GREEK LITERATURE heritage continues to be studied and celebrated

for its timeless themes, enduring characters, and

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - The historical profound insights into the human experience.
background of Greek literature dates back to the
8th century BCE and spans several centuries. Here GENRE
are some key points:  Epic narrative - An epic poem is a lengthy,
narrative work of poetry. These long poems
1. Archaic Period (8th - 6th century BCE): This typically detail extraordinary feats and
period saw the emergence of Greek literature with adventures of characters from a distant past.
the composition of epic poetry, most notably the The word “epic” comes from the ancient Greek
works of Homer, including the "Iliad" and the term “epos,” which means “story, word, poem.”
"Odyssey." These epic poems were initially These tales were meant to be heard out loud
transmitted orally and later written down. rather than read, and were important for
2. Classical Period (5th - 4th century BCE): The teaching the Greek people their shared history
Classical period is considered the golden age of and ethos, and for instilling in them a sense of
Greek literature. It witnessed the flourishing of heroism. The versions that were written down
various literary genres, including tragedy, comedy, shifted and changed with each new generation
lyric poetry, and historical writings. of poets, shaped over many years of recitation.
3. Tragedy: This period saw the rise of renowned  Lyric poetry - is traditionally accompanied by
tragedians such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and music. The name lyric takes its origins from the
Euripides. Their plays, such as Aeschylus' ancient Greek instrument, the lyre. A lyre is a
"Oresteia," Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," and small harp-shaped string instrument. As a
Euripides' "Medea," explored complex themes of result, lyric poems are often thought of as
fate, morality, and the human condition. song-like. Lyric poetry is normally short poems
4. Comedy: Greek comedy developed alongside where the speaker expresses their emotions or
tragedy and was popularized by playwrights like feelings. Traditional, classical Greek lyric
Aristophanes. Aristophanes' comedies, such as poetry had strict rules for rhyme and meter.
"Lysistrata" and "The Birds," used humor and satire Today lyric poetry encompasses many forms
to comment on social and political issues of the with different rules regarding how they are
time. structured. In ancient Greece, lyric poetry was
5. Lyric Poetry: Lyric poetry, characterized by seen as an alternative to dramatic verse and
personal expression and emotion, was also epic poetry.
prominent during this period. Notable lyric poets These forms both contained a narrative. Lyric
include Sappho, known for her passionate love poetry did not necessitate narrative, allowing
poetry, and Pindar, famous for his odes celebrating poets to concentrate on a speaker's feelings and
athletic victories. emotions. Lyric poems have always been
6. Historiography: Greek literature also includes considered emotional and expressive. Many
historical writings, most notably the works of different poetry forms are considered to be lyric
Herodotus, known as the "Father of History." poetry. The sonnet, ode and elegy are famous
Herodotus' "Histories" documented the Persian examples of poetry forms that fall under the
Wars and provided a detailed account of ancient category of lyric. This can make lyric poetry difficult
civilizations. to classify. In addition to experimenting with
7. Hellenistic Period (4th - 1st century BCE): different meters, lyric poets also sang their songs
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, to the accompaniment of a lyre, a stringed
Greek literature spread throughout the Hellenistic instrument plucked with the hand—if Homer had
world. During this period, there was a shift towards musical backup, it's not evident in the text of his
more individualistic and philosophical writings, epics—thus, the name "lyric poetry."
with notable figures like Plato and Aristotle.
 Mythology - Myths are traditional stories,
Greek literature had a profound impact on especially ones concerning the early history of
Western literature and culture, influencing a people or explaining some natural or social
subsequent literary traditions. Its rich literary phenomenon, and typically involving
 supernatural beings or events. A collection of mysteries and. religious rituals that the Greeks
and the study of myths is called mythology. themselves participated in.
Greek mythology is the body of myths  Epic - The genre was traditionally associated
originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a with heroism and masculine strength,
genre of ancient Greek folklore, today mythology, and the shaping of national
absorbed alongside Roman mythology into the identity, religion, and war, and with the poet's
broader designation of classical mythology. own desire to compete with and surpass his
 Tragedy - is a genre of story in which a hero is predecessors much as epic heroes seek to
brought down by his/her own flaws, usually by prove their own supremacy. In ancient Greek,
ordinary human flaws – flaws like greed, over- 'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic
ambition, or even an excess of love, honor, or hexameter (epea), which included not only
loyalty. In any tragedy, we start with the tragic Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod,
hero, usually in his prime. The hero is the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the
successful, respected, and happy. Tragedy in strange theological verses attributed to
literature is defined as a genre that focuses Orpheus.
around a noble character who struggles  Ancient Greek novel - constitute a coherent if
against strong external challenges. This flexible genre, but no name for this genre is
character will usually suffer greatly and fail as known from antiquity. Contemporary literary
a result of their own flaws. critics usually omit the extended prose
 Prose - Prose is verbal or written language that narratives of antiquity from discussions of the
follows the natural flow of speech. It is the novel. There are no clear distinctions of genre
most common form of writing, used in both between the five 'romantic' novels and other
fiction and non-fiction. Prose comes from the works of Greek prose fiction, such as Lucian's
Latin “prosa oratio,” meaning True Story, the Alexander Romance and the
“straightforward.” Prose in English literature is Aesop Romance. Although the plots of the
a very common type of writing - it refers to any surviving novels appear to be relatively
writing that follows the conventions of speech conventional, entailing the fulfilled
and language. As such, it's grammatically and heterosexual desire of a beautiful and usually
syntactically correct, and flows like speech. virtuous young couple, this impression of
Most of the writing that you read and produce uniformity and moralism may be an illusion
will probably be prose. created by later Christians, who decided which
 Literary Criticism - (or literary studies) is the to copy for posterity.
study, a genre of arts criticism, evaluation, and
interpretation of literature. Modern literary CHARACTERISTICS
criticism is often influenced by literary theory, In its early days, Greek literature was intended for
which is the philosophical discussion of oral "consumption" and therefore did not depend
literature's goals and methods. Genre criticism, on books or readers. Although the alphabet arrived
a method within rhetorical criticism, analyzes in Greece around 800 BC, ancient Greece was in
texts in terms of their genre: the set of generic many ways a society in which the spoken word
expectations, conventions, and constraints prevailed over the written word
that guide their production and interpretation.
 Greek mythology - has had an extensive 1. Utilizing talk and oratory
influence on the arts and literature of Western In a few social orders, the control of liquid and
civilization, which inherited much of Greek enticing dialect has been more esteemed than in
culture. Like the myths of many other cultures, Greece. Within the utilization of dialect, individuals
those of ancient Greece tell how the world did not raise or lower their voices. In this sense,
was created and help explain why things the Greeks talked with a really uproarious voice
happen. Greek mythology is a series of myths and utilized genuine words that communicated
from ancient Greeks. These myths tell the mockery, intrigued, cherish, skepticism, and
origin and nature of the universe, involving antagonistic vibe. Feeling markers have been
various gods, heroes, and mysterious creatures. protected, particularly within the passionate
They also talk about the origins of various demeanor of the speaker/author. Characteristics
that have been acquired in current discourses. progression to unusual creatures, creatures, or
Later this sort of rhetoric gave a incredible nonexistent animals (even though there are a few
motivation to study and be taught within the arts in Greek mythology, but they are clearly smaller).
of government influence, particularly in political Thus, the Greek divine beings were included inside
talks about within the assembly, and for assault a tremendous family of divinities fair because it
and defense within the courts. In reality. The happened within the family of the Greeks. Thus,
foremost vital speakers in history Took their within the Greek devout creative energy, the most
procedures from the old Greek. noteworthy and most idealized signs of presence
2. Significance of Emotion and Affection had shapes and qualities precisely like those of
Ancient Greek writing displayed an incredible their human worshipers. In truth, but for their
bargain of feeling, whether within the behavior of control, magnificence, and interminability, the
the characters within the story or within the Greek divine beings were precisely like human
reaction incited within the gathering of people or creatures in their way of looking, feeling, or
the perusers. Additionally, there was a broad adoring.
lexicon of feelings in antiquated Greece. These 6. Utilize philosophical prose
feelings are feeling sorry for (kindness), outrage, Philosophical exposition is considered the most
fear, cherishing, and envy. In expansion, it was noteworthy scholarly accomplishment of the
based on a set of emotional capacities, such as fourth century. He was affected by Socrates and
sympathy, Animosity, weakness, and connection; his characteristic strategy of educating driven to
Feelings common to all human creatures. discourse. His most noteworthy example was Plato.
3. Utilize the epic narrative In truth, the fashion of this creator is considered a
The Iliad and the Journey are prime illustrations of magnificence without rise to, even though the
the epic story, which in relic was a long account ancient pundits saw it as well lovely. Their works
sonnet, in a hoisted fashion that celebrated Have too impacted descendants.
accomplishments. Both lyrics were based on plots 7. Utilize Greek Mythology
that trap the peruser, and the story is told in a The Greek myth endeavors to clarify the
dialect that's straightforward and coordinated, but beginnings of the world, to detail the lives and
eloquent. They were verbal lyrics that were undertakings of a wide assortment of divine beings,
transmitted, created, and included in an endless goddesses, heroes, champions, and legendary
period, on which unreservedly ad-libbed artists creatures. These legendary accounts were at first
without names. dispersed in an oral-poetic convention. The most
4. Incorporates verse poetry seasoned Greek scholarly sources are the epic
Lyrical verse, characteristic of Greek writing, was sonnets of Homer, and the Iliad Y Odyssey, Which
primarily related to the revere of the divine beings centers on the Trojan War and its aftermath. The
or to the celebration of the victors within the sonnets Theogony and the Works and Days,
extraordinary Hellenic games. The expressive coral, Contain accounts of the beginning of the world,
which had backups of lira and aulos, was the progression of divine rulers, the progression of
exceptionally complicated in its structure since it human ages, or the root of human disasters.
did not utilize conventional lines or stanzas. Thus, 8. Originality
it was never reused in precisely the same way, This writing was created with a small exterior
even though the metric units from which the impact, and among all the scholarly expressions
stanzas were developed were drawn from a the Greek is characterized and stands out for the
common collection. The shape of the stanza was awesome inventiveness of the writings and genres.
ordinarily related to the move that went with it.5. The inventiveness of Greek writing is due to the
5. Nearness of a human divinity incredible jump that his compositions gave in
The old Greeks created a devout understanding of making a break with the past. The verification of
the world based on divine habitations and this peculiarity is that Greek writing has been
conventional histories. The to begin with overseen to final until the days and is more often
imperative and most regularly watched include of than not taken as a referent to get it indeed the
the Greek divine beings was their human frame. current writing.
Not at all like other religions, the Greeks did not
deliver conspicuousness in their devout
9. Consideration of tragedy dramatization CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD LITERATURE
Tragedy could be a frame of the show in which a  The ancient Greeks pioneered, developed, and
solid central character or legend, at last, falls flat in fact, named many familiar genre of World
and is rebuffed by the gods. Generally, in Greek literature: epic, lyric, and pastoral poetry,
catastrophes, the saint incorporates a lethal tragic and comic drama, prose history,
blemish that causes his fate. Frequently the awful philosophy, and the novel all have deep roots
truths were committed automatically, as in the in the literature of ancient Greece. The Greeks
scene in which Oedipus slaughters his father did this despite not having adopted a writing
without knowing it. Even though others were made system capable of recording these literary
aware, as when Oreste revenges his father to forms until relatively late in their cultural
murder him. For numerous a long time, Aeschylus history. Alongside Latin, ancient Greek
was the foremost fruitful writer in Athens winning (sometimes called “Classical Greek”) is one of
a few competitions. One of his rivals, the Athenian the professional Classicist’s most powerful
author Sophocles composed the popular work tools for identifying and analyzing culturally
Oedipus Rex (Oedipus the King). A third vital significant texts, events, objects, and ideas.
author named Euripides centered more on Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, for instance,
individuals than the divine beings in his composing. Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Plato’s dialogues,
Among Euripides' most popular works is Electra Y the Hippocratic Oath, and Aristotle’s treatises
The Trojan Woman. on ethics, politics, and physics were all written
originally in Greek over two thousand years
FAMOUS WORKS AND WRITERS ago. Our researchers and students use their
 Homer (8th Century B.C) - is known for his understanding of the Greek language and its
epic poems that continue to be studied by various dialects to further our understanding
literature students and enthusiasts alike. He is of these influential texts and of the ancient
one of the greatest literary artists in the world, culture that produced them.
and, through these poems, he affected
Western standards and ideas. Famous works: ILIAD AND ODYSSEY
Iliad and Odyssey AUTHOR
 Sophocles (496-406 BC) - Was an Asian Greek Homer - The Greek poet Homer is credited with
Tragedian who wrote 123 plays during his life. being the first to write down the epic stories of
He developed theater by adding a third actor, 'The Iliad' and 'The Odyssey,' and the impact of his
reducing the importance of the chorus, and tales continues to reverberate through Western
introducing scenography. Famous works: culture. The Greek poet Homer was born
Antigone, Oedipus the king and Electra sometime between the 12th and 8th centuries BC,
 Euripides (480-406BC) - Was another Greek possibly somewhere on the coast of Asia Minor. He
tragedian. He wrote about 95 plays, 18 of is famous for the epic poems The Iliad and The
which have survived completely and many Odyssey, which have had an enormous effect on
more as fragments. Famous works: Alcestis, Western culture, but very little is known about
Medea and The Bacchae their alleged author.
 Aeschylus - Often referred to as the father of
tragedy, Aeschylus was one of the first The mystery of Homer - Homer is a mystery. The
playwrights to allow conflict between Greek epic poet credited with the enduring epic
characters on stage, creating a lifelike storyline tales of The Iliad and The Odyssey is an enigma
that enticed audiences. Famous works: The insofar as actual facts of his life go. Some scholars
Persians, Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants, believe him to be one man; others think these
and many more. iconic stories were created by a group. A variation
 Herodotus (484-425 BC) - is considered the on the group idea stems from the fact that
father of history in Western culture. He storytelling was an oral tradition and Homer
approached history as a science by collecting compiled the stories, then recited them to memory.
his material systematically and testing its Homer’s style, whoever he was, falls more in the
accuracy. Herodotus was also a gifted narrator. category of minstrel poet or balladeer, as opposed
Famous works: The Histories to a cultivated poet who is the product of a fervent
literary moment, such as a Virgil or a Shakespeare. What Was Homer Like? - Virtually every
The stories have repetitive elements, almost like a biographical aspect ascribed to Homer is derived
chorus or refrain, which suggests a musical entirely from his poems. Homer is thought to have
element. However, Homer’s works are designated been blind, based solely on a character in The
as epic rather than lyric poetry, which was Odyssey, a blind poet/minstrel called Demodokos.
originally recited with a lyre in hand, much in the A long disquisition on how Demodokos was
same vein as spoken-word performances. welcomed into a gathering and regaled the
audience with music and epic tales of conflict and
When was Homer born? - Much speculation heroes to much praise has been interpreted as
surrounds when Homer was born because of the Homer’s hint as to what his own life was like. As a
dearth of real information about him. Guesses at result, many busts and statues have been carved of
his birth date range from 750 BC all the way back Homer with thick curly hair and beard and sightless
to 1200 BC, the latter because The Iliad eyes.
encompasses the story of the Trojan War, so some “Homer and Sophocles saw clearly, felt keenly, and
scholars have thought it fit to put the poet and refrained from much,” wrote Lane Cooper in The
chronicler nearer to the time of that actual event. Greek Genius and Its Influence: Select Essays and
But others believe the poetic style of his work Extracts in 1917, ascribing an emotional life to the
indicates a much later period. Greek historian writer. But he wasn't the first, nor was he the last.
Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC), often called the father Countless attempts to recreate the life and
of history, placed Homer several centuries before personality of the author from the content of his
himself, around 850 BC. Part of the problem is that epic poems have occupied writers for centuries.
Homer lived before a chronological dating system
was in place. The Olympic Games of classical What Was Homer Like? - Virtually every
Greece marked an epoch, with 776 BC as a starting biographical aspect ascribed to Homer is derived
point by which to measure out four-year periods entirely from his poems. Homer is thought to have
for the event. In short, it is difficult to give been blind, based solely on a character in The
someone a birth date when he was born before Odyssey, a blind poet/minstrel called Demodokos.
there was a calendar. A long disquisition on how Demodokos was
welcomed into a gathering and regaled the
Where was Homer born? - Once again, the exact audience with music and epic tales of conflict and
location of Homer’s birth cannot be pinpointed, heroes to much praise has been interpreted as
although that doesn't stop scholars from trying. It Homer’s hint as to what his own life was like. As a
has been identified as Ionia, Smyrna or, at any rate, result, many busts and statues have been carved of
on the coast of Asia Minor or the island of Chios. Homer with thick curly hair and beard and sightless
But seven cities lay claim to Homer as their native eyes.
son. (Smyrna, Athens, Ithaca, Pylos, Colophon, “Homer and Sophocles saw clearly, felt keenly, and
Argos and Chios) There is some basis for some of refrained from much,” wrote Lane Cooper in The
these claims, however. The dialect that The Iliad Greek Genius and Its Influence: Select Essays and
and The Odyssey are written in is considered Extracts in 1917, ascribing an emotional life to the
Asiatic Greek, specifically Ionic. That fact, paired writer. But he wasn't the first, nor was he the last.
with frequent mentions of local phenomena such Countless attempts to recreate the life and
as strong winds blowing from the northwest from personality of the author from the content of his
the direction of Thrace, suggests, scholars feel, a epic poems have occupied writers for centuries.
familiarity with that region that could only mean
Homer came from there. Legacy - "Plato tells us that in his time many
The dialect helps narrow down his lifespan by believed that Homer was the educator of all
coinciding it with the development and usage of Greece. Since then, Homer’s influence has spread
language in general, but The Iliad and The Odyssey far beyond the frontiers of Hellas [Greece]….”
were so popular that this particular dialect became wrote Werner Jaeger in Paideia: The Ideals of
the norm for much of Greek literature going Greek Culture. He was right. The Iliad and The
forward. Odyssey have provided not only seeds but fertilizer
for almost all the other arts and sciences in
Western culture. For the Greeks, Homer was a SUMMARY
godfather of their national culture, chronicling its The Iliad - is an ancient Greek epic poem also
mythology and collective memory in rich rhythmic attributed to Homer. It primarily focuses on the
tales that have permeated the collective Trojan War, a conflict between the Greeks
imagination.Homer’s real life may remain a (Achaeans) and the Trojans. The central character
mystery, but the very real impact of his works is Achilles, a Greek hero known for his exceptional
continues to illuminate our world today. combat skills but also his flaws and pride. The
poem begins with the anger of Achilles, who
CHARACTERS withdraws from the war after a dispute with
The Iliad (main characters) Agamemnon, the Greek leader. The narrative
 Achilles follows the battles and events of the war, including
 Agamemnon the heroic deeds of various warriors on both sides,
 Menelaus the interventions of gods and goddesses in mortal
 Ajax affairs, and the tragic fate of Hector, the Trojan
 Diomedes prince. Throughout the epic, themes of honor,
 Odysseus glory, fate, and the consequences of war are
 Patroclus explored.
 Nestor
 Hector The Odyssey - The narrative follows the battles and
 Paris events of the war, including the heroic deeds of
 Priam various warriors on both sides, the interventions of
The Odyssey (main characters) gods and goddesses in mortal affairs, and the tragic
 Odysseus fate of Hector, the Trojan prince. Throughout the
 Telemachus epic, themes of honor, glory, fate, and the
 Penelope consequences of war are explored.
 Athena
 Zeus The connection between The Iliad and The Odyssey
 Menelaus - “The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" are two of the
most famous ancient Greek epic poems, both
SETTING attributed to the poet Homer. While they are
The Iliad - The Iliad is primarily set during the distinct works, there are several connections
Trojan War, which is believed to have taken place between them:
in the late Bronze Age (around the 12th or 13th - Shared Authorship: Both epics are traditionally
century BCE). The war was fought between the attributed to Homer, indicating a common
Greeks (Achaeans) and the Trojans. The main authorship.
setting of the Iliad is the city of Troy (also known as - Thematic Continuity: The two poems are part of
Ilium). a larger epic cycle known as the "Epic Cycle" or
The Odyssey - The Odyssey is set in the aftermath "Trojan Cycle," which includes various stories
of the Trojan War. It follows the protagonist related to the Trojan War and its aftermath. "The
Odysseus (also known as Ulysses) on his journey Iliad" focuses on the events of the Trojan War itself,
back to his homeland of Ithaca. The story spans while "The Odyssey" deals with the adventures of
several years, as Odysseus faces numerous Odysseus after the war as he tries to return home.
challenges and encounters various mythical Together, they provide a comprehensive narrative
creatures and gods. of this mythological world.
The Odyssey takes place in various locations, - Chronological Sequence: "The Iliad" precedes
including: "The Odyssey" in terms of the events they depict.
- Troy "The Iliad" covers the final year of the Trojan War,
- Aeaea while "The Odyssey" picks up after the war's
- Land of the Cyclopes conclusion and follows Odysseus' arduous journey
- The Underworld back to his homeland.
- Calypso's Island - Overlapping Characters: Several characters
- Phaeacia appear in both epics. For example, Odysseus is a
prominent character in both poems, with "The Oedipus Rex
Odyssey" being a continuation of his story from
"The Iliad." Other characters, such as Achilles and
Agamemnon, are central to "The Iliad" but are also AUTHOR - Sophocles (Ancient Greek Tragedian)
mentioned in passing or alluded to in "The  Born around 496/5 BCE in Colonus, Greece.
Odyssey."  Came from a wealthy and aristocratic family.
- Similar Themes: Both epics explore themes  Enjoyed a quality education and cultural
central to ancient Greek literature and culture, exposure.
such as heroism, honor, fate, the relationship Achievements
between mortals and gods, and the impact of war  Wrote over 120 plays, but only seven survive
on human lives. These themes resonate intact.
throughout both works.  Renowned for seven surviving masterpieces,
including "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone."
THEME Innovations
The major themes in Homer's epic poem The Iliad  Introduced the use of a third actor in Greek
are : theater, enriching character interactions.
– revenge  Pioneered the use of painted scenery and
– war and mortality props for visual enhancement.
– love and friendship Themes and style
– fate and free will  Sophocles' plays tackled intricate moral and
– honor ethical dilemmas.
 He often examined the connection between
The three central themes of the Odyssey are : individuals and gods in his works.
– Hospitality  His plays frequently delved into the concept of
– Loyalty fate and the outcomes of human actions.
– and Vengeance  Sophocles was renowned for his talent in
crafting well-rounded, multidimensional
MORAL OF THE STORY characters.
The Iliad - The Iliad is set during the Trojan War Legacy
and primarily focuses on the hero Achilles. The  Continues to be a prominent figure in theater
poem explores themes such as honor, glory, fate, and literature.
and the consequences of war. One of the central  Influence seen in psychology (Oedipus
moral lessons of the Iliad is the destructive nature complex), philosophy, and literature.
of excessive pride or hubris. Achilles, driven by his  Innovations set the stage for future
pride, withdraws from battle after a dispute with developments in drama.
Agamemnon, causing great suffering for his fellow  His plays pose enduring moral and existential
Greeks. This highlights the importance of humility questions.
and selflessness in leadership.
The Odyssey - The Odyssey, on the other hand, CHARACTERS
follows the adventures of Odysseus as he attempts  Oedipus - Oedipus, in Greek mythology, the
to return home after the Trojan War. This epic king of Thebes who unwittingly killed his father
poem explores themes such as perseverance, and married his mother. Homer related that
temptation, hospitality, and personal growth. One Oedipus's wife and mother hanged herself
of the central moral lessons in the Odyssey is the when the truth of their relationship became
power of perseverance and determination in known, though Oedipus apparently continued
overcoming obstacles. Despite facing numerous to rule at Thebes until his death.
challenges and temptations, Odysseus remains  Jocasta - Jocasta is mother and wife of
steadfast in his goal to return home to his family. Oedipus. She left Oedipus to die when he was
baby after it was prophesized that he would
kill his father and marry his mother.
 Teiresias - The blind prophet of Thebes
appears in Oedipus the King and Antigone. In
 both plays, he represents the same force — Oedipus vows to find the killer and curses them for
the truth rejected by a willful and proud king, causing the plague. Oedipus seeks Tiresias' help,
almost the personification of Fate itself. but Tiresias accuses him of murder. Oedipus
 Sphinx - The Sphinx was a being with the head suspects Creon's manipulation. Jocasta dismisses
of a woman, the body of a lioness, the wings of prophecies, mentioning Laius' false oracle. A
an eagle and the tail of a serpent. She guarded messenger reveals Oedipus' adoptive father's
the entrance to the city of Thebes and would death, easing one fear. Oedipus worries about
pose a riddle to travellers who aimed to enter. incest until learning Merope wasn't his real mother.
If they could not answer it, she would devour Discovering the truth, Oedipus curses himself,
them. blinds himself, and finds Jocasta dead. He laments
 Creon - Creon (brother in law of Oedipus) is their fate, and their daughters are sent away.
the round character in Oedipus Rex. He follows
the order of Oedipus and tries to find the truth THEME
behind the murder of Laius. It follows the story of King Oedipus of Thebes as he
 Polybus and Merope - are the gentle, childless discovers that he has unwittingly killed his own
couple who are given the baby Oedipus to father, Laius, and married his own mother, Jocasta.
raise as their own boy. Polybus and Merope Over the centuries, it has come to be regarded by
also happen to be the king and queen of many as the Greek tragedy par excellence and
Corinth. They try to protect Oedipus from that certainly as the summit of Sophocles'
fact that he is not their biological child, but achievements.
some wandering drunkard tips him off.
Free Will. Fate versus free will is the central theme
SETTINGS - Oedipus Rex is set in the city-state of of the play. The story revolves around Oedipus'
Thebes in ancient Greece. Most of the action takes attempt to use his own free will to escape the
place at the royal palace in Thebes prophecy given to him by the Oracle of Delphi. The
oracle prophesied that Oedipus' fate was to marry
SUMMARY his mother and kill his father.
Laius and Jocasta, rulers of Thebes, were expecting
a son. Upon learning from an oracle that their son MORAL LESSON
would kill Laius, they ordered a servant to abandon  The moral of the story of Oedipus Rex is that it
the baby, Oedipus, on a mountain. Oedipus, saved is impossible to escape one's fate. Oedipus,
and raised by a shepherd in Corinth, learns he's the main character, is told his fate by the
adopted. He consults the Oracle, who predicts he'll Oracle of Delphi. Despite doing everything he
marry his mother and kill his father. To avoid this, can to avoid it, Oedipus still ends up fulfilling
he leaves Corinth, thinking his adoptive parents are the prophecy.
his real ones, hoping to prevent the prophecy.  The moral of Oedipus Rex is that pride goes
Oedipus unknowingly kills his true father, King before the fall. Oedipus has immense pride, so
Laius, during a chariot dispute on his way to much pride that he believes he can outsmart
Thebes. He later solves the Sphinx's riddle, gaining the gods who prophesied, via the oracle of
recognition. "What is the creature that walks on Delphi, that he would kill his father and marry
four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and his mother. When the oracle gave him this
three in the evenin? prophecy, he decided that he would simply not
return home to Corinth, and he would avoid
THE SPHINX his parents Polybus and Merope, so that the
There was a single sphinx in greek mythology, a oracle's words could not come true.
unique demon of destruction and bad luck A
winged lion with a woman's head The name
'sphinx' is derived from the greek sphingo, which
means "to strangle". The Sphinx throws herself off
the cliffside. Oedipus becomes King of Thebes and
marries Jocasta, his biological mother. A plague
strikes the city due to King Laius' unsolved murder.
 heroic couplet and strict meter and rhyme.
ENGLISH LITERATURE Chief Contribution: The Modern Novel
 The Romantic Period (1798-1837) - Trends:
The Romantic Movement in Poetry, Gothicism
Literature is the reflection of life. It mirrors the in literature. Chief Contribution: Romantic
society in which it is generated. The word literature Poetry and The Gothic Novel
comes from the Latin word 'litaritura' meaning  The Victorian Period ( 1837-1901) - Literary
"writing organized with letters". We classify Trends & Movements:Symbolism,
literature according to language, origin, historical Utilitarianism, Oxford Movement, Romantic
period, genre, and subject matter. English Protestantism. Age of Prose & Novel. Main
literature, however, emerged with the beginning of Focus: individually, morality note, conflict
the history of English people. It refers to all the between religion and science, human beings
literary works (novels, short stories, poems, fiction, than nature.
nonfiction, and plays) composed in English. The  The Modern Period (1901-1945) - Literary
earliest works of English literature mirror the life Trends: Dadaism, stream of consciousness,
lived by the people of that region at that specific futurism, cubism, expressionism and imagism
period. emerged.
 The Contemporary Period (1945-Today) -
HISTORY Literary Trends: structuralism, deconstruction,
The introduction and history of English literature poststructuralism, postmodernism,
go side by side. You can't get the complete postcolonialism and magic realism. Main Focus:
introduction of English literature without going horrors of war, genocide, life experiences,
deep down in its history. The history of English real-life themes, alienation, transformation,
literature initiated with the history of the English consumption & relativity of truth.
race and kept on developing with the social
development of the nation. When we analyze the LITERARY GENRES - The four main literary genres
history of English literature, we discover that it are poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and drama, with
consists of eight (8) major periods and several ages. each varying in style, structure, subject matter, and
Each period or age of English literature is named the use of figurative language.
after the central literary figure, or the important
rulers of England, or certain literary movements. 1.) Drama a play for theater told by character
Moreover each period or phase of English dialogue (talking)
literature has its distinct characteristics. The major 2.) Fiction a story that did not actually happen in
eight (8) periods in the history of English literature real life
are: 3.) Nonfiction writing that is real and factual, or
 The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450- that actually happened
1066) - Heroic Tradition: poetry focused on 4.) Poetry writing using language and sounds in
hero's bravery Elegiac Tradition: writers special ways to express ideas
mourned the passing of earlier, better times
 The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period CHARACTERISTICS
(1066-1500) - Popular forms of Writing:  Diversity: English literature encompasses a
Chronicles, Poetry, Drama, Religious and wide range of genres, themes, and periods,
Didactic writing. from classical to contemporary, reflecting the
 The Renaissance Period (1500-1660)- Trends: diverse cultural and historical experiences of
Revival of learning, Rediscovery of classical the English-speaking world.
philosophy, literature and art. focus on  Historical Context: Many works of English
'Humanism' and 'Puritanism'. Major Forms of literature are deeply rooted in the historical
literature: poetry and drama. and social context of their time, offering
 The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798) - Trends: insights into the values and beliefs of different
Revival of classical art and culture of ancient eras.
Greece and Rome, focus on order, accuracy,  Language and Style: English literature
and structure. Poetic Trends: Use of allusions, showcases the evolution of the English
 language and the development of various Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) - "War and Peace" (1869):
literary styles, from the poetic language of A sprawling epic novel that follows the lives of
Shakespeare to the modern prose of several Russian aristocratic families during the
contemporary authors. Napoleonic era, exploring themes of love, war, and
 Exploration of Human Nature: Literature often historical change. "Anna Karenina" (1877): This
delves into the complexities of human nature, novel tells the tragic story of Anna Karenina, a
exploring themes such as love, ambition, woman who defies societal norms to pursue an
morality, and the human condition. adulterous affair. Mark Twain (1835-1910)
 Imagery and Symbolism: English literature
frequently employs vivid imagery and Mark Twain (1835-1910) - "The Adventures of
symbolism to convey deeper meanings and Huckleberry Finn" (1884): A classic of American
provoke thought and emotion. literature, this novel follows the adventures of
Huck Finn and his friend Jim, a runaway slave,
FAMOUS WRITERS AND LITERARY WORKS along the Mississippi River, addressing themes of
race and freedom. Emily Brontë (1818-1848)
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) - "Romeo and
Juliet" (1597): This tragic play tells the story of two Emily Brontë (1818-1848) - "Wuthering Heights"
young lovers from feuding families, the Montagues (1847): A Gothic novel that explores the dark and
and Capulets, whose love ultimately leads to their destructive love between Heathcliff and Catherine
untimely deaths. "Hamlet" (1601): "Hamlet" is a Earnshaw in the Yorkshire moors. F. Scott
tragedy about the Prince of Denmark, Hamlet, who Fitzgerald (1896-1940)
seeks to avenge his father's murder by his uncle,
who has taken the throne. Charles Dickens (1812- Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) - "The Great
1870) Gatsby" (1925): A tale of decadence and
disillusionment in the Jazz Age, focusing on the
Charles Dickens (1812-1870) -"Great Expectations" enigmatic millionaire Jay Gatsby and his obsession
(1861) The novel follows the life of an orphan with Daisy Buchanan. Gabriel García Márquez
named Pip and his journey from poverty to wealth, (1927-2014)
exploring themes of social class and identity. "A
Tale of Two Cities" (1859): Set during the French Gabriel García Márquez (1927-2014) - "One
Revolution, this novel contrasts the lives of Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967): A magical
characters in Paris and London and explores realist novel that chronicles the history of the
themes of sacrifice and resurrection. Jane Austen Buendía family in the fictional town of Macondo,
(1775-1817) blending myth and reality. George Eliot (1819-1880)

Jane Austen (1775-1817) - "Pride and Prejudice" George Eliot (1819-1880) - "Middlemarch" (1871):
(1813) This novel focuses on the relationships and A novel that delves into the lives and relationships
social norms of the early 19th century in England, of the inhabitants of the fictional town of
particularly the love story between Elizabeth Middlemarch, exploring social and political issues
Bennet and Mr. Darcy. "Sense and Sensibility" of the time. These works represent just a fraction
(1811): It explores the contrasting personalities of of each author's literary contributions, but they are
the Dashwood sisters and their experiences in love among the most celebrated and enduring pieces in
and society. George Orwell (1903-1950) the world of literature.

George Orwell (1903-1950) "1984" (1949) - A CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD LITERATURE

dystopian novel that explores the dangers of English literature has been a cornerstone,
totalitarianism, surveillance, and the loss of influencing global literary traditions. Shakespeare's
individual freedoms. "Animal Farm" (1945): An plays are performed worldwide and translated into
allegorical novella that satirizes the Russian numerous languages. The English novel,
Revolution and the emergence of a corrupt particularly from the 18th century onward, set a
leadership among farm animals. Leo Tolstoy (1828- precedent for narrative storytelling. Modernist
1910) works inspired literary experimentation in many
languages. English literature reflects diverse Type of work : Poem
cultural, social, and political perspectives, enriching Date of first publication: Around 1000 B.C
the global literary canon. Language: Anglo Saxon
Time and place written:
BEOWULF Estimate of the date of composition range
between 700-1000 A.D written in England
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
"Beowulf" is an Oldest surviving Epic poem in the THEMES
English Language. Written in the Old English, the  Heroism and Valor
language of the Saxons. It dates back to the 8th to  Good vs. Evil
11th centuries. The true identity of the author of  Fate and Destiny
"Beowulf" remains a mystery. The poem tells the  The Importance of Companionship
heroic story of Beowulf, a Geatish warrior.
MORAL LESSONS
The three races or tribes  Courage is Virtuous
1. Geats (Geatas): Beowulf's people, from  Beware of Excessive Pride
southern Sweden.  Accept the Impermanence of Life
2. Danes (Scyldings): Ruled by King Hrothgar,  Value and Shape Your Legacy
from what is now Denmark.
3. Sweons (Swedes): Closely related to the Geats,
also from southern Sweden.

CHARACTERS
 Beowulf: Heroic Geat warrior, protagonist.
 Hrothgar: Danish king seeking Beowulf's aid.
 Grendel: Malevolent monster tormenting
Danes.
 Grendel's Mother: Seeking revenge for her son
 Wiglaf: Loyal Geat warrior, Beowulf's ally.
 Unferth: Danish warrior, skeptical of Beowulf.
 Wealhtheow: Hrothgar's queen, central in
court life.

PLOT/SUMMARY
Beowulf arrives to aid Danes against Grendel. He
defeats Grendel in a mead hall battle. Grendel's
mother seeks revenge, but Beowulf kills her.
Beowulf returns to Geatland and becomes king. In
his old age, Beowulf faces a dragon threat. Beowulf
battles the dragon and is fatally wounded. He dies
and is given a grand funeral. The epic reflects on
his heroic legacy and the uncertainty of the future.

SETTING
Denmark - Most of the epic takes place in Denmark,
under King Hrothgar's rule, with Heorot as a
central location.
Geatland (Sweden) - Beowulf's homeland and
where the epic begins and ends.
Grendel's Lair - A mysterious underwater cavern
where Beowulf confronts Grendel's mother.