M.No. 1.

1 UNIT-ONE
VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR

(Gradient, Del and Curl operators & significance)

In the study of Physics many a times we come across physical quantities

which are either scalar or vector quantities. In order to understand the
vector operators one must have knowledge of Scalar and Vector point
functions. Let us first define what are these functions.

1.1.1: Scalar point function

In a region in 3 dimensional space each point P can be identified with its

position coordinates (x,y,z). We associate a ‘unique real number ‘ (φ) to the
point. As we know this number is a scalar quantity and it is function of x, y
and z coordinates of the point. We write the scalar as φ(x, y, z). This
quantity is called ‘Scalar point function’ in the space.

For example, the temperature distribution in a region around a source of

heat. The temperature is a scalar quantity and is a function of position
coordinates of a point as we all experience, in the region under
consideration. The temperature is a scalar point function.

1.1.2: Vector point function

In the space we associate a unique vector F at any point in the region. This
vector is a function of position of the point. i.e. position coordinates. This
quantity F(x, y, z) is called ‘Vector point function’ in the space.

For example, consider a particle moving in space. it will have certain

velocity (V) which is a vector point function. The particle may also have
certain acceleration (a) which is also a vector point function. Other example
is the electric and magnetic fields in the space.

We come across several scalar and vector point functions in various

branches of science.

1.1.3: Vector differential operator

The vector differential operator, read as ‘del’ and represented by

ˆ  + ˆj  + kˆ  )
symbol  and is defined as   (i ----------------(1)
x y z

This operator will have properties similar to those of ordinary vector.

Remember that this operator has no meaning on its own, unless and
until it operates on some function in a suitable manner. This differential
operator is also called ‘nabla’. its capable of differentiating both vector and
scalar functions with equal ease. It has many important applications in
physics.

There are three possible operations with ‘del’ operator corresponding to

three types of vector multiplication. Each of these operations has its own
physical significance.

The three operations are :

1) Gradient of a scalar function ( this corresponds to multiplication of

a vector by a scalar quantity) is a vector.
2) Divergence of a vector function ( this corresponds to scalar or dot-
product of two vectors) is a scalar.
3) Curl of a vector function ( this corresponds to vector or cross-
product of two vectors) is a vector.
Now we will study these three operations in detail.

1.1.4: Gradient of a scalar function

Let φ(x,y,z) is a scalar point function defined in some region of space. Now
let us operate the vector differential operator (  ) on the scalar function
just like multiplication of vector by a scalar. This operation is known as
‘Gradient of a scalar function’ and is abbreviated as ‘Grad φ’

It is defined as

Grad =  (x,y,z)
  
= (iˆ  ˆj + kˆ )( )
x y z ---------------(2)
 ˆ  ˆ 
= (iˆ j +k )
x y z

The Grad φ is a vector quantity. So the gradient of a scalar function φ at

point P(x,y,z) is a vector along the normal to the level surface φ(x,y,z) = c
at point the point P and is in increasing direction.

In your earlier course in physics, you have been introduced to the electric
field vector( E) as the negative gradient of electric potential (V).

i.e. E = - Grad(V) = V ------------- (3)

Properties of gradient:

i) If F and G are any two scalar functions then

Grad(F±G) = Grad(F) ± grad(G) -------------- ( 4 )

ii) The necessary condition for a scalar point function φ to be constant is

Grad φ = 0 i.e. a null vector. --------------- ( 5 )

iii) Grad(FG) = F[Grad(G)] + G[Grad(F)] -------- ( 6 )

iv) Grad(cF) = c[Grad(F)] where c is constant. --------- ( 7 )

v) Grad(F/G) = {G[Grad(F)]-F[Grad(G)]}/G2 -------- ( 8 )

 
vi) Let r = xiˆ +yjˆ +zkˆ Then dr = (dx)iˆ +(dy)jˆ +(dz)kˆ . If φ is a scalar point function
then

  
d = dx + dy + dz
x y z
 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ ˆ
= (iˆ + j +k ˆ
)(idx+jdy+kdz) ------------- (9)
x y z

=  dr

Physical significance of Gradient:

Let us consider the heat transfer in space from a source of heat. The scalar
function φ here is the temperature. Then  represents the ‘temperature
gradient ‘ or ‘rate of change of temperature with distance’. Therefore even
though the temperature is a scalar quantity ( having magnitude alone), its
gradient is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction. The
direction of gradient is the direction in which the rate of change of scalar
function is maximum. That is, the gradient of a scalar function gives the
particular direction in which the scalar function changes most rapidly or the
maximum space rate of change of that function.

In the Figure-1 below, a source of heat and a observing point P and two
points P1 and P2 in two different directions from the source are shown.
 P1
x

Figure-1

We can observe that the change in temperature will be maximum in the

direction of point P2 i.e. in the direction of source from the point P, while the
change in direction of point P1 is less.

1.1.5: Divergence of vector

The second kind of ‘del’ operation is the multiplication of del-operator by

another vector so that the resultant is the dot or scalar product.

Let F be any continuously differentiable vector function. If the operator 

operates on F to get the scalar or dot product  and F , then the resultant
is called ‘Divergence of vector F’. It is abbreviated as ‘del F’.

  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ   
DivF =  F = i  j  k ( F ) ---------------- (10)
 x y z 

This kind of operation of the operator ‘del’ results in a scalar point function.

Now consider a vector A = ( A x ˆi + A y ˆj + A z kˆ ) . The divergent of

this vector is

  A A y A z
DivA = A = ( x + + ) ----------(11)
x y z
Physical significance divergence:

Vector analysis is of much use in simplifying mathematical forms of

relations that exist in three dimensional fields. Depending on the vector
function F in a physical problem, we can interpret the divergence of the
vector.

Consider the flow of a fluid ( flow of gas in a pipe line or water in a river).
Imagine a small rectangular box in the flow and would like to measure the
rate per unit volume at which the fluid flows out at any given time.

Suppose V(x,y,z) is the velocity of the fluid flow at point P(x,y,z) at time t.
remember the time (t) has no role to play un computing the divergence , but
it is considered because the velocity vector depends on time. Then if the
velocity vector is operated upon by del-operator, it gives the measure of
the outward flow or expansion of the fluid at any time.

Now for simplicity, let us consider an incompressible fluid (like water) of

density ρf . We can imagine an infinitesimal volume element within the fluid

as a rectangular parallelopiped of dimensions Δx, Δy and Δ z as shown in
the following figure-2.
 Δz

Figure-2

Let Vy be the average of the y-component of the fluid velocity through the
face ABCD. Now the flow into the parallelopiped through this face will be

equal to ρf Vy Δx ΔyΔ z .

The rate of flow out through the face EFGH will be equal to

  (ρ f Vy )Δy 
ρ V
 f y +  ΔxΔz
  y 

The net outward flow in y-direction in unit time

  (ρ f Vy ) 
=   xΔyΔz -----(12)
  y 

In the same way,

the net outward flow in x-direction in unit time

 (ρf Vx ) 
=   xΔyΔz ------(13)
 x 
   (ρ f Vz ) 
and that in z-direction =   xΔyΔz ------------------- (14)
 z 

Now if we consider all the three directions, then the net flow in unit time will

 (ρ f Vx )  (ρ f Vy )  (ρ f Vz ) 
be equal to  + +  ΔxΔyΔz -----------(15)
  x  y  z 

So, the net outward flow per unit volume in unit time is

  (ρf Vx )  (ρf Vy )  (ρ f Vz ) 
 x + y + z   (ρf V) = Div(ρf V) ---------- (16)
 

Eq.(16) gives the divergence of the fluid at any point P(x, y, z).

At any point if the outflow of the fluid is greater than the inflow then
the divergence of the fluid is said to be positive( i.e. diverge). On the
other hand if at any point if the outflow of the fluid is less than the
inflow then the divergence of the fluid is said to be negative(i.e.
converge).

Similarly the flux rate around positive charge is positive and negative
around a negative electric charge (Recollect your knowledge in earlier
physics course about the flux around an electric charge)

A vector point function F is said to be ‘solenoidal’ only if Div F = 0

What we can conclude now is that, given a scalar field Φ, we can find
a vector field  Φ and given a vector field F, we have produce a scalar

field   F
1.1.6: Curl of vector

The third important operation with the vector operator ‘del’ is to take cross
or vector product with a vector function. The curl of a vector also mean its
‘rotation’

Let A is a continuously differentiable vector function. the ‘Curl ‘ of vector A

is defined by

    
CurlA    A  (iˆ  ˆj  kˆ )  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)
x y z
A Ay ˆ Ax Az ˆ Ay Ax ˆ -----------(17)
=( z )i  (  )j(  )k
y z z x x y

We can write curl of a vector in the determinant form as

iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
 A 
x y z --------------------------(18)
Ax Ay Az

It is evident that the curl of a vector is also a vector. If vector A is a

 
constant vector then CurlA = 0 , a null vector.----------(19)

Other property of Curl of a vector is that

   
Curl(A  B) = CurlA  CurlB ---------(20)
Physical significance of Curl

In the case of motion of a rotating rigid body about a fixed axis, the linear

velocity V of a particle (point) on the body is related to the angular
  1 
velocity  of the body as ω = ( ×V) ------------ (21)
2

That is the angular velocity of rotation at any point in the body is equal to
half of the curl of the linear velocity vector .

The concept of curl of a vector can be clearly illustrated in the stream flow
problems. Suppose a leaf floats on the surface of a stream as shown in
figure-3 below.

Figure-3

Let the surface is in x-y plane. If the velocity of the flow is entirely in the y-
direction and is uniform over the surface then the leaf will have only a
translational motion. But in general there will be rotational as well as
translational motion because of the disturbances in the stream flow. The
rate of rotation at any point is measured by the curl of velocity of water at
that point. If the rotation is about the z-axis, the curl of velocity in the z-
direction is denoted by (×V) z . [Remember a rotation from y to x is
clockwise, while the rotation from x to y is anticlockwise]. The positive value
Vx
of ( ) will tend to rotate the leaf in clockwise rotation, where as a
y

Vy
positive value of ( ) will tend to rotate the leaf in anticlockwise direction.
x
Therefore, the rate of rotation about the z-axis is proportional to
Vy Vx Vy Vx
( - ) . Hence, we can write (×V) z = ( - )
x y x y

Similarly, the corresponding components in x and y directions respectively

are

Vz Vy Vx Vz

(×V) x = ( - ) and (×V) y = ( - )
y z z x

The net rate of rotation which is nothing but the angular velocity of a body
about any axis can be written as

Vz Vy ˆ Vx Vz ˆ Vy Vx ˆ

(×V)=( - )i+( - )j+( - )k ----------- (22)
y z z x x y

Suppose the motion of the body is such the curl of velocity vector is a null
 
vector, i.e. ( ×V) = 0 ----------- (23)

Then the motion of the body is said to be ‘irrotational’


Suppose the vector function A , under consideration , is equal to Gradφ ,

i.e. gradient of a scalar function φ which is a vector.

Now we can prove that

  
A = grad = , then curlA = curl(grad ) = 0
 
i.e.   A    (  )  0 ---------(23)

Some Important Vector Identities (student is expected to verify them):

i) Div(grad ) = ( ) =  2

ii) Curl(grad ) =   ( ) = 0

 
iii) Div(CurlA) =  (  A) = 0
   
iv) Curl(CurlA) =   (  A) = (  A)   A
2

      
v) Div(A  B) = (A  B) = B(  A) - A (  B)
M.No.1.2
Vector Integral Theorems
INTRODUCTION
In this module we will discuss, two vector integral theorems namely (i) Gauss
divergence theorem and (ii) Stokes theorem, which have important
applications in physical and engineering problems. For example, in solid
mechanics, fluid mechanics, quantum mechanics, electrical engineering and
various other fields, these theorems will be of great use. Evaluation of an
integral of one type may be difficult and using one of the appropriate
theorems we will be able to evaluate the equivalent integral easily. These
theorems deal with conversion of one type of integral into other kind of
integral. First we define different kinds of integrals

1.2.1: LINE INTEGRAL

The integration of a vector along a curve is called the ‘line integral’ of the
vector. Let PQ be acurve drawn between any two points P and Q in a vector
field. Let dl be an element of length along the curve at point R and A is the
vector at this point as shown in Fig.1 below.

Let the vector makes an angle θ with the direction of line element.
Then Adl  Adl cos  dl (cos  ) ------- (1)
The value of Adl for the complete curve PQ can be obtained by integrating
 Q Q
Eqn(1) between the points P and Q. Hence,  A dl   dl ( A cos  ) -------- (2).
P P

Thisequation is the line integral of A along the curve PQ.

For example:
(1) If A represents the force acting on a particle moving along the curved
path PQ, then the line integral given by Eqn.(2) gives the total work
done by the force.
(2) If A represents the electric field intensity at any point, then the line
integral given by Eqn.(2) gives the potential difference between the
points P and Q.

1.2.2: SURFSACE INTEGRAL (DOUBLE INTEGRAL)

Consider a surface S bounded by a closed curve in a vector field as shown in
Fig.2 below.

Let ds be an infinitesimal element of the surface and can be represented by

area vector dS. Let n̂ be a unit vector drawn outward the surface then

dS = nˆ dS . Suppose A is a vector atmiddle point of the surface element dS
and making an angle θ with unit vector n̂ . Now the scalar product
 
A dS= A dS cos( ) gives the flux of vector field across the area element dS.

The total flux of the vector field across the entire surface area S is given by
 
  AdS =   [A cos( )]dS
S S
---------(3). This Eqn.(3) defines the ‘Surface integral’.
For example:
If A denotes the velocity vector of a moving fluid then its surface integral
gives the amount of fluid flowing per unit time normal to the surface. The
surface integral is taken as ‘positive’ if the fluid flows outside the closed
surface and ‘negative’ when the fluid flows into the closed surface.

1.2.3: VOLUME INTEGRAL (TRIPLE INTEGRAL)

Consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V. If A be a vector
point function at a point in a small element of volume dV, then the integral

   A dV is called the ‘volume integral’ of vector A.
V

1.2.4: STOKE’S THEOREM

Stoke’s theorem states that the line integral of a vector field A around a
closed curve is equal to the surface integral of the curl of vector A taken over
the surface S surrounded by the closed curve. This theorem is the
transformation between the Line and Surface Integrals. For a vector field A
     
Stoke’s theorem can be written as 
C
Adr    curlAdS   (  A) dS
S S

PROOF:
Consider a surface S enclosed in a vector field A as shown in Fig.3 below.

The boundary of the surface S is the closed curve PQR. The line integral of A
 
around the curve PQR traced counter-clockwise is given by 
C
Adr
Let us divide the entire surface into a large number of square loops (which is
true) each of area dS. Suppose n̂ be the positive unit normal vector outward

upon dS. Now the vector area of the element is n̂dS = dS . But , the maximum
line integral of A computed per unit area along the boundary of an
infinitesimal area a point is equal to the curl of the vector field at that point. If
this is applied to all the surface elements and the sum of the line integrals of
A around the boundaries of all the area elements is given by the surface
 
integral  curlAdS . From the figure it is clear that the line integrals along the
S

common sides of the continuous elements mutually cancel because they are
traversed in opposite directions. So only the sides of the element which lie in
the periphery of the surface, i.e. in the closed curve, contribute to the line
integral. The sum of the line integrals on the boundary line of the curve is
     
given by 
C
Adr = 
S
curlA dS = 
S
(   A)dS -----------------(1)

This is the Stoke’s theorem. It gives a method to convert a surface integral

into a line integral and vice versa. When curl of the vector A is zero then the
line integral of the vector over the closed path is zero, hence the field is said
to be conservative.

1.2.5: GAUSS DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The divergence theorem is an important result for the mathematics of
physics, in particular in electrostatics and fluid dynamics. The divergence
theorem is thus a conservation law, stating that the volume total of all sinks
and sources, i.e. the volume integral of the divergence, is equal to the net
flow across the volume's boundary .
Gauss theorem of divergence states that the surface integral of the normal
component of vector A taken over a closed surface S is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence of vector A over the volume V enclosed by the
   
surface S. Its mathematical form is  dS =
S
A 
V
divA dV   (
V
  A)dV .
Hence this theorem is the transformation between the surface and volume
integrals.

PROOF:
Consider a closed surface S of any arbitrary shape and enclosing a volume
V, in a vector field A as shown in Fig.4 below. we can assume that the whole
volume may be divided into a very large number of cubical volume elements
adjoining each other and consider any one such small volume element as
shown in Fig-4 below.

We know that the div A represents the amount of flux diverging per unit
volume. So, the total flux coming out from the entire volume is given by

 (divA) dV --------- (1)
V

Consider a small element of area dS on the surface S as shown in figure. Let

n̂ represents the unit vector drawn normal to area dS. Remember the
outward normal on a surface is taken as positive. If the field vector A is
inclined at angle θ to n̂ . The flux of the vector field through the surface
  
element dS is given by (A n)ds
ˆ = A dS . So, the total flux through the entire
 
surface S is given by surface integral  AdS -------(2).
S

This must be equal to the total flux diverging from the whole volume V
enclosed by the surface S. Hence from Eq.(1) and (2) we can write
 
 dS =
S
A  (A)dV -------(3)
V
The Eq.(3) is the mathematical form of Gauss divergence theorem. It can
also be written as

  A nˆ  dS =  (A)dV --------(4)
S V

Gauss divergence theorem is useful only for closed surfaces.

Applications Of Gauss law:

( a ) Electrostatics: Applied to an electrostatic field it gives the divergence and
is equal to a constant times the volume charge density.
( b ) It can be applied to gravitational field and explain why a hollow sphere
does not produce any gravity inside. Also an infinite hollow cylinder
does not produce any gravity inside
( c ) Gauss' theorem can be used to calculate the electric intensity due to
 an infinitely long straight charged wire
 a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
 a uniformly charged thin spherical shell
M.No: 1.3
TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEMS

1.3.1: Introduction
Up until now our discussion has been restricted to the use of Cartesian
coordinates defined by coordinate axes x, y and z. Very often the symmetry
of the problem suggests the use of a different set of coordinates. Besides
Cartesian coordinate system, there are two other coordinate systems known
as Cylindrical and Spherical coordinate systems. These two systems
belong to a more general class of coordinate system called ‘Curvilinear
Coordinate systems’.
When a calculation in physics, engineering or geometry involves a cylinder,
cone or sphere the problem can be simplified by using cylindrical or
spherical coordinates.
The equations of physics should remain valid if we change coordinate
systems. Thus, we often use the symmetry of a problem to determine our
choice of coordinate systems
i) The problems dealing with a central potential such as Newtonian gravitation
or electrostatics, both of which vary as 1/r, suggest that we should use a
coordinate system, where one of the coordinates is the radial distance from
the origin ‘r’. Thus, we should use spherical polar coordinates rather than
Cartesian coordinates.
ii) Since the ground state of the hydrogen atom is spherically symmetric, it
seems logical that we should use spherical coordinates to describe its
solution.
We obtain cylindrical coordinates for space by combining polar coordinates in
xy-plane with the usual z-axis.
1.3.2: POLAR COORDINATES:

To define polar coordinates, first we have to fix a point called origin O and an
initial ray from this point O . This point is also known as the pole. There will
be two varying parameters r and θ in polar coordinate system and are called
polar coordinates. The parameter r indicate the directed distance of the
point P from origin. The parameter θ indicate the angle from the axis of
reference ( called the initial ray later in this notes) to the line joining the origin
to the point. Then every point (P) can be located by assigning to it a polar
coordinate pair in which r gives the directed distance from O to P and gives
the directed angle from the initial ray to ray OP as shown in Fig-1.

Figure-1
We can relate the polar and Cartesian coordinates as follows.
When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place the
two origins together and take the initial polar ray as the positive x-axis. The
ray θ = π/2, and r > 0 becomes the positive y-axis as shown in Fig-2.
 Figure 2 Relating polar and Cartesian coordinates

So the position coordinates of a point P(x,y) in XY-plane are given as

x = r cos(θ) -------- (1)
y = r sin(θ) ------- (2) and
x2 + y2 = r2 ---------(3)
The first two of these equations uniquely determine the Cartesian coordinates
x and y given the polar coordinates r and On the other hand, if x and y are
given, the third equation gives two possible choices for r (a positive and a
negative value).
The area of a closed and bounded region R in the polar coordinate plane is
A=  rdrdθ
R ---------- (3)
The procedure for changing a Cartesian equations in to polar equations
involve 2 steps.
i) Substitute x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ) and replace (dx)(dy) by (rdr)(dθ ) in
the Cartesian equations.
ii) Then apply polar limits for the boundary
For example: The area given in its integral form in Cartesian coordinate
system is A=  f(x,y)dxdy . Now the same area expressed in polar coordinates
R
will be A=  f(r cos , r sin ) r dr d
R ------------- (4)

1.3.3: CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES:

We obtain cylindrical coordinates for space by combining polar coordinates in
the XY-plane with the usual z-axis. So in addition to polar coordinates r and
θ we have z coordinate and hence there will be three variables. therefore the
cylindrical coordinates represent a point P in space by ordered triple variables
r , θ, and z in which
i) r and θ are polar coordinates for the vertical projection of point P on the
XY-plane
ii) z is the rectangular vertical coordinate of the point.

Cylindrical coordinates are good for describing cylinders whose axes run
along the z-axis and planes that either contain the z-axis or lie perpendicular
to the z-axis.

1.3.4: SPHERICAL COORDINATES:

Spherical Coordinates are those which locate points in space with two angles
and one distance as shown in Fig-3 below. Spherical coordinates simplify the
equations of spheres and cones.
Figure 3: Spherical coordinate system

The set of equations relating spherical coordinates to Cartesian and

Cylindrical coordinates
x = ρ sin Φ cos θ r = ρ sin Φ
y = ρ sin Φ sin θ θ=θ --------------( 5)
z = ρ cos Φ z = ρ cos Φ

The first coordinate ( ρ ) is the point distance from the origin and is never
negative (unlike r in other coordinate systems). The second coordinate (φ) is
the angle which the distance vector ρ makes with positive Z-axis and can
take values between 0 and π. The third coordinate (θ) is the angle which the
projection of the position vector of point P makes with positive X-axis ( same
angle as in cylindrical coordinate system) So the spherical coordinates in
order are (ρ,φ, θ).
Spherical coordinates are good for describing spheres centered at the origin,
half planes hinged along the z-axis and cones whose vertices lie at the origin
and whose axes lie along the z-axis.
1.3.5: EQUATIONS RELATING CARTESIAN, CYLINDRICAL
AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES:

Cylindrical Spherical to Spherical to

to Rectangular Cylindrical
Rectangular
x = r Cos(θ) x=ρ r = ρSin(φ)
Sin(φ)Cos(θ)
y = r Sin(θ) y=ρ Z= ρ
Sin(φ)Sin(θ) Cos(φ)
Z=Z Z= ρ Cos(φ) θ = θ

Corresponding formula for volume element ( dV) is

dV = (dx)(dy)(dz)
= (dZ)(rdr)(d θ)
= ρ2Sin(φ)( dρ)(d φ)(d θ) --------- (6)