-1914)

 The second phase, which began in 1906, was distinguished by Gandhi's use of the
method of passive resistance or civil disobedience known as satyagraha.
 After a series of negotiations involving Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, and
General Smuts, an agreement was reached.
 The South African government conceded the major Indian demands relating to the
poll tax, registration certificates, and marriages solemnized according to Indian rites,
and promised to treat the issue of Indian immigration sympathetically.

Satyagraha Description

 In South Africa, new legislation requires Indians to carry

registration certificates with their fingerprints at all times.
 The Indians, led by Gandhi, decided not to submit to this
discriminatory measure.
 Gandhi established the Passive Resistance Association to
Satyagraha against
carry out a campaign of defying the law and suffering the
Registration
consequences of such defiance.
Certificates (1906)  Thus, was born satyagraha, or devotion to truth, the
technique of resisting opponents without resorting to
violence.
 Gandhi and others who refused to register were imprisoned
by the government.

 The previous campaign was expanded to include opposition

Campaign against to new legislation restricting Indian migration.
restrictions on Indian  The Indians defied the law by crossing from one province to
migration the next and refusing to produce licenses.
 Many of these Native Americans were imprisoned.

Campaign against Poll  All ex-indentured Indians were subjected to a three-pound

Tax and Invalidation of poll tax.
Indian Marriages  The demand for the abolition of the poll tax broadened the
campaign's base.

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  Then, in response to a Supreme Court order that invalidated
all marriages not conducted according to Christian rites and
registered by the registrar of marriages, Indians and others
who were not Christians were outraged.
 By extension, Hindu, Muslim, and Parsi marriages were
illegal, and children born from such unions were illegitimate.
 The Indians saw this decision as an insult to women's honor,
and many women were drawn into the movement as a
result of this humiliation.

 Indians illegally migrated from Natal to Transvaal in protest

of the Transvaal Immigration Act.
 These Indians were imprisoned by the government.
Protest against
 Miners and plantation workers were struck by lightning.
Transvaal Immigration
 Gokhale toured the entire country of India, rallying public
Act support for Indians in South Africa.
 Even the viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned the repression
and demanded an impartial investigation.

59.4 Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa

 Gandhi discovered that the masses have an enormous capacity to participate in and
sacrifice for a cause that moves them.
 Under his leadership, he was able to bring together Indians of various religions and
classes, as well as men and women.
 He also realized that leaders must sometimes make decisions that are unpopular
with their ardent supporters.
 He was able to develop his own leadership and political style, as well as new
techniques of struggle on a small scale, unhindered by the opposition of competing
political currents.

59.5 Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha

During his time in South Africa, Gandhi developed the Satyagraha technique. It was founded
on the truth and nonviolence. He combined elements of Indian tradition with the Christian
requirement of turning the other cheek and Tolstoy's philosophy, which stated that
nonviolent resistance was the best way to combat evil. Its fundamental tenets were as
follows:

 A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he saw as wrong, but rather to be truthful,
nonviolent, and fearless.
 A satyagrahi works on the principles of boycott and withdrawal of cooperation.
 Satyagraha tactics include refusing to pay taxes and declining honors and positions
of authority.
 In his fight against the wrongdoer, a satyagrahi must be willing to suffer. This
suffering was to be a part of his love for truth.

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  Even while fighting the wrongdoer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill will toward
the wrongdoer; hatred would be alien to his nature.
 A true satyagrahi would never bow down to evil, no matter what the consequences.
 Satyagraha was only for the brave and strong; it was not for the weak and cowardly.
Cowardice was even preferred to violence.
 Thought and practice were never to be separated. To put it another way, the ends
could not justify the means.

59.6 Gandhi in India

 In January 1915, Gandhi returned to India. In South Africa, his efforts were well
known not only among the educated but also among the masses.
 He resolved to spend the next year touring the country, observing the people's plight
first hand.
 He also resolved not to take a stance on any political issue for at least a year.
 In terms of the political currents that existed in India at the time, he was convinced
of the limitations of moderate politics and was also opposed to the Home Rule
agitation that was gaining popularity at the time.
 He believed that while Britain was at war, it was not the best time to campaign for
Home Rule.
 He was convinced that the only method capable of achieving nationalist goals was
non-violent satyagraha.
 He also stated that he would not join any political organization unless it shared his
commitment to nonviolent satyagraha.
 Gandhi was involved in three struggles in 1917 and 1918, in Champaran,
Ahmedabad, and Kheda, before launching the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

59.7 Conclusion
With Gandhi's rise, a whole new philosophy permeated every aspect of the Indian psyche.
Gandhi's political ideals were simply an extension of his spiritual tenets, which were based
on fundamental human values. Gandhi's greatness is found not only in his pioneering of a
unique fervor in Indian politics and the rise of the masses but also in the way he
revolutionized the entire way of viewing politics as an extension of humanity's inherent
greatness, enriched with an innate belief in and commitment to truth.

*****

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 60. First World War and Nationalist Response (1914-1919)
During World War I (1914–19), Britain sided with France, Russia, the United States, Italy,
and Japan against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. In the second half of the
nineteenth century, the world's industrialised capitalist countries began to compete for,
and struggle for, exclusive markets and colonies. During this time, Indian nationalism also
matured. After 1919, the struggle against British rule grew into a mass movement, involving
large numbers of peasants, tribals, students, and women, as well as factory workers on
occasion. In this article, we will discuss the first world war and the various responses of
Indian nationalists which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

60.1 Response of Nationalists to British Participation in First World War

The nationalist response to Britain's participation in World War I was threefold:

 The Moderates supported the empire as a matter of duty;

 The Extremists, including Tilak (who was released in June 1914), supported the war
efforts in the mistaken belief that Britain would repay India's loyalty with gratitude in
the form of self-government; and
 The revolutionaries decided to use the opportunity to wage a war on British rule and
liberate India.

60.2 Home Rule League Movement

 The Home Rule League Movement was India's less charged but more effective
response to the First World War than the response of Indians living abroad, which
took the form of the romantic Ghadr adventure.
 The home rule league movement, led by stalwarts such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
Annie Besant, grew and flourished all across the Indian independence movement
between 1916 and 1918.
 This alliance was to be known as the All India Home Rule League, similar to the Irish
Home Rule League.
 The goal of the home rule movement was the attainment of home rule or dominion
status under the British Empire, similar to that of Canada and Australia.
 The movement was carried out through the two home rule leagues. Tilak and Besant
formed separate leagues to avoid conflict.
 As Annie Besant stated, some Tilak supporters were uncomfortable with her, and
similarly, some of her own supporters were uncomfortable with Tilak.
 Both leagues, however, coordinated their efforts by limiting their work to their
respective areas. They helped where they could.
 The Home Rule League was popular among the moderates since it focused on
political debate and education.
 The league focused also on demands for separate electorates and minority
representation in legislatures, to which the Congress also agreed.
 Many sections of people within the Congress, like the members of Gokhale’s
Servants of India Society,joined the movement after being dissatisfied with the
inaction of Congress.

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  The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly united through this
movement.

60.3 Lucknow Session of INC (1916)

 The Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress was presided over by Ambica
Charan Mazumdar.
 It was the 31st session of the INCwhich was held in Lucknow.
 This session has gained historic importance due to the remarkable decisions made
during the session.
 It marks the reconciliation of the moderates and the extremists after 10 years of
ideological disputes after their split in theSurat session of 1907.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak assured the moderates that the extremists would not adopt any
agitational strategy or politics while protesting against the British, which led to the
reconciliation.
 Also, the demise of Moderate leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah
Mehta reduced the opposition for amalgamation of the factions of Congress
(Extremists and Moderates) paving the way for Tilak and Annie Besant to dominate
the Congress.
 The historic Lucknow pactbetweenCongress and the Muslim League was signed in
this session.
 This occurred at a time when the Muslim League, now dominated by younger
militant nationalists, was moving closer to the Congress's goals and becoming
more anti-imperialist.
 The Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League could be regarded
as a watershed moment in the nationalistic struggle for freedom.

60.4 August Declaration (1917)

 On August 20, 1917, the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Samuel Montagu, made
a statement in the British House of Commons known as the August Declaration of
1917.
 According to the August Declaration of 1917, control over the Indian government
would be gradually transferred to the Indian people, and a responsible government
would be gradually established.
 This declaration also stated unequivocally that India would remain an integral part
of British India.
 He sympathised with the aspirations of the Indian people and can thus be compared
to people such as Lord Pethick Lawrence and Sir Stafford Cripps.
 He brought a fresh perspective to his workplace.
 On August 20, 1917, when the Allies' fortunes were at their lowest ebb, he declared,
o "The government policy is of increasing participation of Indians in every
branch of administration and gradual development of self-governing
institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible
government in India as an integral part of the British Empire."

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60.5 Conclusion
After the war, there was a resurgence of nationalist activity in India and many other Asian
and African colonies. Both Tilak and Besant recognized that the movement needed the
support of a Moderate-dominated Congress as well as the full cooperation of the
Extremists. Tilak and Besant decided to restart political activity on their own after Congress
failed to reach a Moderate-Extremist rapprochement in 1914. With the emergence of
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on the Indian political scene, the Indian struggle against
imperialism took a decisive turn toward a broad-based popular struggle.

*****

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 61. Home Rule League Movement
The Home Rule League Movement was India's less charged but more effective response to
the First World War than the response of Indians living abroad, which took the form of the
romantic Ghadr adventure. The home rule league movement, led by stalwarts such as Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant, grew and flourished all across the Indian independence
movement between 1916 and 1918. This alliance was to be known as the All India Home
Rule League, similar to the Irish Home Rule League. The goal of the home rule movement
was the attainment of home rule or dominion status under the British Empire, similar to
that of Canada and Australia. The movement was carried out through the two home rule
leagues. This is an important topic as far as the UPSC exams are concerned. We will study
this topic in detail through this article.

61.1 Home Rule League Movement - Background

 The Government of India Act of 1909 fell short of Indians' expectations.

 The national movement slowed when the Congress Party split in 1907 and fiery
leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned from 1908 to 1914.
 The release of Tilak and the arrival of Annie Besant, however, resulted in a
resurgence of the national movement.
 Annie Besant was an Irish socialist, author, and orator who advocated for Irish and
Indian independence. In 1893, she arrived in India.
 India's authorities were split on whether or not to back Britain in the war.
 Tilak realized the necessity for a renewal of the nationalist movement in India after
returning from exile in Mandalay.
 He also recognised the Congress Party's growing relevance in India's political
landscape. As a result, his first objective was to re-enter the party.
 Due to Annie Besant's influence, the extremists were allowed to rejoin the party at
the December 1915 Congress session.
 Besant had also recognised the importance of Congress's acceptance and the
radicals' active engagement in the national battle.
 Besant and Tilak, on the other hand, were unable to persuade Congress to endorse
their plan to establish home rule leagues.
 Besant persuaded the Congress to commit to educational propaganda and the
formation of local groups. It was also decided that if these requirements were not
met by September 1916, she would be free to form her own home rule league.
 As a result, in September 1916, she formed her Home Rule League.
 Tilak, on the other hand, was not bound by any such stipulation and had established
his league in April 1916.

61.2 Factors Leading to Formation of Home Rule League

 The Indian home rule movement began in India during World War I.
 The Government of India Act (1909) fell short of meeting the demands of national
leaders.
 However, due to a schism in Congress and the absence of leaders such as Tilak, who
was imprisoned in Mandalay, the nationalistic response was tepid.

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  By 1915, a number of factors had converged to pave the way for a new phase of the
nationalist movement.
 The rise of Annie Besant (of Irish origin and a staunch supporter of the Irish home
rule movement), the return of Tilak from exile, and the growing calls for resolving
the split in Congress began to agitate the Indian political scene.
 The Ghadar Mutiny and its suppression created a climate of resentment toward the
government.

61.3 Home Rule League Movement - Objectives

 To achieve self-government in India.

 To promote political education and discussion to set up agitation for self-
government.
 To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government’s suppression.
 To demand a larger political representation for Indians from the British government.
 To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress
Party.

61.4 Home Rule League Movement - Significance

 The Home Rule League was popular among the moderates since it focused on
political debate and education.
 The league focused also on demands for separate electorates and minority
representation in legislatures, to which the Congress also agreed.
 Many sections of people within the Congress, like the members of Gokhale’s
Servants of India Society, joined the movement after being dissatisfied with the
inaction of Congress.
 The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly united through this
movement.
 The movement spread political consciousness to more regions in the country.
 Leaders like Motilal Nehru, Jawarhlal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das, Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Lala Lajpat Rai, all joined
the movement.
 The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year as opposed to the Congress
Party whose activities were confined to once a year.
 This movement led to the Montagu Declaration of 1917 in which it was declared
that there would be more Indians in the government leading to the development of
self-governing institutions ultimately realizing responsible governments in India.
 The League administration would take a more conciliatory approach in 1917. Since
the declaration, its claims were no longer considered seditious.

61.5 Important Leagues of the Movement

Tilak and Besant formed separate leagues to avoid conflict. As Annie Besant stated, some
Tilak supporters were uncomfortable with her, and similarly, some of her own supporters
were uncomfortable with Tilak. Both leagues, however, coordinated their efforts by limiting
their work to their respective areas. They helped where they could.

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Tilak's Home Rule League Movement

 Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.
 It was to work in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Province and Berar, excluding
Bombay.
 Joseph Baptista was appointed as the President and N.C Kelkar as the secretary of
the movement.
 Tilak propounded the slogan ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.’
 Maratha and Kesari, newspapers published by Tilak were the organs for home rule.

Besant's Home Rule League Movement

 Annie Besant founded the All-India Home Rule League in Madras (now
Chennai) in September 1916 and expanded to cover the rest of India (including
Bombay city).
 It had 200 branches, was less organized than Tilak's league, and had George
Arundale as its organizing secretary.
 B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, in addition to Arundale, contributed
significantly to the project.

Decline of Home Rule League Movement

The Home Rule agitation was short-lived. It had dwindled by 1919. The following were the
reasons for the decline:

 There was an ineffective organization.

 During 1917–18, there were communal riots.
 The moderates who had joined the Congress after Annie Besant's arrest were
pacified by talk of reforms and Besant's release.
o These reforms were contained in Montagu's August 1917 statement, which
stated that self-government was the long-term goal of British rule in India.
 From September 1918 onwards, talk of passive resistance by the Extremists kept the
Moderates at bay.
 The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, which were implemented in July 1918, further
divided nationalists.
 After the reforms were announced, Annie Besant had second thoughts about using
the league.
 Annie Besant was conflicted about her reaction to the reforms and passive
resistance techniques.
 Tilak was forced to travel abroad in September 1918 in connection with a libel case
against Valentine Chirol, whose book, Indian Unrest, blamed Tilak for the agitational
politics that had developed in India.
 With Besant unable to provide positive leadership and Tilak away in England,
the movement was left without a leader.
 Gandhi's new approach to the struggle for freedom gradually but steadily captured
the imagination of the people, and the growing mass movement pushed the home
rule movement to the sidelines until it died out.

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  In 1920, Gandhi accepted the presidency of the All India Home Rule League and
renamed it the Swarajya Sabha. However, within a year, the league had joined the
Indian National Congress.

61.6 Conclusion
Both Tilak and Besant recognized that the movement needed the support of a Moderate-
dominated Congress as well as the full cooperation of the Extremists. Tilak and Besant
decided to restart political activity on their own after Congress failed to reach a Moderate-
Extremist rapprochement in 1914. At the climax of its activities in 1917, the combined
membership of both the leagues was around 40,000. The All India Home league ended in
1920 when it elected Mahatma Gandhi as its President when within a year it merged into
the Indian National Congress.

*****

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 62. Factors Leading to Home Rule League Movement
There were several factors that contributed to the formation of the Home Rule
Movement. Prominent leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Annie Besant, G.S. Khaparde,
Sir S. Subramania Iyer, Joseph Baptista, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, came together and
decided that a national alliance was needed to work throughout the year (unlike the
Congress, which only met once a year) with the main goal of demanding self-government or
home rule for all of India within the British commonwealth. This alliance was to be known
as the All India Home Rule League, similar to the Irish Home Rule League. In this article we
will discuss in detail the factors which led to the formation of the League.

62.1 Factors Leading To the Movement

 A subset of nationalists believed that popular pressure was required to persuade the
government to make concessions.
 The Morley-Minto reforms disappointed the moderates.
 People were feeling the burden of wartime miseries brought on by high taxation
and price increases, and they were ready to join any aggressive protest movement.
 The war, which was fought between the major imperialist powers of the time and
was backed by open propaganda against each other, exposed the myth of white
superiority.
 Tilak was prepared to assume leadership after his release in June 1914, and had
made conciliatory gestures—to the government, assuring it of his loyalty, and to
the Moderates, assuring them that he wanted, like the Irish Home Rulers, a reform
of the administration rather than an overthrow of the government.
 He also admitted that the acts of violence had only slowed the pace of India's
political progress.
 He urged all Indians to come to the aid of the British government in its hour of need.
 Annie Besant, an Irish theosophist based in India since 1896, had decided to broaden
her activities to include the formation of a home rule movement along the lines of
the Irish Home Rule Leagues.

62.2 Conclusion
The Indian Home Rule movement was a home rule movement in British India similar to the
Irish Home Rule movement and other home rule movements. The movement lasted about
two years, from 1916 to 1918, and is thought to have laid the groundwork for the
independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.

*****

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 63. Objectives of Home Rule League Movement and Tilak
Home Rule Movement
The main objective of the home rule league movement was to establish self-
government in India within the British Empire. Its goal was the attainment of home rule or
dominion status under the British Empire, similar to that of Canada and Australia. Two
Home Rule Movements were launched in the country in 1916, one led by Bal Gangadhar
Tilak and the other by Annie Besant. And Tilak established his home rule movement in
1916. After returning from Mandalay, Tilak pitched the proposition that the congress should
form a small and cohesive working committee to carry out its daily functions, in order to
become more impactful as a political party. However, the idea was not accepted. He
believed that the common people were tired of the dacoity of their pocket by the
government and that they are ready to join any movement or protest against the
Government. In this article, we will discuss the objectives of the home rule league
movement and Tilak’s Home Rule Movement which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

63.1 Home Rule League Movement - Objectives

 To achieve self-government in India.

 To encourage political education and discussion in order to create agitation for self-
government.
 To inspire Indians to speak out against the government's repression.
 To press the British government for greater political representation for Indians.
 To resurrect political activity in India while adhering to the Congress Party's
principles.

63.2 Tilak’s League

 In April 1916, Tilak established his Indian Home Rule League.

 Tilak's first Home Rule meeting was held in Belgaum.
 His league's headquarters were in Poona.
 His league was limited to Maharashtra (except for Bombay), Karnataka, the Central
Provinces, and Berar.
 It had six branches, and its demands included swarajya, the formation of linguistic
states, and vernacular education.
 Joseph Baptista was appointed as the President and N.C Kelkar as the secretary of
the movement.
 Tilak propounded the slogan ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.’
 Maratha and Kesari, newspapers published by Tilak were the organs for home rule.

63.3 Conclusion
The home rule movement gave the national movement a new dimension and a sense of
urgency. Although its role in the Indian independence movement was limited, it was
successful in maintaining the movement's momentum during the war years, as evidenced by
the signing of the Lucknow Pact in December 1916.

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Since India lacked a solid political front and congress was just a deliberate functionary; not
in a position of organizing mass protests; it is in this context the Home Rule League was
started by Annie Besant, in 1915. The next year Tilak gave form to his own wing of the Home
Rule League.

*****

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 64. Besant Home Rule Movement
Annie Besant founded the All-India Home Rule League in Madras (now Chennai) in
September 1916 and expanded to cover the rest of India (including Bombay city). It had 200
branches but was less organized than Tilak's league. The main aim of the Home Rule
Movement was to obtain the status of a Dominion within the British Empire as enjoyed by
Australia, Canada, South Africa and New Zealand Establishment of All India Home League.
The League had two wings, started by two leaders with the same set of goals. In this article
we will discuss the Home rule league started by Annie Besant.

64.1 Besant’s League

 Annie Besant was a British theosophist, women’s right’s activist, writer and orator
who supported Indian and Irish home rule.
 Started with Subramaniya Iyer in Adyar in September, 2016. George Arundale was
its organizing secretary.
 B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, in addition to Arundale, contributed
significantly to the project.
 The league worked in the rest of India except in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central
Province and Berar where Tilak’s league was in function.
 The Home Rule League organized discussions and lectures and set up reading rooms,
also distributing pamphlets educating people of what they sought to achieve through
this movement.
 The philosophy of the league was a combination of theosophy, social reform, ancient
Hindu wisdom and the claims of achievement of the West which had already been
anticipated by Hindu Rishis many years before they happened.
 The league influenced a lot of people by its philosophy, primarily because
the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj had not reached the majority by then.
 Besant’s league had an All India character, but was founded on Besant’s
Theosophical contacts; it was set up in 1916 and reached its zenith in 1917 with
27,000 members.
 A lot of young men groomed by the home rule movement went on to become future
leaders in Indian politics, namely Satyamurti of Chennai, Jitendralal Banerji of
Kolkata, Jawaharlal Nehru and Khaliquzzaman of Allahabad, Jamunadas Dwarkadas
and Indulal Yajnik, among others.
 The Home Rule League had 2600 members in Mumbai and held meetings attended
by 10,000 to 12,000 people at the Shantaram Chawl area, comprising government
employees and industrial workers.
 The league was also responsible for creating a political awareness in areas like Sindh,
Gujarat, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa.
 Annie Besant’s newspapers New India and Commonweal were important elements
for the movement.

64.2 Conclusion
In June 1917, Annie was arrested under the Defense of India Act. To show her defiance, she
flew a red and green flag in the garden. Mass protests began and American President Wilson
intervened for her release. At the climax of its activities in 1917, the combined membership

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of both the leagues was around 40,000. The All India Home league ended in 1920, when it
elected Mahatma Gandhi as its President, when within a year it merged into the Indian
National Congress.

*****

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 65. Methods Adopted by the Home Rule League
Movement and Gains from the Home Rule League
Demonstrations and agitations were some of the methods adopted by the leagues. There
were public gatherings where the leaders delivered fiery speeches. The home rule
movement was India's less charged but more effective response to the First World War.
With people already suffering the effects of wartime hardships caused by high taxes and
price increases, Tilak and Annie Besant were ready to take the lead, and the campaign got
off to a flying start. The league was the champions of a new trend of aggressive politics.
They attempted to spread the message of home rule as self-government to the general
public.

The Home Rule Leagues and their associated activities had some positive effects and helped
to shape the new direction that the freedom struggle would take in the coming years. The
Home Rule Movement marked a transition between the Congress's previous deliberative
and rather inactive nature and the Gandhian phase that was to come with its mass
involvement in the struggle for freedom. The League's campaign attempted to spread the
message of home rule as self-government to the general public.

65.1 Methods Used by the Leaders

 The league’s initial efforts were to appease Congress. Tilak directed his supporters at
a meeting "to enlighten the villagers regarding the Congress's objectives and work”.
 Local associations formed in a number of Maharashtra towns in August and
September of that year focused more on emphasizing the need for unity within the
Congress than on increasing political activity.
 The leaders of the Home Rule Movement insisted on using constitutional methods
of protest in order to achieve their objective of Home Rule.
 Tilak’s ideas did not reflect any narrow regional linguistic chauvinism or caste bias.
He wanted all the regional languages and cultures to develop and argued
for education to be imparted in the vernaculars.
 The league frontally opposed untouchability. He also urged Brahmins to be tolerant
of the non-Brahmin demands and not oppose them.
 He also urged non-Brahmin not to see their problems of lack of jobs, etc., in terms of
Brahmin vs. non-Brahmin, but to understand that it was the greater spread of
education among Brahmins that gave them greater access to jobs.
 They did not use radical methods to harass the British government during the First
World War.
 Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak traveled extensively, criticizing the government for
neglecting industrial infrastructure and education in India and the high-handed
revenue policy.
 The leaders also distributed pamphlets in order to popularize the concept of
Swadeshi.

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65.2 Spread of Ideas Through Writings

 The League printed and circulated pamphlets to educate people on politics and the
idea of self-rule.
 Tilak’s league published 6 pamphlets in Marathi and 2 in English, of which 47,000
copies were sold.
 Pamphlets were also brought out in Kannada and Gujarati.
 Tilak toured across Maharashtra during the course of which he lectured on and
explained the demand for Home Rule.
 The Propaganda Fund of Besant’s League has sold 300000 copies of 26 English
pamphlets discussing mainly the system of government existing in India and the
reasons for the demand for self-government.
 Annie Besant and her lieutenants Arundale, C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, and B.P. Wadia
ran the headquarters in Adyar, which also published the publications ‘New India’
and ‘Commonweal’.
 Arundale's column on 'Home Rule' in New India served as a vehicle for sharing news
and delivering directions.

65.3 Positive Gains from Home Rule League

 The movement shifted the emphasis from the educated elite to the masses,
permanently deviating the movement from the Moderates' course.
 It established an organizational link between the town and the country, which
would prove crucial later on, when the national movement entered its mass phase.
 It produced a generation of zealous nationalists.
 It prepared the masses for Gandhian-style politics.
 The Home Rule agitation influenced Montagu's August 1917 declaration and
the Montford reforms.
 Tilak and Annie Besant's efforts at the Moderate-Extremist reunion in Lucknow
(1916) resurrected the Congress as an effective instrument of Indian nationalism.
 Many educated Indians joined the movement, which received a lot of support. In
1917, the two leagues had a total membership of roughly 40,000 people.
 This movement brought together moderates, extremists, and the Muslim League for
a brief period.
 The movement was successful in spreading political awareness to additional parts of
the country.
 This effort culminated in the 1917 Montagu Declaration, which said that there would
be more Indians in government, resulting in the establishment of self-governing
institutions and the eventual realization of responsible governments in India.
 The desire for home rule would no longer be labeled seditious after this Declaration,
commonly known as the August Declaration. This was the movement's most
significant achievement.

65.3 Conclusion
The Home Rule League had its own share of both moderate and extremist ways of voicing
their demands. However, it undoubtedly stood for the unity of Hindus and Muslims and that

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of the country as a whole. They played a huge part in educating and thereby preparing the
country for combating the British agendas. Before its final die-down, the League made its
waves hit the country when its leaders were arrested by the government, urging more
people to join the movement.

Despite an abrupt ending, the movement found success in its own ways. The league acted as
the platform for the coming together of the moderates and the extremists. At the climax of
its activities in 1917, the combined membership of both the leagues was around 40,000. The
All India Home league ended in 1920, when it elected Mahatma Gandhi as its President,
when within a year it merged into the Indian National Congress.

*****

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 66. Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress (1916) and the Lucknow Pact 1916

The Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress was presided over by Ambica Charan
Mazumdar. It was the 31st session of the INC which was held in Lucknow. This session has
gained historic importance due to the remarkable decisions made during the session. It
marks the reconciliation of the moderates and the extremists after 10 years of ideological
disputes after their split in the Surat session of 1907. Bal Gangadhar Tilak assured the
moderates that the extremists would not adopt any agitational strategy or politics while
protesting against the British, which led to the reconciliation. Also, the demise of Moderate
leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta reduced the opposition for
amalgamation of the factions of Congress (Extremists and Moderates) paving the way for
Tilak and Annie Besant to dominate the Congress.

The Lucknow Pact was signed between the Indian National Congress and the All India
Muslim League in December 1916 in Lucknow. The pact was signed at the annual sessions
held by both the parties to put forth the common political rules including the demands of
the ‘Self–Governance’ of India after the war. Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a member of both the
parties had suggested in the session to put pressure on the Britishers for the liberalization of
the country and allow its citizens to run their own country. Due to this, there arose a
friendly relation between the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League, and
therefore Mohammed Ali Jinnah was given the title of, ‘Ambassador of Hindu – Muslim
Unity’ by the nightingale of India, Sarojini Naidu.

66.1 Lucknow Session - Background

 During World War 1, the British fought against the Ottoman Empire of Turkey. This
hurt the religious sentiments of Muslims and irritated the Muslin League.
 Also, the decision of the British to annul the Partition of Bengal annoyed the Muslim
League which supported the British in 1905.
 British rejection of the establishment of the University at Aligarh further catalyzed
Muslim agony.
 The congress wanted mass support for its struggle against the British.
 Muhammad Ali Jinnah who was a member of both the parties at the time persuaded
both the parties to pressurize the British to give Indians more authority in ruling
India, besides protecting Muslim Interests.
 For his effort to ensure reconciliation between the league and congress, Sarojini
Naidu gave Jinnah the title of “the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”.
 The session marked the reconsolidation of Hindus and Muslims, Moderates and
Extremists and they began to collectively demand “home rule for India”.
 It strengthened the Nationalist movement in India.

66.2 Readmission of Extremists to Congress

Several factors aided this reunion, such as:

 Old controversies were no longer relevant.

 Both the Moderates and the Extremists recognised that the split had resulted in
political inaction.

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  Annie Besant and Tilak had worked hard to bring the two together.
 To assuage Moderate fears, Tilak declared that he supported administrative reform
rather than overthrow of the government. He also condemned violent acts.
 The death of Pherozeshah Mehta, who led the Moderate opposition to the
Extremists, made the reunion possible.

66.3 Lucknow Pact - Background

 By 1906, a League came to existence which was then known as the ‘All India Muslim
League’ in a moderate sense, and the basic aim for the formation of this league was
to establish a friendly relationship with the Britishers.
 However, due to the decision of the Britishers of the partition of Bengal, the League
decided to change its stance for the Britishers.
 Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the then member of both the parties, the Indian National
Congress, and the All India Muslim League decided to use the opportunity as a joint
venture for both the parties and put forth the pressure on the reforms of the British.
 It was the first time when both the parties stood indifferently at a joint session.
 The extremists under the head of Tilak, and the moderates under the head of
Gokhale decided to meet in Bombay, where they were then co-joined by the Muslim
League and formulated their constitutional demands in a mutual discussion, this led
to the idea of Hindu Muslim Unity.
 The Leaders of both the parties had then gathered at a place with similar thoughts
and similar pitches for their demands.
 In October 1916 within a few months from the day of the meeting in Bombay, a total
of 19 elected members from both the parties then addressed a memorandum to the
Viceroy for discussion of the constitutional reforms.
 In November 1916 in the following meeting in Calcutta, the suggestions of the prior
meeting were discussed and agreed upon.
 Ultimately, the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress confirmed their
agreement in the annual session held respectively at Lucknow in December 1916
which was then known as, ‘The Lucknow Pact, 1916.’

66.4 Nature of Lucknow Pact

 Indian citizens shall have ‘self–government.’

 Indian Council shall be put to an end.
 The British government shall be liable for the payment of salaries of the Secretary of
State for any Indian affairs instead of the Indian funds.
 The president shall be elected by the Members of the Legislative Assembly
themselves.
 The tenure for the Legislative Assembly shall be set for 5 years.
 Until demanded, a separate electorate shall be provided for all the communities.
 The Central Legislative Council shall comprise 150 members.
 The Council shall comprise at least half the number of members to be Indian citizens.
 About 1/5th of the members shall be nominated and the remaining 4/5th shall be
elected.

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  Muslims should be given representation in the Central Council with an average
weightage of about 1/3rd of the total members.
 Except for the members who have been nominated, shall be elected based on the
adult franchise.
 Minorities shall be given representation in proportion to their population.
 In the provincial legislatures, the number of Muslims shall be laid down by the
provinces.
 While the League agreed to present the government with joint constitutional
demands, Congress accepted the Muslim League's position on separate electorates,
which would be maintained until any one community demanded joint electorates.
 Muslims were also given a fixed proportion of seats in all-India and provincial
legislatures.

66.5 Analysis of Lucknow Pact

 Both the parties, Indian National Congress and the Muslim League had agreed on the
proposal of a separate electorate, which meant that the Indian National Congress
had readily understood the community politics and gave recognition regarding
several communities residing in India with their selfish reasons and that had led to
the partition of India in 1947.
 The weightage for the representation of the Muslims was noted, but this resulted in
leaving the way open for any rise in communal politics in the future.
 The League stood nowhere in politics until the Lucknow Pact of 1916.
 There began riots for communalism in Bihar, United Provinces, and Bengal when it
revealed continuous disagreement among the masses and their leaders.
 The legislature could not pass the decision if there was disagreement by the 3/4th
members of any religion. This led to the introduction of communalism veto in the
Indian legislature.
 The approval of one-third of representations for the Muslims on the basis of their
being a minority was the biggest blunder, though the Muslims deserved it on the one
hand, it sowed the seeds of communal politics on the other hand.
 The pact made it open and clear that India has different communities and each one
of them has its own interests.
 The Muslim member’s strength in the legislature was laid down province-by-
province. This was one of the most dangerous pacifist policies of congress. It not only
recognized communal representation but also recognized communal privileges.
 Nevertheless, the Lucknow pact at that time was called a symbol of Hindu Muslim
unity. The unity lasted only a few years.

66.6 Outcome of the Pact

 While the Congress and the Muslim League made a concerted effort to present a
united front, the Congress' acceptance of the principle of separate electorates
implied that the Congress and the League came together as separate political
entities.
 This was a watershed moment in the Muslim League's evolution of the two-nation
theory.

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  While the leaders of the two groups came together, efforts to bring the masses of
the two communities together were ignored.
 The controversial decision to accept the principle of separate electorates, on the
other hand, represented a serious desire on the part of Congress to allay minority
fears of majority dominance.
 Furthermore, this reunion sparked a lot of excitement among the people.
 Even the government decided to appease nationalists by declaring its intention to
grant Indians self-government in the future, as stated in Montagu's August 1917
declaration.

66.7 Conclusion
The acceptance of separate communal electorates in the Lucknow pact led to the
establishment of communal politics in India, and is also considered as the seed for the “two-
nation theory” which led to the partition of India in 1947. With this pact, congress
recognized the muslim League as the party representing the Muslims of India. The British
came up with the Montagu-Chelmsford declaration, arrested Annie Besant, and imposed
show-cause-notice on Bal Gangadhar Tilak leading to the destruction of the Home-rule
Movement.

The Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League could be regarded as a
watershed moment in the nationalistic struggle for freedom. The Lucknow Pact gave the
impression of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national political scene. But it was only an
impression and short-lived. The agreement between the parties on a separate communal
electorate formally established communal politics in India.

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 67. Annie Besant
Annie Besant, born on October 1, 1847, in Ireland, was a well-known political activist,
freedom fighter, and supporter of the anti-Church movement and women's rights. In the
1870s, Besant joined the National Secular Society and the Fabian Society, both of which
advocated for freedom of thought and liberation from the tyranny of the Catholic Church in
England. Besant traveled to India for the first time in 1893 and later settled there, becoming
involved in the Indian nationalist movement. She founded the Indian Home Rule League, of
which she later became president, in 1916. She was also a key figure in the Indian National
Congress. In this article, we will discuss the life, ideology, and contributions of Annie Besant
which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

67.1 Annie Besant - Background

 Annie Besant was born in London to an Irish-origin family as Annie Wood. Besant's
father died when she was five years old, leaving her family impoverished.
 Her education was paid for by her mother's friend. Besant was instilled with a strong
sense of social responsibility from a young age. She had a strong sense of self-
sufficiency.
 She married a vicar, Frank Besant, when she was 20 years old. They had two children
but divorced legally due to religious differences.
 Besant was a staunch supporter of Irish independence.
 She also began to question her religious beliefs. She went so far as to criticize the
Church of England. She was a feminist political and religious activist, which caused
her problems in society.
 She advocated for intellectual freedom, secularism, women's rights, birth control,
workers' rights, and Fabian socialism. She was particularly opposed to the church
meddling in people's lives.
 She was a fantastic public speaker who also traveled extensively.
 After meeting Helena Blavatsky in1889, Besant became a Theosophist.
 Her search for socialist movement and spiritual solace led her to the Theosophical
Society. During her time as a member of society, she developed an interest in
Hinduism and its spiritual ideals.
 From 1907 to 1933, Annie Besant served as the society's president.
 A few days after arriving in India, she was inspired by the ongoing struggle for
independence against British rule and gradually became an active participant in it.

67.2 Annie Besant - Role in India’s Independence

 In 1902, Annie Besant wrote that "India was not ruled for its benefit, but rather for
the benefit of its conquerors."
 She promoted national awakening while combating social ills such as caste
discrimination and child marriage. She devoted a lot of time and effort to improving
education in India.
 Annie Besant entered politics when she joined the Indian National Congress. When
she first joined, the Congress was merely a debating body whose members
deliberated on which resolutions to pass.

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  These resolutions were mild in nature, requesting more representation for middle-
class Indians in the British government. It had yet to grow into a mass movement
demanding complete independence.
 When World War I broke out in1914, Britain enlisted the help of its colonies against
its adversaries. But, according to Annie Besant, this was where India's opportunities
lay.
 Annie Besant founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916. This was India's first
faction to demand complete independence. The league worked all year to establish a
network of local branches and organize agitations.
 The colonial authorities, for their part, placed her under house arrest as a result of
her activities. Other political parties threatened more riots if she was not released.
 As a result, the government was forced to make minor concessions. One of them
was that once the war was over, the possibility of self-rule would be considered.
 In September 1917, Annie Besant was released. In December of that year, she was
elected president of the Indian National Congress for a one-year term.
 The new Congress leadership would be handed over to Mahatma Gandhi at this
time. He was a key supporter of her release from house arrest.
 Annie Besant would fight for India's independence until the end of her life. She
would go on speaking tours in India and abroad to spread the word about the
independence movement.

67.3 Annie Besant - Educational Reforms

 Her contributions as an educator include being one of the founders of the Banaras
Hindu University.
 Annie Besant advocated for research into ancient Indian religions, philosophies, and
doctrines.
 She also founded the Central Hindu School to promote education.
 By 1918, she had founded the following:
o Madras Parliament
o Madanapalle College (now in Andhra Pradesh)
o Adyar Arts League
o Bombay Home Rule League
o Girls' College in Benares
o Order of the Brothers of Service
o Women's Indian Association at Adyar— from which grew the All-India
Women's Conference in Poona (now Pune) in 1927 and the Women's Indian
Association at Adyar.
 Unfortunately, she fell out of favor with the Indian National Congress due to her
opposition to Gandhi's non-cooperation and civil disobedience agenda, which she
saw as a threat to the rule of law.
 Despite her admiration for Gandhi as a man who lived a life guided by honesty and
compassion, she advocated for constitutional methods of bringing about democratic
change.
 Gandhi's policies were implemented, and the disasters she had predicted occurred
across India. Despite becoming unpopular and losing her political status, she
continued to work for India.

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67.4 Conclusion
Annie Besant remained a member of the Theosophical Society until she fell ill in 1931. She
passed away on September 20, 1933, at the age of 85, in Adyar, Madras Presidency. She is
well-known in India for her contributions to the advancement of Indian education and as a
supporter of Indian self-rule. Throughout her life, she was a courageous and outspoken
woman who wore many hats: social worker, religious freedom crusader, and active
participant in the freedom struggle of the country she called home.

*****

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 68. Justice Movement – Socio Religious Reform Movements
The Justice movement was started by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Tyagaraja in Madras
Presidency to secure jobs and representation for non-brahmins in the legislature.
The Madras Presidency Association was founded in 1917 to demand separate
representation in the legislature for the lower castes. In this article, we will learn about
the Justice Movement which will be helpful in Modern Indian History preparation for the
UPSC Civil service exam.

68.1 Justice Movement – Background

 The conflict between Brahmins and non-Brahmins is at the heart of this movement.
 Non-Brahmans began to demand their rights and questioned the dominance of
Brahmins in every sphere.
 In order to counter the growing clout of Brahmins in society and politics, Zamindars
and Maharajas established the South India Welfare Association in Madras
Presidency in 1916.
 Dr. TM Nair, Theagaroya Chetty, Dr. C Natesa Mudaliar, Panagal's Raja, and Sir A
Ramaswamy Mudaliar were among the organization's eminent non-Brahman
leaders.
 It began by publishing the English newspaper 'Justice,' and as its popularity grew,
the society became known as the Justice Party.
 This Justice party ran in the election, and for the first time in Indian history, a cabinet
was formed in the Madras Presidency in 1921.

68.2 Formation of Justice Movement

 The Madras Non-Brahmin Association was founded in 1909 by two young lawyers, P
Subramaniam and M Purushothama Naidu, in response to simmering feelings
against Brahminical hegemony and the need to confront it head-on.
 The association failed for a variety of reasons, but it sowed the seeds for the Justice
Party.
 The Madras United League was founded in 1912, with Natesa Mudaliyar as
secretary. It was later renamed the Madras Dravidian Association.
 On November 20, 1916, around 30 prominent non-Brahmin leaders, including Dr.
Natesa Mudaliyar, Sir PT Theyagaraya Chetty, TM Nair, and a woman Alamelu
Mangai Thayarammal, came together to form the South Indian Liberation
Federation (SILF).
 It was later known as the Justice Party after the 'Justice' newspaper launched to
promote the movement's ideals.
 The meeting was held in Victoria's historic public hall.
 In 1938, Periyar was elected as the leader of the Justice party.
 In 1944, the Justice Party and the Self-Respect Movement were renamed Dravidar
Kazhagam.

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68.3 Factors Leading to Justice Movement

 Theyagaraya Chetty and TM Nair recognized the need to politicize the non-Brahmin
movement after being defeated by Brahmin candidates in the imperial legislative
council and local council elections, respectively.
 Despite being political rivals, Theyagaraya Chetty and Nair collaborated to launch
SILF, thanks to the efforts of Natesa Mudaliyar.
 The Justice Party's formative years in power are responsible for Tamil Nadu's legacy
of social justice.
 To legislate reservations, the party introduced what is known as communal G.O.
 Periyar, incidentally, left the Congress after the party failed to pass the communal
G.O.

68.4 Objectives of the Justice Movement

 To promote the educational, social, economic, and political advancement of all

communities in South India other than the Brahmins.
 To work for the development of non-Brahmins through a constitutional government.
 To create a government that is truly representative.
 To mobilize public opinion in support of Non-Brahmins' demands.
 Montagu Chelmsford's 1919 reform introduced dyarchy in the presidency,
designating some departments for Indian Ministers to be chosen from elected
members.
 The Justice party won the majority in the first election under dyarchy in 1920,
and A.Subbarayalu became Chief Minister; after his death, Raja of Panagal became
Chief Minister of Madras in 1921.
 Congress boycotted the elections as part of the Non-Cooperation Movement.

68.5 Political Ideology of Justice Party

 It fought against Brahmins in civil service and politics, and this anti-Brahmin stance
influenced many of its ideas and policies.
 It was opposed to Annie Besant's Home Rule movement because it believed it
would benefit the Brahmins.
 In addition, the party campaigned against the non-cooperation movement in the
presidency. It was at odds with M. K. Gandhi, owing to his support for Brahminism.
 Its distrust of the Brahmin-dominated Congress drove it to oppose the Indian
independence movement.
 They obtained reservations for non-Brahmins through the Government of India Act
of 1919 by petitioning the imperial administration, which was more than willing to
oblige.

68.6 Justice Movement – Significance

 In December 1916, the Justice Party issued its non-Brahmin manifesto.

 The manifesto became a significant document that would later shape the rise of the
Dravidian movement.

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  When the Justice Party was in power, women were granted voting rights, and
a noon-meal programme was implemented.
 The party was also instrumental in allowing women to run for office, paving the way
for Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy to become India's first female legislator.
 Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy's pioneering efforts resulted in the abolition of
the Devadasi system when the Justice party was in power.
 The Justice Party ensured an adequate number of opportunities for non-brahmins of
all categories in education and employment through a Communal government order.
 They eliminated Sudra and Panchama discrimination in public transportation, roads,
restaurants, and public wells.
 They established a newly formed Hindu Religious Endowment Board to regulate
temple laws and provided lands to the Panchamas known as Panchami Land.
 They built new townships and industrial parks.
 Children from low-income families were given an education.
 For the first time, they implemented the "Noon Meal Scheme" in a few schools.
 The requirement of knowing Sanskrit as a prerequisite for medical school was
removed, allowing non-brahmin students to enrol.
 Cooperative societies were encouraged. Mirasdari's regime was demolished. In
1923, various irrigation schemes were implemented.
 During the Justice Party regime, Annamalai and Andra Universities were
established.
 Despite being given only a few departments by the British, the Justice Party provided
the most successful government.

68.7 Reasons for Decline of Justice Movement

 There was abuse of power and corruption.

 It lost support from the depressed and minority populations.
 Periyar's self-respect movement had become more radical. The Justice Party's pro-
British stance is critical to its decline.
 Due to Periyar's refusal to enter electoral politics and Gandhi's growing popularity,
the Congress won the Madras Presidency elections in 1937, and Rajagopalachari
became the premier.
 To some extent, the Justice Party's image as an organization of rich landlords and
Western-educated upper-caste non-Brahman intellectuals from Tamilnadu and
Telugu countries contributed to its demise.
 The region's Dalits were not adequately represented.

68.8 Conclusion
Despite its limitations, the Justice movement was successful in abolishing the Devadasi
system, promoting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages, and legalizing marriages
without the presence of a Brahman priest, thereby reducing Brahminical dominance.

*****

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 69. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was the first civil disobedience movement of India.
Champaran district is a historic region in Bihar, India, that is now divided into the East
Champaran district and the West Champaran district. Farmers in this region revolted
against the British in 1914 and 1916 over the conditions imposed on indigo cultivation.
Earlier, similar conditions existed in Bengal, but as a result of a major uprising in 1859-61,
the peasants there won their freedom from the indigo planters. In this article, we will
discuss the features of Champaran Satyagraha which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

69.1 Champaran Satyagraha – Background

 Champaran is a district in the state of Bihar where tens of thousands of landless

serfs, indentured laborers, and poor farmers were forced to grow indigo and other
cash crops instead of food crops.
 The European planters had forced the peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 of the total
land area (called tinkathia system).
 When German synthetic dyes replaced indigo at the end of the nineteenth
century, European planters demanded high rents and illegal dues from the peasants
in order to maximize their profits before the peasants could switch to other crops.
 Furthermore, the peasants were forced to sell their produce at European-
determined prices.
 These items were purchased from farmers at a very low cost.
 They were oppressed by the landlords' brutal militias and were given negligible
compensation, leaving them in extreme poverty.
 Even though they were in the grip of a devastating famine, the British
government imposed a heavy tax on them and insisted on raising the rate.
 Without food and money, the situation became increasingly unbearable, and
peasants in Champaran revolted against the government in indigo plant cultivation
in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916 (Turkaulia).

69.2 Champaran Satyagraha – Features

 Gandhi was asked by Rajkumar Shukla, a local, to investigate the problems of

farmers in the context of indigo planters in Champaran, Bihar.
 When Gandhi arrived in Champaran, accompanied by Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul-
Haq, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parekh, and J.B. Kripalani, the authorities ordered him
to leave immediately.
 Gandhi defied the order and chose to face the consequences. This method of passive
resistance or civil disobedience in the face of an unjust order was novel at the time.
 Finally, the authorities relented and allowed Gandhi to conduct an investigation.
 Gandhi was able to persuade the authorities to abolish the tinkathia system and
compensate the peasants for the illegal dues extracted from them.
 As a compromise with the planters, he agreed to compensate them for only 25% of
the money taken.

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  Within a decade, the planters had abandoned the area. Gandhi had won India's first
battle of civil disobedience.
 Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad, and
Shambhusharan Varma was also prominent leaders associated with the Champaran
Satyagraha.

69.3 Conclusion
The first Satyagraha movement, inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, took place in the Bihar
district of Champaran in 1917. The Champaran Satyagraha was the first to be launched, but
the term Satyagraha was first used in the Anti-Rowlatt Act agitation.

*****

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 70. Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)
Gandhi, like other nationalists, was roused by the Rowlatt Act. In February 1919, he
established the Rowlatt Satyagraha Sabha, whose members vowed to defy the Act and thus
face court arrest and imprisonment. It was a new way to fight. Until recently, the nationalist
movement, whether led by Moderates or Extremists, had confined its struggle to agitation.
The only forms of political work known to the nationalists were large meetings and
demonstrations, refusal to cooperate with the government, boycotts of foreign clothing and
schools, and individual acts of terrorism. Satyagraha immediately elevated the movement to
a new level. In this article, we will discuss the features of Rowlatt Satyagraha which will be
helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

70.1 Rowlatt Satyagraha – Background

 The Montford Reforms, with their very limited scope, and the shockingly repressive
Rowlatt Act came just as the Indians expected a huge step forward toward self-rule
as a reward for their contributions to the war.
 Not surprisingly, Indians felt betrayed, particularly Gandhi, who had been at the
forefront of offering cooperation in the British war effort, even offering to encourage
recruitment of Indians into the British Indian forces.
 He dubbed the Rowlatt Act the "Black Act," arguing that not everyone should face
punishment for isolated political crimes.
 Gandhi called for an all-India mass protest.
 After seeing the constitutional protest met with ruthless repression, Gandhi
convened a Satyagraha Sabha and enlisted the support of younger members
of Home Rule Leagues and Pan Islamists.
 Satyagraha was to be launched on April 6, 1919, but it was thwarted by large-scale
violent anti-British demonstrations in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad, and
other cities.
 The situation in Punjab, in particular, became so volatile as a result of wartime
repression, forcible recruitment, and disease ravages that the Army was called in.
 The largest and most violent anti-British upsurge since 1857 occurred in April 1919.
Sir Michael O'Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, is said to have used aircraft
strafing against the violent protestors.

70.2 Rowlatt Satyagraha – Features

 Nationalists could now act instead of simply expressing their dissatisfaction

and anger verbally.
 The National Congress was now to be transformed into a political action
organisation.
 From now on, peasants, artisans, and the urban poor would play a growing role in
the struggle.
 The national movement's orientation was permanently shifted to the masses.
 Furthermore, it was to rely more and more on the political support of the poor.
 Gandhi directed nationalist workers to travel to the villages. That is where India
resides, he explained.

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  He gradually shifted the face of nationalism toward the common man, and the
symbol of this transformation was khadi, or hand-spun and handwoven cloth, which
quickly became the nationalists' uniform.
 He spun every day to emphasise the dignity of labour and the value of self-
sufficiency.
 India's salvation, he said, would come when the masses were awakened from their
slumber and became politically active. And the people responded admirably to
Gandhi's appeal.
 The final forms of protest chosen included a nationwide hartal (strike) accompanied
by fasting and prayer, as well as civil disobedience against specific laws and risking
arrest and imprisonment.

70.3 Conclusion
India experienced a remarkable political awakening in March and April 1919. There were
hartals, strikes, and protests. The air was filled with slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity. The
country as a whole was electrified. The Indian people were no longer willing to accept the
deplorable conditions of foreign rule.

*****

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 71. Rowlatt Act (1919)
The Rowlatt Act also known as the “Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919” was
enacted by the British government in order to strengthen their grip on power over the
common people. The Imperial Legislative Council passed this law in March 1919, giving
them the authority to arrest anyone without a trial. To abolish this act, Gandhi and other
leaders called for a Hartal (work stoppage) to demonstrate Indians' opposition to this rule,
which became known as the Rowlatt Satyagraha. In this article we will discuss the Rowlatt
Act which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

71.1 Rowlatt Act - Background

 Following the end of World War I, the extremist faction in the Indian national
movement was on the rise.
 The existing law, the Defence of India Act, was about to expire, and the British
needed stronger measures to contain what they called terrorist elements who
threatened their rule.
 The Rowlatt Act, passed by the British colonial government, gave police the authority
to arrest anyone for any reason.
 The Act's purpose was to quell the country's growing nationalist upsurge. Gandhi
called on the people to engage in satyagraha in protest of the act.
 The Rowlatt Committee Act, named after its president, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, was
passed on the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee and effectively
authorised the colonial British government to imprison any person suspected of
terrorism living in British India for up to two years, and gave the colonial authorities
power to deal with all revolutionary activities.
 The unpopular legislation mandated stricter press control, warrantless arrests,
indefinite detention without trial, and juryless in camera trials for prohibited political
acts.
 The accused were denied the right to know who was accusing them and what
evidence was used in the trial.
 Those convicted were required to deposit securities and were barred from
participating in any political, educational, or religious activities after their release.
 On February 6, 1919, two bills were introduced in the Central Legislature based on
the committee's report, which was chaired by Justice Rowlatt. These bills became
known as "Black Bills."
 They gave the police enormous powers, including the ability to search a location and
arrest anyone they disapproved of without a warrant.
 The Rowlatt Act was passed on March 18, 1919, despite widespread opposition.

71.2 Rowlatt Act - Features

 The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 also known as the Rowlatt Act
was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in March 1919.
 The British government was given the authority to arrest anyone suspected of
terrorist activity under this act.

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  It also authorized the government to detain such detainees for up to two years
without charge or trial. It gave the police the authority to conduct a search without
a warrant. It also severely hampered press freedom.
 The Rowlatt Committee, chaired by a judge named Sir Sidney Rowlatt, after whom
the act is named, made recommendations that were followed.
 Indian leaders and the general public were outraged by the act. The bills were
dubbed "black bills" as a result of their appearance.
 The act was passed despite the unanimous opposition of the council's Indian
members, who all resigned in protest. Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan
Malviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq were among them.
 Gandhiji called a nationwide hartal on April 6th in response to this act. The Rowlatt
Satyagraha was the name given to this protest.
 Gandhiji cancelled the movement after it was marred by rioting in some provinces,
particularly in Punjab, where the situation was dire.
 The primary goal of the British government was to suppress the country's growing
nationalist movement.
 The British were also concerned about a Ghadarite revolution in Punjab and the rest
of India.
 Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, both popular Congress leaders, were detained.
 When the act went into effect, there was widespread outrage, and the army was
dispatched to Punjab to deal with the situation.

71.3 Rowlatt Act - Outcome

 The Rowlatt Act sparked the largest mass movement against British rule since the
Revolt of 1857, and it served as the spark that ignited the movement for
independence, which later spread throughout India and eventually led to
independence.
 Gandhi was opposed to the Rowlatt Act and called for mass agitation and an all-India
hartal, or strike, in which Indians closed their businesses and fasted to protest the
British.
 People from all over the country signed a Satyagraha pledge to follow a nonviolent
path. Gandhi's hartal began on April 6, 1919, and was widely supported by the
masses.
 The strike was successful in Delhi, but rioting and violence erupted in Punjab and
other parts of India, forcing Gandhi to call a halt to the movement. He was
disappointed to see that Indians were not prepared for nonviolent protest, which
was the core principle of Satyagraha.
 On 10 April 1919, two Congress leaders, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew,
were arrested and taken to an unknown location as part of a protest movement.
 People gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 to protest this
incident, which turned into one of the most heinous tragedies under British rule—
the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

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71.4 Rowlatt Act - Criticism

 Initially, Mahatma Gandhi was harshly critical of the Act, arguing that not everyone
should be punished for isolated political crimes.
 The Act also enraged many other Indian leaders and the general public, prompting
the government to take repressive measures.
 The Act empowered the government to imprison anyone suspected of terrorist
activity for up to two years without a trial.
 It also allowed for indefinite preventive detention and arrest without a warrant.
Other provisions included jury-free trials for prohibited political acts.
 Convicted individuals were required to deposit securities upon their release, as well
as refrain from participating in any political, religious, or educational activities.
 The Rowlatt Act also severely restricted press freedom.
 The bill was opposed by all Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council.
Regardless, the bill was passed.

71.5 Conclusion
The Rowlatt Act sparked the largest mass movement against British rule since the Revolt of
1857, and it served as the spark that ignited the movement for independence, which later
spread throughout India and eventually led to independence. The Rowlatt Act was enacted
to quell public unrest and thwart anti-British conspiracies. This act empowered the British
government to imprison anyone suspected of terrorist activity without a trial for a minimum
of two years. Gandhi’s position as a leader of the nationalist movement was bolstered
further by his actions in opposition to the Rowlatt Act. Gandhi organized a strike in which
Indians would close their businesses as a form of protest.

*****

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 72. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
On April 13, 1919, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar
massacre, occurred. A large peaceful crowd had gathered at Amritsar's Jallianwala Bagh to
protest the arrests of pro-Indian independence leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya
Pal. In response to the protests, Anglo-Indian Brigadier R.E.H. Dyer surrounded the
demonstrators with his Gurkha British Indian army units. He ordered his troops to shoot at
the crowd after blocking the exit with his troops, and he continued to fire even as the
protestors tried to flee. In this article, we will discuss the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre which
will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

72.1 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Background

 During World War I (1914–18), the British government of India enacted a series of
repressive emergency powers to combat subversive activity.
 By the end of the war, the Indian people had high hopes that those restrictions
would be relaxed and that India would be granted more political autonomy.
 In fact, the Montagu-Chelmsford Report, presented to the British Parliament in
1918, advocated for limited local self-government.
 Furthermore, in early 1919, the then-government of India passed what became
known as the Rowlatt Acts, which essentially extended the repressive wartime
measures.
 The acts sparked widespread outrage and discontent among Indians, particularly in
the Punjab region. In early April, Gandhi called for a one-day general strike (Rowlatt
Satyagraha) across the country.
 The arrest and expulsion of prominent Indian leaders (Satya Pal and Saifuddin
Kitchlew) sparked violent protests in Amritsar on April 10, with soldiers firing on
civilians and angry mobs killing several foreign nationals.
 Brig. Gen. Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was given command of a force of several
dozen troops tasked with restoring order. A ban on public gatherings was one of the
measures implemented.

72.2 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Features

 The intense and harsh Rowlatt Act and the Rowlatt Satyagraha led to extensive
mobility of people around the Punjab province and the situation was alarming for
the British government.
 To tackle and control the situation, the imperial government launched the Martial
Law, which further prevented the assemblage of more than 4 people at a place.
 This all was happening under the rule of Lt. Governor of Punjab, Michael O’Dwyer,
and the prominent viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford.
 The Jallianwala Bagh incident took place on 13th April, 1919, on the day of Baisakhi
when a mob of peaceful protestors gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh.
 Along with the protestors, the park also had a crowd of people who came to
celebrate Baisakhi.
 The British government, all frustrated and tired with the intense mob and protest,
ordered General Dyer to open fire on the innocent and peaceful crowd at the park.

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  The unstoppable firing for about 10 minutes took the lives of more than thousands
of people including men, women, children, young and old.
 And almost 1500 people were severely injured after 1650 rounds of ammunition
were exhausted.
 This violent tragedy hampered the mental stability of the Indians and led them to
extensively condemn British authority.
 Although, there were few in Britain as well who criticized this act of British
government like that of Winston Churchill and the former Prime Minister HH
Ashquith.
 The Hunter Commission was set up by the British government to investigate the
massacre. General Dyer was then relieved of his duty in the army in 1920.
 The Lt. Governor of Punjab Michael O’Dwyer was later in 1940, assassinated by
Udham Singh in London who had witnessed the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre as a
child. The governor was assassinated because he was the one who approved the
actions of General Dyer.

72.3 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Aftermath

 By the 22nd of May 1919, Rabindranath Tagore had learned of the massacre. He
attempted to organize a protest meeting in Calcutta before deciding to resign his
British knighthood as a "symbolic act of protest."
 The Disorders Inquiry Committee was formed on October 14, 1919, to investigate
the massacre. It was later dubbed the Hunter Commission.
 The Hunter Commission was directed to issue a decision on the justification, or lack
thereof, of the government's actions.
 All British officials involved in the administration during the Amritsar disturbances,
including General Dyer and Mr Irving, were interrogated.
 The massacre at Jallianwalah Bagh infuriated the Indian people, prompting Mahatma
Gandhi to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 The Non Cooperation Movement (1920–22) was Gandhi's first large-scale and
sustained nonviolent protest (satyagraha) campaign.
 The then-Government of India ordered an investigation into the incident (the Hunter
Commission), which censured Dyer and ordered him to resign from the military in
1920.

72.4 Conclusion
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre is rightly regarded as a watershed moment in Indian history.
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre permanently damaged relations between Indians and
Britishers. Following the massacre, the government imposed martial law in Punjab,
subjecting the people to the most heinous atrocities, such as public flogging of men, arrest
and detention of people for no apparent reason, censorship of mails, the construction of an
open cage for the confinement of arrested persons, and other novel punishments. The
atrocities in Punjab sparked widespread condemnation.

*****

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 73. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-1922)
The Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement were both mass
movements formed in 1919-1922 to oppose British rule in India. Despite their disparate
issues, the movements adopted a unified plan of action based on nonviolence and non-
cooperation. During this time period, Congress and the Muslim League merged. Many
political demonstrations were held as a result of the efforts of both of these parties. In this
article, we will discuss the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-1922) which will
be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

73.1 Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement - Background

 The growing resentment of British rule prompted the formation of the Khilafat and
Non-Cooperation movement.
 In the First World War, Turkey fought against Britain. Turkey, as one of the defeated
countries, was subjected to injustice at the hands of Britain.
 In 1919, a movement was formed led by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (popularly
known as the Ali brothers), Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani, and others to pressure
the British government to correct these injustices.
 The Rowlatt Act, martial law in Punjab, and the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre all
revealed the brutal and uncivilised face of foreign rule.
 The Hunter Commission's report on the atrocities in Punjab turned out to be a sham.
 In fact, the House of Lords (the British Parliament) supported General Dyer's action,
and the British public showed solidarity with him by assisting The Morning Post in
raising 30,000 pounds for him.
 The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, with their ill-conceived Dyarchy scheme, failed to
meet the Indians' growing demand for self-government.
 The country's economic situation had deteriorated in the post-war years, with rising
commodity prices, a decrease in the output of Indian industries, an increase in the
burden of taxes and rents, and so on.
 Because of the war, almost every segment of society suffered economic hardship,
which fueled anti-British sentiment.

73.2 Khilafat Issue

 Muslims all over the world, including India, regarded Turkey's Sultan, Khalifa, as
their spiritual leader (Caliph).
 During World War I, Turkey sided with Germany and Austria against the British.
 During the First World War, Indian Muslims supported the government with the
understanding that the sacred sites of the Ottoman Empire would be in the hands of
Khalifa.
 However, following the war, the Ottoman Empire was divided, Turkey was
dismembered, and the Khalifa was deposed.
 This infuriated Muslims, who saw it as an insult to Khalifa. The Khilafat Movement
was founded by the Ali brothers, Shoukat Ali and Mohammad Ali, in opposition to
the British government.
 Between 1919 and 1924, this movement was active.

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  To force the British Government to change its attitude toward Turkey, the Ali
Brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani formed
the All India Khilafat Committee in early 1919.
 As a result, the groundwork for a nationwide uprising was laid.
 In November 1919, an All India Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi, and a call was
issued to boycott British goods.

73.3 Development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation

 For a time, the Khilafat leaders' actions were limited to meetings, petitions, and
deputations in support of the Khilafat.
 Later, however, a militant movement emerged, demanding active agitation such as
the cessation of all cooperation with the British.
 As a result, at the All India Khilafat Conference in Delhi in November 1919, a call for a
boycott of British goods was issued.
 The Khilafat leaders also stated unequivocally that unless the post-war peace terms
were favourable to Turkey, they would cease all cooperation with the government.
 Gandhi, the president of the All India Khilafat Committee at the time, saw the issue
as a platform from which mass and united non-cooperation could be declared
against the government.

73.4 Congress and Muslim League’s Stand on Khilafat Issue

 The Congress's support was critical to the Khilafat movement's success.

 Although Mahatma Gandhi supported Satyagraha and non-cooperation against the
government on the Khilafat issue, the Congress was divided on this course of action.
 Later, the Congress felt compelled to lend its support because it represented a
golden opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims together and to increase Muslim
participation in such mass movements.
 The Muslim League also decided to fully support the Congress and its political
agitation.

73.5 Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement

 A joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the viceroy in early 1920 to seek
redress of grievances on the issue of Khilafat, but the mission was unsuccessful.
 In February 1920, Gandhi declared that the Khilafat issue had overshadowed the
issues of Punjab wrongs and constitutional advancement, and that he would soon
lead a non-cooperation movement if the terms of the peace treaty did not satisfy
Indian Muslims.
 Turkey was completely dismembered by the Treaty of Sevres, which was signed in
May 1920.
 An all-party conference in Allahabad approved a boycott of schools, colleges, and
law courts, and Gandhi was appointed to lead it.
 The Khilafat Committee began a non-cooperation campaign, and the movement was
formally launched.

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73.6 Special Session in Calcutta
The Congress approved a non-cooperation programme at a special session in Calcutta
(September 1920) until the wrongs of the Punjab and Khilafat were righted and swaraj was
established. Lala Lajpat Rai presided over the Special Session. The following items were
supposed to be included in the programme:

 Boycott of government schools and colleges; boycott of law courts in favour of

justice being administered through Panchayats;
 Boycott of Legislative Councils; (there were some differences over this as some
leaders like C.R. Das was not willing to include a boycott of councils, but bowed to
Congress discipline; these leaders boycotted elections held in November 1920 and
the majority of the voters too stayed away).
 Foreign cloth should be boycotted in favour of khadi, and hand-spinning should be
practised.
 Renunciation of government honours and titles; the second stage could include mass
civil disobedience, such as resignation from government service and nonpayment of
taxes.
 During the movement, participants were expected to work for Hindu-Muslim unity
and the abolition of untouchability while remaining nonviolent.

73.7 Nagpur Session

The Nagpur Session was held in December 1920. It was presided over by C.
Vijayaraghavachariar. At the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress:

 The non-cooperation programme was endorsed.

 An important change in Congress creed was made: instead of achieving self-
government through constitutional means, the Congress decided to achieve swaraj
through peaceful and legitimate means, committing itself to an extra constitutional
mass struggle.
 A Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members was formed to lead the
Congress from now on.
 Provincial Congress Committees were formed on a linguistic basis; ward committees
were formed; and the entry fee was reduced to four annas.
 Gandhi declared that if the non-cooperation programme was fully implemented,
swaraj would be implemented within a year.

73.8 Role of Mahatma Gandhi

 Mahatma Gandhi was a key figure in both the Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
 He actively participated in disseminating the Non-Cooperation Movement's policies
and programmes throughout the country.
 He and other loyalists toured the country to rally public support and mobilise the
masses in support of the movement.
 The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements were both mass movements formed
to oppose British rule in India between 1919 and 1922.

228
  Despite their disparate issues, the movements agreed on a unified strategy based on
nonviolence and non-cooperation.
 Between 1919 and 1920, the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as the supreme leader
of the national movement signalled the beginning of a new era in India's struggle
against colonial and exploitative British rule.

73.9 Spread of the Movement

 Gandhi went on a nationwide tour with the Ali brothers. Around 90,000 students left
government schools and colleges to attend one of the 800 new national schools and
colleges that sprang up during this period.
 These educational institutions included Jamia Millia at Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth,
Gujarat Vidyapeeth, and Bihar Vidyapeeth and were organised under the leadership
of Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, and Subhash Bose
(who became the principal of National College at Calcutta).
 Many lawyers, including Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Raja
Gopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam, and
Rajendra Prasad.
 Foreign cloths were publicly burned, and imports were cut in half.
 Picketing was carried out in a number of locations, including shops selling foreign
liquor and toddy shops.
 The Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed, with a total of one crore rupees collected.
The parallel police force emerged as a result of the Congress volunteer corps.
 The Ali brothers issued a call to Muslims in July 1921 to resign from the army
because it was unreligious. In September, the Ali brothers were arrested for this.
 Gandhi echoed their call and directed local Congress committees to pass similar
resolutions.
 Congress directed local Congress bodies to begin civil disobedience if it was
determined that the people were prepared for it.
 In Midnapore (Bengal) and Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), there was already a no-tax
movement against union board taxes.
 Strikes in tea plantations, steamer services, and Assam-Bengal Railways had been
organised in Assam. J.M. Sengupta was a key figure in these strikes.
 The visit of the Prince of Wales to India in November 1921 sparked strikes and
protests.
 Many local struggles arose as a result of the spirit of defiance and unrest, including
the Awadh Kisan Movement (UP), the Eka Movement (UP), the Mappila Revolt
(Malabar), and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.

73.10 Government Response

 Talks between Gandhi and Viceroy Reading broke down in May 1921 because the
government wanted Gandhi to urge the Ali brothers to remove portions of their
speeches that suggested violence.
 Gandhi recognised that the government was attempting to divide him from the
Khilafat leaders and refused to fall into the trap.
 The government retaliated harshly against the protestors in December.

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  Volunteer corps were declared illegal, public meetings were prohibited, the press
was silenced, and most leaders, with the exception of Gandhi, were arrested.

73.11 Chauri Chaura Incident

 On 5th February, 1922, the day when civil disobedience was to be launched,
the Chauri Chaura incident took place and changed the whole scenario.
 At Chauri-Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, police tried to stop a
procession of Congress and Khilafat activists.
 Irritated by this behaviour, some activists attacked them and the police opened fire
at them.
 Infuriated, the entire procession attacked the police and when the police took
shelter inside the station, the station itself was set on fire, killing all of its occupants.
 Shocked by this incident Gandhiji withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 The civil disobedience at Bardoli was also postponed. Gandhi stated that without
adequate discipline and restraint on the part of the people, the movement had
proved to be a ‘Himalayan Blunder’.

73.12 Evaluation of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements

 The movement drew urban Muslims into the national cause.

 Nationalist sentiments reached every nook and cranny of the country, politicising
every stratum of the population—artisans, peasants, students, urban poor, women,
traders, and so on.
 The politicisation and mobilisation of millions of men and women gave the national
movement a revolutionary flavour.
 Two myths underpinned colonial rule, one that such a rule was in Indians' best
interests, and second, that it was unbreakable.
 The first myth had been debunked by moderate nationalists' economic critique.
Satyagraha had challenged the second myth through mass struggle.
 The masses had lost their previously all-encompassing fear of colonial rule and its
powerful repressive organs.

73.13 Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement

 The revolt came as a complete surprise to British authorities and provided massive
encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. The country's unity was
strengthened, and many Indian schools and colleges were established.
 Swaraj was not achieved in a single year, as Gandhiji had predicted. However, it was
a truly mass movement in which lakhs of Indians openly protested the government
through peaceful means.
 The British government was taken aback by the magnitude of the movement.
 It drew participation from both Hindus and Muslims, demonstrating the
country's communal harmony.
 The Congress Party's popularity among the people was established as a result of this
movement.

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  People became aware of their political rights as a result of this movement. They had
no fear of the government. Throngs of people flocked to jails willingly.
 As a result of the boycott of British goods, Indian merchants and mill owners made a
lot of money during this time. Khadi was given a raise.
 During this time, sugar imports from the United Kingdom fell dramatically.
 This movement also established Gandhiji as a populist leader.

73.14 Why Gandhi Withdrew the movement?

 Gandhi believed that people had not fully learned or understood the nonviolent
method. Incidents like Chauri-Chaura may cause excitement and fervour, turning the
movement violent in general.
 A violent movement could be easily suppressed by the colonial regime, which could
use violent incidents as an excuse to use the state's armed might against the
protestors.
 The movement was also showing signs of wear and tear. This was natural because it
is impossible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for an extended period of
time. The government appeared to be uninterested in bargaining.
 The central theme of the agitation, the Khilafat issue, also faded quickly. Turkey's
people rose up in November 1922, led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha, and deposed the
Sultan of political power. Turkey has been declared a secular state.
 As a result, the Khilafat issue became irrelevant. In Turkey, a European-style legal
system was established, and women were granted extensive rights. Education was
nationalised, and modern agriculture and industry flourished. The caliphate was
abolished in 1924.

73.15 Conclusion
The Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, both founded in December 1917,
resurfaced. As a result, the growing belief that all people were Indians suffered a setback.
The Swarajist Party, led by staunch nationalists Motilal Nehru and Das, was split by
communalism. A group known as "responsivists," which included Madan Mohan Malviya,
Lala Lajpat Rai, and N. C. Kelkar, offered cooperation to the government in order to protect
so-called Hindu interests. Gandhiji went on a 21-day fast at Maulana Mohammed Ali's house
in Delhi in September 1924 to atone for the inhumanity revealed in the communal riots. His
efforts, however, were in vain.

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 74. Beginning of the Gandhian Movements
The Gandhian era of national struggle began in 1919 and lasted until India gained
independence from British rule in 1947. The early Gandhian movements' success, such
as Champaran Satyagraha (1917), Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha (1918), and Kheda
Satyagraha (1918), paved the way for Gandhiji's meteoric rise. Gandhi emerged as a leader
during the freedom struggle. In this article, we will discuss the Beginning of the Gandhian
Movements which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

74.1 About Mahatma Gandhi

 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, also known as Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-
colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who used nonviolent resistance to lead
India's successful campaign for independence from British rule, and to later inspire
movements for civil rights and freedom around the world.
 The honorific Mahatma, which was first applied to him in South Africa in 1914, is
now used all over the world.
 When Gandhi became president of the Indian National Congress in 1921, he led
nationwide campaigns to alleviate poverty, expand women's rights, foster religious
and ethnic harmony, abolish untouchability, and, most importantly, achieve swaraj,
or self-rule.
 Gandhi adopted the short dhoti made of hand-spun yarn as a symbol of
identification with India's rural poor.
 He began to live in a self-sufficient residential community and to fast for extended
periods of time as a form of introspection and political protest.
 Gandhi popularized anti-colonial nationalism among ordinary Indians by leading
them in the 400-kilometer Dandi Salt March in 1930, which challenged the British-
imposed salt tax, and by calling for the British to leave India in 1942.
 He was imprisoned numerous times and for a long period of time in both South
Africa and India.

74.2 Rise of Mahatma Gandhi

 The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as the supreme leader of the national

movement between 1919 and 1920 marked the beginning of a new era in India's
struggle against colonial and exploitative British rule.
 The Gandhian era of national struggle began in 1919 and lasted until India gained
independence from British rule in 1947.
 The early Gandhian movements' success, such as Champaran Satyagraha (1917),
Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha (1918), and Kheda Satyagraha (1918), persuaded the
masses that only the Gandhi method could defeat British rule.
 The situation in India in 1919-20 was extremely volatile due to a combination of
factors such as a leadership vacuum, failure of moderate and extremist policies, and
the Jalliawala Bagh massacre, which pushed Gandhiji to the forefront of the Indian
national freedom struggle.

232
  The typical character of the Gandhian movement, as well as the success of the South
African experiment, had also played a significant role in his ascension to the position
of a supreme national leader.
 Gandhiji lived like most ordinary Indians and spoke commoners' language. Gandhiji
fought for commoners' issues, and as a result, every section of Indian society
developed a strong faith in Gandhian leadership.
 During the years 1919-20, he became a symbol of hope and inspiration for the
common people, leading to his ascension to the position of an undisputed supreme
national leader.

74.3 Nature of Gandhian Movements

 The Gandhian movement was a true mass movement, similar to moderate and
extremist movements. He was adamant that no struggle against British rule would
succeed unless the masses joined in.
 It was nonviolent in nature, egalitarian in outlook, secular and progressive in nature,
strongly anti-colonial in appearance, and distinguished by the use of both
constitutional and extra-constitutional methods.
 Gandhi's movement was a pan-India movement because it reached millions of
Indians and was easily embraced by all segments of Indian society.
 Villagers had begun to participate in the national movement, which was no longer
limited to towns and cities.
 Under Gandhiji's leadership, peasants, workers, women, students, and the business
class had joined the nationalist struggle.
 Gandhiji defined the goal of Swaraj for the first time at the Nagpur session of
Congress in December 1920.
 In Gandhiji's leadership, the Congress adopted the goal of 'Purna Swaraj' in order to
strengthen the freedom movement on a large scale.
 The Gandhian movement was fundamentally a Satyagraha, or "search for truth." The
Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was Gandhiji's first Satyagraha movement.
 Gandhiji was always a staunch supporter of the truth, regardless of the
consequences.
 He believed that it was humanity's responsibility to cooperate with good and avoid
cooperation with evil. He saw British rule as a bad thing, which is why he opposed it.
 Because Gandhiji always emphasized using the right methods to achieve the right
goals, the Gandhian movement was fundamentally an ethical and moral struggle. He
never took advantage of anyone's weakness.
 Furthermore, it was distinguished by a transition between active and passive phases.
During the active phase, Mahatma Gandhi led a mass agitation, and during the
passive phase, he oversaw a village reconstruction program.
 It was centered on several themes, including the promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity,
the abolition of untouchability, the promotion of cottage industry, the upliftment of
women and lower castes, the prohibition of liquor alcohol, and the spread of
vocational education.
 The Gandhian movement also made extensive use of STS (Struggle-Truce-Struggle)
and PCP (Pressure-Compromise-Pressure) strategies.

233
  It was extremely successful because it was only due to the pressure exerted by the
Gandhian movement that the British were forced to leave India in 1947.

74.4 Gandhian Movements - Significance

 The Gandhian movement made a significant contribution to the success of India's

struggle against British rule, but it should be noted that the Gandhian movement
was not without limitations.
 Subhash Chandra Bose called the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation
Movement in February 1922, following the Chauri-Chaura incident, a "national
calamity."
 The Non-Cooperation Movement was an important stage in India's struggle for
independence from British rule.
 From August 1920 to February 1922, this movement was active. It was launched
from the Khilafat platform, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and was backed by the Indian
National Congress.
 The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) was suspended as an example of this. It
was the second great mass movement, launched on March 12, 1930, by Congress
under Gandhiji's leadership.
 Gandhiji suspended the CDM on March 5, 1931, through a pact signed with Lord
Irwin.
 It created a disillusioned atmosphere in the national struggle because Gandhiji
completely failed to take all of the leaders into confidence when making decisions.

74.5 Contribution of Gandhian Movements

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

 Gandhi's first active involvement in Indian freedom politics was the Champaran
agitation in Bihar.
 Farmers in Champaran were being forced to grow Indigo and were being tortured if
they objected.
 The farmers sought Gandhi's assistance, and Gandhi was able to gain concessions
from the authorities through a calculated nonviolent protest.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

 When floods devastated Kheda, a village in Gujarat, the local farmers petitioned the
rulers to waive the taxes. Here, Gandhi launched a signature campaign in which
peasants pledged not to pay taxes.
 In addition, he organized a social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue
officials). In 1918, the government relaxed the terms of revenue tax payment until
the famine ended.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

 Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during an industrial
dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.

234
  The owners wanted to withdraw the plague bonus from the workers, while the
workers demanded a wage increase of 35%.
 During Gandhi's peaceful strike, he went on hunger strike.
 The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful, and the workers received the wage
increase they desired.

Khilafat Movement (1919)

 Gandhi had a significant impact on the Muslim population. This was evident in his
participation in the Khilafat Movement.
 Following World War I, Muslims feared for the safety of their Caliph or religious
leader, and a worldwide protest was organized to combat the Caliph's collapsing
status.
 Gandhi became a prominent spokesperson for the All India Muslim Conference and
returned the Empire medals he had received while serving in the Indian Ambulance
Corps in South Africa.
 His role in the Khilafat quickly elevated him to the position of a national leader.

Movement Against Non-Cooperation (1920)

 Gandhi realized that the British were only able to stay in India because of the
Indians' cooperation. In light of this, he called for a non-cooperation movement.
 With the help of Congress and his indomitable spirit, he persuaded the people that
peaceful non-cooperation was the key to independence.
 The foreboding day of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre sparked the non-cooperation
movement.
 Gandhi established the goal of Swaraj, or self-government, which has since become
the motto of the Indian freedom movement.

74.6 Conclusion
Mahatma Gandhi was the visionary who led India to independence. For over 250 years,
India was ruled by the British. At the request of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gandhi returned to
India from South Africa in 1915. Gandhi’s contribution to the Indian freedom movement is
incalculable in words. He and other freedom fighters forced the British to leave India. His
policies and agendas were nonviolent, and his words inspired millions of people.

*****

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 75. Role of Mahatma Gandhi in Khilafat and Non-
Cooperation Movement
Mahatma Gandhi played a major role in both Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement.
He took an active role in disseminating the Non-Cooperation Movement's policies and
programs throughout the country. He and other loyalists toured the country in an attempt
to rally public support and mobilize the masses in support of the movement. The Khilafat
movement and the Non-Cooperation movement were both mass movements formed in
1919-1922 to oppose British rule in India. Despite their disparate issues, the movements
adopted a unified plan of action based on nonviolence and non-cooperation. During this
time period, Congress and the Muslim League merged. Many political demonstrations were
held as a result of the efforts of both of these parties. In this article, we will discuss the role
of Mahatma Gandhi in the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement which will be helpful
for UPSC exam preparation.

75.1 Rise of Mahatma Gandhi as a Supreme Leader

 The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as the supreme leader of the national

movement between 1919 and 1920 marked the beginning of a new era in India's
struggle against colonial and exploitative British rule.
 The Gandhian era of national struggle began in 1919 and lasted until India gained
independence from British rule in 1947.
 The early Gandhian movements' success, such as Champaran Satyagraha (1917),
Ahmedabad Mill Satyagraha (1918), and Kheda Satyagraha (1918), paved the way
for Gandhiji's meteoric rise. These movements persuaded the masses that only the
Gandhi method could defeat British rule.
 The situation in India in 1919-20 was extremely volatile due to a combination of
factors such as a leadership vacuum, failure of moderate and extremist policies, and
the Jalliawala Bagh massacre, which pushed Gandhiji to the forefront of the Indian
national freedom struggle.
 The typical character of the Gandhian movement, as well as the success of the South
African experiment, had also played a significant role in his ascension to the position
of a supreme national leader. Gandhiji lived like most ordinary Indians and spoke
commoners' language.
 Gandhiji fought for commoners' issues, and as a result, every section of Indian
society developed a strong faith in Gandhian leadership.
 During the years 1919-20, he became a symbol of hope and inspiration for the
common people, leading to his ascension to the position of an undisputed supreme
national leader.

75.2 Beginning of Gandhian Movements

 The Gandhian movement was a true mass movement, similar to moderate and
extremist movements. He was adamant that no struggle against British rule would
succeed unless the masses joined in.

236
  It was nonviolent in nature, egalitarian in outlook, secular and progressive in nature,
strongly anti-colonial in appearance, and distinguished by the use of
both constitutional and extra-constitutional methods.
 Gandhi's movement was a pan-India movement because it reached millions of
Indians and was easily embraced by all segments of Indian society.
 Villagers had begun to participate in the national movement, which was no longer
limited to towns and cities.
 Under Gandhiji's leadership, peasants, workers, women, students, and the business
class had joined the nationalist struggle. Gandhiji defined the goal of Swaraj for the
first time at the Nagpur session of Congress in December 1920.
 The Gandhian movement was fundamentally a Satyagraha, or "search for truth." The
Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 was Gandhiji's first Satyagraha movement.
 Gandhiji was always a staunch supporter of the truth, regardless of the
consequences.
 He believed that it was humanity's responsibility to cooperate with good and avoid
cooperation with evil. He saw British rule as a bad thing, which is why he opposed it.
 The Gandhian movement made a significant contribution to the success of India's
struggle against British rule, but it should be noted that the Gandhian movement
was not without limitations.
 Subhash Chandra Bose called the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation
Movement in February 1922, following the Chauri-Chaura incident, a "national
calamity."
 The Non-Cooperation Movement was an important stage in India's struggle for
independence from British rule.
 From August 1920 to February 1922, this movement was active. It was launched
from the Khilafat platform, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and was backed by the Indian
National Congress.

75.3 Beginning of Non-Cooperation Movement

 Under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, the non-cooperation movement began in

1921. It was a large-scale protest. It was a nonviolent non-cooperation movement
led by Khilafat.
 Its goals were to make amends for wrongs done to the people of Punjab and Turkey.
Its goal was also to ensure the attainment of Swaraj.
 The Congress party introduced the Non-Cooperation program during a Congress
session in Calcutta in September 1920.
 The non-cooperation movement was active from September 1920 to February 1922.
It marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Indian freedom struggle.
 The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in the aftermath of a series of
events, including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and was put on hold due to
the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922.
 Mahatma Gandhi declared in his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) that British rule in
India was established with the cooperation of Indians and had survived only because
of this cooperation.
o If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would end in a year, and
Swaraj would take its place.

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 o As a result, he founded the Non-Cooperation Movement.

75.4 Khilafat Movement

 The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was an Indian-influenced Pan-Islamic

movement.
 The Ottoman Emperor Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) launched a Pan-Islamic program
to use his position as the Sultan-Khalifa of the global Muslim community to save his
collapsing empire from foreign attacks and crush the nationalistic democratic
movement at home.
 His emissary, Jamaluddin Afghani, visited India in the late nineteenth century to
spread Pan-Islamic ideas, and some Indian Muslim leaders welcomed him.
 Concurrently, Gandhi led his nonviolent nationalist movement satyagraha in
response to government repressions, such as the Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the
Jallianwala Bagh Massacres of April 1919.
 Gandhi supported the Khilafat cause and became a member of the Central Khilafat
Committee in order to gain Muslim support for his movement.
 Gandhi linked the issue of Swaraj (Self-Government) with the Khilafat demands at
the Nagpur Session (1920) of the Indian National Congress and adopted the non-
cooperation plan to achieve the twin goals.

75.5 Why Gandhi Withdrew the movement?

 Gandhi believed that people had not fully learned or understood the nonviolent
method. Incidents like Chauri-Chaura may cause excitement and fervor, turning the
movement violent in general.
 A violent movement could be easily suppressed by the colonial regime, which could
use violent incidents as an excuse to use the state's armed might against the
protestors.
 The movement was also showing signs of wear and tear. This was natural because it
is impossible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for an extended period of
time. The government appeared to be uninterested in bargaining.
 The central theme of the agitation, the Khilafat issue, also faded quickly. Turkey's
people rose up in November 1922, led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha, and deposed the
Sultan of political power. Turkey has been declared a secular state.
 As a result, the Khilafat issue became irrelevant. In Turkey, a European-style legal
system was established, and women were granted extensive rights. Education was
nationalized, and modern agriculture and industry flourished. The caliphate was
abolished in 1924.

75.6 Conclusion
Since Gandhiji always emphasized using the right methods to achieve the right goals, the
Gandhian movement was fundamentally an ethical and moral struggle. He never took
advantage of anyone's weakness. Gandhiji may have died, but Gandhism lives on. Even
today, his ideas and principles continue to inspire citizens. Gandhi is best known for his
nonviolent philosophy, which has influenced civil rights leaders all over the world. However,

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his legacy is being reexamined in light of contemporary ideas about race, feminism, and
nationalism.

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 76. Sikh Socio Religious Reform Movements
Socio-Religious reform movements among Sikhs (Sikh SSRM) began at the end of
the nineteenth century with the establishment of the Khalsa College in Amritsar. The
Khalsa College was founded in Amritsar in 1892 as a result of the efforts of the Singh Sabhas
(1870) and with British assistance. As a result of similar efforts, this college and schools
promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh learning, and Punjabi literature in general. This article will
explain to you about the Sikh Socio-Religious Reform Movements which will be helpful in
Modern Indian History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

76.1 Sikh Socio Religious Reform Movements - Background

 When the Akali Movement arose in Punjab after 1920, the Sikh momentum gained
traction.
 The Akalis' main goal was to improve the management of Gurudwaras or Sikh
Shrines that were under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as
private property.
 A law was passed in 1925 that gave the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak
Committee the authority to manage Gurudwaras.
 Baba Dayal Das spread the nirankar (formless) concept of God.
 By the end of the nineteenth century, a new reform movement known as the Akali
Movement had emerged to address the corrupt management of Gurdwaras.

76.2 Gurudwara Movement

 Prior to 1920, the Sikh Gurudwaras were governed by Udasi Sikh mahants, who
treated Gurudwara offerings and other income as their personal income.
 The British government-backed these mahants to counter the rising tide of
nationalism among Sikhs.
 The situation deteriorated to the point where the priest of the golden temple issued
a hukamnama (injunction) against Ghadarites, declaring them renegades, and then
bestowed a saropa on General Dyer, the butcher of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
 The Gurdwara Reform Movement launched an agitation to free the Gurudwaras
from these corrupt mahants and hand them over to a representative body of Sikhs.
 In November 1920, under increasing pressure from nationalists and Gurudwara
agitators, the Gurudwaras were placed under the control of an elected committee
known as the Shiromani Gurdwara Prablandhalk Committee.
 The movement for Gurudwara liberation quickly evolved into the Alkali movement,
which later split into three streams: moderate nationalist reformers, pro-
government loyalists, and a political organ of Sikh communalism.

76.3 Nirankari Movement

 Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) founded this movement of purification and return.
 In the 1840s, he advocated for the restoration of Sikhism to its roots, emphasizing
the worship of one God and nirankar (formless).

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  Such an approach entailed the rejection of idolatry as well as the prohibition of
eating meat, drinking liquor, lying, cheating, and other vices.
 It emphasized Guru Nanak and Sikhism prior to the establishment of Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Singh at Anandpur, which distinguished them from the Namdaris.

76.4 Namdhari Movement

 Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) founded it in 1857 after becoming a disciple of Balak
Singh of the Kuka movement in 1841.
 The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh's
founding of the Khalsa, with the requirement of wearing the five symbols but
carrying a stick instead of a sword.
 The followers of the movement were required to abandon their worship of gods,
idols, tombs, trees, snakes, and so on, as well as to refrain from drinking, stealing,
falsehood, slandering, backbiting, and so on.
 Furthermore, because cattle protection was important, beef consumption was
strictly prohibited.

76.5 Akali Movement

 The 1920s Akali movement, which began as a strictly religious movement to reform
Gurdwaras, or Sikh holy temples, quickly took on a political dimension and became
an integral component of India's liberation struggle.
 Apart from being anti-imperialist, the Akali movement, also known as the Gurdwara
Reform Movement or Gurdwara agitations, describes the Sikhs' long-running
struggle in the early twentieth century for the freedom of their Gurudwara, or holy
temple.
 Nonviolent agitation marches, divans or religious meetings, and protests for Sikhs to
express their freedom to control their place of worship drew fervent support,
especially from rural people.
 Finally, the government had to give in to public pressure and allow the Sikhs to
administer their shrines.
 The Gurdwara Act of 1925 established the SGPC, a Sikh representation organization
that serves as the custodian of all significant Sikh places of worship.

76.6 Babbar Akali Movement

 The Babbar Akali Movement took place between 1921 and 1925.
 The majority of the Babbar Akalis were returned, Canadian immigrants.
 Some of them were Gadharites because they had actively participated in the Gadhar
Movement (Gadhari Babbeys).
 The Babbar Akalis were Guru Sikhs who opposed the British government's imperialist
policies.
 The Babbar Akalis were opposed to Gandhi's nonviolence and non-cooperation
formula.
 They were upset because of the Nankana Sahib tragedy, which resulted in the
slaughter of hundreds of innocent Sikhs.

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  They rejected the peaceful reformation struggle in the Sikh shrines and decided to
lead their movement independently, without the company or cooperation of the
dominant Akali leadership.

76.7 Singh Sabha

 On October 1, 1873, a small group of prominent Sikhs led by Thakur Singh

Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh founded the Singh Sabha of Amritsar to
strengthen Sikhism.
 The Sabha's goals were to restore Sikhism to its original purity, to publish historical
religious books and periodicals, to spread knowledge, to sing Punjabi, to return Sikh
apostles to their faith, and to involve Englishmen in the Sikh educational program.
 Later, the Amritsar Singh Sabha was imitated by a newer, more democratic
organization, the Lahore Singh Sabha.
 After a while, the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other organizations like Khalsa
Diwani and, in 1920, by a struggle for control over Sikh places of worship.

76.8 Conclusion
The diversity of religious communities in Punjab resulted in the most socio-religious
movements of any region of South Asia. Furthermore, divisions within and between
religious communities surfaced frequently. The rising tide of rationalist and progressive
ideas in the nineteenth century could not be ignored by the Sikh community. Various gurus
led religious and social movements among Sikhs in an attempt to bring about positive
changes in the Sikh religion. The Singh Sabha, the major Sikh acculturative movement, was
split between pre-British elite centered in Amritsar and a new rising group in Lahore.

*****

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 77. Beginning of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Indian National Congress (INC), led by Mahatma Gandhi, launched the Non-
cooperation Movement on September 5, 1920. The party introduced the Non-Cooperation
programme during a Congress session in Calcutta in September 1920. The non-cooperation
movement was active from September 1920 to February 1922. It marked the beginning of a
new era in the history of the Indian freedom struggle. The Non-Cooperation Movement was
launched in the aftermath of a series of events, including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre,
and was put on hold due to the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922. In this article, we will discuss
the Non-Cooperation Movement which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

77.1 Non-Cooperation Movement - Features

 The Non-Cooperation Movement was a pivotal stage in India's independence from

British rule. Following the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Mahatma Gandhi led it. Its goal
was to use nonviolent means to oppose British rule in India.
 As a form of protest, Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from
nominated seats in local bodies.
 People were asked to resign from their positions in the government and were told to
take their children out of government-controlled or aided schools and colleges.
 They were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods, as well
as to boycott legislative council elections.
 Individuals were asked not to serve in the British army. It was also planned that if
the preceding steps failed to produce results, people would refuse to pay their taxes.
 Swarajya, or self-government, was also demanded by the INC. Only completely non-
violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled.
 The non-cooperation movement was a watershed moment in the independence
movement because it demonstrated that the INC was willing to forego constitutional
means to achieve self-rule for the first time.
 Gandhiji had promised that if the movement was carried out to its conclusion,
Swaraj would be achieved within a year.

77.2 Non-Cooperation Movement - Causes

 Indians believed that they would be rewarded with autonomy at the end of the war
in exchange for their extensive support of manpower and resources to Britain during
the First World War.
 However, the Government of India Act 1919 was inadequate. Furthermore, the
British enacted repressive legislation such as the Rowlatt Act, which enraged many
Indians who felt betrayed by rulers despite their wartime support.
 Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak's Home Rule Movement laid the groundwork
for the non-cooperation movement.
 The INC's extremists and moderates were united, and the Lucknow Pact also saw
cooperation between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. With the return of
the extremists, the INC took on a more militant tone.
 The people of India suffered greatly as a result of their country's participation in the
war. Prices of goods began to rise, affecting the average person. Peasants suffered as

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 well because agricultural product prices did not rise. All of this fueled resentment of
the government.
 The repressive Rowlatt Act, as well as the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in
Amritsar, had a profound impact on Indian leaders and the people.
 Their faith in the British justice system had been shattered, and the entire country
rallied behind its leaders, who were advocating for a more aggressive and firm
stance against the government.
 The Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana
Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani led the Khilafat movement.
 It received Mahatma Gandhi's support in convincing the British government not to
abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this movement supported Gandhiji's non-
cooperation movement and led a joint protest against the British.

77.3 Non-Cooperation Movement - Significance

 Congress evolved into the party of the common man. It now had widespread support
from ordinary peasants, workers, and intellectuals.
 Charkha and Khadi came to represent Indian nationalism.
 Gandhi was able to see India for what it truly was. He realized that India's true power
lies in the countryside, not in the cities.
 There was a need for a general awakening of the masses to their political rights and
privileges, as well as a total loss of faith in the government system.
 People realized that only through their own efforts could India hope to be free.
 It demonstrated that the Congress was the only organization capable of properly
directing national efforts to achieve freedom.
 The movement also revealed that the communal problem will be a major issue, and
that this communalism problem is entirely state-sponsored.
 This movement also established Gandhiji as the leader of the masses.
 As a result of this movement, people became more conscious of their political rights.

77.4 Non-Cooperation Movement - Criticism

 Gandhi's decision had thrown the Congress for a loop. The Jallianwallah Bagh
tragedy, Swaraj, problems with Khilafat volunteers, and other factors prompted its
inception. But none of them received a solution.
 In one year, Gandhi's idea of Swaraj proved to be a mirage.
 Many leaders, including Lala Lajpat Rai, opposed the boycott of educational
institutions. Some leaders did not like how it began, many others did not like how it
was conducted, and the majority of them could not digest the abrupt withdrawal.
 There was shock for the people of Punjab who were hoping for miracles to happen
to punish the perpetrators of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Nothing happened, and
the revolutionary activities in Punjab suffered another setback.
 Because Congress was left without a political programme, some new outfits arose in
parallel.
 The lawyers' boycott of law courts was not as successful as the educational boycott.

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77.5 Conclusion
The Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920 fell short of its immediate goal of establishing
Swaraj in India. However, this apparent failure should not obscure the enormous impact the
movement had on India and its people. Despite the fact that none of the planned activities
were carried out, the movement was not a failure. Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-
Cooperation Movement in response to various incidents of violence perpetrated by the
masses, particularly the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, in which the people clashed with
the police, setting a police station on fire.

*****

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 78. Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-Cooperation Movement, founded by Mahatma Gandhi on August 1, 1920, was
the first mass movement organized nationwide during India's struggle for independence.
The party introduced the Non-Cooperation program during a Congress session in Calcutta in
September 1920. The non-cooperation movement was active from September 1920 to
February 1922. It marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Indian freedom
struggle. The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in the aftermath of a series of
events, including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and was put on hold due to the Chauri
Chaura incident in 1922. In this article, we will discuss the Impact of the Non-Cooperation
Movement which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

78.1 Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement

 The Indian people's misery was exacerbated by the First World War. People's lives
were made miserable by high taxes, high prices, famines, and epidemics.
 The Rowlatt Act sparked widespread opposition across the country.
 The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the injustice done to Punjab infuriated Indians.
 Muslims became dissatisfied as a result of Turkey's mistreatment. They established
the Khilafat Movement.
 Many segments of Indian society experienced severe economic hardship. The
middle class in the towns, workers, and artisans, had been hit by high prices and a
lack of food and essential commodities.
 Drought and epidemics wreaked havoc on the rural poor and peasants. The British
were unconcerned about these developments.
 Gandhiji's idea of non-cooperation was adopted by the Congress session in Nagpur in
1920.

78.2 Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement

 The revolt came as a complete surprise to British authorities and provided massive
encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. The country's unity was
strengthened, and many Indian schools and colleges were established.
 Swaraj was not achieved in a single year, as Gandhiji had predicted. However, it was
a truly mass movement in which lakhs of Indians openly protested the government
through peaceful means.
 The British government was taken aback by the magnitude of the movement.
 It drew participation from both Hindus and Muslims, demonstrating the
country's communal harmony.
 The Congress Party's popularity among the people was established as a result of this
movement.
 People became aware of their political rights as a result of this movement. They had
no fear of the government. Throngs of people flocked to jails willingly.
 As a result of the boycott of British goods, Indian merchants and mill owners made a
lot of money during this time. Khadi was given a raise.
 During this time, sugar imports from the United Kingdom fell dramatically.
 This movement also established Gandhiji as a populist leader.

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78.3 People’s Response to Non-Cooperation Movement
Middle Class

 People from the middle classes led the movement at first, but later expressed
reservations about Gandhi's program.
 Response to Gandhi's call was very limited in places like Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras, which were centers of elite politics.
 The response to the call for resignation from government service, title surrender,
and so on was not taken seriously.
 The movement provided an outlet for the interests and aspirations of the relative
newcomers to Indian politics.
 In fact, leaders like Rajendra Prasad in Bihar and Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat saw
non-cooperation as a viable political alternative to terrorism in the fight against a
colonial government.

Business Class

 The Indian business community supported the economic boycott because they had
benefited from the nationalists' emphasis on the use of swadeshi.
 However, a segment of big businesses remained skeptical of the movement.
 They appeared to be concerned about labor unrest in their factories.

Peasants

 The participation of peasants was massive. Despite the fact that Congress was
opposed to class warfare, the masses broke this restraint.
 In Bihar, the conflict between the 'lower and upper castes' over the former stealing
the sacred thread became entwined with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 In general, peasants revolted against landlords and traders.

Students

 Students became active members of the movement, and thousands of them

transferred from government schools and colleges to national schools and colleges.
 Many students were accommodated in newly opened national institutions such as
the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Gujarat Vidyapeeth, and the Jamia Milia Islamia, among
others.

Women

 Women abstained from purdah and donated their ornaments to the Tilak Fund.
 They joined the movement in large numbers and actively participated in picketing in
front of shops selling foreign clothing and liquor.

Hindu-Muslim Unity

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  Despite events such as the Moppila Uprisings, the massive participation of Muslims
and the preservation of communal unity were significant accomplishments.
 In many places, two-thirds of those arrested were Muslims, and such participation
had never been seen before or would be seen again.
 Gandhi and other leaders addressed Muslim masses from mosques, and Gandhi was
even allowed to address Muslim women's meetings where he was the only male
who was not blindfolded.

78.4 End of Non-Cooperation Movement

 Following the Chauri Chaura incident, the non-cooperation movement was

disbanded.
 Despite the fact that he had single-handedly put an end to the national uprising,
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on February 12, 1922.
 On March 18, 1922, he was sentenced to six years in prison for publishing seditious
materials. This resulted in the movement's suppression, followed by the arrest of
other leaders.
 Although the majority of Congress leaders remained steadfastly behind Gandhi, a
few determined leaders, including the Ali brothers, broke away (Muhammad Ali and
Shaukat Ali). In response to Gandhi's leadership, Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das
founded the Swaraj Party.
 Many nationalists believed that the non-cooperation movement should not have
been halted because of isolated acts of violence, and most nationalists, while still
believing in Gandhi, were discouraged.

78.5 Conclusion
The Non-cooperation Movement came as a complete surprise to British authorities and
provided massive encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. The country’s unity was
strengthened, and many Indian schools and colleges were established. Indian products were
encouraged. The 1920 Non-Cooperation Movement failed to achieve its immediate goal of
establishing Swaraj in India. In response to various incidents of violence perpetrated by the
masses, particularly the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, in which the people clashed with
the police, setting a police station on fire, Gandhiji decided to withdraw from the Non-
Cooperation Movement.

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 79. Revolutionary Activities During 1920s
The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement disillusioned many; they began
to question the fundamental strategy of nationalist leadership. Because they were not
drawn to the Swarajists' parliamentary work or the No-changers' patient, undramatic,
constructive work, these younger nationalists were drawn to the idea that only violent
methods could free India. As a result, revolutionary terrorism was resurrected. In this
article, we will discuss the Revolutionary Activities During the 1920s which will be helpful
for UPSC exam preparation.

79.1 Revolutionary Activities During 1920s - Background

 Frustration over the failure of the political struggle in the early twentieth century, as
well as government repression, led to the rise of revolutionary terrorism.
 The revolutionary terrorists believed that passive resistance could not achieve
nationalist goals, so they adopted the bomb cult.
 During the First World War, revolutionary terrorists were subjected to harsh
repressive measures, and their movement suffered a setback.
 The majority of them were released from prisons in late 1919 and early 1920s, as the
government sought to create a favourable environment for the Montagu reforms. In
1920, the Non-Cooperation Movement was founded.
 Many of the revolutionary terrorist leaders were met by Mahatma Gandhi and C.R.
Das, who urged them to join the nonviolent mass movement or, at the very least, to
halt their activities.
 The revolutionaries recognised that the country had entered a new political era.
Many of the leaders attended the National Congress session in Nagpur and joined
the Congress.
 The abrupt suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in early 1922 following
the Chauri-Chaura incident caused a wave of disappointment and discontent among
the movement's young participants.
 Many of them became disillusioned with Gandhi's leadership and embarked on a
very simple strategy of nonviolent struggle. They returned to the idea of a violent
overthrow of British rule.
 In this regard, they were also inspired by revolutionary movements and uprisings in
Russia, Ireland, Turkey, Egypt, and China.
 While the old revolutionary leaders resurrected their organisations, a slew of new
revolutionary terrorist leaders emerged from the ranks of eager non-cooperators.

79.2 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab, UP, Bihar

 The Hindustan Republican Association/Army, or HRA, dominated revolutionary

activity in this region.
 Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Sachin Sanyal founded the HRA
in Kanpur in October 1924.
 Its goal was to organise an armed revolution to destabilise the colonial government.
 And in its place, establish a Federal Republic of the United States of India, the basic
principle of which would be adult franchise.

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  Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, or HSRA, was later renamed.

79.3 Hindustan Republican Association (1924)

 The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was a revolutionary party

founded by Ram Prasad Bismil and his associates to fight British colonial rule in India
and, if necessary, achieve independence for the country through an armed rebellion.
 The main impetus for the formation of the party was Mahatma Gandhi's decision to
call off the non-cooperation movement in 1922 as a result of the Chauri Chaura
incident.
 While some leaders of the Indian National Congress split off to form the Swaraj
Party, some of the younger nationalists and workers became disillusioned with the
idea of nonviolence and looked to revolutionary movements to achieve freedom.
 Bismil had spoken out against Gandhi at the INC's Gaya session in 1922.

79.4 Yugantar

 The Yugantar (Jugantar) Party was colonial Bengal's most powerful revolutionary
terrorist organisation.
 Barindra Kumar Ghosh established Yugantar (also known as Jugantar). He was
Aurobindo's younger brother and a revolutionary and journalist in India.
 In April 1906, an inner circle of the Calcutta anushilan samiti led by Barindrakumar
Ghosh and Bhupendranath Datta (with Aurobindo Ghosh's advice) launched the
weekly Jugantar (New Era).
 The organisation is named after the Jugantar, the militant nationalists' mouthpiece.
 Barindra vowed to free India from British colonial rule through religious inspiration
tempered by acts of violence, justifying Ksatriya murders in the name of human
happiness.
 He launched a ferocious anti-Partition movement with revolutionary zeal.
 He and his twenty-one followers gathered weapons and explosives and built bombs,
laying the groundwork for the Jugantar terrorist organisation.

79.5 Kakori Robbery (1925)

 The Kakori train robbery was the HRA's most significant action.
 The men boarded the 8-Down train in Kakori, a remote village near Lucknow, and
stole the train's official railway cash.
 Many people were arrested as a result of the government's response to the Kakori
robbery.
 17 were imprisoned, four were sentenced to life in prison, and four were hanged:
Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri.
 As a result, Kakori proved to be a setback.

79.5 Murder of Saunders (Lahore, December 1928)

 Just as the HSRA revolutionaries were beginning to shift away from individual heroic
action, the death of Sher-i-Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai as a result of lathi blows received

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 during a lathi-charge on an anti-Simon Commission procession (October 1928)
prompted them to return to individual assassination.
 Saunders, the police official responsible for the Lahore lathicharge, was shot dead by
Bhagat Singh, Azad, and Rajguru.
 They had misidentified Saunders as Superintendent of Police James Scott, who was
in charge of the lathi charge against Lala Lajpat Rai and his followers.
 When Chandrashekhar Azad attempted to pursue Bhagat Singh and Rajguru as they
fled, he was shot dead by an Indian constable.

79.6 Bomb in Legislative Assembly (1929)

 The HSRA leadership has now decided to inform the public about its new objectives
and the need for a mass revolution.
 On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in
the Central Legislative Assembly in protest of the passage of the Public Safety Bill
and Trade Disputes Bill, both of which aimed to limit the civil liberties of citizens in
general and workers in particular.
 The bombs had been purposefully designed to be harmless in order to make "the
deaf hear."
 The goal was to be arrested and use the trial court as a forum for propaganda in
order for people to become acquainted with their movement and ideology.
 In the Lahore conspiracy case, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were tried.
 In jail, these revolutionaries fasted in protest of the deplorable conditions and
demanded honourable and decent treatment as political prisoners.
 On the 64th day of his fast, Jatin Das became the first martyr.
 In December 1929, Azad was involved in an attempt to blow up Viceroy Irwin's train
near Delhi.
 In February 1931, Azad was killed in a police encounter in a park in Allahabad. On
March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged.

79.7 Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930)

 Surya Sen and his associates decided to organise an armed rebellion to demonstrate
that it was possible to challenge the mighty British Empire's armed might.
 They intended to seize and supply arms to the revolutionaries by occupying two
major armouries in Chittagong.
 They also intended to destroy telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the railway
line connecting Chittagong to the rest of Bengal.
 The raid took place in April 1930, and it was carried out by 65 activists under the
banner of the Indian Republican Army—Chittagong Branch.
 Sen hoisted the national flag, saluted, and declared a provisional revolutionary
government after the raid was successful.
 They later dispersed into nearby villages and raided government targets.
 Surya Sen was arrested in February 1933 and hanged in January 1934, but the
Chittagong raid fired the revolutionary-minded youth's imagination, and recruits
poured into revolutionary activist groups in droves.

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79.8 Conclusion
Even though the revolutionary terrorists of the 1920s and 1930s failed to achieve their
stated goal of leading a mass-based struggle, or even to establish contact with the masses,
they made a significant contribution to the ongoing national struggle against colonialism.
Their bravery and sacrifice, as well as their deep patriotism, inspired the Indian people,
particularly the youth, and instilled pride and self-confidence in them. In northern India,
Bhagat Singh and his comrades sowed the seeds of socialist thought and movement.

*****

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 80. Non-Cooperation Movement
The Non-cooperation Movement was Gandhi’s first mass-based political movement. This
movement was launched as per the resolution taken by the Indian National Congress at the
Calcutta session but ratified in the Nagpur session in December 1920. August 01, 1920 was
fixed as the date of starting the movement.

80.1 Non- Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi

 In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi spent most of his time in Champaran fighting for the
rights of peasants. He was seeking to obtain the security of tenure as well as
freedom in farmer’s choice for the cultivation of crops.
 Then again in 1918, in his home state Gujarat, he was involved in two campaigns.
The first campaign is about demanding better conditions for textile mill workers.
Then in Kheda, he joined peasants against the state for the remission of taxes at the
times of failure of their harvest.
 These initiatives taken in the Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda put Gandhi as a
nationalist among the people who fought for the poor. But all of these were small
localized struggles.
 During world war 1914-18, the British had put censorship of the press and permitted
detention without trial. These measures are continued under the recommendation
of the committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
 In response, a campaign was called by Gandhi against the "Rowlatt act”. In towns of
North and West India, schools are closed and shops are shut down in response to the
bandh call.
 Rowlatt Satyagraha made Gandhi a prominent leader among the people.
 There were also intense protests started in Punjab against the Rowlatt Act. Because
many men had served on the side British Government in the War, and instead of
getting rewarded they were given the Rowlatt Act.
 Gandhi was also detained while protesting in Punjab.
 This situation became more aggressive when a British Brigadier ordered his troops to
open fire in a nationalist meeting at Jallianwala Bagh. More than four hundred
people were killed in this incident known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
 Due to these happenings, Gandhi called out a campaign of “Non-Cooperation”
against the British Government.
 Those who wanted freedom from the colonial rule were asked to stop attending
schools, colleges, and courts and not to pay taxes.
 They were asked to renounce all association with the British government.
 According to Gandhi, if non-cooperation was effectively carried out without violence,
India would get its freedom within a year.
 To increase the momentum of the movement Gandhi further joined hands with the
Khilafat Movement. This would collectively bring the two major religious
communities of India, Hindu, and Muslims.
 Gandhi along with the Ali Brothers (Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) did a
nationwide tour to promote the non-cooperation Movement along with addressing
the meetings.

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  The boycott related to education was successful in Bengal and Punjab too which
operated under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai.
 Apart from this educational boycott, some of the most important lawyers also gave
up their lucrative practices in their fields.

80.2 Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement

 The main focus of the movement was to boycott schools, colleges, law courts and
increase the use of Charkha and using items made in the country.
 Students stopped going to schools and colleges which were run by the British
government.
 The working class of the society also went on strike in many towns and cities.
 According to the official data, in 1921, there were 396 strikes all over India, involving
600,000 workers in the strikes and a loss of 7 million workdays.
 Effects of the movement are also seen in the countryside. In northern Andhra, hill
tribes violated the forest laws.
 In Awadh, farmers there did not pay taxes to the government.
 In Kumaun, peasants refused to carry loads of the British officials.
 Student movements were in full swing and major lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal
Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, M.R. Jayakar, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
gave up their practices.
 Thereafter, the next step is to boycott foreign clothes and boycott of the
forthcoming visit of The Prince of Wales in November 1921.
 Jail Bharo Andolan by Congress volunteers and Charkha and Khadi clothes were also
popularized.
 The Non-Cooperation movement was financed by the Tilak Swaraj Fund.
 Swaraj, Redressal of Punjab wrongs, and Khilafat issues were demanded through this
movement.
 The Non- Cooperation movement started in January 1920 and successfully ran till
February 1922.

80.3 Causes of the Non- Cooperation Movement

Home Rule Movement

Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar had started a Home Rule Movement which eventually set
the tone for the Non-cooperation Movement. With this, the Lucknow Pact has also resulted
in the unity of the Congress and the Muslim League along with the unity of the extremists
and moderates of INC.

Resentment towards the British after World War I

The Indians were expecting rewards and Autonomy for their efforts and support to the
British in World War 1, but instead the British passed the Rowlatt Act and the Government
of India Act, 1919 which were very disappointing and disheartening for the Indians.

Rowlatt Act Agitation among the Indians

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This was an act passed by the legislation of India during World War I, to allow the
government to perform trials on some political parties without the juries and to put
indefinite detention to them. Gandhi protested against this act, and it became one of the
main reasons for the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Economic Distress During and After the War

Due to the First World War, defence expenditures of the government climbed higher which
increased the tax on individuals. Also, the increase in military expenses and demands for
war supplies led to a sharp price hike in the country which badly affected the economy and
common people.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

In April 1919, a general, Reginald Dyer, ordered the British Indian army to open fire on the
crowd of unarmed civilians in Jallianwala Bagh. Over 379 people were killed and more than
1200 people were injured. After this incident, the anger of the people increased towards the
British and they started joining the non-cooperation movement.

Khilafat Movement

In 1919-20, a movement led by Indian Muslims, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, was known
as Khilafat Movement. Their demands were:

1. The Khalifa must retain control over the Muslim sacred places in the Ottoman
empire,
2. Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine must remain under Muslim sovereignty,

III. The Khalifa must be given some territory to defend the Islamic faith.

Congress supported this movement and Gandhi sought to conjoin this movement in the
Non-Cooperation Movement.

80.4 Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement Suspended?

 Angry peasants attacked a local police station on 5th February 1922 at Chauri-
Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
 The whole situation changed by this incident.
 Gandhi, who was shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non- Cooperation
Movement.
 However, leaders like Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das was against the withdrawal of the
movement just because of a few violent episodes.

80.5 Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement

 This movement aims to stop all the cooperation with the British government.
 Peasants, workers, and others wanted to get freedom from the government, so they
"non-cooperate" in the ways that best suited them.

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  They surrendered all the titles given to the Indians by the British government.
 They also surrendered honorary offices and gave resignation from the offices.
 People refused to attend government darbars and official functions.
 They stopped offering themselves in the military and other government jobs.
 Boycott of foreign goods.
 Non-payment of taxes to the government.

80.6 Facts about Non-Cooperation Movement for UPSC

 Mahatma Gandhi was the one who started Non-Cooperation in India during British
rule and who announced the manifesto in 1920.
 Lord Chelmsford was the viceroy of British India during the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
 J.M. Sengupta was the prominent leader of the Non-Cooperation Movement that
took place in Assam against the tea plantations.
 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel took the movement to Gujarat and spread it there.
 The Indian National Congress supported the Khilafat Andolan led by two Indian
Muslim brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali declared that it was religiously
against the Muslims to continue supporting the British Army.
 Gandhi was arrested in March 1922.
 C.R.Das presented the main resolution on the Non-Cooperation Movement during
the annual session of the Congress at Nagpur in 1920. He had three subordinates (J.
M. Sengupta, Subhas Bose, and Birendranath Samsal) who led the movement at
Chittagong, Calcutta, and Midnapore and united the Hindus and Muslims.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, and Annie Besant
were the ones who opposed the movement.
 Lala Lajpat Rai who was initially against the movement had eventually protested its
withdrawal.
 The major lawyers who gave up their lucrative practices for the Non- cooperation
movement were - C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, M.R. Jayakar,
Saifuddin Kitchlew, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

But the younger generation of Indian Nationalists backed Gandhi. Due to the Chauri-Chaura
incident, Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the non-cooperation movement. Subhas Chandra Bose
had resigned from the Civil Service and was later appointed as the Principal of the National
College at Calcutta.

*****

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 81. Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)
On 5th February 1922, the day when civil disobedience was to be launched, the Chauri
Chaura incident took place and changed the whole scenario. At Chauri-Chaura,
in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, police tried to stop a procession of Congress and
Khilafat activists. Irritated by this behavior, some activists attacked them and the police
opened fire at them. Infuriated, the entire procession attacked the police and when the
police took shelter inside the station, the station itself was set on fire, killing all of its
occupants. Shocked by this incident Gandhiji withdrew the Non-Cooperation
Movement. The civil disobedience at Bardoli was also postponed. Gandhi stated that
without adequate discipline and restraint on the part of the people, the movement had
proved to be a ‘Himalayan Blunder’. In this article, we will discuss the Chauri-Chaura
incident which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

81.1 Chauri Chaura Incident - Background

 On August 1, 1920, the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, launched
the non-cooperation movement.
 This was supposed to be a peaceful and non-violent movement in which people
would resign from government jobs and titles, stop attending government schools
and colleges, refuse to serve in the army, and, as an extreme measure, refuse to pay
taxes.
 The party's goal was Swaraj or self-government.
 People readily joined the movement, and it was deemed a partial success, at least in
terms of participation.
 However, an incident at Chauri Chaura shifted the movement's trajectory. On
February 2, 1922, people gathered in the marketplace to protest high meat prices.
 Police had beaten them, and many of their leaders were arrested and detained at
the Chauri Chaura police station.
 Another protest against the police was planned by the volunteers.
 In response, the British government declared martial law in the area and arrested
hundreds of people.
 After the incident, Gandhi fasted for five days in retaliation for his "role" in it. He
officially withdrew the movement on February 12, believing that the people were
not ready to engage in a nonviolent movement.
 He also believed that people were not given adequate training to show restraint in
the face of violent attacks.
 Many Congress leaders, including Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das, were opposed
to the movement's suspension because they saw progress in the country.

81.2 Chauri Chaura Incident - Features

 A small village named Chauri-Chaura (Gorakhpur district in the United Provinces) has
found a place in history books as a result of a violent incident on February 5, 1922,
which prompted Gandhi to withdraw the movement.

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  The police here had beaten up the leader of a group of volunteers protesting the sale
of liquor and high food prices and then opened fire on the crowd that had gathered
in front of the police station.
 The enraged crowd set fire to the police station, killing the officers who had taken
refuge there; those who tried to flee were hacked to death and thrown back into the
fire.
 The violence resulted in the deaths of twenty-two police officers. Gandhi, dissatisfied
with the movement's increasingly violent trend, announced its immediate
withdrawal.
 In February 1922, the Congress Working Committee met in Bardoli and resolved to
halt all activity that led to lawbreaking and instead focus on constructive work, such
as popularising khadi, establishing national schools, and campaigning for
temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, and opposing untouchability.
 Most nationalist leaders, including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose, and
Jawaharlal Nehru, were perplexed by Gandhi's decision to withdraw the movement.
 Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison in March 1922.

81.3 Chauri Chaura Incident - Consequences

 The British sentenced approximately 172 people to death. However, 19 people were
hanged in total.
 The killing of the police officers was condemned by Mahatma Gandhi.
 A Chauri Chaura support fund was established.
 Gandhiji put an end to the non-cooperation movement.
 After the incident, Gandhiji went on a five-day fast. He blamed himself for the
occurrence. On February 12, 1922, he formally ended the non-cooperation
movement.
 Furthermore, the abrupt termination of the Non-Cooperation Movement
disillusioned the Khilafat movement leaders, causing a schism between Congress and
Muslim leaders.

81.4 Chauri Chaura Incident - Positive Aspect

 Provide a platform for the unification of all religious communities so that a joint
force can fight against foreign rule.
 Provide the necessary impetus and mass support for future agitations and
movements.
 Give the masses a sense of courage, direction, and confidence, and fill them with
self-respect and esteem.
 Provide the Muslim community with a sense of representation in the nationalist
movement.

81.5 Conclusion
The Chauri-Chaura incident led to the death of three civilians and 22 police officers. As a
direct result of this incident, Mahatma Gandhi, who was adamantly opposed to violence,
put an end to the national non-cooperation movement on February 12, 1922. The
disillusionment caused by the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led many

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younger Indian nationalists to believe that India would not be able to overthrow colonial
rule through nonviolence.

*****

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 82. Self Respect Movement
The Self Respect Movement was founded in 1925 by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (also known
as Periyar), a Balija Naidu. The movement's goal was to reject the brahmanical religion and
culture, which Naicker saw as the primary tool of exploitation of the lower castes. It was an
egalitarian movement that advocated for the abolition of Brahminical hegemony, equal
rights for backward classes and women in society, and the revitalization of Dravidian
languages such as Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. Depressed castes organized
numerous satyagraha movements across India to protest the ban on their entry into
temples and other such restrictions.

82.1 What is the Self Respect Movement?

 S. Ramanathan invited E.V. Ramaswamy to start this movement in Tamil Nadu,

where it was very influential, in 1925.
 The Self Respect Movement, also known as the Dravidian Movement, advocated for
equal rights for the backward castes, with a focus on women's rights.
 Most importantly, as the movement's leaders stated, the movement fought for
people of the lower castes to have "self-respect" in society.
 The Self-Respect Movement was a dynamic social movement aimed at completely
destroying the contemporary Hindu social order and establishing a new, rational
society free of caste, religion, and god.
 Inspired by the emphasis on self-respect in Tamil literature – known as tan-maanam
or suya mariyadai – Ramanathan and Periyar Ramaswamy sought to advance the
philosophy that developing self-respect in individuals will end caste discrimination.
 Annai Meenanmbal and Veeramal were two of the movement's female leaders.

82.2 Self Respect Movement - Objectives

The three main objectives advocated by this movement were the dissolution of Brahminical
rule, equal chances for the weaker sections and women in the workplace, and the
resurrection of the Dravidian languages, which included Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, and
Tamil.

The propounders of the movement outlined the objectives in two pamphlets “Namathu
Kurikkol” and “Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam”. The following were the major objectives of the
movement:

 To build a society in which backward castes have the same basic civil rights as higher
castes.
 To work towards providing equal possibilities for growth and development should to
all persons.
 Complete eradication of untouchability and establishment of a just and harmonious
society.
 It aimed at a social transformation after which friendship and a sense of belonging
comes naturally to everyone.
 To provide shelter for the destitute, orphans, and widows and to establish schools
and colleges.

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  To deter people from constructing additional temples, mutts, chlorites, or Vedic
schools. The movement wanted to discourage people from using their caste names
in their names, and other similar practices that were blindly followed.

82.3 Self Respect Movement - Significance

 Following E.V.R.'s never-ending anti-orthodoxy campaign, the Brahmins' monopoly

of power and influence was gradually eroded.
 People were energized with the feeling of self-respect and, above all, self-
confidence, as it prepared to confront societal injustice perpetuated by the
Brahmins.
 It resulted in the encouragement of inter-caste and interreligious weddings, as well
as the legalization of marriages performed without the presence of a Brahman
priest.
 Tamil Nadu was the first state after independence to approve legislation allowing
Hindu marriages without the use of a Brahmin priest.
 The method of allocating separate seats in Municipal Councils for Harijan members
was also abolished.
 The name boards of the hotels were changed from "Brahmins Hotel" to "Vegetarian
Hotel" as a result of the movement's unwavering support.
 People began to take pride in abandoning their caste name.

82.4 Contemporary Relevance of Self Respect Movement

 Periyar came up with the idea of forming a self-respect movement as a means of

achieving his goal of freeing society from some of the harmful social practices that
go by the names of dharma and karma.
 The Self-Respect Movement has grown into a prominent anti-caste movement that
has questioned India's social system.
 Inter-caste marriages, as well as women's physical autonomy, were highlighted by
the movement.
 The feminist movement fought for a society where women could choose their own
sexual, reproductive, and physical decisions. The campaign was a breakthrough
moment for feminism in India.
o It placed a high priority on ensuring that women had access to permanent
birth control as well as contraception.
 One of the major societal revolutions brought about by the self-respect movement
was the Self-Respect Marriage System.

82.5 Conclusion
Indian societies have historically been dominated by Brahminical ideologies and people have
been under continuous oppression. Various incidents and movements have occurred in the
past to counteract this domination. The Self Respect Movement is one of the movements
that resisted Brahmin dominance in Indian society. The fact remains that the Self-Respect
Movement's strong ideals and demands paved the way for true democracy.

*****

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 83. Kakori Robbery (1925)
The Kakori Train Robbery (Kakori Conspiracy) was a train robbery that occurred on August
9, 1925, in Kakori, a village near Lucknow, during the Indian Independence Movement
against the British Raj. Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan, members of the HRA,
which later became the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, planned the robbery.
This organisation was formed to carry out revolutionary activities against the British Empire
in order to achieve independence. Bismil and his group devised a plan to rob a train on
the Saharanpur Railway lines in order to raise funds for the organisation's weapon
purchases. In this article, we will discuss the Kakori Robbery (1925) which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

83.1 Kakori Robbery - Features

 The Kakori Conspiracy (also known as the Kakori train robbery) was a train robbery
that occurred near Lucknow. Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) organised the
robbery.
 On August 9, 1925, the Number 8 Down Train travelling from Shahjahanpur to
Lucknow was approaching the town of Kakori when a revolutionary pulled the
emergency chain to stop the train and overpowered the guard.
 The guard cabin was the target, as it was transporting money collected from various
railway stations to be deposited in Lucknow. Only those bags (containing more than
100,000 rupees) were looted by revolutionaries, who fled to Lucknow.
 Despite the fact that no passengers were targeted by the revolutionaries, one
passenger, Ahmed Ali, was killed in the crossfire between the guards and the
revolutionaries. As a result, the case was classified as manslaughter.
 Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Chandrashekhar Azad, Swaran
Singh, Sachindra Bakshi, Keshab Chakravarty, Manmathnath Gupta, Mukundi Lal,
Banwari Lal, Kundan Lal, and Pranawesh Mukherjee carried out the robbery plan.
 The goals of this robbery were to:
o The money stolen from the British administration will be used to fund the
HRA.
o Obtain public attention by promoting a favourable image of the HRA among
Indians.
 Following the incident, the British administration launched a massive manhunt and
arrested a number of revolutionaries who were members or associates of the HRA.
 Their leader, Ram Prasad Bismil, was arrested in Shahjahanpur on October 26, 1925,
and Ashfaqullah Khan was arrested in Delhi on December 7, 1926.

83.2 Kakori Robbery - Impact

 While the planned attack may appear incomplete, it had a far greater impact on the
British Empire.
 Following the Kakori Conspiracy, there were numerous organised attacks on the
British.
 The death sentences handed down to the revolutionaries sparked widespread
protests across the country.

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  It was the result of these small-scale organised protests and disturbances that
eventually loosened the Empire's grip on India and made it extremely difficult for
them to control an enraged India.

83.3 Kakori Robbery - Aftermath

 Following the Kakori train Kand, a massive manhunt was launched to apprehend
those involved in the robbery and manslaughter. From Allahabad to Kanpur,
authorities were given a list of 50 or so suspects.
 The British suspected the involvement of an unidentified revolutionary group known
as the Hindustan Republican Association, which was also involved in the Calcutta
post office robberies in 1924.
 Eventually, 30 people were brought before a special magistrate in Lucknow. The
Kakori Kand conspirators were apprehended in 1927.
 Some were sentenced to death, while others were led away due to a lack of
evidence, and the remainder were sent to Port Blair's Cellular Jail.

83.4 Conclusion
The Kakori case dealt a significant setback to northern Indian revolutionaries, but it was not
a fatal blow. Younger men like Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Varma, and Jaidev Kapur in Uttar
Pradesh, and Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, and Sukhdev in Punjab, set out to
reorganise the HRA under Chandrashekhar Azad’s overall leadership. At the same time, they
were being influenced by socialist ideas. Finally, on September 9 and 10, 1928, nearly all of
northern India’s major young revolutionaries gathered at Feroz Shah Kotla Ground in Delhi,
formed a new collective leadership, adopted socialism as their official goal, and renamed
the party the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.

*****

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 84. Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929)
The Meerut conspiracy case was of immense political significance for the Indian working-
class movement because it was a conspiracy of the British Government against the rise of
Communism in India. The government arrested 31 labour leaders on the charge of
conspiracy in March 1929, and after a three-and-a-half-year trial, Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A.
Dange, Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Ben Bradley, Shaukat Usmani, and others were convicted.
The trial received worldwide attention, but it weakened the working-class movement. In this
article, we will discuss the Meerut conspiracy case which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

84.1 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Features

 A watershed moment in Indian national liberation history. It occurred during a

period when the whole capitalist world was struggling from the Great Depression,
while the newly formed socialist state of Soviet Russia was making remarkable
progress.
 During this time, violent working-class movements reached unprecedented heights,
with the majority of them led by communists and revolutionaries.
 March 15, 1929, when the District Magistrate of Meerut issued arrest warrants for
the suspects. Just the day before, India's Governor-General, Lord Irwin, gave his
approval to prosecute under Section 121-A of the Indian Penal Code.
 31 communists/labour leaders were arrested in various parts of India on March 20,
1929. The majority of them were well-known individuals in the labour movement
and trade unions.
 Thirteen came from Bombay, ten from Bengal, five from Uttar Pradesh, three from
Punjab, and three from England.
 Eight members of the All India Congress Committee were detained, as were nearly
all of the executive committee members of the newly formed WPP. Their arrest was
preceded by extensive raids and searches of their homes.
 Meerut was carefully chosen as the location for the trial. The authorities primarily
desired to avoid a jury trial. The case would have been tried by the High Court with a
jury in both Bombay and Calcutta, two major centres of communist activity.
 Unlike in past 'communist conspiracy' cases, the Meerut inmates intended to use
the court as a forum to spread their agenda as much as possible.
 Muzaffar Ahmad urged Adhikari that they should use the Sessions Court as a forum
for political declarations and that they should prepare themselves by studying.
 RS Nimbkar publicly introduced the general statement on behalf of all the
defendants.
 The accused's "major achievements," according to the Additional Sessions Judge,
were the "creation of the Workers and Peasants Parties."
 The entire trial gained widespread media attention and elicited global solidarity from
the working class.
 The Meerut trial was perhaps remarkable in that it was accompanied by a significant
solidarity initiative in the form of an organized campaign in India and overseas,
mainly in the United Kingdom.

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  The arrests were condemned by the Comintern, and British workers and communists
formed a strong solidarity campaign. They raised money for the detainees.
 Throughout the trial, the radical British press raised the subject and expressed
sympathy for the prisoners.
 From 1929 to the end of 1933, the Meerut prisoners' solidarity movement grew into
a militant political force that aided in the formation of a favorable public attitude in
support of India's battle for independence.

84.2 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Impact

 Despite the fact that all of the defendants were communists, the allegations brought
against them reflected the British government's fear of the spread of communist
ideals in India.
 All of the defendants were identified as Bolsheviks during the trial.
 The defendants used the courtroom as a public stage to promote their cause for four
and a half years.
 As a result of the trial, the communist movement in the country gained strength.
 Former General Secretary of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) Harkishan Singh
Surjeet wrote about the aftermath of the Meerut Conspiracy Case: “Only with the
liberation of the Meerut convicts in 1933 did a Party with an organized apparatus
emerge.”
 Despite being launched to crush the communist movement, the Meerut Conspiracy
Case allowed Communists to spread their beliefs.
 In 1934, it published its own manifesto and became a member of the Communist
International.

84.3 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Support

 Bhagat Singh and his colleagues, who are facing charges in the Lahore Conspiracy
Case, declared their support for the Meerut detainees.
 Periyar EV Ramaswamy, the leader of the Madras province's self-respect
movement, expressed open sympathy for the Meerut detainees.
 Many Congress leaders, including Gandhi, condemned the British and voiced
sympathy for the inmates in Meerut.
 Workers across the country, particularly in Calcutta, Bombay, and other working-
class strongholds, went on strike to protest the incarceration of their leaders.
 The trial was openly condemned by the AITUC. In numerous places, students and
youngsters joined the protests.

84.4 Meerut Conspiracy Case - Evaluation

 The communists were portrayed in the Meerut trial as the foremost freedom
fighters who bore the brunt of imperialist attack.
 This earned them genuine national support; even Gandhi felt compelled to express
his sympathy and respect.

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  However, the CPI failed to reap any benefits; for one thing, the internment of
virtually all leaders, precisely at the time when the Party was planning to consolidate
itself, made any national-level planning and work impossible.
 Second, the new leadership that gradually emerged from the grassroots proved to
be more loyal than the King in following the new Comintern line, which shifted to the
left shortly after the Sixth World Congress.

84.5 Impact of Workers and Peasants Parties (WPP)

 Under the banner of the WPP, communists led the majority of working-class and
peasant fights.
 The Bardoli agitation, one of the most effective peasant mobilizations, occurred in
Bombay in 1928 at the same time as the Girni Kamgar strike.
 Despite the fact that the two were unrelated and had no organizational ties, the
British feared a link-up and were "confident that the communists would use the
Bardoli problem if the government took action there." Such was the British public's
terror of communism.
 The communists' and WPP's initiatives had helped to raise public awareness among
the general public, who could now see the struggle for independence as part of a
global anti-imperialist movement. This fact had to be accepted by Congress as well.
 During this time, the WPP's activities also had a significant impact on revolutionary
nationalists.
 Many of them were influenced by communist ideals, and the emergence of the
communist movement was the first sign of a significant shift in this section's general
viewpoint.
 The founding of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, led by Bhagat
Singh, was a clear indication of this transformation.
 When most people were thinking in terms of either 'bomb politics' or Gandhian non-
violence, the WPP and the Communist Party used propaganda to bring working-class
politics to the forefront.
 The idea of direct action, as advocated by communists, of organising the entire
working class for full independence drew youth in.
 The British were particularly concerned about the rise of communist influence
among the masses and took early steps to curtail communist activity.

84.6 Conclusion
The Meerut solidarity movement demonstrated the working class’s might. The trial in India
presented communists with a great venue for reaching a shared understanding of strategy
and tactics and disseminating them through broader outlets. After the communist prisoners
were released in late 1933, the Party was able to build a stronger political and
organizational platform on which to expand its activities. It also succeeded in broadening its
base of support among revolutionary nationalists seeking an alternative path to national
freedom. The facts and arguments from the Meerut Conspiracy Case and the Lahore
Conspiracy Case, both of which were ongoing at the same time, influenced millions of young
people across the country to join mass revolutionary activities.

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 85. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34)
On April 6, 1930, M.K. Gandhi formally launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by
picking a handful of salt after completing the historic 'Dandi March' from Sabarmati Ashram
to Dandi, thus violating the government's salt law. He was a driving force behind the
movement, inspiring grassroots participation in the liberation struggle. The Civil
Disobedience Movement spread across the country as a result of the defiance of the salt
law. Salt production spread across the country during the first phase of the civil
disobedience movement, and it became a symbol of the people's defiance of the
government. In this article, we will discuss the Civil Disobedience Movement which will be
helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

85.1 Civil Disobedience Movement - Background

 To carry out the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented the
government with 11 demands and gave a deadline of January 31, 1930 to accept or
reject these demands.
 With no positive response from the government to these demands, Gandhi was
given full authority to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement at a time and place
of his choosing by the Congress Working Committee.
 By the end of February, Gandhi had decided to make salt the movement's central
formula.
 The celebration of Independence Day in 1930 was followed by the launch of the Civil
Disobedience Movement, led by Gandhi.
 It all started with Gandhi's famous Dandi March. On March 12, 1930, Gandhi set out
on foot from the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad with 78 other Ashram members
for Dandi, a village on India's western seacoast about 385 kilometres from
Ahmedabad.
 They arrived in Dandi on April 6, 1930. Gandhi broke the salt law there. Because salt
was a government monopoly, it was illegal for anyone to produce it.
 Gandhi defied the government by picking up a handful of salt that had formed as a
result of sea evaporation.

85.2 Civil Disobedience Movement - Features

 This was the first nationwide movement, as all previous ones had been restricted to
cities.
 People in rural areas could also register to participate.
 The event drew a large number of female participants.
 The satyagraha movement was led by well-known women such as Kasturba Gandhi,
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Avantikabai Gokhale, Lilavati Munshi, and Hansaben
Mehta.
 Nonviolence was the movement's motto.
 Despite constant British repression, this movement persisted.

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85.3 Civil Disobedience Movement - Causes

 The unrest in social and political situations aided in the formation of the civil
disobedience movement.
 Simon commission, which was formed by the British government in 1927 to
formalise India's constitution and was entirely composed of British members, was
rejected by the Indian National Congress and other political and social organisations
and was dubbed the all white commission.
 In 1928, a new constitution was drafted in Calcutta by a committee led by Motilal
Nehru. The INC demanded that the British government accept Nehru’s Report in
1928.
 The main theme of the report was to give India Dominion Status. It warned and
blackmailed the British government that if they did not accept the report, they
would be threatened and a civil disobedience movement would be launched.
 The main goal of the constitutional reform, according to the Governor General of
India, Lord Irwin, was to Grant India dominion status.
 Following the declaration, Gandhi and other leaders proposed a round table
conference to resolve the constitutional crisis, and when the British government did
not respond positively to any of their demands, the civil disobedience movement
was launched.

85.4 Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)

 For a long time, Mahatma Gandhi was planning a mass movement along the lines of
the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 He was looking for a symbol around which the entire movement could be centred
and he hit upon the idea of salt as a tax on salt, in his opinion, was the most
oppressive form of tax which humankind could devise since salt was a basic necessity
of human existence, just like air and water.
 As a result, breaking salt laws would be the most appropriate way to launch the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
 The Dandi March began on March 12, 1930, from Sabarmati Ashram in Gujarat to
the coastal village of Dandi, a distance of approximately 390 kilometres. Gandhi and
78 followers set out on foot for Dandi.
 They travelled from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in 25 days and arrived on the Dandi
coast on April 6, 1930, where Gandhi broke the salt laws and launched the mass Civil
Disobedience Movement by picking up a handful of salt.
 Sarojini Naidu was one of the leaders who travelled with Mahatma Gandhi on the
Dandi March.

85.5 Spread of Civil Disobedience Movement

 After Gandhi's ritual at Dandi paved the way, defiance of the salt laws spread
throughout the country.
 Nehru's arrest in April 1930 for violating the salt law sparked massive protests in
Madras, Calcutta, and Karachi. Gandhi was arrested on May 4, 1930, after

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 announcing that he would lead a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works on India's west
coast.
 Following Gandhi's arrest, there were massive protests in Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta,
and Sholapur, where the response was the most ferocious.
 Following Gandhi's arrest, the CWC sanctioned the following actions:
o non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas;
o a no-chowkidari-tax campaign in zamindari areas; and
o a violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces.
 Students, women, tribals, merchants and petty traders, workers and peasants from
all walks of life were all involved in the CDM.
 Salt laws were also flouted in a number of provinces, with varying degrees of
success.
 C Rajagopalachari led the Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu, K Kelappan in Malabar,
and Sarojini Naidu and Manilal Gandhi in Dharasana Salt Works (Gujarat).
 The defiance of salt laws at Dharasana salt works was notable for its scale, with a
group of 2000 volunteers offering nonviolent resistance in the face of a large police
force armed with steel-tipped lathis, which attacked non-resisting Satyagrahis
(protestors) until they fell down.
 The Gandhi-Irwin agreement effectively ended the civil disobedience movement. It
was signed on March 5, 1931, by Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then-Viceroy
of India.

85.6 Civil Disobedience Movement - Impact

 The civil disobedience movement had a far-reaching impact. It instilled distrust in the
British government and laid the groundwork for the freedom struggle, as well as
popularising new methods of propaganda such as the Prabhat, pheris, pamphlets,
and so on.
 Following forest law defiance in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Central Province, as
well as refusal to pay the rural 'Chaukidari tax' in Eastern India, the government
abolished the oppressive salt tax.
 Foreign imports of clothing and cigarettes were cut in half. Government revenue
from land revenue and liquor excise were also reduced.
 Women and students participated in large numbers in the movement, which was a
liberating experience for Indian women who were entering public space in such large
numbers for the first time.

85.7 Civil Disobedience Movement - Drawbacks

 Muslims were less likely to participate as a result of the advice of communal leaders
and the government's efforts to promote communalism as a response to
nationalism.
 Except in Nagpur, industrial workers did not participate in large numbers.

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85.8 Civil Disobedience Movement - Government Response

 Throughout 1930, the government's attitude was ambivalent, as it was puzzled and
perplexed.
 It faced the classic dilemma where if force was used, the Congress cried 'repression,'
while if little action was taken, the Congress cried 'victory. In either case, the
government's power was eroded.
 Gandhi's arrest, too, came after much deliberation. However, once the repression
began, the ordinances prohibiting civil liberties were freely used, including the
gagging of the press.
 Provincial governments now have the authority to prohibit civil disobedience
organisations. However, the Congress Working Committee was not declared illegal
until June.
 There were lathi-charges and firing on unarmed crowds, which resulted in several
deaths and injuries, and thousands of satyagrahis, in addition to Gandhi and other
Congress leaders, were imprisoned.
 Lord Irwin, the viceroy, proposed a round table conference in July 1930 and
reiterated the goal of dominion status.
 He also agreed to allow Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar to investigate the
possibility of peace between the Congress and the government.
 Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru were taken to Yerawada Jail in August 1930 to meet
Gandhi and discuss the possibility of a settlement.
 The demands of the Nehrus and Gandhi were unequivocal:
o the right to secede from Britain;
o complete national government with control over defence and finance; and
o an independent tribunal to settle Britain's financial claims.

85.9 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

 On March 5, 1931, Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, India's then-viceroy, signed
the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
 The agreement was signed just before the second round table conference in London
began.
 The Gandhi-Irwin Pact, also known as the Delhi Pact, equalised the Congress and
the government.
 To lay the groundwork for the Round Table Conference to be held in
England, Mahatma Gandhi held fortnight-long talks with Viceroy Lord Irwin, which
culminated in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed by Gandhi on behalf of the Congress and
Lord Irwin on behalf of the British India government.

85.10 Civil Disobedience Movement - Evaluation

 Gandhi's decision to suspend the civil disobedience movement, as agreed under the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact, was not a retreat because:
o mass movements are inherently short-lived;
o the capacity of the masses to make sacrifices, unlike activists, is limited;

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 o there were signs of exhaustion after September 1930, particularly among
shopkeepers and merchants who had participated so enthusiastically.
 Youth were undoubtedly disappointed because they had participated
enthusiastically and expected the world to end with a bang rather than a whimper.
 Gujarati peasants were dissatisfied because their lands were not immediately
restored (in fact, they were restored only during the province's Congress ministry's
rule).
 However, many people were overjoyed that the government had been forced to
recognise their movement as significant, treat their leader as an equal, and sign a
pact with him.
 When political prisoners were released from prison, they were greeted as heroes.

85.11 Strategic Debates

 There was a two-stage debate on the nationalists' future strategy: first, what course
the national movement should take in the immediate future, i.e., during the non-
mass struggle (1934-35).
 Second, in 1937, over the issue of office acceptance in the context of provincial
elections held under the autonomy provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935.

 At this point, two points of view were presented.

o On Gandhian lines, there should be constructive work. There should be
constitutional debate and participation in Central Legislative elections (due in
1934).
o A strong leftist trend within the Congress, represented by Nehru, was critical
of both constructive work and council entry in place of the suspended civil
disobedience movement, arguing that this would sidetrack political mass
action and divert attention away from the main issue of colonial resistance.
o Instead, this section advocated for the resumption and continuation of non-
constitutionalist mass struggle, arguing that the situation was still
revolutionary due to the ongoing economic crisis and the masses' willingness
to fight.

85.12 Conclusion
The movement was disbanded in 1934. In 1934, Congress passed an important resolution. It
demanded the formation of a constituent assembly, which would be elected by the people
using the adult franchise. Only such an assembly, it declared, could draft a constitution for
India. As a result, it claimed that only the people had the right to choose the form of
government under which they would live. Though the congress failed to achieve its goal, it
was successful in mobilising large sections of the population in the country’s second great
mass struggle. It had also set forth radical goals for the transformation of Indian society.

*****

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 86. Dandi March (1930)
The Dandi March, also known as the Salt March and Dandi Satyagraha, was a nonviolent civil
disobedience movement led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. The march lasted from
March 12th to April 6th, 1930, and was part of a direct action campaign of tax resistance
and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. In this article, we will discuss the
Dandi March (1930) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

86.1 Dandi March - Background

 The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on salt manufacturing and
distribution.
 Despite the fact that salt was abundant along India's coasts, Indians were forced to
buy it from colonizers.
 In addition to having a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt, the British
imposed a hefty salt tax. Despite the fact that India's poor bore the brunt of the
tariff, all Indians desired salt.
 Gandhi came to the conclusion that if there was one product that could be used to
start civil disobedience, it would be salt.
 Salt, along with air and water, is possibly the most important component of life.
 The British government, particularly Viceroy Lord Irwin, did not take the anti-salt-tax
campaign seriously.
 Gandhi announced his decision to defy the salt rules in front of a large crowd in
Ahmedabad on March 8.

86.2 Dandi March - Spread of Salt Disobedience

 Gandhiji's arrest and imprisonment sparked nationwide protests and strikes. 50,000
textile workers in Bombay had gone on strike.
 Railway workers joined the demonstrators. At Poona, where Gandhi was imprisoned,
resignations from honorary offices and services were announced on a regular basis.
 Calcutta police opened fire and arrested a large number of people. In Delhi, there
was also gunfire.
 On the day Gandhi was arrested, troops besieged Peshawar. India arose as if it were
a single individual.
 Solapur residents took control of the city for a week before martial law was declared.
Mymensingh, Calcutta, Karachi, Lucknow, Multan, Delhi, Rawalpindi, Mardan, and
Peshawar were also affected.
 In the North-West Frontier Province, troops, planes, tanks, artillery, and ammunition
were all freely used. The Ahrar Party was founded as a result of Punjabi repression.
 The Indian situation piqued the West's interest, which Romain Rolland had
reawakened.
 Dr. Holmes led a group of 100 clergymen who petitioned British Prime Minister
Ramsay MacDonald to reach an amicable agreement with Gandhi.

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86.3 Dandi March - Significance

 Gandhi went to Dharasana salt works the following month, where he was arrested
and taken to the Yerawada Central Jail.
 Similar acts of civil disobedience occurred in other parts of India as Gandhi broke the
salt laws in Dandi.
 In Bengal, for example, volunteers led by Satish Chandra Dasgupta walked from
Sodepur Ashram to Mahisbathan village to make salt.
 K.F Nariman led another group of marchers from Bombay to Haji Ali Point, where
they prepared salt in a nearby park.
 The illegal production and sale of salt was accompanied by a boycott of foreign
textiles and liquor. What began as a salt satyagraha quickly evolved into a mass
satyagraha.
 In Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Central Provinces, forest laws were broken.
Peasants in Gujarat and Bengal refused to pay chowkidari and land taxes.
 Acts of violence erupted in Calcutta, Karachi, and Gujarat, but, unlike during the non-
cooperation movement, Gandhi refused to call a halt to the civil disobedience
movement this time.

86.4 Dandi March - Impact

 The Dandi March, also known as the Salt March or the Salt Satyagraha, was
completed in 24 days by Mahatma Gandhi and his companions. They walked 395
kilometres to Dandi.
 The choice of salt as the protest's focal point was criticized by his own Congress
advisers, particularly Pandit Nehru and Sardar Patel.
 Even the Viceroy at the time, Lord Irwin, thought Gandhi's protest posed no threat.
 Millions across undivided India would be interested in salt, that essential simple
component in every meal eaten by every common man for which he was forced to
pay an exorbitant tax to the British government.

86.5 Dandi March - British Reaction

 In retaliation, the government launched a terror campaign. By March 31, more than
95,000 people had been imprisoned.
 Shri Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested on April 14 and sentenced to six months in
prison. On a sporadic basis, violence erupted in Karachi, Calcutta, Peshawar, and
Chittagong.
 Police opened fire in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi, and cruelty was inflicted across
the country. Gandhi urged people to "respond with enormous anguish to organised
hooliganism."
 Gandhi was apprehended and imprisoned. The war against the "Black Regime" was
at its peak when Gandhiji prepared to begin his march to Dharasana.
 The government detained acting President Pandit Motilal Nehru on June 30 and
declared the Congress Working Committee an illegal organisation.
 By July, the Press Ordinance had closed 67 nationalist newspapers and
approximately 55 printing factories.

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  When the Navjivan Press was seized, Young India and Navajivan began to appear in
cyclostyle.
 The long-awaited report of the statutory commission was released in June. Its
recommendations did not even go as far as to reaffirm the Viceroy's ambiguous
guarantee of dominion status.
 They aimed to strengthen the central government while making a few concessions to
the provinces.
 The concept of communal electorates was expanded, pushing the "divide and rule"
approach even further.
 These recommendations were deeply unsatisfactory to all stakeholders. Men like
Malaviya and Aney joined the Congress, risking incarceration.

86.6 Conclusion
The march was the most significant organized challenge to British authority since the Non-
cooperation movement of 1920–22, and it immediately followed the Indian National
Congress’s Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule on January 26, 1930. It
gained international attention, giving impetus to the Indian independence movement and
launching the nationwide civil disobedience movement, which lasted until 1934. The Dandi
March sparked a movement that spread across the country, eventually achieving what
Gandhiji had hoped for at Dandi: complete independence for his beloved India’s people.
Keywords – Dandi March, Salt March, Mahatma Gandhi, Salt Satyagraha, Sabarmati Ashram,
Indian Independence, Self-Rule, Civil Disobedience, Ahrar Party, Lord Irwin, Salt Act 1882
FAQs Question: What prompted Dandi March? Answer: As a result of the 1882 Salt Act, the
British began to levy high salt taxes and established a monopoly on salt production. On
March 12, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi and his supporters began the Dandi March from
Sabarmati Ashram in protest of the salt tax. Question: When did the Salt March come to an
end, and how did it end? Answer: On April 5, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi and his followers
arrived in Dandi, where he took a lump of salty mud and boiled it, resulting in the
production of illegal salt. Many of his disciples followed in his footsteps. Question: Why did
Gandhi launch the civil disobedience movement in 1930? Answer: On March 12, 1930,
Mahatma Gandhi began a civil disobedience movement in India against the Salt Tax by
producing salt from sea water.

*****

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 87. First Round Table Conference (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931)
The First Round Table Conference was the first of three such conferences organized by the
British government between 1930 and 1932 to discuss constitutional reforms in India. These
conferences were held in accordance with the Simon Commission's report from 1930. The
British King George V officially inaugurated the First Round Table Conference on November
12, 1930, at the House of Lords in London, and it was chaired by the then-British Prime
Minister Ramsay MacDonald. In this article, we will discuss the First Round Table
Conference (Nov 1930- Jan 1931) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

87.1 First Round Table Conference - Background

 Certain sections of the British polity were increasingly calling for India to be granted
dominion status.
 In India, the freedom movement was in full swing, with the charismatic Gandhi
leading the charge for swaraj, or self-rule.
 The conferences were based on Muhammad Ali Jinnah's recommendation to Lord
Irwin, the then Viceroy of India, and James Ramsay MacDonald, the then British
Prime Minister, as well as the Simon Commission report.
 It was the first time that Indians and British met as 'equals.' On November 12th,
1930, the first conference began.
 The Congress and some prominent business leaders refused to attend, but many
other Indian groups were present.

87.2 First Round Table Conference - Features

 Ramsay MacDonald presided over the first Round Table Conference, which took
place in London between November 1930 and January 1931.
 This was the first meeting of equals between the British and the Indians.
 The Congress, as well as some prominent business leaders, declined to attend.
 It was attended by the Princely States, the Muslim League, the Justice Party, the
Hindu Mahasabha, and others.
 The conference resulted in little progress. The British government recognised that
the Indian National Congress's participation was required in any discussion about
India's future constitutional government.

87.3 First Round Table Conference - Participants

 The following people attended the First Round Table Conference:

o There were a total of 16 delegates from three British political parties.
o A total of 74 delegates from India were present.
o 58 delegates from Indian political parties.
o 16 princely state delegates
 There were also landlords (from Bihar, the United Provinces, and Orissa),
universities, Burma, Sindh, and other provinces represented.

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  However, neither the Indian National Congress nor any prominent political or
business leaders from India participated because the majority of them were
imprisoned for their involvement in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Participant Represented by

 Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja

of Bikaner, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir,
Indian Maharaja of Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala, Maharaja of Rewa, Chief
Princely Sahib of Sangli, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani (Bhavnagar), Manubhai
States Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan (Gwalior),
Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Col. Kailas Narain
Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir)

 Aga Khan III (leader of British-Indian delegation), Maulana

Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Muhammad Shafi, Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
Muslim
Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, A.K. Fazlul Huq, Hafiz Ghulam Hussain
League Hidayat Ullah, Dr.Shafa’at Ahmad Khan, Raja Sher Muhammad Khan
of Domeli, and A.H. Ghuznavi

Hindu
 B.S. Moonje, M.R. Jayakar, and Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath
Mahasabha

Sikhs  Sardar Ujjal Singh and Sardar Sampuran Singh

Parsis  Phiroze Sethna, Cowasji Jehangir, and Homi Mody

Women  Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz and Radhabai Subbarayan

 J.N. Basu, Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani, V.S. Srinivasa Sastri,
Liberals
and Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad

Depressed
 B.R. Ambedkar and Rettamalai Srinivasan
Classes

 Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao Jadhav, and Sir A.P.

Justice Party
Patro

Labour  N.M. Joshi and B. Shiva Rao

Indian
 K.T. Pau
Christians

Anglo-Indians  Henry Gidney

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  Sir Hubert Carr, Sir Oscar de Glanville (Burma), T.F. Gavin Jones, C.E.
Europeans
Wood (Madras)

Government  Nath Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra, C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, and M.
of India Ramachandra Rao

87.4 First Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed

 The federal government structure.

 The province's constitution was discussed.
 Sindh and Northwest Frontier Provinces Minorities Defence Services.
 The executive's accountability to the legislature.
 Dr. B R Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates for "untouchables."
 Tej Bahadur Sapru proposed an All-India Federation. The Muslim League agreed with
this.
 The princely states agreed on the condition that their internal sovereignty be
preserved.

87.5 First Round Table Conference - Outcome

 The First Round Table Conference took place from 1930 to 1931.
 The Round Table Conference (RTC) reforms were agreed upon, but they were never
implemented.
 During the First RTC, leaders of the Indian National Congress carried on the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
 As a result, the First Round Table Conference was deemed a failure.
 The British Government recognised the importance of the Congress Party's
participation in Round Table Conferences for effective reform implementation and
expressed hope for INC leaders' participation in the Second Round Table Conference.
 In March 1931, Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which
ended the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to take part in the Second RTC.
 The British Government administration understood that the Indian National
Congress needed to be involved in determining India’s constitutional future.

87.6 Conclusion
Following the failure of the First Round Conference, many leaders of the Indian Liberal
Party, primarily pro-British members such as Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani, and
Srinivasa Sastri, urged Gandhi to meet with the Viceroy. The meetings between Gandhi and
Irwin were pre-planned. To create a avourable environment, many congress leaders were
released.

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 88. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
On March 5, 1931, Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, India's then-viceroy, signed
the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The agreement was signed just before the second round table
conference in London began. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact, also known as the Delhi
Pact, equalized Congress and the government. To lay the groundwork for the Round Table
Conference to be held in England, Mahatma Gandhi held fortnight-long talks with Viceroy
Lord Irwin, in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed by Gandhi on behalf of the Congress and Lord
Irwin on behalf of the British Indian government.

88.1 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Background

 The Second Round Table Conference was scheduled to take place in London in 1931.
 The Salt Satyagraha was held in 1930, and India and Gandhi gained international
attention.
 The British government in India was chastised for treating Indians unfairly.
 Gandhi and many other leaders, as well as thousands of Indians, were imprisoned.
 Lord Irwin wanted the matter to be resolved.
 Gandhi and all other members of the Congress Working Committee (CWC) were
unconditionally released on January 25, 1931, and the CWC authorised Gandhi to
initiate discussions with the viceroy.
 Gandhi was authorized to meet with Lord Irwin by Congress President Sardar
Vallabhai Patel.

88.2 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Features

 The Round Table Conference was agreed to by the Indian National Congress (INC).
 The civil disobedience movement would be halted by the INC.
 Withdrawal of all ordinances restricting Congress's activities.
 Release of those arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement.
 All political prisoners who have not been convicted of violence should be released
immediately.
 Return of confiscated lands that have not yet been sold to third parties.
 Government employees who had resigned would not be treated unfairly.
 The right to produce salt for consumption in coastal villages.
 Picketing must be peaceful and non-aggressive.
 Removal of salt tax.

88.3 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Significance

 The pact firmly established the Indian National Congress as a party with the support
of millions of Indian nationals.
 The pact paved the way for the Government of India Act 1935, which softened the
diarchy system and allowed a greater number of Indian representatives to enter the
two houses of the center legislature.
 Following the successful softening of the diarchy in 1935, elections in Indian
provinces in 1937 transferred power to elected Indian members.

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88.4 Gandhi-Irwin Pact - Outcome

 Despite boycotting the first Round Table Conference, members of the CWC attended
the second conference in September 1931.
 All ordinances prohibiting peaceful protests were repealed.
 All Civil Disobedience Movement arrestees who were not charged with violence
were released and their confiscated property was returned.
 Bans on the INC were lifted, and it was permitted to hold peaceful meetings that
were not intended to be anti-establishment.
 Ordinary people were permitted to trade in indigenous salt produced along the
Indian sea coasts.
 The government would permit peaceful protests outside liquor stores and other
foreign goods stores.
 However, Irwin refused to concede to the demand for a formal investigation into
police brutality during the Civil Disobedience Movement and the commutation of
Bhagat Singh's hanging to life imprisonment.

88.5 Comparison with Non-Cooperation Movement

There were some differences between the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Non-
Cooperation Movement, such as:

 This time, the stated goal was complete independence, not just redressing two
specific wrongs and a vaguely worded swaraj.
 The methods involved law violations from the start, not just non-cooperation with
foreign rule.
 There was a decrease in protests involving the intelligentsia, such as lawyers quitting
their practices and students leaving government schools to attend national schools
and colleges.
 Muslim participation was far below that of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 There was no major labor upsurge that coincided with the movement.
 The large participation of peasants and business groups compensated for the decline
of other characteristics.
 This time, the number of people imprisoned was roughly three times higher.
 Congress had a better organizational structure.

88.6 Conclusion
Gandhi's motivations for signing a pact with Viceroy Lord Irwin are best understood in terms
of his technique. Satyagraha movements were frequently referred to as "struggles,"
"rebellions," and "wars without violence." However, due to the common connotation of
these words, they appeared to place an undue emphasis on the negative aspects of the
movements, namely opposition and conflict. The goal of satyagraha, however, was not to
achieve the physical elimination or moral breakdown of an adversary but to initiate
psychological processes that would allow minds and hearts to meet through suffering at his
hands.

*****

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 89. Second Round Table Conference (Sep 7 - Dec 1931)
On September 7, 1931, the second session of the conference convened in London. The
conference's main task was accomplished through the two committees on federal structure
and minorities. To address the ineffectiveness of the First Round Table Conference, the
Second Round Table Conference was held in London from September 7th to December 1st,
1931, with the active participation of Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, who were
specially invited for the Conference. In this article, we will discuss the Second Round Table
Conference which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

89.1 Second Round Table Conference - Background

 Sapru, M.R. Jayakar, and V.S. Srinivasa Sastri asked the Congress, which had killed
and boycotted the first conference, to come to an agreement.
 A settlement between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin brought the
Congress to the second session of the Round Table Conference, which began on
September 7.
 Although MacDonald was still Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, he was now
leading a coalition government (the "National Government") with a Conservative
majority, which included Sir Samuel Hoare as a new Secretary of State for India.
 Gandhi secretly met Malcolm MacDonald at Balliol College, Oxford, on November 7,
1931.
 He used a tour of the East End and a visit to Lancashire cotton mills to gain publicity,
but he was unable to persuade the government to grant self-rule.
 The looming Agrarian Crisis and Congress's latest campaign for a Fair Rent were
more pressing.

89.2 Second Round Table Conference - Participants

 British representatives from various political parties, as well as British Prime Minister
James Ramsay MacDonald, were present.
 Representatives of the British Indian group: Indian National Congress, which was
solely represented by Gandhi.
 A. Rangaswami Iyengar and Madan Mohan Malaviya were also present.
 Representatives of Burma and from the provinces of Sindh, Assam, Central
Provinces, and the NWFP also attended.

Participant Represented by

 Maharaja of Alwar, Maharaja of Baroda, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja

Indian of Bikaner, Rana of Dholpur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir,
Princely Maharaja of Nawanagar, Maharaja of Patiala, Maharaja of Rewa, Chief
States Sahib of Sangli, Sir Prabhashankar Pattani (Bhavnagar), Manubhai
Mehta (Baroda), Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmed Khan (Gwalior),
Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Col. Kailas Narain

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 Haksar (Jammu and Kashmir)

 Aga Khan III, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, A.K. Fazlul
Huq, Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Shafi, Muhammad Zafarullah
Khan, Syed Ali Imam, Maulvi Muhammad Shafi Daudi, Raja Sher
Muslim
Muhammad Khan of Domeli, A.H. Ghuznavi, Hafiz Hidayat Hussain,
League Sayed Muhammad Padshah Saheb Bahadur, Dr. Shafa’at Ahmad Khan,
Jamal Muhammad, and Nawab Sahibzada Sayed Muhammad Mehr
Shah

Hindu
 B.S. Moonje, M.R. Jayakar, and Diwan Bahadur Raja Narendra Nath
Mahasabha

Sikhs  Sardar Ujjal Singh and Sardar Sampuran Singh

Parsis  Phiroze Sethna, Cowasji Jehangir, and Homi Mody

 Sarojini Naidu, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, and Radhabai

Women
Subbarayan

 J.N. Basu, Tej Bahadur Sapru, C.Y. Chintamani, V.S. Srinivasa Sastri,
Liberals
and Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad

Depressed
 B.R. Ambedkar and Rettamalai Srinivasan
Classes

 Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Vithojirao Jadhav, and Sir A.P.

Justice Party
Patro

Labour  N.M. Joshi, B. Shiva Rao and V.V Giri

Indian
 Surendra Kumar Datta and A.T. Pannirselvam
Christians

 Ghanshyam Das Birla, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas, and Maneckji

Industry
Dadabhoy

Universities  Syed Sultan Ahmed and Bisheshwar Dayal Seth

Government
 C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law, and M. Ramachandra Rao
of India

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89.3 Second Round Table Conference - Features

 Lord Irwin had been replaced as viceroy in India by Lord Willingdon by this point.
 The Labour government in England had been replaced just before the conference by
a National Government, an uneasy coalition of Labour and Conservatives.
 The British were also enraged by the increased revolutionary activity in India, which
had claimed many European lives.
 The Right Wing or Conservatives in Britain, led by Churchill, were vehemently
opposed to the British government negotiating on an equal footing with the
Congress. Instead, they called for a strong government in India.
 The Conservative-dominated cabinet was led by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald,
who was aided by a weak and reactionary secretary of state for India, Samuel Hoare.
 At the conference, Gandhi (and thus the Congress) claimed to speak for all Indians
against imperialism. The other delegates, however, did not agree.
 Many of the delegates were conservatives, government loyalists, and communalists,
and that the colonial government used these groups to counter Gandhi's efforts.
 Because of the large number of groups that participated, the British government
claimed that the Congress did not represent the interests of all of India.
 Gandhi emphasised the importance of a partnership between Britain and India based
on equality.
 He demanded the immediate establishment of a responsible government at the
national and provincial levels.
 He also stated that the Congress was the sole representative of political India.
 He rejected the idea of a separate electorate for untouchables, claiming that they
were Hindus and thus should not be treated as a minority.
 He also stated that separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other
minorities were unnecessary. Many of the other delegates were opposed to Gandhi.
 The session quickly came to a halt over the issue of minorities. Separate electorates
were demanded by Muslims, the poor, Christians, and Anglo-Indians. All of this
culminated in the 'Minorities' Pact.'
 Gandhi fought valiantly against this concerted effort to tie all constitutional progress
to the resolution of this issue.
 The princes were also wary of federation, especially after the possibility of forming a
Congress government at the centre had faded following the suspension of the civil
disobedience movement.

89.4 Second Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed

 A responsible government, both at the centre and in the provinces, must be

established immediately and completely.
 Congress was the sole representative of political India.
 The Untouchables were Hindus and should not be considered a "minority." There
should be no separate electorates or special protections for Muslims or other
minorities.
 However, the other Indian delegates rejected Gandhi's claims.

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  The conference was deadlocked on the issue of minorities, as separate electorates
were now being demanded by Muslims, Dalits, Christians, Anglo Indians, and
Europeans, among others.

89.5 Second Round Table Conference - Outcome

 With the formation of the coalition government in England, the entire atmosphere of
the Second Round Table conference shifted.
 The only result of this session was a widening of the gap between the Congress and
the minorities.
 Except for the Sikhs, all minorities (including Dalits) wanted their own separate
electorates.
 So, on the one hand, there were Minorities who were opposed to reaching an
agreement among themselves.
 On the other hand, there was the antagonistic British Government, which was
opposed to Indian aspirations. Gandhi returned disappointed and unsatisfied.
 The session concluded with MacDonald's announcement of:
o two Muslim majority provinces, North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and
Sindh;
o the formation of an Indian Consultative Committee;
o the formation of three expert committees, finance, franchise, and states;
o the threat of a unilateral British Communal Award if Indians did not agree.

89.6 Conclusion
On the last day, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald urged Indian leaders to reach a
communal settlement. He claimed that failure to do so would force the British government
to make a unilateral decision. Quaid-i-Azam did not attend the Second Round Table
Conference session because he had decided to stay out of Indian politics and practise as a
professional lawyer in England. When Gandhi returned to India, he relaunched the Civil
Disobedience Movement and was promptly arrested.

*****

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 90. Indian Press (Emergency Power) Act, 1931
Indian Press Act, 1931 gave provincial governments broad powers to suppress civil
disobedience propaganda. It was expanded in 1932 to include all activities aimed at
undermining government authority. In this article, we will discuss the Indian Press
(Emergency Power) Act, 1931 which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

90.1 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Background

 The Civil Disobedience Movement was launched by the Congress in 1930, and
restrictions were imposed by the 1931 Act.
 This act sought to prevent the publication of writings that incited or encouraged
violence.
 Aside from the amount of security, it also included a provision for imprisonment for
up to 6 months for printing without permission. As a result of this act, many major
publishers and printers have had to suffer.
 The Calcutta Liberty deposited a security of Rs. 6,000/-, and The Bombay Chronicle
paid Rs. 3,000/- for an objectionable Hornimale article.
 The repeated interference of Indian newspapers in the administration affairs of
neighboring states led to the passage of the Foreign Relations Act in 1932. This Act
restricted the publication of material related to the government's diplomatic
relations with friendly countries.

90.2 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Features

 Following the Salt Satyagraha, the Indian Press Act of 1931 was enacted.
 It granted broad powers to suppress any publication that questioned the
government's authority during the civil disobedience movement.
 In 1932, it was further amplified to include all activities aimed at undermining
government authority.

90.3 Indian Press Act, 1931 - Outcome

 The Indian States Protection Act of 1934 was enacted to quell rising discontent and
mass mobilization in India.
 Newspapers were prohibited from criticizing the administration of princely states
and instilling dissatisfaction in these states.
 To limit further press activity during World War II, the Defense of India Act was
passed in 1939. This act was repealed following the end of World War II.

90.4 During the Second World War

 During the Second World War, pre-censorship was imposed under the Defense of
India Rules.
 The penalty of imprisonment was increased to five years through amendments to
the Press Emergency Act.

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  Furthermore, the Official Secrets Act was amended to provide a maximum penalty of
death or transportation for the publication of information likely to be useful to the
enemy.
 Despite the numerous draconian laws, the Indian press remained impervious to the
regulations and worked its way around to defend civil liberties and press freedom,
emerging as the torch bearers of the national movement.

90.5 Conclusion
The origins and growth of the Indian press reflect the selfish motives of various missionaries,
the East India Company, and, later, the British government. There were two sides to the
press: pro-government papers that ignored any flaws in British rule, and anti-government
papers that saw no good points. In India, the press was used for personal gain rather than as
a scientific, objective, and empirical study of the news.

*****

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 91. Third Round Table Conference (Nov 17- Dec 24, 1932)
The third Round Table Conference was held on November 17, 1932, and lasted until
December 24, 1932. The leaders of Congress did not attend this conference either. It was
impossible to reach a conclusion without the presence and participation of Congress
leaders. It only resulted in the creation of the Government of India Act, 1935, which was
modeled after the Government of India Act, 1919. One of the primary reasons for
Congress's absence was that too many of its leaders were once again imprisoned, this time
for continuing the Civil Disobedience Movement, undertaking salt Satyagraha. In this
article, we will discuss the Third Round Table Conference which will be helpful for UPSC
exam preparation.

91.1 Third Round Table Conference - Background

 On November 17, 1932, the third Round Table Conference was held in London. This
was a nominal conference.
 Congress refused to attend (despite being invited), and the Labour Party in the
United Kingdom also refused to attend.
 As a result, only 46 people responded. The "White Paper" issued by the government
was the key outcome of the Third Round Table Conference.
 On the basis of this paper, a new Indian constitution was drafted and approved by
both Houses of Parliament.
 The Government of India Act 1935 was to be enacted based on this paper.
 During this conference, a college student named Chaudhary Rahmat Ali proposed
the name of the new land carved out of India specifically for Muslims. Pakistan was
the name given to this "holy" land.
 Muslim leaders who attended the conference included Muhammad Ali, Agha Khan,
Fazlul Haq, and Jinnah.

91.2 Third Round Table Conference - Participants

 The Third Round Table Conference had only 46 delegates in total.

 The INC and the Labour Party decided not to attend.
 Indian princely states were represented by princes and divans.
 The depressed class was there.
 Women, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, and labor groups.
 The Aga Khan (Muslims), represented British Indians.
 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Depressed Classes)
 Henry Gidney (Anglo-Indians)
 N. M. Joshi (Labour)
 Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz (Women)
 Tej Bahadur Sapru (Liberals)

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91.3 Third Round Table Conference - Issues Discussed

 The reports of the Sub-Committees appointed during the Second Round Table
Conference were heard and formed the basis of discussions at the Conference.
 More details about the new constitution were worked out.
 The Indian delegates attempted to push through some progressive provisions, which
were quickly withdrawn.
 Similarly, the inclusion of a Bill of Rights for citizens was postponed for flimsy
reasons.

91.4 Third Round Table Conference - Outcome

 This round table conference was also a setback because no important issues were
discussed due to the absence of political leaders and Maharajas.
 The proposals of this round table conference were written down and published in a
White paper in 1933, which was later debated in the British parliament.
 The British parliament then examined the round table conference's proposals and
recommendations.
 Based on this, the Government of India Act of 1935 was enacted.

91.5 Conclusion
The Round Table Conferences played a significant role in Indian history and are responsible
for the way we view our country today. Throughout British rule, it played a generous role in
ensuring that Indian leaders had a platform to communicate with the British as equals and
express their concerns and needs. However, it was the Third Round Table Conference that
finally brought our leaders the long-awaited freedom for which they had fought.

*****

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 92. Provincial Autonomy - Govt of India Act 1935
The Provincial Autonomy was one of the reclaiming features of this Act. The Simon
Commission recommended including this provision in the Government of India Act, 1935.
Previously, provinces did not have an Executive Councilor Reserved Subjects, but this
legislation added these subjects. The system of dyarchy, or the division of subjects into
'Reserved' and 'Transferred,' was abolished by this Act. With the abolition of Dyarchy in
provinces, the entire provincial administration became delegated to accountable ministers,
who were managed and eliminated with the aid of provincial legislatures. In this article, we
will discuss Provincial Autonomy under the Govt of India Act, 1935 which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

92.1 Provincial Part of Government of India Act, 1935

 Except for law and order, the Council of Ministers has the authority to administer
provincial matters.
 The power to administer law and order was in the hands of the government, which
had powers superior to the Council of Ministers.
 The ministers were chosen from among the elected members of the provincial
legislature and were collectively accountable to it.
 The British-appointed provincial Governors were to accept the ministers'
recommendations unless they negatively affected their areas of statutory "special
responsibilities" such as the prevention of any grave threat to the peace or
tranquillity of a province, the safeguarding of the legitimate interests of minorities,
civil servants' rights, and so on.
 In the event of a political breakdown, the Governor, with the Viceroy's approval,
could seize total control of the provincial government.
 In fact, the governors had more unrestricted power than any British official had
during the British Raj's history.
o After the resignation of the Congress provincial ministries in 1939, the
governors ruled the ex-Congress provinces directly throughout the war.
 It was widely acknowledged that the provincial section of the Act gave provincial
politicians a great deal of power and patronage as long as both British officials and
Indian politicians followed the rules.

92.2 Provincial Autonomy - Features

 Dyarchy was replaced by provincial autonomy.

 Provinces were given autonomy and their own legal identities.
 Provinces were freed from the secretary of state's and governor general's
"superintendence and direction."
 Provinces received direct legal authority from the British Crown, and they were given
independent financial powers and resources.
 Provincial governments could borrow money using their own assets as collateral.

Executive

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  The Governor was to be the Crown's nominee and representative in a province to
exercise authority on the king's behalf.
 Governor was to have special powers regarding minorities, civil servant rights, law
and order, British business interests, partially excluded areas, princely states, and so
on.
 Governor could take over and run the administration indefinitely.

Legislature

 Separate electorates based on Communal Award were to be established.

 All members were to be elected directly.
 Women were granted the right to vote on the same basis as men.
 Ministers were to administer all provincial subjects in a council of ministers headed
by a premier.
 Ministers were made answerable to and removable by an adverse vote of the
legislature.
 The provincial legislature could legislate on subjects in provincial and concurrent
lists.
 The governor has the authority to:
o refuse assent to a bill,
o promulgate ordinances, and
o enact governor's Acts.

92.3 Provincial Autonomy - Division of power

The Government of India, 1935 divided the powers between the Centre and Provinces into
three lists:

 Federal List (for Centre, with 59 items)

 Provincial List (for Provinces, with 54 items)
 Concurrent List (for both with 36 items)

The Viceroy was given the Residuary powers.

92.4 Conclusion
The Centre’s hold on provincial subjects was reduced after the commencement or beginning
of this Act. Ministers could not freely exercise their authority over their departments. The
Governor rarely used his dominating power, which he wielded over the ministers. At the
time of the political breakdown, the governor took total control of the provincial
government on the advice of the Viceroy.

*****

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 93. Government of India Act 1935
The Government of India Act was introduced by the British Parliament in 1935. The Act was
the longest in the then history of the British Parliament. It consisted of various
recommendations and lists which made it so long. Thus, in the end, it was divided into two
separate acts- The Government of India Act and the Government of Burma Act.

93.1 Government of India Act, 1935 – Background

In August 1935, the Government of India passed a lengthy law entitled "Government of
India Act 1935". The law was originally passed by the British Parliament in 1935 at the time.
Although it was the longest law passed by the British Parliament, it also contained another
law, the "Burmese Government Act 1735".

Since then, the Act has been divided into 2 separate Acts, the first being the Government of
India Act 1935 and the second being the Government of India Act 1935. The Government of
India Act 1935 was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935.

With 321 sections and 10 schedules, this was the longest act passed by the British
Parliament so far and was later divided into two parts. Government of India Act 1935 and
the Government of Burma Act 1935.

The Act is based on various aspects of the "Government of India Act 1935". (1) Simon
Commission Report (2) Round Table Conference Recommendation (3) Joint Selection
Committee Report (4) White Paper published in 1933 by the British Government.

93.2 Overview of Government of India Act, 1935

Particulars Details

Purpose This Act was made for the Government of India and the provision

Spatial
Applies to areas under British direct control.
expansion

Act by British Parliament in 1935

Act of Royal Act July-1935, 24

Commencement April-1937, 01

The law was repealed by the Government of Independent India on January

Status of law
26, 1935.

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93.3 Creation of All India Federation

 The proposed All India Confederation includes 11 provinces of British India, 6 Chief
Commissioners' Provinces, and states that can accept the Confederation. For the
monarchical states, federal entry was voluntary. Until then the federation could not
be formed. In many states, in which the ruler is entitled to choose not less than half
of the 104 seats in the state, and the population is at least half of the total
population, where the total population is earned for the union.
 The position of a state joining the federation should be placed in the Access of
Instrument. Joining the Confederacy is a must for the British Provinces and the Chief
Commissioner Provinces.

 The proposed coalition included the 11 provinces of British India, the six
Commissioners Provinces, and those areas that are not recognized by the federation.
As for the tribal chiefs, entry into the Federation was voluntary. The alliance could
not be established until:
o In most provinces, administrators who had the right to elect not less than 104
seats in the national council, and
o The estimated proportion of the population was at least half the proportion
of the people of all the Indian stairs who had agreed to the federation.
 The time when the state joined the Federation was to be placed in the Instrument of
Accession. Joining the federation was compulsory in the British provinces and at the
high commission.

93.4 How the Government of India Act 1935 Divided Powers?

 The dissolution of the provincial government and the introduction of the diarchy in
the centre.
 The dissolution of the Council of India and the introduction of an advisory body in its
area.

 Provision of All India Federation with British India territories and prince territories.
 Add protection and armor for minors.
 It divided the power between the Institute and the provinces according to the three-
name list - the Federal List for Centre, the Provincial List for Provinces, and the
Concurrent List for both.
 The Viceroy had residual power.

93.5 Changes Brought by the Government of India Act 1935

 Provincial Autonomy
 Diarchy in the middle
 Bicameral Legislature
 Federal Court
 Indian Council
 Franchise

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  Reorganization

Government of India Act 1935: Provincial Autonomy

 The most notable feature of the Act is the independence of the province. With the
abolition of Dyarchy in the provinces, all provincial administrators are instructed by
the ministers responsible for the control and removal of the provincial legislatures.
 Provincial independence means two things. Firstly, the Provincial Governments were
complete, responsible for the provincial legislatures, and secondly, the provinces
were free from foreign control and interference in many matters.

 Thus, in the provincial context, the 1935 Act made a fundamental decline in the
action of 1919.
 This action divided the power between the Institute and the provinces according to
the three-name list - the Provincial List (Institutional, with 59 items), the Provincial
List (Provincial, with 54 items), and the Interim List (both, and 36 items). The power
to save space is given to Viceroy.
 The level of independence brought to the provincial level depended on key
boundaries: The provincial authorities retained key retaining power, and the British
authorities also retained the right to establish a governing government.

Government of India Act 1935: Diarchy at the Center

 Under this Act, the executive power of the Center is vested in the Governor-General
on behalf of the Crown. Federal subjects were divided into two folding categories of
reserved and transfer subjects.
 The reserve list includes matters relating to defence, external affairs, administrative
matters, and tribal areas. These matters were handled by the Governor-General at
his discretion with the assistance of three advisers appointed by him. They are not
accountable to the legislature. Under this act, the administrative authority of the
institution was vested in the Governor-General instead of the Crown.

 State headings were divided into two categories of Reserved and Transferred
Articles.
 The Restricted List contains topics such as defence management, foreign affairs,
religious affairs, and issues related to tribal areas. These matters were to be handled
by the Governor-General in his opinion with the help of three advisers appointed by
him. They were innocent of any wrongdoing.
 The handling of referred matters would be done by the General on the advice of the
Council of Ministers whose number shall not exceed 10. The council of ministers had
to give up the trust of the legislature. However, the Governor-General may act
contrary to the advice of the Council of Ministers if any of his ‘special responsibilities’
are involved in this act. However, in the event {where the action affects special
responsibilities}, the Governor-General shall act under the direction of the Secretary
of State.

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  In addition, the Governor-General was also responsible for coordinating the work
between the two divisions and promoting joint dialogue between advisers and
ministers.

Government of India Act 1935: Bicameral Legislature

 The bicameral federal legislature will have two houses namely- the Council of
Provinces and the Federal Assembly.
 Both the houses also consisted of representatives from Princely State nominated by
the rulers.
 The election had to be for the representative of British India, some of which were
nominated by the Governor-General.
 Women, depressed classes, and minority communities had separate electorates.

Government of India Act 1935: Federal Court

 In Delhi, a federal court was established.

 It was established to resolve the disputes between provinces or center and
provinces.
 It was supposed to have 1 chief justice and not more than 6 judges.

Government of India Act 1935: Indian Council

 He dissolved the Council of India, established by the Government of India Act of

1858.
 The Secretary of State of India was assigned a replacement.

Government of India Act 1935: Franchise

 This action expanded the franchise.

 This action introduced the first direct election.
 About 10% of the population had the right to vote.

Government of India Act 1935: Reorganization

 The provincial reorganization included the division of Sind and Bombay, splitting
Bihar and Orissa into separate provinces, the complete division of Burma and India,
the Aden group of India, and the establishment of a separate colony.
 The Indian Government Act of 1935 enshrined the Federal Government of the British
Indian Provinces and the Indian States. But with Burma, there was a different set of
events.

 Burma was proposed to be divided following the recommendations of the Indian

Statutory (Simon Commission) whose proposal was officially approved by the
Government. As a result, the Burmese Round Table was held in London in 1932.

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  In 1935, the Burmese Act was passed, and Burma's separation took place in 1937.
The Indian Government Act of 1935 provided for a new Burmese Office, to prepare
for the establishment of Burma as a separate colony.
 But the same Secretary of State led the two Departments and was named the
Secretary of State of India and Burma. The first secretary of the State of India and
Burma was Lord Dundas.

93.6 Government of India Act 1935: Other Points

1. The principle of religious representation was extended by giving special voters to

women, workers, and the Scheduled Castes (oppressed classes).
2. Adopted at the centre by this Act. Although the reserved subjects and the
transferred subjects are derived from federal subjects, the provisions of the said Act
do not apply.
3. The Act was enacted for the betterment of the monarchy and the Confederation of
India under a single body. Power was segregated under this Act and this Act divided
the power between the units and the Center in three ways. The first is the federal
list, the second is the regional list and the third is the joint list. All residual powers
are under the Viceroy of India.
o Federal List (with 59 items per centre)
o Regional list (for provinces and with 54 items)
o Simultaneous list (for both and with 36 items).
4. The law expanded the franchise, giving ten per cent of the population the right to
vote.
5. A federal court was established under this Act. Following the enactment of this law,
a federal court was established in 1937.
6. The Act also abolished the Council of India, established by the Government of India
by Act 1858.
7. The Act established not only the Federal Public Service Commission but also the
Provincial Public Service Commission and the Joint Public Service Commission for
two or more other provinces.
8. The caste system in these provinces was abolished and replaced by ‘provincial
autonomy’. Provinces are allowed to function as autonomous divisions of
government within their defined territories. Also, the law introduced responsible
governments in the provinces, i.e., the governor was required to act on the advice of
the ministers responsible for the regional legislature. It came into force in 1937 and
was discontinued in 1939.
9. It introduced bipartisanship in six of the eleven provinces. Thus, the laws of Bengal,
Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam, and the United Provinces are bicameral consisting of
a Legislature (Upper House) and a Legislative Assembly (Lower House). However,
many restrictions were imposed on them.
10. The main objective of the 1935 Act was to ensure that the Government of India was
under the British crown. Therefore, officers and their duties are received from the
Crown, even the crown does not perform executive functions. His concept, familiar
with the notions of supremacy, is not present in the laws previously passed for India.

*****

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 94. Causes of World War II

World War II was a devastating global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945. Britain
declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, and the British Government of India
declared India's support for the war without consulting Indian opinion. Tens of millions of
people died as a result of genocides (including the Holocaust), starvation, massacres, and
disease. It remains the bloodiest conflict in human history to this day.

During World War II, India contributed around 2.5 million volunteer soldiers to fight for
the Allies. These incredibly brave soldiers came from humble and impoverished
backgrounds, but they fought passionately on land, sea, and air. It is a long list of legends,
some acknowledged but mostly underrated, who played critical roles during the war. In this
article, we will discuss the causes and impact of World War II on India which will be helpful
for UPSC exam preparation.

94.1 World War II - Background

 When World War I ended in 1919, it was assumed that this would be the "war to
end all wars."
 This assertion would be proven incorrect 20 years later, when a resurrected Nazi
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, sparking another war with
devastation equal to or greater than World War I.
 The causes of World War II were numerous and varied, but in the end, it all came
down to Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party's aggressive and expansionist policies.
 Furthermore, the harsh Treaty of Versailles years before had only laid the
groundwork for future conflicts.

94.2 Causes of World War II

Treaty of Versailles

 The Treaty of Versailles signed on June 28, 1919, officially ended World War I. But it
was clear from the start that the defeated would be subjected to a harsh peace.
 To protect itself from a future German attack, France demanded reparations,
demilitarization of the Rhineland region, and the 'War Guilt Clause,' which placed
the blame for starting the war squarely on Germany's shoulders.
 The imposition of such harsh terms was the result of French vengeance, which had
been nurtured since the days of its defeat during the Franco-Prussian War of 1871.
 The ensuing war also resulted in Germany's unification, which was declared in the
halls of Versailles, adding insult to injury.
 The German folks were offended that they would be blamed for the conflict. Instead
of reaching a deal that would lead to peace, the victorious side was content to
humiliate them.
 Demilitarization of the military, territorial loss, and the absurd amount of penance to
be paid were like rubbing salt in an open wound.
 The new Weimar government in Germany had no choice but to agree to the
demeaning peace terms.
 In the sight of the German people, this only branded them as "criminals and
traitors."
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  To pay back the massive reparations, the Weimar Republic began printing massive
amounts of German currency. This resulted in massive devaluation and inflation, as
well as the near-collapse of an already fragile economy.
 Fed up with their own government's mismanagement, the German people began to
accept anyone who could reverse the embarrassment that had been heaped on
them. Hitler and his Nazi party would arise with such a promise at this time.

Rise of Nazis

 Hitler and his Nazi Party fully exploited the wave of hostility over the systemic
injustice of the Treaty of Versailles.
 Taking advantage of the ding done to German pride, Hitler promised to right the
wrongs done by the Versailles Treaty.
 The "us versus them" rhetoric was added to this. The 'us' in this case were
the Aryans, while the 'them' were the Slavic Eastern Europeans.
 Among 'them' were Jews, Communists, Gypsies, etc who did not match the Nazi
description of an Aryan.
 The Nazis blamed Jews for Germany's battles of World War I and all the financial
distress that followed as a "conspiracy" that had crippled Germany.
 This rhetoric would have severe repercussions for Europe's and Germany's Jewish
populations.

Economic Hardship

 The harsh sanctions imposed on Germany under the Versailles Treaty only added to
the hardships endured by the German people.
 The late-twentieth-century Great Depression exacerbated the problem by driving up
the price of essential items.
 Hyperinflation caused many essential items, such as bread, to become even more
expensive than they were before, fueling widespread resentment of the fragile
Weimar Republic.
 At the time, the Ruhr valley was one of Germany's most industrialized regions.
France invaded and occupied the Ruhr valley in order to collect promised war
reparations.
 This harmed German pride to the point where they were ready to support any party
or leader who would avenge their humiliation. It was an ideal environment for Hitler
and his Nazi party to rise to power.

The League of Nations' Failure

 The League of Nations (disbanded on April 20, 1946) was established in 1919, post -
world war War I.
 It was viewed as an international body that would prevent disputes between
member nations and settle disputes through diplomatic means.
 However, the League of Nations did not have its own army to enforce and uphold its
mandate. To enforce its directives, it had to rely on financial sanctions and the
armies of the member nations.

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  Although US President Woodrow Wilson was an enthusiastic supporter of the
league, he was forced to withdraw due to infuriating opposition from the more
isolationist faction of the US Congress, a faction that had no curiosity about being
involved in distant European politics.
 The absence of the United States diminished its power and credibility—the addition
of a rapidly growing military and industrial world power such as the United States
could have added more power to the League's demands and requests.
 As a result, the League of Nations was powerless to prevent Japan's invasion of
China or Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia.
 Due to the league's failure to respond, Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist
Italy would form their own alliance to continue their own aggressive expansion,
setting the stage for the emergence of a new world war.

Failure of Policy of Appeasement

 Despite the Versailles Treaty's prohibition on such a venture, the Nazis embarked on
a gigantic re-armament program. The absence of protest or restrictions only
accelerated the process.
 The Luftwaffe was established, the German navy was expanded, and conscription
was implemented.
 Another breach of the Treaty occurred in March 1936 when German troops invaded
the Rhineland. These events only served to bolster Hitler's domestic image while also
providing much-needed employment.
 Hitler, buoyed by his success, decided to try his luck with foreign appeasement.
 The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, believed that appeasement was the
only way to avoid a conflict. When claims were made on Sudetenland
in Czechoslovakia, he readily agreed to sign the Munich Agreement.
 However, the total subordination of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 galvanized public
opinion throughout Europe against Hitler.
 Neville Chamberlain soon discovered that Hitler would not be satisfied with a few
concessions here and there.
 It was widely assumed that Hitler would claim Prussia and the Courland Peninsula on
the same grounds that he had claimed Sudetenland–that they were populated by a
majority of ethnic Germans. The issue was that Prussia was right in the middle of
Polish territory.
 France and the United Kingdom both guaranteed their sovereignty. As a result, when
Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, France and the United Kingdom
declared war, kicking off World War II in earnest.

94.3 India’s Role in the World War II

 The Indian contribution extended beyond soldiers in the Second World War.
 Indian men and women of all backgrounds contributed to the war effort in the fight
against fascism.
 Indians helped in all aspects of the war effort, including serving on merchant supply
ships transporting supplies and food to soldiers in Europe.
 Indian doctors and nurses were heavily involved on British and other countries' soil.

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  The Indian Comforts Fund (ICF) was founded in 1939 at India House in Aldwych and
was run by Indian and British women.
 Between 1939 and 1945, the ICF distributed over 1.7 million food packets to soldiers
and Asian POWs, in addition to warm clothing and other supplies.

94.4 Impact of World War II on India

 Even before World War II, the British had recognized the futility of retaining their
rule in India. The British Empire had suffered greatly as a result of World War II.
 Britain had lost a lot of capital and was looking to its colonies to help them regain
their status as a world power. However, Mahatma Gandhi was organizing Indians
against the British at the time.
 The Second World War also caused a catastrophic loss to the Indian economy;
between 1939 and 1945, external factors heavily influenced the economy, resulting
in massive economic imbalances that persisted long after peace was achieved in
India.
 The root cause of India's entire economic problem was inflation, which manifested
as a result of massive amounts of treasury being used to finance various military
activities.
 The Second World War had four major consequences for India:
o high inflation due to war expenditure;
o a drop in the value of the Indian currency;
o economic imbalances due to currency exchange problems, and
o the development of exchange control.
 The biggest cause of inflation in India could be explained by the country's Sterling
Balance problem.
 As much as 1600 crores in Sterling securities were held by the RBI, resulting in even
more paper currency being flushed into the market, eventually leading to
uncontrolled inflation.
 WWII fueled India's independence struggle, but not before the British nearly lost
India to Netaji's Indian National Army.
 In addition, World War II was fought to prevent Hitler from establishing German
colonies outside of Germany's borders, a colonial occupation that Britain had already
been carrying out for centuries.
 As a result, following the war, people all over the world began to support voices
opposing the British occupation of its colonies.
 The Bengal Famine in 1943 was devastating for the Indian people, but the British
refusal to stop supplies from India in favor of those suffering in the country only
strengthened the nationalists' resolve in their call for freedom.
 When the Labour Party took power in Britain in 1945, it was committed to
internationalism and racial equality, among other liberal principles.
 Prime Minister Clement Attlee (Labour Party) began the process of granting India
independence shortly after taking office in 1947.

94.5 Impacts of World War II on the rest of the world

 Colonialism and imperialism came to an end.

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  Dictatorships in Germany and Italy ended.
 Germany was split into two parts: West Germany and East Germany.
o West Germany was ruled by the United Kingdom, France, and the United
States. The Soviet Union occupied East Germany.
 Nationalist movements in Africa and Asia were becoming more powerful.
 There were nearly 5 million deaths (2.2 crore soldiers and 2.8 crore civilians).
 Rise of unemployment, low growth, and other economic issues
 There was the emergence of two power blocs–the United States and the Soviet
Union and as a result, there was a cold war.
 The rise of third-world countries.
 The United Nations Organization (UNO) was established in 1945.

94.6 Conclusion
Countries and continents’ status changed as a result of World War II. Britain and France lost
their re-eminence as superpowers, giving way to the United States and the Soviet Union.
The birth of the United Nations Organization was one of the war’s most significant
outcomes. Despite the League’s failure to deliver, humanity did not abandon its hopes of
making the world a safer and happier place to live. Following the end of the war, a
conference in Potsdam, Germany, was held to establish peace treaties. Countries that
fought alongside Hitler lost territory and were forced to pay reparations to the Allies.
Germany, as well as its capital Berlin, was divided into four sections.

As we know today, India’s contribution to WWII had a positive impact on the shaping of
South Asia and South-East Asia. Throughout WWII and the postwar period, India’s influence
stretched from former Burma (now Myanmar) in the east to Afghanistan in the northwest.
India was never involved in the cause of World War II, but its participation had a major
impact on the outcome, which the current generation should be aware of and proud of.

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 95. Quit India Movement (1942)
The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Movement or August Kranti, was a
rallying call issued by Mahatma Gandhi from the Bombay session of the All-India Congress
Committee in Mumbai on August 8, 1942. It was a part of Mahatma Gandhi's Civil
Disobedience Movement, which aimed to end British rule in India. In this article, we will
discuss the features and significance of the Quit India Movement which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.

95.1 Quit India Movement - Background

 Following Cripps' departure, Gandhi drafted a resolution calling for British

withdrawal and a nonviolent non-cooperation movement in the event of a Japanese
invasion.
 The idea of a struggle was accepted at the CWC meeting in Wardha on July 14, 1942.
 The Congress Working Committee met in Wardha in July 1942 and decided to give
Gandhi command of the nonviolent mass movement.
 The resolution is commonly known as the 'Quit India' resolution.
 It was to be approved by the All India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay in
August, as proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru and seconded by Sardar Patel.
 Mahatma Gandhi began the Quit India movement at Gowalia Tank Maidan in
Mumbai, popularly known as August Kranti Maidan.
 The slogans of the movement were "Quit India" and "Bharat Chodo." Gandhi gave
the people the mantra, "Do or die."
 It was supposed to be a peaceful, nonviolent movement to persuade the British to
grant India independence, according to the Congress doctrine.

95.2 Resolution of Quit India Movement

On August 8, 1942, the Congress meeting in Gowalia Tank, Bombay, ratified the Quit India
Resolution. The meeting also agreed:

 To demand that British rule in India be ended immediately;

 Declare free India's commitment to defend itself against all forms of Fascism and
imperialism;
 Form a provisional Government of India following British withdrawal; and
 Sanction a civil disobedience movement against British rule.

95.3 Instructions of Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi gave a set of instructions to diverse groups of people. They were as follows:

 Government employees - Instead of resigning, pledge your allegiance to the INC.

 Soldiers - Stay with the army but don't fire on your comrades.
 Landlords/ Zamindars - If the landlords/Zamindars are anti-government, pay the
agreed-upon rent; if they are pro-government, do not pay the rent.
 Students - If they are confident enough, they can leave their studies.
 Princes - You must stand behind the people and embrace their sovereignty.

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  People of princely states - Only support the monarch if he is anti-government;
declare yourselves as Indian citizens.

95.4 Reasons for Quit India Movement

 The Second World Conflict had begun in 1939, and Japan, as one of the Axis Powers
opposing the British in the war, was gaining ground on India's north-eastern
frontiers.

 The British had abandoned their colonies in Southeast Asia, leaving its people to fend
for themselves. The Indian public, who had misgivings about the British ability to
defend India from Axis assault, was not impressed by this move.
 Gandhi also stated that if the British were to leave India, Japan would have no cause
to invade the country.
 Hearing about British military defeats, and wartime hardships such as high prices for
key necessities fueled animosity of the British government.
 The INC called for a major civil disobedience movement when the Cripps
Mission failed to provide any type of constitutional solution to India's challenges.

95.5 Phases of Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement can be studied in three phases.

The First Phase (Rampage by Public)

 The general public attacked authority symbols and forcibly hoisted national flags on
public buildings.
 Satyagrahis surrendered to arrest, bridges were blown up, railway tracks were
removed, and telegraph lines were severed.
 This type of activity was most prevalent in the eastern United Provinces and in Bihar.
 Students reacted by striking in schools and colleges, marching in processions, writing
and distributing illegal news sheets (Patrika), and acting as couriers for underground
networks.
 Ahmedabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur, Ahmednagar, and Poona workers went on strike.

The Second Phase (Underground Activities)

 Many nationalists fled to the underground and engaged in subversive activities.

 Socialists, Forward Bloc members, Gandhi ashramites, revolutionary nationalists, and
local organizations from Bombay, Poona, Satara, Baroda, and other parts of Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, United Provinces, Bihar, and Delhi took part in
these activities.
 Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Biju Patnaik,
Chhotubhai Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani, and R.P. Goenka were
among the key figures involved in underground activity.
 Usha Mehta founded an underground radio station in Bombay.

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  This phase of underground activity was intended to maintain popular morale by
maintaining a line of command and guidance for the distribution of arms and
ammunition.

The Third Phase (Parallel Governments)

Parallel governments were established in many places, including

 Ballia (for a week in August 1942) under Chittu Pandey. Many members of Congress
were released as a result of his efforts.
 Tamluk (Midnapore, from December 1942 to September 1944) - Jatiya Sarkar
worked on cyclone relief, sanctioned school grants, distributed paddy from the rich
to the poor, organized Vidyut Vahinis, and so on.
 Satara (mid-1943 to 1945) - dubbed "Prati Sarkar," it was organized by leaders such
as Y.B. Chavan, Nana Patil, and others. Village libraries and Nyayadan Mandals were
established, as were prohibition campaigns and 'Gandhi marriages.'
 Businessmen (through donations, shelter, and material assistance), students (as
couriers), simple villagers (by refusing to provide information to authority), pilots
and train drivers (by delivering bombs and other material), and government officials,
including police, all provided active assistance (who passed on secret information to
the activists).

95.6 Impact of the Quit India Movement

 Following Gandhi's demand, the British administration arrested all prominent

Congress leaders the next day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and others were detained.
 As a result, newer leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia took
over the movement.
 Aruna Asaf Ali, for example, emerged from the leadership vacuum.
 This movement resulted in the detention of almost 100,000 people. To put an end to
the unrest, the authorities used violence. Mass floggings and lathi charges were
used.
 Women and children were not exempt from the massacre. In total, about ten
thousand persons were killed by police shootings.
 The INC was declared illegal. Its leaders were imprisoned for virtually the whole war.
Gandhi was released in 1944 because of ill health.
 The people reacted strongly to Gandhi's demand. However, there were isolated
incidents of violence and damage to government property due to the lack of
leadership. Many structures were set ablaze, power lines were cut, and
communication and transportation links were disrupted.
 Some parties were opposed to the movement. The Muslim League, the Communist
Party of India, and the Hindu Mahasabha were all against it.
 The League opposed the British leaving India without first splitting the nation. In
reality, Jinnah urged more Muslims to join the army.
 Because the British were associated with the Soviet Union, the Communist Party
supported the British war effort.

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  From outside the nation, Subhas Chandra Bose was organizing the Indian National
Army and the Azad Hind government.
 C Rajagopalachari, a member of the INC, resigned because he did not support
complete independence.
 The Indian bureaucracy, in general, as opposed to the Quit India Movement.
 Strikes and demonstrations took place across the country. Despite the absence of
support from the communists, workers supported the movement by refusing to
work in the factories.
 The movement's main focus areas were Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra,
Midnapore, and Karnataka. The uprising continued until 1944.

95.7 Significance of Quit India Movement

 The campaign continued without the command of Mahatma Gandhi or any other
leader, who were all imprisoned when it began.
 People from all walks of life turned out in large numbers.
 Students, workers, and peasants were the movement's backbone, while the upper
classes and bureaucracy remained mostly loyal.
 Loyalty to the government has deteriorated significantly.
 This also demonstrated the depths to which nationalism had progressed.
 The movement established the fact that it was no longer possible to rule India
without the consent of the Indian people.
 Although a certain degree of the popular initiative had been sanctioned by the
leadership itself, subject to the limitations of the instructions, the element of
spontaneity was higher than before.
 Furthermore, Congress had spent a long time ideologically, politically, and
organizationally prepared for the struggle.
 Following the uprising among the masses, the British began to seriously consider the
topic of Indian independence.
 In the 1940s, it changed the nature of political negotiations with the British empire,
paving the path for India's independence.
 The movement was significant in that it put the demand for independence on the
immediate agenda of the national movement. There could be no India after Quit
India.

95.8 Conclusion
The Quit India Movement was a watershed moment in the sense that it established the
stage for future Indian politics. The freedom struggle was owned by ‘We the People’ who
fought for India’s independence in the Quit India Movement. Throughout this conflict,
ordinary people demonstrated nrivalled heroism and militancy. The repression they faced
was the harshest, and the circumstances under which they offered resistance were the most
adverse.

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 96. Indian National Army and Subhash Chandra Bose
The Indian National Army also known as the Azad Hind Fauj was an armed force that was
formed by imperial Japan and the Indian Nationalists in the year 1942. This army was
formed during World War II to help in the independence movement of India against British
rule. The Indian Prisoners of War of the British Army that were captured by Japan first
formed this army under Mohan Singh in 1942. The INA eventually disbanded but was
formed again under the guidance of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Subhash Chandra Bose, as
an Indian Nationalist, made enormous efforts to resist colonialism. He is one of the great
freedom fighters who will always be remembered by the nation. In this article, we will
discuss the phases of the Indian National Army and the life of Subhash Chandra Bose which
will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

96.1 Indian National Army - Background

 Southeast Asia and Japan were the major refugee nations for the exiled Indian
Nationalists before the outbreak of World War II.
 70,000 Indian troops were stationed along the Malayan coast at the start of World
War II in Southeast Asia.
 After the Japanese army succeeded in their campaign on the Malayan coast, many
Indian soldiers were taken as Prisoners of War. Nearly 45,000 soldiers alone were
captured after the fall of Singapore.
 From these PoWs, the first Indian National Army was born. This army was formed
under Mohan Singh who was an officer in the British-Indian Army captured in the
Malayan Campaign.
 The degrading conditions in the camps for the PoWs and the strong resentment
towards the British army led to the rise of volunteers that wanted to join the INA.
 An Indian Nationalist, Rash Behari Bose was given the overall leadership of the army.
 The INA received whole-hearted support from the Japanese Imperial Army as well as
from the people belonging to the Indian ethnicity living in Southeast Asia.
 However, disagreements between the Japanese and the INA (Mohan Singh in
particular) led to the disbandment of the INA in 1942

96.2 Indian National Army - First Phase

 With the outbreak of the Quit India Movement in India, the INA received a boost.
 The INA's first division was formed in September 1942, with 16,300 men.
 With the Japanese considering an Indian invasion, the idea of an armed wing of the
INA seemed more appealing.
 However, serious disagreements soon arose between the Indian Army officers led by
Mohan Singh and the Japanese regarding the role to be played by the INA.
 In reality, the Japanese only wanted a token force of 2,000 soldiers, whereas Mohan
Singh wanted to raise a much larger army.
 Mohan Singh was apprehended by the Japanese.

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96.3 Indian National Army - Second Phase

 The second phase began with Subhas Bose's arrival in Singapore. But, before that, in
June 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose (as Abid Hussain) arrived in Tokyo and met with
Japanese Prime Minister Tojo.
 Rashbehari Bose, another great freedom fighter, should also be recognized here.
Following the failure of his revolutionary activities, he fled to Japan in 1915.
 Rashbehari Bose eventually became a naturalized citizen of Japan. He worked hard
to pique the Japanese interest in the Indian independence movement.
 He became involved in Pan-Asian circles, established the Indian Club of Tokyo, and
lectured on the evils of Western imperialism.
 Subhas Chandra Bose influenced him from an early age. Rashbehari Bose was
ecstatic when Mohan Singh established the Indian National Army in Singapore, and
he immediately left Tokyo for Southeast Asia.
 It was decided at a conference in Bangkok (also under Japanese occupation at the
time) to incorporate the INA into an Indian Independence League, the chairman of
which would be Rashbehari Bose himself.
 In 1942, he founded the League in Tokyo.
 When the Japanese approached Subhash Bose to lead the INA, he was prepared.
 He traveled to Singapore and met Rashbehari Bose, who gladly handed over control
and leadership of the Indian Independence League and the INA to Subhash in July
1943.
 It should be noted that Subhas Bose was able to build the Indian National Army
thanks to the organizational work done by Rashbehari Bose.
 On August 25, Subhas Bose was appointed Supreme Commander of the INA.
 Subhas Bose formed the Provisional Government for Free India in Singapore on
October 21, 1943, with H.C. Chatterjee (Finance portfolio), M.A. Aiyar
(Broadcasting), Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women Department), and others.

96.4 Subhash Chandra Bose and INA

 Despite the fact that Mohan Singh's actions had enraged the Japanese Army
Command, they agreed to form a second Indian National Army.
 Mohan Singh himself suggested Subash Chandra Bose for the position of leader.
 Both the Indian diaspora in South East Asia and the Imperial Japanese Army were
aware of his reputation as a devoted nationalist.
 As a result, they were more open to the idea of Subash Chandra Bose leading a
nationalist army.
 Subash Chandra Bose's activities in India had forced the British authorities to
imprison him, but he escaped and arrived in Berlin in 1941.
 Although the German leadership was sympathetic to his cause, logistical issues
prevented them from supporting his efforts to raise an army to fight the British.
 However, the Japanese were ready to back him up, and on their invitation, Subash
Chandra Bose turned up in Singapore in July 1943 to take command of the second
Indian National Army, now known as the Azad Hind Fauj.
 There was a surge of volunteers looking to join the INA after Subash Chandra Bose
assumed control of the Azad Hind Fauj.

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  The Axis powers recognized this provisional government, which declared war on
Britain and the United States.
 Recruits were trained, and funds for the INA were collected. The Rani Jhansi
Regiment, a women's regiment, was also formed.
 In January 1944, the INA headquarters were relocated to Rangoon (Burma), and
army recruits were to march from there with the war cry "Chalo Delhi!" on their lips.
 The Japanese army handed over the Andaman and Nicobar islands to the INA on
November 6, 1943; the islands were renamed Shahid Dweep and Swaraj Dweep,
respectively.
 Subhas Bose addressed Mahatma Gandhi as "Father of the Nation" from the Azad
Hind Radio on July 6, 1944 (the first person to address Gandhi as "Father of the
Nation").
 He sought Gandhi's blessing for "India's final war of independence."
 Although Subash Chandra Bose agreed to the INA remaining subordinate to the
Japanese Army, he saw it as a necessary measure towards the ultimate goal of
liberating India from the British Empire.
 One INA battalion, led by Shah Nawaz, was permitted to accompany the Japanese
Army to the Indo-Burma front and take part in the Imphal campaign.
 However, the Japanese treated the Indians unfairly, denying them rations and arms
and forcing them to do menial work for Japanese units, which disgusted and
demoralized the INA units.
 Following that, Japan's steady retreat dashed any hopes of the INA liberating the
country. The retreat lasted until mid-1945.
 On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered in the Second World War, and with it, the
INA surrendered as well.
 According to reports, Subhas Bose died mysteriously in an air crash near Taipei
(Taiwan) on August 18, 1945.

96.5 Azad Hind Radio

 This radio station was created to encourage countrymen to fight for freedom under
the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose.
 The radio station used to broadcast news at weekly intervals in various languages
like English, Hindi, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, etc.
 The main aim of the formation of the Azad Hind Radio was to counter the broadcast
of allied radio stations and to fill Indian nationals with pride and motivation to fight
for freedom.

96.6 Subhash Chandra Bose - Background

 Subhash Chandra Bose was one of India's most illustrious liberation fighters.
 Born into an affluent family in Cuttack, Bengal province, he received his education in
Calcutta, where he earned a degree in philosophy.
 Subhash Chandra Bose was chosen for the Indian Civil Services (ICS), but he declined
because he did not want to work for the British administration.
 In 1921, Bose became a member of the Indian National Congress, which was
founded on December 28, 1885.

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  He also founded the 'Swaraj' newspaper.
 He was also the Secretary of the Bengal State Congress and the President of the
 All India Youth Congress. He was appointed CEO of the Calcutta Municipal
Corporation in 1924 and was elected Mayor of Calcutta in 1930.
 The Indian Struggle, written by Bose, recounts the Indian independence movement
from 1920 to 1942. The British government outlawed the book.
 He was the one who invented the phrase "Jai Hind."
 Many people were motivated by his charisma and tremendous personality to join
the liberation war, and he continues to inspire Indians. He is also famously known
as Netaji.

96.7 Role of Subhash Chandra Bose in India's independence

 In 1925, Bose was imprisoned in Mandalay for his nationalist activities. In 1927, he
was liberated and became the general secretary of the INC.
 He collaborated with Jawaharlal Nehru, and the two became the Congress Party's
young leaders, achieving widespread recognition.
 He campaigned for total Swaraj and supported the use of force to achieve it.
 He disagreed with Gandhi and was not a fan of nonviolence as a means of achieving
freedom.
 Bose ran for and was elected president of the party in1939, but was forced to resign
due to disagreements with Gandhi's supporters.
 Bose's ideology was influenced by socialism and leftist authoritarianism. In 1939, he
founded the All India Forward Bloc as a faction within Congress.
 At the start of World War II, Bose protested the government for not asking Indians
before pulling them into the conflict.
 He was arrested after organizing protests in Calcutta against the removal of a
monument commemorating the Black Hole of Calcutta. He was eventually released
after a few days, but he was under constant surveillance.
 He then fled the country in1941, making his way to Germany via Afghanistan and the
Soviet Union. He'd previously visited Europe, where he met with Indian students and
European political leaders.
 He met with Nazi leaders in Germany and hoped to stage an armed struggle against
the British to seek independence. He hoped to make friends with the Axis powers
because they were fighting his 'enemy,' the British.
 He founded the Indian Legion with the help of approximately 4500 Indian soldiers
who were serving in the British army and had been captured by the Germans in
North Africa.
 He left Germany for Japan in 1943, disillusioned with Germany's lukewarm support
for Azad Hind.
 Bose's arrival in Japan resurrected the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj), which
had been formed with Japanese assistance previously.
 The Provisional Government of Free India, or Azad Hind, was established as a
government-in-exile, with Bose as its leader. Its headquarters were located
in Singapore. Its military was the INA.
 Bose's fiery speeches energized the troops. "Give me blood, and I will give you
freedom!" he famously said.

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  The INA aided the Japanese army's invasion of northeast India and gained possession
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 However, following the Battles of Kohima and Imphal in 1944, British forces forced
them to retreat.

96.8 Fate of the Indian National Army after World War II

 After the second world war, the British Colonial government planned to try the
surviving members of the INA for treason. The trials were to be held at the Red Fort.
 However, the British's choice to make the Red Fort trials public proved to be a severe
miscalculation, as it resulted in a new wave of nationalism unseen during the entire
Independence Struggle.
 The Indians saw them as patriots fighting for independence, not betrayers to an
empire they never wanted to fight for.
 The trial's progress also resulted in mutiny within the British Indian Army, most
notably in the Royal Indian Navy.
 Despite the fact that the mutiny was quickly put down, the British realized they were
losing the support of the very institution that had kept them in power for so long –
the army.

96.9 Conclusion
With the launch of the Quit India Movement, the British sought to quicken India’s
independence, which was the ultimate goal of the Azad Hind Fauj from the start. It is safe to
say that the Indian National Army won against its colonial oppressors even in defeat.
Subhash Chandra Bose will always be remembered for his courage and heroic activities. The
government recently decided to erect a large statue of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose at India
Gate to commemorate his 125th birthday and as part of the year-long celebrations.
On January 23rd, his Jayanti is celebrated as ‘Parakram Diwas.’

*****

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 97. C. R. Formula or Rajaji Formula of 1944
C R Formula was put forth by C. Rajagopachari, who was a member of the Indian National
Congress, with the aim of solving the political deadlocks between the Indian National
Congress and the All India Muslim League. The League’s position in politics was to prove
that Hindus and Muslims of British India were two different nations and therefore, Muslims
had the right to demand their own separate nation. This thought of a separate nation by the
partition of India disagreed with and hence opposed by the Indian National Congress.

97.1 Background of Rajaji Formula of 1944

 In the Second World War, under the Viceroyalty of Lord Linlinthglow, the British
government announced that any decision that shall be taken for the Indian State
would only be implemented if both the parties, All India Muslims League and the
Indian National Congress agreed commonly for the decision, else the decision shall
be barred.
 There was an increasing demand for a separate nation – Pakistan by the All Indian
Muslim League for the betterment of the Muslims, but the thought of partitioning
the Indian nation was strongly opposed by the Indian National Congress.

 C Rajagopalachari, the then member of the Indian National Congress, also the close
aid of Gandhi had suggested a list of plans which were later named as the C R
Formula or the Rajaji Formula.
 The formulas mentioned the agreement of partitioning India and providing the
Muslims a separate nation based on the majority of the Muslims in that state.
 The formula was disagreed with and opposed by the members of the Indian National
Congress itself. Gandhi tried talking to Jinnah regarding the same, but it was all in
vain as Jinnah had rejected the proposals.

97.2 Proposals of Rajaji Formula of 1944

 The All India Muslims League would help the Indian National Congress for achieving
freedom from the Britishers and would cooperate information of the Indian
government at the centre.
 After the end of the war, there shall be an appointment of a commission that will
define the limits of districts having the majority of Muslim populations and a voting
system to be held in those districts among all the populations – including the non –
Muslim populations as well.
 All the parties will be allowed to give their stand on the partition of India with their
views before the voting begins.
 If the majority seeks partition, then there would be a mutual agreement for
safeguarding the nation with sensitive information regarding – Defence, Military,
Communications, Commerce, and other such details.
 If there exists any population that seeks partition and is transferred to the other
nation, it would be solely on a personal and voluntary basis.

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  All the above-mentioned proposals will only be put to action and implemented if the
British government transfers full authority and power of the Indian Nation to the
Government of India.

97.3 Gandhi’s talk with Jinnah – 1944

Allies saw more victories which made the British have a soft side for the Congress with
America pressurizing the British to agree on the demands of India for its self–government.
While the other Congress Leaders were still in prison, Gandhi was released on 5th May
1944.

After this release, Gandhi approached Jinnah in September 1944 to present him the
proposals and discuss the two-nation theory based on the C R Formula. However, the
proposals did not help Gandhi to convince Jinnah for the agreement and reversed as a
failure just two weeks after the meeting of Gandhi and Jinnah.

Jinnah objected on the proposals on the following objections:

 Jinnah wanted Indian National Congress to accept the two-nation theory and agree
with the partition.
 Jinnah wanted only the Muslim population in the majority areas to vote instead of all
the population i. e. no nonmuslim shall vote.
 Jinnah wanted to create separate regions before the Britishers left the nation.

97.4 Causes for the Failure of Rajaji Formula of 1944

 The formulas / the proposals aimed centrally at creating a separate nation – Pakistan
but, the population that was to be present was the majority of non – Muslims.
 Jinnah considered that he might run the risk of partitioning Punjab, and Bengal if the
vote has been placed.
 The plebiscite was to be considered from all the population which might have caused
a disagreement on the partition of the nation, hence Jinnah objected stating that the
plebiscite shall be considered only from the Muslim population.
 Jinnah claimed that the formulas dealt mainly with the services, whereas he wanted
full partition.
 The proposals dealt with partitioning Punjab, which eventually meant that the Sikh
community residing in Punjab would be divided and Sikhs did not hold the majority
in any of the districts.

If agreed on partitioning Punjab, it would leave many of the people on the dividing line,
which means they shall be residing on both sides. The proposals did not fail mainly because
neither Gandhi himself believed firmly in the formulas nor did Jinnah.

*****

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 98. Cabinet Mission (1946)
The Cabinet Mission was a high-powered mission sent to India by the Atlee
government in February 1946. Three British cabinet members served on the mission:
(Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India; Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of
Trade; and A.V. Alexander, First Lord of the Admiralty) to find ways and means for a
negotiated, peaceful transfer of power to India. The mission's chairman was Pethick
Lawrence.

98.1 Cabinet Mission - Background

 Clement Atlee, the British Prime Minister, initiated the formation of the Cabinet
Mission.
 It was made up of three members: Lord Pethick-Lawrence, AV Alexander, and Sir
Stafford Cripps.
 The then Viceroy Lord Wavell was involved in the process although he was not an
official member.
 The Congress Party and the Muslim League, which were at odds on almost every
issue at the time, had fundamental ideological differences that were preventing
them from finding common ground.
 Congress desired a strong central government with few powers delegated to the
provinces.
 The League sought strong safeguards for the rights of Muslims, the world's largest
minority group in India.
 Because both parties had significant ideological differences and were unable to find
common ground, the mission issued its own set of proposals in May 1946.

98.2 Cabinet Mission - Objectives

 To reach an agreement with Indian leaders on the creation of a constitution for

India.
 Creating a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly of India).
 To form an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian political parties.

98.3 Arrival of Cabinet Mission

 On March 24, 1946, the Cabinet Mission arrived in Delhi. It held lengthy discussions
with Indian leaders from all parties and groups on the issues of:
o interim government; and
o principles and procedures for drafting a new constitution that would grant
India independence.
 Because the Congress and the League were unable to reach an agreement on the
fundamental issue of India's unity or partition, the mission proposed its own
constitutional solution in May 1946.

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98.4 Proposal for Cabinet Mission

 Rejection of the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan because:

o such a formation of Pakistan would include a large non-Muslim population—
38% in the North-West and 48% in the North-East;
o the very principle of communal self-determination would demand separation
of Hindu-majority western Bengal and Sikh- and Hindu-dominated Ambala
and Jalandhar divisions of Punjab.
o deep-rooted regional ties would be jeopardized if Bengal and Punjab were
partitioned;
o partition would cause economic and administrative problems, such as the
problem of communication between Pakistan's western and eastern regions;
and
o the division of the armed forces would be dangerous.
 The provinces would be divided into three sections/groups:
o Group A includes Madras, the Central Provinces, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bombay, and Orissa.
o Group B consists of Punjab, Sindh, the NWFP, and Baluchistan.
o Group C consists of Bengal and Assam.
 At the provincial, section, and union levels, there is a three-tiered executive and
legislature.
 Provincial assemblies were to elect a constituent assembly through proportional
representation (voting in three groups: general, Muslims, and Sikhs).
o This constituent assembly would consist of 389 members, with provincial
assemblies sending 292, chief commissioner's provinces sending 4, and
princely states sending 93.
 Members of groups A, B, and C were to sit separately in the constituent assembly to
decide the constitution for provinces and, if possible, groups as well.
 The entire constituent assembly (all three sections A, B, and C combined) would then
convene to draft the union constitution.
 A centralized command would be in charge of defense, communication, and external
affairs. India was to have a federal structure.
 In the central legislature, communal questions were to be decided by a simple
majority of both communities present and voting.
 Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers, and princely
states would no longer be subject to the British government's supremacy. They
would be free to enter into an arrangement with successor governments or the
British government.
 After the first general elections, a province would be free to leave a group, and after
10 years, a province would be free to call for a reconsideration of the group or the
union constitution.
 Meanwhile, the constituent assembly was to form an interim government.

98.5 Reaction of the Parties

 The Cabinet Mission's long-term plan was accepted by the Muslim League on June 6,
1946, and by Congress on June 24, 1946.

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  Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held in provincial assemblies in July
1946.
 Nehru stated on July 10, 1946, "We are not bound by anything except that we have
decided to go into the Constituent Assembly".
o It implied that the Constituent Assembly was sovereign and would decide the
rules of procedure.
 The likelihood is that there will be no grouping because the NWFP and Assam would
object to joining sections B and C.
 On July 29, 1946, In response to Nehru's statement, the League withdrew its
acceptance of the long-term plan and issued a call for "direct action" beginning on
August 16 to achieve Pakistan.

Congress Reaction

 The Cabinet Mission Plan, according to the Congress, was opposed to the creation of
Pakistan because grouping was optional; only one constituent assembly was
envisaged, and the League no longer had a veto.
 Provinces should not have to wait until the first general election to break away from
a coalition. They should be able to choose not to join a group in the first place.
 Compulsory grouping runs counter to the frequently stated insistence on provincial
autonomy.
 The absence of a provision in the constituent assembly for elected members from
the princely states (they could only be nominated by the princes) was unacceptable.

Muslim League Reaction

 Pakistan, according to the Muslim League, was implied in the compulsory grouping.
 Sections B and C should be forced to form solid entities in preparation for future
secession into Pakistan.
 The League expected Congress to reject the plan, prompting the government to
invite the League to form an interim government.

98.6 Reasons for Failure of Cabinet Mission

 The Congress was opposed to the idea of provinces being divided into groups based
on the Hindu-Muslim majority and competing for control at the center. It was also
contrary to the concept of a weak center.
 The Muslim League did not want the proposals changed.
 Since the plan was rejected, the mission proposed a new plan in June 1946. This plan
proposed dividing India into two parts: a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority
India, later renamed Pakistan.
 A list of princely states that could join the union or remain independent was also
compiled.
 The second plan was rejected by Jawaharlal Nehru's Congress Party. Instead, it
agreed to be a constituent assembly member.

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  The Viceroy convened a meeting of 14 men to form an interim government. There
were five members from the Congress, five from the League, and one each from the
Sikh, Parsee, Indian Christian, and scheduled caste communities.
 The League and the Congress were both given the authority to appoint five members
to the Viceroy's interim council.
o The Congress nominated Zakir Hussain as one of the members, which the
League objected to, claiming that the League only represented Indian
Muslims and no other party. It was boycotted by the Muslim League.
 The Congress leaders joined the viceroy's interim council, and Nehru became the
leader of the interim government. The new government began the task of writing
the country's constitution.
 In most provinces, including the NWFP, Congress-led governments were formed. The
League formed governments in Bengal and Sind.
 The new central government was opposed by Jinnah and the League. He vowed to
agitate for Pakistan and urged Muslims to demand it by any means necessary. On
August 16, 1946, he called for a "Direct Action Day."
 This call sparked widespread communal rioting across the country, with 5000 people
killed on the first day in Calcutta alone. Riots erupted in a number of other areas,
most notably Noakhali and Bihar.
 As a result of the riots, there was a call for the country to be partitioned. Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel was among the first Congress leaders to recognize the inevitability
of partition as a means of putting an end to the brutal violence.

98.7 Conclusion
Congress and the Muslim League, respectively, accepted the Cabinet Mission on June 24,
1946, and June 6, 1946, respectively. The League then withdrew from the agreement and
urged direct action to secure Pakistan's independence. Following the collapse of Cabinet
Mission 1946, Atlee issued a statement in which he set a date for the transfer of power and
evacuation from India.

*****

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 99. Mountbatten Plan (June 1947)
In June 1947, Lord Mountbatten (India's last viceroy) proposed a plan in which provinces
would be declared independent successor states with the authority to choose whether or
not to join the constituent assembly. Long before Mountbatten arrived in India,
the freedom-with-partition formula was becoming widely accepted. One major innovation
(actually proposed by V.P. Menon) was the immediate transfer of power based on the grant
of dominion status (with a right of secession), eliminating the need to wait for a constituent
assembly agreement on a new political structure. In this article, we will discuss the
Mountbatten Plan in detail which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

99.1 Mountbatten Plan - Background

 Lord Mountbatten arrived in India as the last Viceroy and was tasked by then-British
Prime Minister Clement Atlee with ensuring a smooth transfer of power.
 Mountbatten proposed in May 1947 that the provinces be declared independent
successor states and then given the option of joining or not joining the constituent
assembly. The 'Dickie Bird Plan' was the name given to this strategy.
 When informed of the plan, Jawaharlal Nehru (born November 14, 1889)
vehemently opposed it, claiming that it would lead to the country's Balkanization. As
a result, this plan was also known as Plan Balkan.
 The viceroy then devised another plan known as the June 3 Plan. This was the final
strategy for Indian independence. The Mountbatten Plan is another name for it.
 The principles of partition, autonomy, sovereignty for both nations, and the right to
write their own constitution were all included in the June 3 Plan.
 Above all, princely states such as Jammu and Kashmir were given the option of
joining either India or Pakistan. The consequences of these decisions would have
long-term consequences for the new nations.
 Both Congress and the Muslim League agreed to this plan. Congress had also
acknowledged the partition's inevitability by that point.
 The Indian Independence Act 1947, which was passed in the British Parliament and
received royal assent on July 18, 1947, put this plan into action.

99.2 Mountbatten Plan - Provisions

 British India was to be divided into two countries: India and Pakistan.
 The Constituent Assembly's draft constitution would not apply to Muslim-majority
areas (as these would become Pakistan). These provinces would decide on the issue
of a separate constituent assembly for Muslim-majority areas.
 The legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab met and voted for partition in
accordance with the plan. As a result, it was decided that these two provinces would
be divided along religious lines.
 Sind's legislative assembly would decide whether or not to join the Indian
constituent assembly. It made the decision to travel to Pakistan.
 The NWFP (North-Western Frontier Province) was to hold a referendum to decide
which dominion to join. While Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted and rejected the
referendum, the NWFP decided to join Pakistan.

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  Since the Congress had conceded a unified India, all of their other demands would
be met, namely:
o independence for princely states was ruled out—they would join either India
or Pakistan;
o independence for Bengal was ruled out;
o accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan was ruled out (Mountbatten supported
the Congress on this);
o freedom would be granted on August 15, 1947; and
o a boundary commission would be established if partition was to be effected.
 The Boundary Commission, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, was established to fix the
international boundaries between the two countries. The commission was tasked
with dividing Bengal and Punjab into two new countries.
 The princely states were given the option of remaining independent or acceding to
either India or Pakistan. The British sovereignty over these kingdoms ended.
 The British monarch would no longer address himself as "Emperor of India."
 Following the creation of the dominions, the British Parliament was unable to enact
any legislation in the territories of the new dominions.
 Until the new constitutions were established, the Governor-General would assent to
any law passed in His Majesty's name by the constituent assemblies of the
dominions.
 The Governor-General was elevated to the status of the constitutional head.

99.3 Response to Mountbatten Plan

 The dominions of Pakistan and India were established at midnight on the 14th and
15th of August, 1947, respectively.
 Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the first Governor-General of independent
India, and M.A. Jinnah was appointed as the first Governor-General of Pakistan.
 Acceptance of partition was merely the culmination of a series of incremental
concessions to the League's advocacy of a separate Muslim state.

99.4 Conclusion
The League’s demand was met to the extent that Pakistan would be formed, and the
Congress’ position on unity was taken into account in order to keep Pakistan as small as
possible. Mountbatten’s plan was to divide India while maintaining maximum unity. The
peaceful transfer of power was attempted, but the horror of partition remains, which could
have been avoided. India recently declared August 14 to be Partition Horror Remembrance
Day.

*****

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 100. Independence Act 1947
The Indian Independence Act, based on the Mountbatten Plan, was passed by the British
Parliament on July 5, 1947, and received royal assent on July 18, 1947. The Act went into
effect on August 15, 1947. This act divided British India into two new sovereign republics,
India and Pakistan. This is an important topic for the UPSC Exams since with this act India's
struggle for independence came to an end and India finally became an independent nation.

100.1 Independence Act 1947 - Background

 The legislation was developed by Clement Attlee's Labour Government. It was

entirely based on the Mountbatten Plan, also known as the 3rd June Plan, which
was established after the leaders of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim
League agreed to Viceroy Lord Mountbatten's recommendations.
 On February 20, 1947, the British Prime Minister said that British India would be
granted self-government by June 1948 at the latest.
 The British government suggested a proposal that was implemented on June 3,
1947.
 The Independence Act was the implementation of the Mountbatten Plan.
 The Act declared India and Pakistan independent on August 15, 1947, with effect
from that date.
 The Boundary Commission drew the new boundaries of the dominions. The
suzerainty of the British over the princely kingdoms came to an end.
 These countries were asked to decide whether to join both India and Pakistan or
remain independent.
 Over 560 states made it clear that they want to join India.
 Until the new dominions' constitutions become operative, the heads of state will be
the respective Governor-Generals, who will be able to continue to assent to laws
passed in the name of the monarch through the Constituent Assemblies.
 The Royal Assent was given to this Act on July 18, 1947, and it went into effect.

100.2 Independence Act 1947 - Provisions

 On the fifteenth of August, 1947, the British authority left India.

 On this day, India separated into two sovereign provinces, India and Pakistan, and
each of these states became sovereign.
 The powers that the British government in India used to have were to be transferred
to each of those states.
 A border commission led by Mr. Redcliff partitioned Punjab and Bengal and
determined its boundaries.
 The Secretary of State for India's office will be abolished.
 Every territory was to have a Governor-General, who would be appointed by the
Queen of England at the Dominion government's request. He was not to act on his
judgment or discretion, but rather as the state's constitutional head of state.
 The regulations must be enacted by a sovereign legislature in each Domain. There
would be no automatic application of any legislation approved by the British
Parliament to India.

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  Both countries will have a Constituent Assembly that will serve as a legislative body.
 Until a Constituent Assembly in any dominion formulates a Constitution, it will
function as closely as practicable with the 1935 Act.
 Provincial governors will serve as the provinces' constitutional heads.
 The practice of reserving Secretary of State positions should be abandoned. After the
handover of authority to both dominions, government employees who desire to quit
must do so.
 On August 15, 1947, British rule over India's states and tribal regions came to an end.
In this arrangement, power will be passed to states rather than dominions, and
states will be free to choose whether to participate in India or Pakistan.
 The UK government's engagement with India will now be managed through the
Office of Commonwealth Affairs.
 The title of King and Emperor of India was surrendered by the King of England.
 East Bengal, West Pakistan, Sindh, and British Baluchistan are all Pakistani provinces.
 If the NWFP votes to join Pakistan in a referendum, this territory will join Pakistan as
well.

100.3 Independence Act 1947 - Impact

 The enactment of the Indian Independence Act of 1947 was a watershed moment in
the country's constitutional history.
 It was "the climax of a protracted chain of events," as Attlee described it, "the
accomplishment of the British mission" in India.
 In the House of Lords, Lord Samuel described the Law as "a peace treaty without
war."
 The Act's passage was applauded by Indian politicians as well. Dr. Rajendra
Prasad, for example, stated that "the time of British dominance over India ends
today," and that "our relationship with the United Kingdom will continue to be built
on equality, kindness, and mutual understanding."
 The law represented the start of a new period of freedom in India, but it did not
satisfy a vast number of people and politicians.
 As Maulana Abul Kalam Azad put it, "August 14 for Muslims in Pakistan is a day of
grief for Hindus and Sikhs."
 Despite these flaws, it cannot be denied that the Indian Independence Act of 1947
signified the end of British control in India and the start of a free India.

100.4 Repeal of the Act

 Both provinces were given the authority to revoke any act of parliament that
affected them, including the Indian Independence Act.
 By adopting their respective constitutions, India and Pakistan later abrogated the
1947 Independence Act.
 The Indian Independence Act of 1947 was effectively repealed by Section 395 of the
Indian Constitution and Section 221 of the Pakistan Constitution of 1956.
 The position of dominion was dissolved with the passage of the Indian Constitution,
and India became a republic.

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  The British Parliament, however, has failed to contribute to the repeal of the 1947
Indian Independence Act.
 Even though the new constitution lacks the legal authority to repeal legislation, this
is done to break the chain of law and establish the constitution as an independent
legal system.

100.5 Conclusion
The enactment of the Indian Independence Act of 1947 was a watershed moment in the
country’s constitutional history. The law ignalled the start of a new period of freedom in
India, although many Indians were dissatisfied with it. Despite these flaws, there can be no
doubt that the Act brought an end to British rule in India.

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