Computer Networks

Unit-5
Address Management
IPv4 Routing:
IPv4 Host Routing:
 A host route is used to route traffic to a specific host. The subnet mask in the route will always be all
1's. That means the subnet mask for a host route will be /32 for IPv4 and /128 for IPv6.
 A host route is configured to route packets to a specific host
 The subnet mask will be all 1's
 The IPv4 subnet mask of a host route will always be /32
 The IPv6 subnet mask of a host route will always be /128
 Host routes are automatically added to the routing table for all IPv4 and IPv6 addresses that are
configured on the router
 The purpose of a host route iss to create a corresponding entry as a receive entry so that the packets
destined
ned to this IP address can be processed by the router itself
 Loopback interfaces are commonly created with /32 subnet masks and will therefore appear as a host
route in the routing table
 Host routes are the most specific route possible and therefore take pprecedence
recedence over all other routes
(based on the network mask)
 Configure an IPv4 host route by typing:

config t
ip route <host-to-route-to>
to> 255.255.255.255 <exit
<exit-interface-on-this-router>
--OR--
ip route <network-to-route-to>
to> <subnet-mask>
<subnet <next-hops-ipv4-address>

Routers:
 A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer network.
 This device is usually connected to two or more different networks. When a data packet comes to a
router port, the router reads address information in packet to determine out which port the packet will
be sent.
 For example, a router provides you with the internet access by connecting your LAN with the Internet.

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 When a packet arrives at a Router, it examines destination IP address of a received packet and
make routing decisions accordingly.
 Routers use Routing Tables to determine to which interface the packet will be sent. A routing
table lists all networks for which routes are known.
 Each router’s routing table is unique and stored in the RAM of the device.

Routing Table:

 A routing table is a set of rules, often viewed in table format that is used to determine where data
packets traveling over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-enabled devices,
including routers and switches, use routing tables.
 See below a Routing Table:
Destination Subnet mask Interface
128.75.43.0 255.255.255.0 Eth0
128.75.43.0 255.255.255.128 Eth1
192.12.17.5 255.255.255.255 Eth3
default Eth2
 The entry corresponding to the default gateway configuration is a network destination of 0.0.0.0
with a network mask (netmask) of 0.0.0.0.
 The Subnet Mask of default route is always 255.255.255.255 .

Entries of an IP Routing Table:

 A routing table contains the information necessary to forward a packet along the best path toward its
destination.
 Each packet contains information about its origin and destination. Routing Table provides the device
with instructions for sending the packet to the next hop on its route across the network.
 Each entry in the routing table consists of the following entries:
1. Network ID:
The network ID or destination corresponding to the route.
2. Subnet Mask:
The mask that is used to match a destination IP address to the network ID.
3. Next Hop:
The IP address to which the packet is forwarded
4. Outgoing Interface:
Outgoing interface the packet should go out to reach the destination network.
5. Metric:
A common use of the metric is to indicate the minimum number of hops (routers crossed) to the
network ID.
 Routing table entries can be used to store the following types of routes:
 Directly Attached Network IDs
 Remote Network IDs
 Host Routes

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 Default Route
 Destination

 When a router receives a packet, it examines the destination IP address, and looks up into its Routing
Table to figure out which interface packet will be sent out.

A Detailed Routing Example:

 In our example, we have 2 networks, Network A and Network B. Both networks are connected via a
router (Router A) which has 2 interfaces: E0 and E1. These interfaces are just like the interface on your
network card (RJ-45), but built into the router.
 Now, we are going to describe step by step what happens when Host A (Network A) wants to
communicate with Host B (Network B) which is on a different network.

1) Host A opens a command prompt and enters >Ping 200.200.200.5.

2) IP works with the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to determine which network this packet is destined
for by looking at the IP address and the subnet mask of Host A. Since this is a request for a remote host,
which means it is not destined to be sent to a host on the local network, the packet must be sent to the router
(the gateway for Network A) so that it can be routed to the correct remote network (which is Network B).

3) Now, for Host A to send the packet to the router, it needs to know the hardware address of the router's
interface which is connected to its network (Network A), in case you didn't realise, we are talking about the
MAC (Media Access Control) address of interface E0. To get the hardware address, Host A looks in its ARP
cache - a memory location where these MAC addresses are stored for a few seconds.

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4) If it doesn't find it in there it means that either a long time has passed since it last contacted the router or it
simply hasn't resolved the IP address of the router (192.168.0.1) to a hardware address (MAC). So it then
sends an ARP broadcast. This broadcast contains the following "What is the hardware (MAC) address for
IP 192.168.0.1 ? ". The router identifies that IP address as its own and must answer, so it sends back to
Host A a reply, giving it the MAC address of its E0 interface. This is also one of the reasons why
sometimes the first "ping" will timeout. Because it takes some time for an ARP to be sent and the requested
machine to respond with its MAC address, by the time all that happens, the TTL (Time To Live) of the first
ping packet has expired, so it times out!

5) The router responds with the hardware address of its E0 interface, to which the 192.168.0.1 IP is bound.
Host A now has everything it needs in order to transmit a packet out on the local network to the router.
Now, the Network Layer hands down to the Datalink Layer the packet it generated with the ping (ICMP
echo request), along with the hardware address of the router. This packet includes the source and
destination IP address as well as the ICMP echo request which was specified in the Network Layer.

6) The Datalink Layer of Host A creates a frame, which encapsulates the packet with the information needed
to transmit on the local network. This includes the source and destination hardware address (MAC) and
the type field which specifies the Network Layer protocol e.g IPv4 (that's the IP version we use), ARP. At
the end of the frame, in the FCS portion of the frame, the Datalink Layer will stick a Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) to make sure the receiving machine (the router) can figure out if the frame it received has
been corrupted.

7) The Datalink Layer of Host A hands the frame to the Physical layer which encodes the 1s and 0s into a
digital signal and transmits this out on the local physical network.
8) The signal is picked up by the router's E0 interface and reads the frame. It will first do a CRC check and
compare it with the CRC value Host A added to this frame, to make sure the frame is not corrupt.

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9) After that, the destination hardware address (MAC) of the received frame is checked. Since this will
be a match, the type field in the frame will be checked to see what the router should do with the data
packet. IP is in the type field and the router hands the packet to the IP protocol running on the router.
The frame is stripped and the original packet that was generated by Host A is now in the router's buffer.

10) IP looks at the packet's destination IP address to determine if the packet is for the router. Since the
destination IP address is 200.200.200.5, the router determines from the routing table that 200.200.200.0
is a directly connected network on interface E1.

11) The router places the packet in the buffer of interface E1. The router needs to create a frame to send
the packet to the destination host. First, the router looks in the ARP cache to determine whether the
hardware address has already been resolved from a prior communication. If it is not in the ARP cache,
the router sends an ARP broadcast out E1 to find the hardware address of 200.200.200.5

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12) Host B responds with the hardware address of its network interface card with an ARP reply. The
router's E1 interface now has everything it needs to send the packet to the final destination.

13) The frame generated from the router's E1 interface has the source hardware address of E1 interface
and the hardware destination address of Host B's network interface card. However, the most important
thing here is that even though the frame's source and destination hardware address changed at every
interface of the router it was sent to and from, the IP source and destination addresses never changed.
The packet was never modified at all, only the frame changed.

14) Host B receives the frame and runs a CRC. If that checks out, it discards the frame and hands the
packet to IP. IP will then check the destination IP address. Since the IP destination address matches the
IP configuration of Host B, it looks in the protocol field of the packet to determine the purpose of the
packet.

15) Since the packet is an ICMP echo request, Host B generates a new ICMP echo-reply packet with a
source IP address of Host B and a destination IP address of Host A. The process starts all over again,
except that it goes in the opposite direction. However, the hardware address of each device along the
path is already known, so each device only needs to look in its ARP cache to determine the hardware
(MAC) address of each interface.

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IPV4 Routing Protocols:
There are mainly two types of Network Routing Protocols
 Static
 Dynamic
Static Routing Protocols
Static routing protocols are used when an administrator manually assigns the path from source to the
destination network. It offers more security to the network.
Advantages
 No overhead on router CPU.
 No unused bandwidth between links.
 Only the administrator is able to add routes
Disadvantages
 The administrator must know how each router is connected.
 Not an ideal option for large networks as it is time intensive.
 Whenever link fails all the network goes down which is not feasible in small networks.
Dynamic Routing Protocols
Dynamic routing protocols are another important type of routing protocol. It helps routers to add
information to their routing tables from connected routers automatically. These types of protocols also send
out topology updates whenever the network changes’ topological structure.
Advantage:
 Easier to configure even on larger networks.
 It will be dynamically able to choose a different route in case if a link goes down.
 It helps you to do load balancing between multiple links.
Disadvantage:
 Updates are shared between routers, so it consumes bandwidth.
 Routing protocols put an additional load on router CPU or RAM.
 Examples:
i. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
ii. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
iii. Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)
iv. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Domain names and domain name system:

IP Address:
 IP address is a unique logical address assigned to a machine over the network.
 An IP address exhibits the following properties:
 IP address is the unique address assigned to each host present on Internet.
 IP address is 32 bits 4bytes long.
 IP address consists of two components: network component and host component.
 Each of the 4 bytes is represented by a number from 0 to 255, separated with dots
o For example 192.168.1.10

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Domain Names:
 The IP addresses are numbers. Hence, it would be difficult for the users to remember IP address. To
solve this problem, text based names were introduced. These are technically known as domain name
system (DNS).
 These names begin with the names of the host machine, followed by progressively larger enclosing
collection of machines, called domains. There may be two, three or more domain names. DNS is of the
form hostname.domainName.domainName.
 Example dtek.karnataka.gov.in

The DNS has to be converted to IP address before destination is reached. This conversion is needed because
computer understands only numbers. The conversion is done with the help of name server.
 As soon as domain name is provided, it will be sent across the internet to contact name servers.
 This name server is responsible for converting domain name to IP
 If one of the name servers is not able to convert DNS to IP, it contacts other name server.
 This process continues until IP address is generated.
 Once the IP address is generated, the host can be accessed.
 The hostname and all domain names form what is known as FULLY QUALIFIED DOMAIN NAME.
 The following figure shows domain name conversion.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an important protocol of the network layer in the OSI model,
which helps to find the MAC (Media Access Control) address given the system’s IP address.
 The ARP’s main task is to convert the 32-bit IP address (for IPv4) to a 48-bit MAC address.
 This protocol is mostly used to determine the hardware (MAC) address of a device from an IP address.
 It is also used when one device wants to communicate with some other device on a local network.
 The full form of ARP is Address Resolution Protocol.

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How Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works?

 All OS in an IPv4 network keeps an ARP cache. When the host requests a MAC address to send a packet
to another host in the LAN, it checks its ARP cache to check that the MAC address translation already
presents.

Let us understand this concept with an example:

 Host P wants to resolve protocol address for host U from an application on P sent to U.
 But P does not resolve a protocol address for host U.
 By using the internet layer, host P delivers to host U by routing through T1 and T2.
 Host P resolves the T1 hardware address.
 Network layer on host P passes packet containing destination protocol address for U for delivery to T1
 T1 delivers the packet to T2 which in turn forwards the packet to Host U.
Important ARP terms:
 ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the cache stored in a table for future
reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.
 ARP Cache Timeout: It is the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can reside.
 ARP request: Broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came across the
destination MAC address or not.
 ARP response/reply: The MAC address response that the source receives from the destination aids in
further communication of the data.

Types of ARP
Here are four types of Address Resolution Protocol, which is given below:

 Proxy ARP
 Gratuitous ARP
 Reverse ARP
 Inverse ARP

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Proxy ARP:
 This ARP type is configured on router which responds to the target IP address and maps the router’s
MAC address with the target IP address and sends when it is reached to its destination.
Gratuitous ARP:
 This type of ARP request helps the network to identify the duplicate IP address.
Reverse ARP (RARP)
 Reverse ARP, also now called RARP, is a type of ARP networking protocol which is used by the
client system in a LAN to request its IPv4 address from the ARP router table.
Inverse ARP (InARP)
 Inverse ARP is also called InARP, is a type of ARP used to find the nodes’ IP of addresses from the
data link layer addresses.

ICMP Echo and the ping Command.

 The ICMP echo request and the ICMP echo reply messages are commonly known as ping messages.
 Ping is a troubleshooting tool used by system administrators to manually test for connectivity between
network devices, and also to test for network delay and packet loss.
 The ping command sends an ICMP echo request to a device on the network, and the device immediately
responds with an ICMP echo reply.
 Sometimes, a company's network security policy requires ping (ICMP echo reply) to be disabled on all
devices to make them more difficult to be discovered by unauthorized persons.

DHCP – Static address assignment, Dynamic address assignment

 The answer to “What is DHCP?” is that it’s the standard mechanism to dynamically assign IP
addresses within a network. It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
 IP, or Internet Protocol, addressing is a logical means of assigning addresses to devices on a
network. Each device connected to a network requires a unique IP address.

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 At home, dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) assigns IP addresses to your smartphones,
laptops, tablets, and devices like doorbell cameras. When you use wifi on your home network,
typically your router is a DHCP server.
 In a large enterprise setting, a DHCP server is usually a dedicated computer. By simplifying IP
address management, it saves money, is more secure, and doesn’t eat up valuable admin time.
 Static address allocation— Manually bind the MAC address or ID of a client to an IP address in
a DHCP address pool. When the client requests an IP address, the DHCP server assigns the IP
address in the static binding to the client.
 Dynamic address allocation—Specify IP address ranges in a DHCP address pool. Upon
receiving a DHCP request, the DHCP server dynamically selects an IP address from the matching
IP address range in the address pool.

IPv4 and IPv6 Address Management:

Network Boundaries:
 A network boundary can be defined any time data traverses a network device or leaves one logical
network and enters another.
 Many corporations have multiple internal network devices that can bridge virtual LANs (VLANs) or
provide redundancy.
Gateways to Other Networks:
Gateway:
 A gateway is a device or piece of hardware that functions as a "gate" between two networks. As a
result, it may also be characterized as a node that serves as a gateway to the network's other nodes.
 A gateway is in charge of allowing traffic to flow freely inside a network.
 Since a gateway communicates via many protocols, its operations are far more complicated than
those of a switch or router.
 A gateway is a device that is used to communicate across networks that utilize different protocols
and is responsible for converting one protocol to the other.
 A gateway is a computer system that is responsible for directing traffic from the primary workstation
to the outside network in any type of workplace. It is responsible for granting access to the Internet in
homes, thus acting as an Internet Service Provider.
Routers as Gateways:
Gateway vs router: what is the similarity?
 Both routers and gateways are hardware components in a network that regulate traffic and determine
its flow between two or more networks.
 Sometimes, a network may use routers both as end-point and access-point; in this case, the
router becomes a gateway.
 A gateway often works with a router and a switch to complete the routing process. When a gateway
receives a packet, it translates the protocol, and the router directs it to the next router.
 It must be pointed out that network cards have to be inserted into both gateways and routers to
facilitate this communication and virtually all routers and gateways have this setup shipped out of the
factory without requiring the user to buy a separate network card.

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Network Address Translation:
 Network Address Translation (NAT) is a mechanism, through which one or more local IP addresses
are translated into one or more global IP addresses. To access the local host also, the global IP
addresses are converted to the local IP address.
 NAT’s main purpose is to conserve the number of public IP addresses in use, for both security and
economic goals.

Operation of NAT:
 The border router is configured for NAT. The border router has two parts
 Local interface
 Global interface.
 When the packets are transmitted from local host to another host in another network, then the packets are
moved from local network to global network.
 Then, the NAT process of the border router converts the local IP address of the transmitted packet to a
global IP address.
 When that packet moves from global network to local network, then again the global IP is converted to
local IP and the packet reaches the local host of that network.
Network Address Translation (NAT) Types
 There are three ways to construct NAT. These are as follows −
Static NAT
Dynamic NAT
 Port Address Translation (PAT)
Advantages of NAT

 Public IP address sharing.

 Easier Explanation.
 Greater local control.
 Increase security.
 Mostly Transparent.
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Disadvantages of NAT

 Complexity.
 Problems due to lack of public address.
 Compatibility with certain application.
 Problems with security protocol.
 Performance reduction.

IPv4 Issues:
1. The lack of address space - the number of different devices connected to the Internet grows
exponentially, and the size of the address space is quickly depleted;
2. Weak protocol extensibility - the insufficient size of the IPv4 header, which does not accommodate
the required number of additional parameters;
3. The problem of security of communications - no means are provided to limit access to information
hosted on the network. IPv4 has never been designed for security.
 Originally designed as an isolated military network
 Then adapted for public education and research network
4. Lack of quality of service support - placement of information about bandwidth, delays required for
smooth operation of some network applications are not supported;
5. Geographic limitations - since the Internet was created in the USA, this country is also involved in
the distribution of IP addresses. Almost 50% of all addresses are reserved for the United States.

Need of IPv6:
 Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the latest revision of the Internet Protocol (IP) and the first version
of the protocol to be widely deployed. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion.
 IP v6 is 128-bits address having an address space of 2^128, which is way bigger than IPv4. In IPv6 we
use Colon-Hexa representation. There are 8 groups and each group represents 2 Bytes.

Given below are major points which played key role in birth of IPv6:
 Internet has grown exponentially and the address space allowed by IPv4 is saturating. There is a
requirement of protocol which can satisfy the need of future Internet addresses which are expected to
grow in an unexpected manner.
 Using features such as NAT, has made the Internet discontiguous i.e. one part which belongs to intranet,
primarily uses private IP addresses; which has to go through number of mechanism to reach the other
part, the Internet, which is on public IP addresses.
 IPv4 on its own does not provide any security feature which is vulnerable as data on Internet, which is a
public domain, is never safe. Data has to be encrypted with some other security application before being
sent on Internet.

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 Data prioritization in IPv4 is not up to date. Though IPv4 has few bits reserved for Type of Service or
Quality of Service, but they do not provide much functionality.
 IPv4 enabled clients can be configured manually or they need some address configuration mechanism.
There exists no technique which can configure a device to have globally unique IP address.

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IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence:
 Nowadays, the lack of IP addresses has become a global matter of some urgency with the imminent
exhaustion of available IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) addresses.
 Though IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) with a much longer header appeared some years ago which
allows for a great many more IP addresses enough for future uses, however, its application and
promotion are not easy and may have a long way to go.
 "Is it possible to use IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time?" To answer these questions, we are going to
introduce some IPv4 and IPv6 coexistence methods, that is, dual stack and MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label
Switching) tunnel.
Why Need IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence?
 In general, the main reason of using IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time is compatibility issues. Actually,
IPv4 and IPv6 aren't compatible with each other, which means devices cannot communicate directly.
 Today, IPv4 is still dominant in IP network, while IPv6 network has only a small range of deployment
and commercial use. Thus, lack of real backward compatibility with IPv4 can be a critical failure for
wide application of IPv6, and total conversion to IPv6 is a way off.
 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) need to provide their customers with both IPv4 and IPv6 services,
resulting in difficulties for users too.
How to Achieve IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence?
 IPv4-IPv6 coexistence can be achieved by mainly three techniques.
 One is dual stack, where your network hardware runs IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously.
 The second one is tunnel, meaning encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets.
 And the last method is called Network Address Translation (NAT) by which a device translates IPv6
packets into IPv4 packets or vice versa. As NAT is mainly used by ISPs, here the first two techniques are
introduced.

IPv6 features:
 Larger Address Space
In contrast to IPv4, IPv6 uses 4 times more bits to address a device on the Internet. This much of extra
bits can provide approximately 3.4×1038 different combinations of addresses. This address can
accumulate the aggressive requirement of address allotment for almost everything in this world.
According to an estimate, 1564 addresses can be allocated to every square meter of this earth.
 Simplified Header
IPv6’s header has been simplified by moving all unnecessary information and options (which are
present in IPv4 header) to the end of the IPv6 header. IPv6 header is only twice as bigger than IPv4
provided the fact that IPv6 address is four times longer.
 End-to-end Connectivity
Every system now has unique IP address and can traverse through the Internet without using NAT or
other translating components. After IPv6 is fully implemented, every host can directly reach other hosts
on the Internet, with some limitations involved like Firewall, organization policies, etc.
 Auto-configuration
IPv6 supports both Stateful and stateless auto configuration mode of its host devices. This way, absence
of a DHCP server does not put a halt on inter segment communication.
 Faster Forwarding/Routing

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Simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the header. The information contained
in the first part of the header is adequate for a Router to take routing decisions, thus making routing
decision as quickly as looking at the mandatory header.
 IPSec
Initially it was decided that IPv6 must have IPSec security, making it more secure than IPv4. This
feature has now been made optional.
 No Broadcast
Though Ethernet/Token Ring are considered as broadcast network because they support Broadcasting,
IPv6 does not have any broadcast support any more. It uses multicast to communicate with multiple
hosts.
 Anycast Support
This is another characteristic of IPv6. IPv6 has introduced Anycast mode of packet routing. In this
mode, multiple interfaces over the Internet are assigned same Anycast IP address. Routers, while
routing, send the packet to the nearest destination.
 Mobility
IPv6 was designed keeping mobility in mind. This feature enables hosts (such as mobile phone) to roam
around in different geographical area and remain connected with the same IP address. The mobility
feature of IPv6 takes advantage of auto IP configuration and Extension headers.
 Enhanced Priority Support
IPv4 used 6 bits DSCP (Differential Service Code Point) and 2 bits ECN (Explicit Congestion
Notification) to provide Quality of Service but it could only be used if the end-to-end devices support it,
that is, the source and destination device and underlying network must support it.
In IPv6, Traffic class and Flow label are used to tell the underlying routers how to efficiently process
the packet and route it.
 Smooth Transition
Large IP address scheme in IPv6 enables to allocate devices with globally unique IP addresses. This
mechanism saves IP addresses and NAT is not required. So devices can send/receive data among each
other, for example, VoIP and/or any streaming media can be used much efficiently.
Other fact is, the header is less loaded, so routers can take forwarding decisions and forward them as
quickly as they arrive.
 Extensibility
One of the major advantages of IPv6 header is that it is extensible to add more information in the option
part. IPv4 provides only 40-bytes for options, whereas options in IPv6 can be as much as the size of
IPv6 packet itself.

IPv6 Address Representation.

 An IPv6 address is 128 bits in length and is written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits.
 Each group is separated from the others by colons (:) as shown in figure 1.
 Hexadecimal characters are not case sensitive, therefore an address can be written either in uppercase or
lowercase, both are equivalent.

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 The eight groups make a total of 32 hexadecimal digits, four bits each, which makes a total of 128 bits.
RFC 4291 says that the preferred representation of an IPv6 address is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x and RFC 5952
recommends that the address is written in lowercase.
 It is obvious that IPv6 addresses are long and hard to remember and work with. That's why there are
rules that can significantly shorten the address

Concept of Virtual LAN’s (VLAN’s):

 VLAN stands for Virtual LAN. It is a logical grouping of network devices.
 When we create VLAN, we break the large broadcast domain into smaller broadcast domains.
 Consider VLAN as a subnet. The same as two different subnets cannot communicate without a router,
and different VLANs also require the router to transmit.
Features:
There are various features of VLAN, which are as follows −
 Virtual LANs offer structure for creating groups of devices, even if their networks are different.
 It can raise the broadcast domains possible in a LAN.
 VLANs can be performing VLANs reduces the security risks as the number of hosts connected to
the broadcast domain decreases.
 This is performed by configuring a separate virtual LAN for only the hosts having sensitive
information.
 It has a flexible networking model that groups users depending on their departments instead of
network location.
 It can change hosts/users on a VLAN is relatively easy. It just needs a new port level
configuration.
 It can reduce congestion by sharing traffic as individual VLAN works as a separate LAN.

Dept. of Computer Science & Engg. Page 17 Govt. Polytechnic Athani