COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (SHAH ALAM BRANCH)

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) OIL AND GAS

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY (CGE526)

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT 1

PREPARED BY:
NURSUHAILI BINTI MD YUSOF
(2022815884)

PREPARED FOR:
MADAM AZLINDA BINTI AZIZI

GROUP:
CEEH2432D
TABLE OF CONTENT

Task 1.........................................................................................................................................................2

Task 2.........................................................................................................................................................7

Task 3.........................................................................................................................................................9

References................................................................................................................................................10

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Task 1
With the aid of diagram(s), explain the formation of a sedimentary basin. Describe the
significance of sedimentary basins with respect to hydrocarbon accumulation in the
subsurface. (10 marks)

Diagram 1.1: The geologic setting of sedimentary basins

Sedimentary basins are dominated during their evolution by epeirogenic or vertical movements
of the Earth's crust. The development and submergence of continents is caused by vast, generally
gradual displacements of the earth's crust. Although an individual basin's tectonic setting may
change during its evolution, most basins can be classified as occurring in either a rifted or an
orogenic setting. Rifted basins are linked with divergent plate borders where extension is
prevalent, such as the Atlantic margin basins of the United States. Orogenic setting refers to the
many processes that occur during mountain development, such as unique patterns of deposition,
deformation, metamorphism, intrusions, volcanic activity, oceanic trenches, and seismic activity.
Lithospheric flexure is the process through which the lithosphere bends due to factors such as the
weight of an expanding orogen or variations in ice thickness caused by (de)glaciations.
Sedimentary basins subside largely due to the following processes which are crustal attenuation
due to stretching and erosion, lithosphere contraction during cooling, lithosphere depression due
to sedimentary and tectonic stresses, and vertical crustal motions. Phase shifts occur under the
lithosphere in the upper mantle, such as localized cooling followed by contraction, resulting in a
surface depression which will subsequently be filled by sediments. In contrast, the lithosphere
may locally heat up and expand, causing the continental crust to dome. Erosion follows, leaving
a depression for sediments to fill. In most divergent settings, the first two processes dominate,

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whereas the third process prevails in most convergent ones. Complex process combinations
occur in intraplate, transform, and hybrid settings. Several basin types have low preservation
potential, as predicted by their susceptibility to orogeny-related erosion and uplift, and as
confirmed by their scarcity in the very ancient record. The relative tectonic motion causes
deformation at plate borders, which are classified into three types, divergent boundaries,
convergent boundaries and transform boundaries.

Diagram 1.2: Divergent tectonic motion

Divergent boundaries form when plates are rifted apart and start moving apart, resulting in
huge regions of oceanic crust. Crust is generated when a new oceanic lithosphere is developed,
and plates diverge in this sort of boundary. These are found at mid-ocean ridges. The geological
nature of the median valley of ocean ridges changes according to the shifting role of tectonic
extension and volcanism. The stretching and thinning of the crust dominate in one area of the
northern Mid-Atlantic ridge, whereas volcanism dominates in another. Faulting has exposed
gabbros and serpentinites from deeper crustal layers when tectonic thinning is significant. The
axial topography of fast-spreading and slow-spreading ridges differs significantly. Slow-
spreading ridges have a deep axial valley with surrounding mountains, whereas fast-spreading
ridges have relatively moderate relief and, in certain cases, a topographic high. The axis of ocean

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ridges is not continuous but can be displaced by transform faults by tens to hundreds of
kilometers.

Diagram 1.3: Convergent Tectonic motion between continent and ocean plate

Convergent boundaries are formed when plates collide. At a convergent plate boundary, one
plate is frequently subducted beneath the other. There are two types of convergent boundaries
which are collision where two plates with continental crust collide and create mountains and
subduction where two plates with oceanic crust or one plate with continental crust and one with
oceanic crust move together. The older, denser, and colder oceanic plate subducts, or sinks,
beneath the other plate. This results in coastal mountains. At convergent borders, the oceanic
lithosphere is always destroyed by subduction. This is because marine rock is heavier than
continental rock and sinks easily. Ocean basins are young because oceanic lithosphere is quickly
generated and destroyed and the oldest, we know is just approximately 200 million years old.

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 Diagram 1.4: Transform boundaries

Transform boundaries are the boundaries formed by two plates moving horizontally against
each other. This process at the boundary destroys neither plate. Most transform faults occur on
the ocean floor. However, a few large faults are located on continental plates. These can be
complicated and are linked to several basin types. These offsets may have formed when
spreading began and represent inhomogeneous lithosphere fracture. Shallow earthquakes
characterize transform faults, which are like ocean ridges. In comparison to convergent and
divergent plate boundaries, two plates just move past one other horizontally and quietly at
transform boundaries.

Diagram 1.5: Active and passive continental margins

Next, at the continental margins, many basins form. Continental margins are classified as
passive continental margins occur when the boundary between oceanic and continental
lithosphere is not a plate boundary, as it is around most of nowadays Atlantic Ocean and arise
because of lithosphere sinking that persists long after rifting has stopped. They fill with silt
brought by rivers to the sea and carbonate rocks generated by coastal reefs. While active
continental margins occur when the ocean-continent boundary is a plate boundary associated
with subduction, as it is around most of the today Pacific Ocean. The oceanic lithosphere is being
subducted beneath a continent's edge. Scraped off the descending oceanic plate, sediments from
the ocean bottom and parts of the oceanic crust are plastered on the edge of the overriding
continent. An accretionary wedge is a region of strongly deformed sediment.

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 Diagram 1.6: Foreland basin development

These form on the continent side of a mountain belt when the forces created by convergence or
collision push large slices of rock up faults and onto the continent's surface. The weight of these
slices presses down on the lithosphere's surface, forming a wedge-shaped depression near to the
mountain range that fills with eroded debris from the range. Foreland basins collect fluvial and
deltaic strata.

The hydrocarbon source rock is an important geologic element of the petroliferous system in a
sedimentary basin that determines the accumulation and formation of oil and gas. So, there is
importance of sedimentary basins regarding the accumulation of hydrocarbons below the surface
which is where the study of effective hydrocarbon source rock distribution in a basin is of the
utmost importance for lowering exploration risks. Oil and gas have been effectively discovered
and utilized in difficult continental facies, which improves the oil and gas geological theory
system of continental facies as well as the prediction techniques and technologies of hydrocarbon
source rocks. However, traditional methods make it difficult to predict and evaluate hydrocarbon
source rocks in areas with a low exploration degree, sparsely distributed drilling wells, and
insufficient hydrocarbon source rock indexes, which limit its oil and gas exploration. For
example, previous researchers have undertaken numerous studies in regional geology and
petroleum geology throughout the years, using the exploration experiences of continental rift
lacustrine basins, which successfully assist the ongoing development of oil and gas exploration
in these basins. Furthermore, the sedimentary basin itself has an important influence in

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hydrocarbon accumulation and preservation. It acts as a trap, preventing hydrocarbons from
migrating out of the reservoir and into the surrounding rocks. This trap mechanism can be caused
by several causes including the existence of faults, folds or impermeable layers of rock.
Exploration and production of hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins is a complicated and difficult
operation that necessitates a thorough understanding of the basin's geology as well as the location
and properties of the reservoir rocks. Sedimentary basins, on the other hand, are the world's most
important source of hydrocarbons, and the discovery and production of oil and gas from these
basins has played a critical part in the creation of contemporary economies.

Task 2
Define the term kerogen, list, and describe the three basic types. Describe the necessary
conditions leading to the maturation of organic matter to kerogen and to petroleum. (10
marks)

Kerogen is a mixture of organic compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in
sedimentary rocks. It is insoluble in normal organic solvents because of the high molecular
weight of its component. As kerogen is a mixture of organic material, rather than a specific
chemical, it cannot be given a chemical formula. There are four types of kerogens which are
Type I, Type II, Type III and Type IV. In Type I and II or algal kerogen I and liptinitic II,
kerogen breaks down to form heavy hydrocarbons which are oils. The initial hydrogen-to-carbon
(H/C) ratios of type I kerogens are high, whereas the early oxygen-to-carbon (O/C) ratios are
low. This kerogen is rich in lipid-derived material and is usually generated from algal organic
matter in lacustrine (freshwater) habitats, but not always. On a bulk basis, rocks containing Type
I kerogen release the most hydrocarbons when pyrolyzed. As a result, from a theoretical
standpoint, shales containing type I kerogen are the most promising resources for conventional
oil retorting. Type II kerogen is mostly composed of marine organic elements that have been
deposited in reducing sedimentary environments. The content of sulfur in Type II is higher than
in other types of kerogens. Next, in kerogen Type III, kerogen breaks down to form light
hydrocarbons which are gases. Type III kerogens are generated from terrestrial plant matter,
especially cellulose, lignin which is a non-carbohydrate polymer made from phenyl-propane
units that holds the strings of cellulose together, terpenes, and phenols. Coal is an organic-rich

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sedimentary rock made up primarily of this kerogen type. Type III kerogens have the lowest oil
production of the main kerogen categories in terms of mass. Type IV or inertinite is inert
kerogen that forms graphite. It is characterized by very low H/C ratios and condensed aromatic
structure has no hydrocarbon generation potential.

The necessary conditions leading to the maturation of organic matter to kerogen and to
petroleum are the increase in temperature and pressure of organic matters when it is buried. It is
important to note that not all organic carbons (OC) in sedimentary rock get transformed to
petroleum carbon. Furthermore, a portion of the total organic carbon (TOC) consists of kerogen.
Organic matter will transform into kerogen and then the kerogen will convert to petroleum
hydrocarbon. Organic matter transformation is independent of pressure and high pressure may
counter rate of decomposition. In contrast, temperature plays an important role in the
transformation of organic matter, where larger molecular weight organic matter is converted into
simpler compounds by thermal cracking. The organic remains within the rocks begin to be
"cooked" and oil and natural gas are formed from the organic remains and expelled from the
source rock when temperatures of the organic‐rich sedimentary rocks exceed 120 ℃. In addition
to temperature, time spent by organic matter at different temperatures also plays an important
role. To attain these maturation temperatures, it takes millions of years for source rocks to be
buried deeply enough and to form sufficient volumes of oil and natural gas to form commercial
accumulations. However, temperature appears to be a more important component than time in
most petroleum occurrences.

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Task 3
Describe the relationship between shale water content and depth of burial over time. Does
it increase, decrease, or stay the same as sediment burial progresses? (10 marks)

Water saturation in shale rocks is important for the flow of gas in a porous medium and for
maintaining the flow of fracturing fluids. Shale rocks are rich with organic matter while the
water occurs solely in organic pores. The relationship between shale water content and depth of
burial over time is the original depositional environment, the composition of the shale and the
temperature and pressure conditions. In addition, gas contained in organic pores is free from
water because organic pores content the kerogens that are hydrophobic but most of the water is
thought to be in inorganic pores. Thus, a low rock water saturation coefficient corresponds to a
high organic matter concentration in the rock. The situation is just the opposite in inorganic
pores, where water is attracted in by hydrophilic clay minerals. The volume of water trapped in
inorganic pores tends to decrease when depth of burial over time increases, diagenesis, and void
filling by migrating hydrocarbons.

In general, the shale water content decreases as sediment burial progresses. This is because
when sediment accumulates, it suffers compaction and dewatering, causing the water content to
decrease. This process occurs as the sediment is buried deeper and subjected to increasing
temperatures and pressures.

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References
A Geology Outreach Website. (2016, March). Sedimentary Basins. Retrieved from Learning
Geology: http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/03/sedimentary-basins.html

Baojian Shen, Z. L. (2021). Status and relative content of water in shale determined by
thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry analysis. Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering.

Dar, D. M. (2013). Origin and Evolution of Sedimentary Basins, Their Energy and Mineral
Resources with Reference to International Issues in the Mediterranean Sea. State of the
Art, 16-22.

Dyrka, I. (2014). Water Content In Shale Rocks. Retrieved from GAZ i ROPA:
https://infolupki.pgi.gov.pl/en/gas/water-content-shale-rocks

He, M., Hao Liu, Xu, D., Xin, W., Yong, T., Jun Meng, & Lei Li. (2022). Basin-filling processes
and hydrocarbon source rock prediction of low-exploration degree areas in rift lacustrine
basins a case from the Wenchang Formation in low-exploration degree areas, northern
Zhu I Depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin, E China. Journal of Palaeogeography, 286-
313.

L. N. (n.d.). Occurrence of Petroleum.

Prof. P. P. Chakraborty. (n.d.). Maturation of Kerogen: Biogenic and Thermal Effects. Retrieved
from Pathshala:
chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/
epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000448GO/P000594/M022678/ET/1505974161E-
TextMaturationofKerogenBiogenicandThermalEffects.pdf

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