Module 1 On Forensic Photography

MODULE I ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
OVIERVIEW
Every difficult endeavor requires the integration of two important areas so that success
can be obtained - theory and actual practice. There is almost always a. tendency to disregard the
theoretical aspects associated with a specific problem so that the practical considerations can be
studied. without a sound framework relating to the significant theory background of any problem
it is virtually impossible to ensure that the final product is the best possible one which could be
obtained under a given set of circumstances.
Photographs are not evidence in and of themselves, but provide visual documentation of
the scene and locations of evidence within the scene. Photographs taken at a crime scene allow
investigators to recreate that scene for later analysis, or for use in the courtroom. If the crime
scene photography does not thoroughly and accurately document the entire scene, it could be
detrimental to the investigation and potentially damaging during a criminal trial.
When asked what the purpose of forensic photography is, students generally respond with
a puzzled expression, maybe a shrug. Maybe the question is too simple or naive. Often, the reply
is, To document the scene. The true response is not quite that simple. Forensic photography has
much more far-reaching implications.
CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF FORENSIC IMAGING
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the history of forensic imaging.
2. Recognize the basic component of photography.
3. Recognize the recent applications of photography in different fields.
The history of forensic imaging begins with the camera obscura, the first pinhole camera.
Although there may be a conflict among authors as to who is the first to describe the camera
obscura, it is most likely the Arab scholar Hassan bin al Haitham who wrote about it in 1038
(Davis, 1995, p. 2; Frizot, 1998, p. 18). It is common knowledge that these early pinhole cameras
were used by scientists to observe the sun and by artists to make sketches. Two others who are
credited by some authors as the first to describe the camera obscura are Roger Bacon in 1267 and
Leonardo da Vinci in 1490 (Davis, 1995, p. 2; Frizot, 1998, p. 17).
CAMERA OBSCURA
Camera Obscura is a Latin for dark chamber used by artist or painters to get accurate
perspective of natural scene and scale of their subjects.
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A.The Basic Components of Photography
1. Light- the days of creation
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was
formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the spirit of
God was hovering over the waters.
And God said, “Let there be light” and there was light. God saw the light was
good, and he separated the light from darkness. God called the light “day” and the
darkness he called “night”. And there was evening and there was morning-the
first day. (Genesis, Chapter 1, verses-1-3)
2. Equipment(1700) (The Camera)

3. Chemicals- Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution was discovered
and investigated. In 1800 Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced
photograms.
B. True Photography
1839 is generally known as the birth year of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot
explained the process he had invented calotype at the Royal Society of London. Calotype used
paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.
Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in Paris “Daguerreotype” in

collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce.
The daguerreotype used a silver nitrite light-sensitive emulsion that was developed with
mercury vapor and fixed with a strong salt solution to produce a positive photographic image. It
formed an image directly on the surface of a metal plate. The daguerreotype was the first
commercially successful photographic process.
With Talbots “calotype” the fixation formed an image directly on the silver surface of a
metal (Villarba,2008).
1848-Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg
white) as binding medium.
1850- Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve
a glossy surface.
1851-Frederick Scott Archer-published a wet plate process when collodion-a viscous liquid that
dries to a tough flexible and transparent film-replaced albumen.
1885-Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films in 1889.
1861- James Clark Maxwell researched on colors

1890-full corrected lens were introduced
1906-a plate was on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.
1907-Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue,
green and green and red filter.
1914-U.S Eastmen Kodak made a color substractive process called Kodachrome.
1935- color process came out together with electronic flash.
1947- Edwin H. Land introduced “Polaroid’ the one-step photography.
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1960-LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three dimensional pictures.)
1988-The arrival of true digital cameras.c2sg
C. CRIMINAL APPLICATIONS
The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich and exciting. The
discoveries and observation of our predecessor is likewise surprising and comforting. The great
men and women who paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue to teach us
long after their deaths. These are the aspirations that we should aspire to endow. We are
fortunate to work in a profession with a strong foundation and bright and seemingly endless
future.
1854- An Englishman, Maddox, developed a dry plate photography eclipsing Daguerres wet
plate on tin method. This made practical the photography of inmates for prison records.
1859-In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in Photography. It
was used to demonstrate evidence in California case.
1864- Odelbrecht first advocate the use of photography for the identification off criminals and
the documentation of evidence and crime scenes
1882- Alphonse Bertillion who initiated anthropometric measurements for personal identification
was also involved in various means of identification by photography which developed into a fine
science of criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of
contact photography to demonstrate erasures on document
1902- Dr. R.A Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and Physics at Lausanne University
in Switzerland. He contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science and
established the worlds earliest crime laboratory.
1910- Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and catridges
cases which act as early foundation of the field of ballistics.
D. LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

1. For Black and White Photographs
1859-Daguerreotype was used in a civil, Lueo vs. United States, 23 Howard 515 to decide on the
authenticity of photographs in comparing signatures.
1874- the Pennsylvania State Supreme Court in the case of Udderzork v. Commonwealth, 76 Pa.
340 (1874) affirmed judicial notice of the use of photographs as an established means of
reproducing a correct likeness of a person.
Review Questions:
1. What are the components of photography?

2. Explain briefly the details of application of photography in historical cases of forensic
photography.
Peckley, M. 2010. Essentials of Criminology. Wiseman’s Book Trading Inc. Visayas
Avenue.,Corner Conggresional Ave., Project 6.Quezon City.
Villarba W. 2008.Forensic Photography. Wiseman’s Book Trading Inc. Visayas

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MODULE II
LIGHT
Light is one of number of known form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel
in wave motion. Actually, there are other theories that explain the behavior of light (ex. Quantum
theory) but for our purpose, the wave theory is the only one considered. This form of energy
travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and
frequency. Wavelength is the distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next
succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.
The product of the two is the speed of travel.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the concept of light.
2. Recognize the theories of light.
3. Demonstrate the process on color production.
4. Demonstrate the behavior of lights towards the object.
5. Recognize the different sources of light.
The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are the following: cosmic rays,
Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, heat rays, Hertzian waves, and
the alternating current oscillations.
The energies that are capable of being recorded on sensitized materials are the X-rays,
ultraviolet rays, visible light, and infrared rays. They are sometimes referred to as the four
photographic rays of modern photography. The wavelength of X-rays is form 01 to
30nanometers, Ultraviolet rays from 30 to 400 nn, visible light from 400 to 700 nn, and infrared
rays from 700 to 1,000 + nn. Actually, the wavelength of infrared rays extends beyond 2,000 nn
but the longest wavelength that the present sensitized materials (films) could record only to this
limit.
The webster Dictionary defines light as a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen
by the naked eye. The scientific definition of light is the aspect of radiant energy of which human
observer is aware through the visual sensations which arise from the stimulation of the retina of
the eye.
Light rays with wave length of 400 to 700 nn is referred to as visible light because it is
only within these wavelengths that the human eye is capable of perceiving. Those with shorter or
longer wavelength are commonly referred as invisible radiations.
By definition all lights are visible. For this reason the word “visible” is superfluous in
that common expression “visible light.” What the eye cannot see are referred to as radiations.
Light energy has several effects on an object. It is either reflected, absorbed, transmitted,
or converted. The varying combinations of this reflectance and absorption are what gives /us the
wide variety of colors which we are able to perceive, at times, other light are neither reflected or
absorbed but is transmitted through the object. This transmitted light passing through the object
to perceive these light waves.
The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be converted to another
wavelength. This conversion is known as luminescence: the fluorescence and phosphoresce.
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Fluorescence is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to another as long as
the active energy source is irradiating the object.
In phosphorescence the object not only converts the wavelength while being irradiated
but continuous to reflect the new wavelengths for a period of time after the energy source is
removed.
THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens) = It is the theory that was transcribed from the
motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of
the air would naturally will make the log move up and down.
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton) = this later opposed the wave theory stating that light
has its effect by the motion of very small particles such as electrons.
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz) = Based on electromagnetics.
All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement need not to be
very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy,
which is electromagnetic in form.
RAT LAW
Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it
bounce back. Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to
pass through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through.
WHITE LIGHT
When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are presented to the eye in nearly
equal quantity, we get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light. If a narrow beam of
white light is allowed to pass through prism it will bend the light of shorter wavelength more
than those with longer wavelength thus spreading them out into the visible spectrum. These
colors of the rainbow-red, orange, yellow, green, blue,indigo,violet.(roygbiv)
If we divided the wavelength of visible light (400-700 nano.) equally divided into three
(from 400-500 nano, from 500 to 600 nano., and from 600 to 700 nano.) we will produce blue,
green and red colors. These are known as the primary colors of light as differentiated from the
three primary colors of paints, dyes, and coloring matters which are blue,yellow, and red.
ADDITIVE COLOR MIXTURE
If we get three projectors with beans of lights projecting individual blue, green and red
and have the three beams overlap over the other, we will note that the portion where the blue and
green lights merged over the other, it will produce a cyan color, the green and the red lights a
yellow color, and the red and blue lights a magenta color. At the center where the blue, green and
red light were combined in proper ration, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow, and
magenta are known as the three secondary colors of light. For practical purpose, white is the
presence of all colors while black is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.
SUBTRACTIVE COLOR MIXTURE
This time, the lights beams of three projectors will be covered each with cyan filter,
yellow filter, and magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one over the other. The
cyan filter will transmit blue and green light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will
transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will
transmit red and blue light but absorbs green from white light. At the center where the three
beams of light are merged together will produce black. In simple terms, cyan is the
complementary of red, yellow is the complementary of the blue, and magenta is the
complementary of green.
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The range of colors of which can be produced by subtractive mixture of the three dyes is
quite large and makes it possible the modern processes of color photography which depends on
the subtractive principle.
PRODUCTION OF COLORS
There are a number of different ways in which color is produced. One need to know the
variable quantities of color so it will be possible to evaluate color as quality.
1. Absorption
The color of most ordinary objects is due to the fact that they do not absorb the
same amount of light at each wavelength.
2. Scattering
The color of the blue sky is due to the scattering of light by the atmosphere.
Variation in the density of the atmospheric gases act in such a way that they
scatter light of the shorter wavelength at the blue end of the spectrum much more
they scatter light of the longer wavelength of the red end of the spectrum. Thus,
the sky is bluest when it is clearest, and white when it is less clear.
3. Interference
Color can also be produced by interference of light waves in a thin fil like in soap
bubbles or film of oil loating in water.
This dynamic interplay of colors derives from simultaneous reflection of

light from both the inside and outside surfaces of the bubble. The two surfaces are
very close together (they are only a few microns thick) and light reflected from
the inner surface interferes both constructively and destructively with light
reflected from the outer surface. This is because light reflected from the inner
surface of the bubble must travel further than light reflected from the outer
surface. When the waves reflected from the inner and outer surface combine they
will interfere with each other, removing or reinforcing some parts of white light
by destructive or constructive interference. This results in color. If the extra
distance traveled by the inner light waves is exactly the wavelength of the outer
light waves, then they will recombine constructively and bright colors of those
wavelengths will be produced. In places where the waves are out of step,
destructive interference will occur, canceling the reflected light (and the color).
(https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope-resource/primer/
lightandcolor/interference/
4. Fluorescence
Fluorescence is a phenomenon that occurs when a substance absorbs radiation of a

certain wavelength, or group of wavelengths, and re-emits photons of different
wavelength. (written by Arthur W. Springsteen, Ph.D. Fluorescence & Color)
5. Dispersion
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It is defined as the spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths. More
technically, dispersion occurs whenever there is a process that changes the direction of
light in a manner that depends on wavelength. Dispersion, as a general phenomenon, can
occur for any type of wave and always involves wavelength-dependent processes.
BENDING OF LIGHT
When travelling in open space, light travels in a straight line, However, when
light comes in contact with an object, it maybe bended in the following manner.
1. Refraction- is the bending of light (it also happens with sound, water and other
waves) as it passes from one transparent substance into another.
2. Reflection- is when light bounces off an object. If the surface is smooth and shiny,
like glass, water or polished metal, the light will reflect at the same angle as it hit the
surface.
Types:
Regular refelction- happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.
Irregular or diffused reflection- occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy
object.
3. Diffraction-the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.
KINDS OF OBJECT AS TO HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHT

1. Transparent objects- allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the
object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent Objects- allows light to pass, however diffused it sufficiently that objects
on the other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the
other side may be recognized but sharp detail and outline are obscured.
3. Opaque Objects-so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other
side is very difficult if not impossible.
Sources of Light
1. Natural Light Source
A. Bright Sunlight
B. Hazy Sunlight
C. Dull Sunlight
a. Cloudy Bright
b. Cloudy Dull
2. Artificial Light Source
A. Continous Radiation
B. Short Duration
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FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
1. Ultraviolet Lamp
a. Long wave- used for medical and forensics.
b. Medium wave- used in chemical analysis and in curing and hardening of different
items for industrial applications.
c. Short wave- used for variety of purpose such as sterilize air and place of work.
2. LASER (Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

This was specially significant in locating dried biological stains such as semen,
urine and saliva as well ass stains that had been washed. LASER is also known as
coherent light.
3. Alternative Light Source (ALS)
The ALS was developed in mid 1980’s as far more inexpensive alternative to
forensic LASER.
4. Forensic Light Source

The FLS is a term being applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light
sources which used filtered white light.
Review Questions.
1. Distinguish the three bending of light.
2. Explain the three kinds of object as how they behave to light. If possible attached a photo
on your explanation.

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MODULE 3
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS
This module discuss the types of films. Characteristics of each will be given emphasis too.
Photographic paper and each characteristic will be also tackle on this section.
Lesson I. Black and White Film

Lesson 2. Color Film
Learning Outcomes
Discuss the composition of black and white films.
1. Familiarize the characteristics of black and white films.
2. Familiarize the characteristics of a colored films.
3. Familiarize the characteristics of photographic paper.
A. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

A black and white films is basically made up of emulsion, gray or anti-halation backing, and a
support base.
1. Emulsion
Photographic emulsion consist of crystals of light sensitive compounds (silver nitrate) evenly
distribute throughout plastic base material.
Silver halide emulsions are universally sensitive to the ultraviolet radiations and some
wavelengths of blue light. They can be made sensitive to other colors of light and near infrared
radiations by the addition of special sensitizing dye. Gelatin is universally used as the medium
that holds the crystals in emulsion.
2. Gray or antihalation backing
This layer is placed between the emulsion and the plastic base of a film to prevent whatever
light that passes through the emulsion and reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms
a “halo”
3. Base
Generally, film is made of plastic material. They serve as a support to the emulsion.
Characteristics of Black and White Film

The characteristics of B &W film are speed (sensitivity to light), spectral sensitivity
(wavelength or color) sensitivity and granularity or graininess.
Although films are universally manufacturer in about the same way, there are controlled
variations in procedure, choice and proportion of chemical used in processing films of different
characteristics.
1. Emulsion Speed
The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:
1. ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expresses in arithmetical value.
2. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating, which is expresses in logarithmic value
3. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in the combined
arithmetical and logarithmic values.
The Different emulsion speed ratings are:

ASA 12 DIN 12° ISO 12/12
ASA 25 DIN 15° ISO 25/15
ASA 50 DIN 18° ISO 50/18
ASA 100 DIN 21° ISO 100/21
ASA 200 DIN 24° ISO 200/24
ASA 400 DIN 27° ISO 400/27
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ASA 800 DIN 30° ISO 800/30
ASA 1600 DIN 33° ISO 100/33
2. Spectral sensitivity
The different classification of films as according to its spectral sensitivity are:
a. Blue sensitivity film- sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.
b. Orthochromatic film- sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue and green light only.
c. Panchromatic film- sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue, green, and red light or al colors.
d. Infra-red film- sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue, green, red light and infrared rays
3. Granularity or graininess
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after the development of
an exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed
of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in processing. The rule is: the lower
the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain and the conversely, the higher the
emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the grains. Likewise, a film developer will
produce a finer grain than a paper developer when used for film processing.
B. COLOR FILMS
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base. The top emulsion is
sensitive to blue light only. Since green and red light passes through it without effect, the blue
light alone makes exposure. A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any unused
blue light and prevents it form reaching the two layer emulsion layer. The yellow color in the
filter layer have no permanent effect on the appearance of the film because it is destroyed during
processing. The middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light. Like all
emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it.
TYPES OF COLOR FILMS
A. Negative or Non-reversal film

The suffix “color” is given to negative or non-reversal film. This film yields
either a negative or positive image depending on how it is used. Examples are Kodacolor,
Fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc.
B. Reversal Film
The suffix “chrome” is applied to reversal material. This film when processed a
positive image or transparency for projection viewing. Examples are: Kodachrome,
Ektachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome, etc.
Parts of a Colored Film

1. Blue sensitive emulsion
2. Yellow filter
3. Green Sensitive emulsion
4. Red Sensitive emulsion
5. Base
6. Antihalation Backing
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

A. Emulsion Speed
1. Chloride paper- has a slow speed and id suited for contact printing.
2. Bromide paper- has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or
enlarging.
3. Chloro-bromide paper- is a multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and
enlarging.
B. Exposure and development latitude
Latitude is the degree or amount of which of you can deviate from ideal exposure or
development without appreciable loss of print quality.
1. Exposure latitude
Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude so exposure
must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude
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Papers that do not charge appreciable in contrast and image tone with reasonable
variations in development has a good latitude. However, for best quality the
developing time should be as near those prescribed by the manufacturer.
C. Contrast range or grade

In a black and white printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper contrast so
they can yield a natural-scene result from negatives with density range that are either too
high or too low.
1. Number 0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative

2. Numbers 2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negatives.
3. Numbers 3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.
D. Physical Characteristics
Under this category, photographic papers come in different surfaces base
thickness or weight and color.
1. Surface of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They
are the glossy and smooth, semi-matte or silk, and the matte or the rough surface.
2. Base weight or thickness
Under this category, we have the light weight, single weight, medium weight and the
double weight.
3. Color maybe “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast and the warm or crem, where
the white has a slight yellow-brown line.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS FOR COLOR PRINTING
This are essentially similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers
are coated on a paper and contain couplers which are colorless. Colored couples are not used
because the print would then be unsuitable for direct viewing.
Review Questions.
1. Distinguish black and white film to color film.
2. Is photographic film and photographic paper has something in common? Justify your answer.

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Module 4
CAMERA
A. CAMERA- is a light- tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and
diaphragm to control the entry of the image ; a means of holding a film to record the
image/ and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.
B. Camera Classifications:
Camera are classified as according to:
1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce.
a. Large format cameras
These cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4’x5’, 5’x7’ and
8’x10’
b. Medium format cameras

Some of these cameras are folding type with bellows and some are rigid body
with film size of 120, 220, 70 mm. the double lens reflex camera falls under
this category.
c. Small format cameras

Those with films size 126, 110, 35mm., 16mm, and 8mm
2. The viewing focusing system
a. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera

b. Those with optical view finder
3. Overall design and functions
a. View camera
b. System cameras
Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film backs,
and accessories ( hundreds of them) can be attached or integrated to adapt to
scientific, technical, architectural, astronomical, underwater, and many other
kinds of photography.
Example of this type is single lens reflex camera.
c. Digital cameras
This type of camera digitalize the image which can then be put into a
computer and enhanced through a software package such as Adobe
Photoshop.
These are two types of digital cameras
1. Those with fixed memory

This camera has a limited number of image it can capture. The user
will then be forced to erase the image or download it into a
computer.
2. Those with removable memory
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This camera allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards in much the same
fashion as film is exposed and replaced with a new film. Removable media varies and size, in
price, and compatibility with computers and other cameras.
SLR- suited for Forensic Photography
Other features of a digital camera
1. Images produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a computer monitor or

T.V. set. For hard copies of such image a computer printer is used.
2. A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor

Digital “ point shoot” camera sometimes do not have an optical viewfinder. These
camera feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that can be swing
on the side which serves multiple duty as viewfinder, control panel, and instant
playback monitor.
3. Flash unit - although generally not necessary but is required for back lighted subjects
or in a really low light level.
4. Zoom lens capability- wide -angle, normal telephoto, even macro.
5. Sound recording -where you can record audio chips such as short description of the
image taken or noise in the surrounding area.
6. Removable lens that can see around corners.
This simplest type of camera is the box toe, also commonly referred to as the instamatic,
or the newer generation “ point shoot” cameras. W ith this type of camera, all you need to do is
to open its back, load the film, close the back, wind the film then take the picture. There are no
exposure and focusing control to adjust because it is fixed focused, with fixed shutter speed, and
a fixed lens diaphragm opening.
In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the single lens reflex (SLR)
camera. It is light in weight, compact, and versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of
lenses and a wide range of accessories can be attached to its body, like extension rings or tubes,
flash units, filters, cable release, motor drive, remote control, etc, for better photographic
efficiency and effectivity.
C. Methods of image Formation
a. Pinhole- is a small or tiny hole which produce an image entirely free from distortion
but its image is so dim that it is impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is
also not practical to enlarge the hole for more light because the larger the hole, the
more blurred is the image.
b. Shadow method
Image formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of
application of this method is in X-ray photography and in making photograms.
c. Lens method
A. Convergent or positive lens
B. Divergent or negative lens
C. Diagram of a Kodak Ektar Lens with several lens components
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This is the best method of image formation because it is capable of forming a sharp image even
with a large opening so it suited for a camera.
D. LENS
A lens is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing
through it to form an image. Generally, there are two types of lenses.
1. The convergent or positive or convex lens

This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing
through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at
point. It produce a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is
coming from.
2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens

This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing
through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produce
a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.
E. INHERENT LENS DEFECT OR ABERRATIONS
The ideal lens for forensic photography would be capable of producing critically sharp
and distortion free image. Some other lenses are unfit for the preparation of photographic
evidence because they have optical defects known as aberrations. They are the following:
1. Spherical Aberration
When light passing through near the central part of converging lens are bended more
sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused
on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part.
Manufacturer of lenses tries to reduce this defect to anegligible quantity by using

lenses of different curvatures.
2. Coma
This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays entering
the lens obliquely. The defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central
part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular object reproduced at the corners of the negative
are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by combinations of lenses
of different curvatures.
3. Curvature of field
This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in a
curved surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical
aberration and coma.
4. Distortion
A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal
or vertical lines in an object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the
diaphragm is place in front of the lens straight lines near the edges of the objects tends to
bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion. If the diaphragm is place behind of
the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to be inward. This is known as the pincushion
distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens
component and the two opposite distortion will neutralize each other.
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5. Chromatic Aberrations
This defect is the inability of the lens t bring photographic rays of different wavelengths
to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are bent the least
when they pass through the lens. Visible light come to a focus at varying distances. Thus
defect is reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass
of different curvatures.
6. Astigmatism
With this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the negative will
be imaged not as a is always be out of focus while the other is sharp. This defect is
lessened by combining lenses of special kind of glass having the correct combinations of
spherical surfaces.
7. Chromatic difference of magnification

This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wave
length is different from the sized produced by another. Size of the image increases as the
wavelength of the rays decreases. In color photography it produce a rainbow colored
fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography it appears as a
slight blue.
Most of these aberrations cannot be eliminated but each one of them can be reduced to a
level that its truth bearing quality for evidences use is legally acceptable.
F. Type of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to these Lens Aberrations

1. Achromatic lens- is corrected for chromatic aberration,
2. Rapid- rectilinear lens- is corrected for distortion
3. Anastigmat lens- is corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens defect
4. Apochromat lens- is also corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction
to color.
G. Focal Length
A fundamental characteristics of a lens is its focal length. This will determine the size of
an image of an object at a given distance, and the area of coverage of the lens.
Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film when
the lens is set or focused at infinity position or far distance
Focal distance- is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the film plane
H. Type of Lenses as According to Focal Length
1. Wide angle lens- a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
This lens will have a wide area of coverage but produces a small image size. This is usually used
in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. It is also used outdoor to get panoramic view of
a scene
2. Normal lens- is a lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than
twice the diagonal of its negative material. It is referred to as normal because its coverage
corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human eye.
3. Telephoto lens- is a lens with focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative
material. This lens produces a bigger image of objects at far distance but its area of coverage is
smaller.
4. Zoom lens- is a lens with variable focal length
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The focal length of a lens is normally indicated in the lens mount or barrel of a camera, usually
in millimeter or in centimeter(cm)
I. Lens Diaphragm
In between the lens component of a camera is a metal diaphragm which can be expanded
or constricted by moving a turning ring on the lens mount or barrel. The size of the opening is
indicated by markings of f-numbers. Each f- number represents the ratio of the focal length of
the and the diameter of the opening. The common series of f-numbers are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6,
8,11, 16, and 22. there are some cameras whose f-numbers starts at 1.4 or 1.2, or 1.1 and the
lowest numerical f- number was the 1.09 fitted on a Canon 7 camera.
These f-number indicate in succession decrease by one-half in light intensity as the
number increases. This means that an aperture of f1.8 will admit twice more light than f2 and so
on. Conversely, light intensity will decrease by one-half as the numerical value increases. This
also means that f8 will admit twice less light than f5.6.
The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions
1. Diaphragm as controller of speed.
By expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to regulate the amount of light

passing through the lens . The diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f-numbers,
the lowest number is the widest opening or the one that give the most amount of light and
conversely, the highest number is the smallest opening or the one that give the least amount of
light.
2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field.
In theory, it is not possible to focus a lens in more than one distance at the same time . In
actual practice however, in any given lens object that are nearer or farther than the object
focused upon will be reasonably sharp.
Depth of field is defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused on a given distance.
There are influencing factors of depth of field.
a. The size of the diaphragm opening
The general rule governing this factors is: the smaller the opening, the longer is the depth
of field. Conversely, the wider is the opening, the shorter is the depth of field.
The exception to this rule is the presence or the effect of diffraction when a small
opening is used.
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b. The focal length of the lens
the general rule is: the shorter the focal length, the wider or longer is the depth of field
and vice versa, the longer is the focal length the shorter is the depth of field.
c. Circle of confusion
Another factor that affects depth of field is the size of the circle of confusion which is
considered acceptable . Circle of confusion refers to a small circle which is seen by the eye, not
as a circle but a dot or point.
d. Hyperfocal distance
This is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening
which will give the maximum depth of field
3. Diaphragm as controller of definition.
The term definition is the ability of the lens to form a clear images of fine details. Not
even a theoretically perfect lens would be capable of imaging a point source of light as a
geometrical point. All practical lenses images such a point as a small blur which changes in
character with the change of lens aperture. Decreasing the lens aperture improves definition as it
removes the small amount of haze caused by residual aberrations.
J. Photographic Perspective and Correct Viewing Distance
The human eye sees in three dimension but a lens reproduces a view in two dimension.
The missing dimension, depth- is suggested mainly by the relative size and position of various
objects in the photograph. The relations of these objects or perspective and therefore the
naturalness of the photograph is determined by the position of the camera. A camera position too
close to the subject results in an exaggerated magnification of the parts nearer the lens.
Correct perspective in a final photograph depends largely upon the distance upon which it
is viewed. The correct viewing distance which likewise gives the correct perspective corresponds
to the Focal length of the lens of the camera when a contact print of the negative is made.
Frequently, this distance is too short for the eye to be able to see it clearly and comfortably so
there is a need of enlargement. Enlarged photographs require a viewing distance equal to the
camera focal length times or multiplied by the number of diameter or degree of enlargement of
the photograph.
K. Focusing
When light passes through a convergent lens, these light rays are bended toward each
other meeting at a point which is the point of focus. When the subject distance to the lens is
shorter or near the converging point of the light rays behind the lens increases and vice versa.
Since the light bending power of a lens is fixed, it is necessary to adjust the lens so the point of
focus will be on the film plane.]
Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.
Focusing is the main factor that will determine the sharpness of the images on a photograph. Of
course, there are other factors to be considered, like camera movement or motion of the subject
when the photograph is actually being taken. Though the focus is accurate, yet these factors will
blur image of the subject being photograph.
Methods of Focusing
1. Scale bed or focusing scale- on the mount or barrel of the camera lens there are two sets of
presented distance expressed in feet (ft) and in meters (m). This is the scale bed or focusing
scale. These distances corresponds to the distance from the camera lens to the subject.
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To focus with this method , one has to use measuring device ( tape measure, yard stick,
ruler, etc.) and actually measure the distance from the lens of the camera to the subject.
Whatever distance was measured, will be the setting of the maker or pointer of focus. If actual
measurement is not possible or undertaken, estimation, calculation, or a approximation of this
particular distance can be resorted to . however, the accuracy of the focus is dependent upon the
accuracy of estimation, calculation, or approximation.
2. Rangefinders
a rangefinder is a mechanism used to measure the angle of convergence of light as
from two apertures or opening but viewed at the same time. In modern cameras, the
rangefinder is coupled with the viewfinder. There are two types of rangefinders.
a. Split-image
With this type, when looks through the viewfinder of a camera, there is a circle on
the central part with a line running across the circle. To determine focus with this type,
pick a straight line in the subject and view it on the circle. If he straight line is cut and
separated from each other, the focusing is not correct. Rotate the barrel of the lens until
the said straight line is viewed as straight and the lens are in focus.
This method of focusing is standard in single lens refex camera. Since the viewing
and focusing is made from light ray passing through the lens , it is not affected by the
problem of parallax.
b. Co- incident image

This method of focusing is usually used on compact cameras with a fixed lens.
With this type, when you look into the viewfinder, you’ll notice a rectangle- in other
cameras, its circle- on the upper left portion of the viewfinder. For emphasis,
manufacturer of the camera usually add color to it, generally a tint yellow or green.
To focus with this method, pick a single detail in the subject for viewing in the
view finder. If the single detail chosen appears with double image, the distance or focus
is incorrect. Rotate the lens barrel until the two images viewed will coincide with each
other and you are “in “ focus.
3.Groundglass
This method of focusing is accomplished by direct observation of the image of the
subject on a glass with finely grounded surface known as groundglass. This groundglass
is found at the back of a camera or in the case of modern cameras, also couple with the
viewfinder. The point of focus is where the image is sharpest. If the image appears to be
blurred, fuzzy or not sharp, it is out of focus.
Some single-lens-reflex cameras use a small central circle, a micropism on this
groundglass viewfinder for easier focusing. The micropism will usually shatter an out of
focus image. When the image us exactly in focus the prism seems to disappear.
M. Depth of Focus or Focal Range

When a lens is focused on any given subject, there is one lens-to-film distance
where the image is sharpest, as the lens is moved close to the film or farther away from
the film, the sharpness decreases. There is small range of movement on either side of the
position of the best focus in which the degree of unsharpness is acceptable , and the total
range called the depth of focus.
N. PARALLAX
Parallax is the change of appearance and orientation of objects when seen from two viewpoints.
It is also used to refer to the distance between the viewpoints themselves.
Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye see objects form two viewpoint about
65mm (21/2 inches) apart. The left and right eye images on the retina have parallax- that is they
18
are not identical . The spacing between various parts of the subject viewed, varies according to
the angular difference. These differences are interpreted by the brain as difference in distance
and three dimensional depth in perceived.
O. SHUTTERS
A shutter is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed
intervals then closes automatically. Most shutters are spring-powered and are controlled by
mechanical Linkages. However, an ever increasing number of modern cameras, now uses a
shutter with electrical circuits to energize electromagnets for the control of the speeds.
the action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speeds which corresponds to
the length of time or duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter.
the different shutter speeds are:
B-for bulb or brief
1, 2,4,8,15,30,60,125,250,500 and 1000
The B-setting is an exposure setting for more than one second. 1-is in one second, 2- is for
onehalf second, 4 – is for one fourth second, and all succeeding number are also fractions of a
second. Since, except for B, and no.1, all number are fractions of second, the higher the number,
the fastest is the shutter speed and will admit less light and the lower the number, the slower is
the shutter speed and will admit more light. The series of shutter speed will show that one shutter
speed is twice faster or slower than the next shutter speed.
Example: 1/39 will admit twice more light than 1/60
Or 1/60 will admit twice less light than 1/39
There are two types of shutters
1. Between the lens or central shutter
the shutter is located in between the lens component. It is made of metal blades. Its
action starts from the center toward the sides then close back to the center. This type of shutter,
can be synchronized with a flash unit with every shutter speed.
2. Focal Plane shutter
this shutter is located directly in front of the film or i=on the focal plane. It is usually
made of cloth or metal curtain. Its action starts from one side and closes on the opposite side this
type of shutter can give faster shutter speed than the between the lens shutter.
P. Exposure
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material
or substance sensitive to such energy. In conventional photography materials, the action of the
exposing energy reduces or breaks down the silver halide sufficiently to produce a
latent( invisible) record of the pattern of light intensity or in the case of printing material, a
visible record. Exposure is quantitative: it is the product of the total light intensity and the
length of time it strikes the emulsion.
1. Calculating film exposure
Actually, there is not one correct exposure, but there is an ideal or proper exposure.
Exposure is therefore subjective and errors in calculation could result in either “over exposure”
or “under exposure”. One good rule in judging proper exposure is the presence or visibility of
details of the subject, not only in the middle tones but also in the highlights and shadow areas.
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a simple rule provides a universal exposure guide for color and black and whitr films are
based on the following factors:
a. film speed
b. lightning condition
c. Type of subject
A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal subject in the sun or open
sky.
Example:
For average or normal subjects;
Film speed Lightning Condition
Bright sun Hazy sun Dull sun
ISO 100/21 1/125 f11 f8 f5.6
ISO 200/24 1/250 f11 f8 f5.6
OR 1/125 f16 f11 f8
ISO 400/27 1/500 f11 f8 f5.6
Or 1/250 f16 f11 f8
Or 1/125 f22 f16 f11
2.Bracketing
this technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a desired result is
uncertain; make several exposures of less than and more than the calculates exposure by two or
four f-stops each.
3. Exposure meter
Photographic exposure meter measures light intensities and have calculators or computer
to find camera settings that will produce good exposure. The exposure calculators are mechanical
device or sets of reference tables from which exposure data can be obtained on observed
subjects and lightning conditions. The heart of the meter is a light cell made of:
a. selenium (Se) cells c. silicon (Si) “ blue “ cell
b. cadmium sulfide (Cds) cells d. gallium-arsenic-phosphorous cell
3. Existing light, also called ambient light or available photography
this is taking of photograph using only the light that happens to be at the scene. This
could be from natural light sources, from windows, doors, skylight, twilight or after dark, or
from artificial light sources like table lamps, ceiling fixture lights, spotlights, neon lights,
candles, fireplace or bonfire, etc.
Because of the very wide variety of light sources and lightning conditions, exposure
setting to be used can only be suggested with little or no assurance of correctness. The use of
exposure meter or the use of the bracketing technique will be of great help however. The use of
fast lenses with lens speed of f.18 or f1.4 or f1.2 or f1.1 is highly advise plus the use of high
speed film with emulsion speeds of ISO 400/27 or ISO 800/30 or ISO 1600/33. The use of a
tripod or any other camera mount for long exposure setting should also be considered. The
saying “ if you can see it, you can photograph it” is a reality.
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4. Flash Photography
Brief flash of light produces by burning metal wire (flashbulb) or an electric discharge
through a gas filled tube (electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for still
photography. A flash unit offers great light output in compact lightweight, and economical for. It
avoids the effect of heat and glare during set up which is common with continuous light sources.
Since it is battery operated , it is ideal for field work where AC Power is not available.
Flash units with a cord is directly attached to the camera . The cord is plugged into a
sychrosock (socket for synchronization). Flash unit with no cord have a “hotshoe” at its base
which is then inserted to receptacle for the flash unit. The exception to this arrangement of
attaching the flash unit directly to the camera is when “open flash” or “painting” with light”
technique is used. When more than one flash unis is needed, a remote or “slave” unit is used.
A. Exposure with flash
1. Shutter Speed
Both electronic flash unit and flash bulb provides light in a relatively high illumination
level in a short period of time. Because it is important for the camera shutter to be open for this
brief period of time. The flash and the shutter are usually synchronized. Synchronization is the
etiming of the camera shutter and the flash so that when the shutter is fully opened , that the time
that the flash will yield its highest peaks of illumination.
B. On camera flash
Flash on the camera or held close to the camera with a bracket provides a direct, hard
light. Because it puts the ,maximum level of light on the subject, jarsh shadow of subjects with a
near background, and reflections from a shiny spot in the background.
C. Off camera flash
With this unit, the flash can be moved away from the camera at arms length or more .
When the flash unit is used in this manner, the photographer can improve the effectiveness of the
flash lightning like:
1. Multiple flash – more than one flash unit is used. One is connected to the camera with a
flash cord while the other is attached to a “slave” unit.
2. Fill in flash- when you want to eliminate or add illumination to shadow areas or subject
so detail that otherwise will not appear clearly in the final picture.
3. Open flash- the shutter speed is set at “B” and once the shutter is open, the flash is
activated or fires n release manually. Then the shutter is released or is closed.
Painting with light- is another form of open flash technique. With this technique, the flash unit
is moved from place to place , fired manually until all areas of the scene or large subjects are
fully illuminated and the shutter is then released or is closed . This technique is used in
photographing a stadium or in night photography and the subject is big building or an open field
with little or no other source of illumination.
4. Bounce Flash – instead of the light going directly to the subject, it is bounced on light colored
ceilings or walls near the subject. This will give a softer effect on the subject, and also diminish
or reduce harsh shadow that will be casted by the subject.
On camera flash unit with a movable flash read is capable of bounce flash.
D. Umbrella flash
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A modified type of bounce flash by using an umbrella lined with silver, white, blue or amber
colored especially made for photography. The flash is mounted on the handle. of the umbrella
aimed at its inside center. The inside center is then aimed toward the subject.
E. Ring flash- this is round or circular flash unit usually placed around the outer end of the
camera lens. This is used for taking close ups or macrophotography especially in medical
photography.
Q. Photographic filters
There are two types of filter used in photography
1. Optical filter
2. Particle or solution filter
Optical filters are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filter are used primarily to control
energy.( visible wavelengths, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized material are handled.
Particle or solution filter is used in spherical photographic procedure like infrared luminscence.
1. Filter factor
Because a filter prevents or subtracts some portions of the exposing energy from reaching the
film, exposure must be increased in order to obtain proper result.
2. Types of filters
a. Light balancing filter- A filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in
order to secure proper color balance for artificial light films.
b. Color compensating filter- this is used the over all color balance of photographic result
obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing
energy.
c. Neutral Density filter- this filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of
desired f-number or shutter speed with a particular film.
d. Polarizing Filter- is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water glass
and highly polished surfaces.
3. Special APPLICATION OF FILTER
Filters can be used:
a. To introduce deliberate departures from normal color balance either to enhance a
particular color for mood and preference of the photographer.
b. For critical work with films that are not ordinary like infrared rays or in ultraviolet
fluorescence method
c. To correct undesirable overall tint of color specially in color positive film or
transparency.
d. To modify the color balance of transparencies which show overall tint.
e. To balance light sources used in color printing.
R. Camera care
f. Most modern cameras are designed t give a long term service. You an add to its service
by handling them carefully and taking care of your equipment properly.
g. Here are some useful tips:
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h. Keep it clean and dry always. The camera body is made up of metal parts and are subject
to rust and corrosion. Keep it out of water especially sea or salt water. When using it
during rains or at sea, protect it by placing it in a plastic bag or cover. Should you
accidentally drop it in water, dry it immediately by wiping the water with an absorbent
material then with clean warm air. If it is in sea or salty water, rinse it first with fresh or
tap water before drying it thoroughly. Because of the probability of moisture in its
small nooks and crevices, it is adviced that you bring it to reputable camera repairman.
To compensate for particular absorption like in taking photographs under water por through
tinted windows.
2. Have a cleaning kit with these simple items:

a. A bristle for cleaning the exterior.
b. A soft camels hair brush for cleaning lens. A squeeze bulb syringe may also be use to
blow away dust and dirt, do not wipe the lens of camera with the tissue paper,
hankerchief, cottons, clothing except a soft flannel fabric. Use lean cleaning fluid and
lens tissue.
c. For camera body protection, have a camera case with strap. For the protection of the lens,
cover it with lens cap, place a U.V. filter over the lens and from direct sunlight, a lens
hood.
d. For field work in far or remote areas it is advisable to use a sturdy camera bag with
dividers lined with soft material to keep apart the camera from extra lenses and other
accessories or films. This will prevent small scratches caused by friction.
e. If the camera is to be stored or will not be in use for quite sometime, do the following:
1. Press the shutter release button to release the tension on the shutter spring.
2. Place a silica gel bag infront of the lens for moisture absorption or growth of molds
within the lens component.
3. Remove batteries from camera to prevent corrosion due to battery leak.
Review Questions:
1.What are the different kinds of camera?

2. Compare and contrast the types of lenses?
3. What are different lens defect familiarize the types of lenses according to their degree of corrections?
4.. What are different methods of image formation.
.

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Module 5
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING AND CHEMICAL PROCESSING
A. CHEMICAL PROCESSING
After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during
printing, the next step would generally be chemical processing/In black and white processing,
the steps are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color
development, stop-fix, and stabilizer.
1. Development - is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made

visible. In black- and-white emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver.
In a color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye./
In development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce exposed silver halide
crystals to form grains of metallic silver. This process or reaction is the same in both black and
white films and photographic papers.
2. Stop-bath - halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other. 15-20 uc
3. Fixation
A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In
this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and
removed from the emulsion of the photographic material./s- 71
B. FILM PROCESSING
Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, mechanized equipment. Panchromatic
materials must be handled in total darkness. Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films
printing papers are handled under a safelight. От
1. Equipment for film processing
a. Tank or tray
b. Developing reel
c. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some 35 mm films have a reusable cartridge that can be
snapped open by hand but others can only be opened with a pair of pliers.
d. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
e. Thermometer f. Timer
g. Funnel
h. Photographic sponge
i. Film clips for drying
j. Glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions.
Small format films like the 35 mm is best developed in a cylindrical daylight developing
tank that accommodate a spiral reel. The tank and the reel can be a stainless steel or made of hard
24
plastic. These tanks usually have a light tight lid with provision for pouring solutions in and out
while covered so that only one tank is required for the entire process.
Metal reels have a center clip or hook to hold one end of the film, the remaining length
slips into the grooves created by the spiral. Metal reels comes in a fixed size
The plastic reel is loaded by simply the film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a flange that
moves with back and forth rachet action after the film had been engaged on the outside
guide slots, the rachet movement feeds it smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be adjusted
to accommodate different film size.
C.FILM PROCESSING PROCEDURE
1. Tank method of film development.
a. Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring
it to temperature which is 20-21 C or 68-70 F.
b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and the tank so they can be readily
located in the dark.
c. Incomplete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end,
where the long spool core protrudes. Extends the film then remove it from the tips in the spool
core. Then reel it.
• Reeling procedure
To load a metal spiral reel, hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one
hand while the other hand holds the reel. Engage the film's end at the center clip or hook of
the reel. Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and forefinger so it
narrows just enough to fit into the reel. Turn the reel with the other hand to pull the film onto the
reel. Do not apply excessive pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film. Let the film
pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.
It is advised for beginners to practice with unwanted film several times, first with the lights
on to make sure that the film will not buckle or one side of the film touching another in the reel.
In such case, the portion of the image where the layer touched will not be developed because the
solution cannot get to it. Once you get the feel of it, start the practice with eyes closed to
simulate darkness until the exercise is perfected.
d. After the reeling of the film is done place it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it.
White light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film
developer slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then agitate it for a few seconds. Timer
should start now. Intermittent agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6
minutes pour out or drain the developer.
e. Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out stop-bath.
Next is to pou in the fixing bath. Agitation should also be done every so often and after 15
to 20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.
Note: Used developer, stop-bath, and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring
them back in the bottles of fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container so it
will not contaminate the fresh or unused solutions.
f. You now wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water for another 15-
20 minutes.
25
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in water then
squeeze it to remove excess water. Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to remove the
water adhering on the negative. This must be done on both sides of the negative. Water that
adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.
2. Tray method of film development.
With this method of film development, the developer is placed on a tray. In total darkness,
remove the film from the cartridge then hold one end of the film and immerse the film in the
developer in the tray making sure that the film is thoroughly dipped until the whole length of the
film is evenly wet. Timer will start now. With see-saw or pulling up or down motion, move the
film from one end to the other then back, continuously, until the developing time of 4-5 minutes
is done. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute same motion for about 5 minutes then you
can now open the white light. Continue the fixing until the required time is finished. Next will be
the washing and drying of the negative.
This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a long contact
with air during the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides it is more tedious and tiring
especially with a 36 exposure film.
` `
D-76 Film developer formula
1. Water 52C or 125 F - 750 ml

2. Elon - 2 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 5 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 100 grams 2 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
6. Water to make - 1 liter
DEKTOL - Paper Developer

1. Water 52c or 125 F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
This is a stock solution. To use take 1 part stock solution and add 2 parts water.
E. STOP-BATH
Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial aceticacid.
F. FIXING BATH FORMULATION
26
The chemical component of a fixing bath are:
1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener
A typical fixer formula:
1. Water 50 C or 125 F - 600ml

2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 grams
3. Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) - 15gms
4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gms
6. Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15gms
This fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.
G. PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
There are two general types of photographic printing:
1. Contact printing
Contact printing is the procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is
pressed in contact with the negative being reproduced. This is the simplest and the most
economical method of photographic printing. In terms of print quality, it can surpass
enlargements in tonality because there is no scattering of image forming lights as this can be in
projected beams of an enlarger. It usually looks sharper because there is no lens in the printing
system to add its aberrations in the print making process and also because details that may be
slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the unsharpness are not apparent.
Contact prints are generally made for proofs of 35 hmm negatives or copies of the large
format negatives like 5" x 7" or 8" x 10". It is also used to make positive copies of negatives.
Contact prints can be made with either black- and-white or color materials.
Contact prints may be made with:
a. glass and pad

b. pressure printing frame
c. contact printer
 Glass and pad

A sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger than the print size in all sides to give a border for
handling and for its application of pressure The pad should be of the same size as the glass
 Pressure printing frame

This is like a picture frame with a removable hinge back leaf spring on the back. Lock it into
place and it exert pressure against the glass the frame.
 Contact printer
For a large volume work and a more controlled printing, a contact printer is most effective
and convenient. This is essentially a glass-top box with an exposing light and a safelight (for
proper arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a hinge pressure cover on the
glass. Switches of the format control the lights.
27
Printing Procedure
Clean the glass from dust, dirt and stains. Place the negative with the base side against the
glass and the emulsion facing the emulsion of the photographic paper. If a film rather than a
photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a black paper so reflected lights will
not add unwanted exposure, arrange the negatives to be printed on the photographic paper so
every part of it is accommodated with extra space on all sides. To prevent movement of the
negatives, the use of transparent tape is adviced to hold the negative in place. Then press tightly
together the
negative and the paper with the glass and the pad. Expose it to light. Correct exposure is
determined with test strips just like in enlargement. Process the exposed photographic paper with
the same solutions and processing time as in enlargement procedure. Then wash, then dry.
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged
onto a print material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the
Enlarger.
The basic or essential parts of an Enlarger are:
1. baseboard and its vertical column

2. lamphouse
3. condenser or diffuser
4. bellows
5. lens
6. focusing knob
7. elevating knob
8. red filter
9. electrical cord and switch
Essential accessory of an enlarger:
1. negative carrier
2. easel or paper holder
3. timer for consistent and repeatable exposure
There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent on the size of
the negative it is capable of accepting. There is the 8mm for microfilms, the 35 mm which is now
the most common and popular, the 120mm, or the bigger negative sizes like 4"x 5".
The common light sources for enlargers are:
1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Flourescent lamp sometimes referred to as "cold light" because of its somewhat diffused
illumination. This is generally used in portrait work.
There are two general types of Enlargers:
1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type
H. ENLARGING PROCEDURE FOR BLACK AND WHITE NEGATIVE
28
Before undertaking the enlarging procedure, mix or prepare the chemical solutions
according to specifications; the negative; and the enlarger; and the darkroom which must be
clean and in proper order.
The fundamental steps in enlarging are as follows:
1. Clean both sides of the negative then place it in the
negative carrier with the emulsion (dull side) facing the lens of the enlarger or downward
position. Insert the negative in the enlarger.
2. Adjust the masking guides of the easel in accordance with the intended size to be printed.
3. Turn on the red light (safelight) then turn off the white light.
4. Switch on the enlarger then adjust the lens of the enlarger to its widest aperture. (This will
allow the brightest image on the easel).
5. Adjust focus by rotating the focusing knob. For desired size of the image, adjust the elevating
knob. For bigger 81
magnification, push the enlarger up and for smaller magnification, pull the enlarger down, then
tighten the elevating knob securely. Focus may now be finely readjusted.
6. Switch off the enlarger's light. Close down the lens aperture two or three times from its
optimum aperture. (Be guided by its click stop adjustment).
7. If this is the first time that the negative is being printed, make a series of test strips or trial
exposures on strips of photographic papers exposed at different exposure time generally 2
seconds interval each. Make sure that the photographic papers are placed in the easel emulsion
side (shiny side) up when making the exposure.
8. Process the test strips by immersing it in the developing solution for 1 to 1 ½ minutes. Slip the
exposed photographic paper into the developing solution to wet them evenly. Agitate it
continuously by either moving the print or by rocking the tray. When the developing time is
finished, lift off the print, drip dry it before transferring it to the next solution. Then transfer it to
the stop-bath for 10 to 15 seconds then in the fixing bath for a minute or so. Examine the test
strip under a white light to determine which of the exposure time is the best and if the contrast of
the print is alright otherwise, repeat the exercise whether shorter or longer exposure time is
needed.
9. When the right exposure had been selected, make a full print. Process it then evaluate the print
for over-all quality. Consider for possible cropping, or local exposure control.
Cropping is the excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final print. Local
exposure control is achieved by either burning-in or dodging.
Burning-in is the adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out details.
Dodging is the holding back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in density.
Note: You can use your hand or improvise with a thick paper material for both burning-in or
dodging technique.
Generally, over-exposed and underdeveloped are often mottled and lacks contrast on shadow
areas and good gradation of tone in the highlights. Underexposed and over. developed prints
usually lacks details in the highlights and they often show chemical fog or yellow stains.
29
Be aware that there are some factors that affects developing time.
a. Concentration and freshness of the chemical solution. Full strength requires shorter
developing time than a diluted one. Likewise exhaustion and contamination will need added
developing time.
b. Temperature - Room or more specifically the temperature of the solution is also an

influencing factor. Higher temperature means shorter developing time and vice-versa. Lower
temperature will mean longer developing time.
c. Agitation - More agitation will lessen developing time.
10. Current fixing baths only require 10-15 minutes fixing time. Formerly it was 20-30 minutes.
11. Wash the prints in running water for another 20-30 minutes.
12. Dry the prints.
A. EQUIPMENT FOR PAPER DEVELOPING
1. Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath and the fixer. (The size of the tray is
determined by the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves. (There are some personswho are subject to skin allergic
reactions with the solutions For precaution, wear it.)
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing
J. COLOR PRINTING PROCESS

A color negative film is printed on a color photographic r which is essentially similar to
the films used in a camera paper except that the emulsion layer is coated in a paper base and
couplers which are colorless. Colored couplers are not used because the prints would then be
unsuitable for direct viewing. Printing a color negative in complementary colors in a non-
reversal print material reverses both tone scale and the color of the negative within the accuracy
limit of the photographic process of the tone and color of the original subject.
The blue sensitive layer produces a yellow color when developed.
The green sensitive layer produces a magenta color when developed.
The red sensitive layer produces cyan color when developed.
Color and density of a photograph taken with a color negative film can be adjusted quite
freely to a certain extent. Raising the density will make the image darker while lowering it will
make the image lighter, and by adding cyan we can give the image an over-all bluish tinge while
removing yellow will emphasize magenta and cyan giving the image a purplish tinge.
Color Film Processing

The most important point to be emphasized in connection with film processing in the
strict adherence to the instructions for the mixing of solutions and carrying
out of processing steps. The mixing and processing operations are not so difficult yet they are
exacting in the steps in the sense that the steps must be standardized critically if repeatable
results are to be obtained.
a. Temperature control
Temperature control for film developing are crucial and appreciable deviation can result
in speed and color balance changes. In addition, physical defects such as reticulation of the
emulsion or frilling along the edge of the film are apt to occur if the temperature of the solutions
is too high.
30
Normal color negative developing temperature is 38°C, process C-41.
b. Agitation
Proper agitation is important throughout color film developing but it is crucial during the entire
developing steps.
The C-41 film processing steps are:
1. Color developer
2. Bleach - Fix
3. Stabilizer
2. Color Printing
Printing of color negatives are basically the same as black-and-white negatives. The
major difference lies in the use of filters. Filters are used for corrections of density and color
balance. Basically though, the print can be made darker or lighter by increasing or decreasing
exposure time Color balance can be subtlely or radically altered by changing the filter pack.
Dodging technique is the same as in black-and- white printing. In the processing stage, color
temperature control is more critical. Likewise the processing time in each stage is more precise
and accurate up to drying step of color prints
a. Equipment
1. Enlarger with built dial-in filter or with provision for placing filters between the light
source and the negative. Light source is generally a tungsten-halogen lamp. The use of
fluorescent lamp is not adviced.
2 Color Photographic papers.
3. Filters-Acetate color printing filters (CP) like C229 (always med to absorb alreviolet
rays from the light some CPM, CPZM CPWM CP 80M, CP 05Y, CP 10Y, CP 20Y, CP 40Y (2
of these) and CC 025M, CC 025Y.
4. Safelights - Kodak safelight filter No. 13 (amber) with 15 watts bulb.
b. Printing procedure in color printing of a negative.
1. Prepare the chemical solutions by carefully following the instructions given with the
photographic paper and the chemicals.
2. Place the negative in the enlarger with the emulsion side toward the lens of the enlarger. Use
50 M +50 Y filter (40 M + 10 M +40 Y + 40 Y + 10 Y) or others as specified in the paper
instructions to make a test strip of series of four exposures at the same magnification as will be
used in the first print. Exposure time is 10 seconds each of f4, f5.6, f8 and 11.
3. Process the print then dry it.
4. Then judge the best test strip for color balance. Look at sensitive areas or at the middle as
flesh. tones of persons and decide on what color or colors is in excess and how much is excess -
slight, considerable, great.
5. Based on the above decision, select a filter pack that will control the color of the exposing
light. Add to filter pack, filter of the same color or colors as those in excess in the test. Add 10
filter for a slight change, 20 for considerable change and for great change 30 filter (20 filter + 10
filter). Some casts may require as much as 50 filter addition to the pack.
31
6. Make another test exposure based on the estimated filter pack and the corresponding
additional exposure time.
7. Depending on the experience of the one printing, a third, fourth, or even a fifth test strip may
be necessary until the desired color balance and density is obtained.
K. COLOR COMPARED TO BLACK AND WHITE

Since we live in a world of color it is only natural that in general, we find color
photographs more realistic than black and white Comparatively black and white photographs are
more of an abstraction from reality, or in other words, they are commonly accepted on their
merits as pictures. In a portrait, it is the likeness that is considered as the paramount importance,
but other types of black and white prints tends to be judged without reference to or regard for the
appearance of the original scene. As a result, tone rendition in black and white prints can vary
over a wide range and still remain satisfactory.
In Forensic Photography, generally, fingerprints and handwritings, or other printed

materials which are subject for
examination, analysis, comparison and evaluation are black and white (for contrast) in their
original appearance so the use of color photographs is not adviced.
In the case of color photographs, however, an average observer tends to make a more
direct comparison between subject and reproduction. His thoughts and comments will be based
on a considerably greater extent on his recollection of the original scene or his conception of how
the original scene should have appeared.
If the color photograph is to be satisfactory, skin and other objects which have definite
appearance in the mind of the observer must be represented with reasonable accuracy, both in
terms of tone rendition and color rendering. Color adds a more "dimension" (figurative sense) to
the mere reproduction of the scene in tone of gray. Color photograph is subject to a more
orientation and greater range effect than a black and white photographs.
1. Problems in color photography.
a. Color quality of illumination

Essentially, the problem in color work is the fact that color films does not "see" color as
the human eye The color of light is bluer with higher temperature and yellower with lower
temperature. Color temperature is expressed in degree Kelvin (K) obtained by adding 273 to the
temperature in degree centigrade.
b. Subject contrast
Subject contrast of a film depends largely on one factor-lighting contrast - which is the
ratio between the highest and lowest amount of illumination falling on the principal subject.
c. Exposure accuracy C.
Color films, particularly the reversal type have much less exposure latitude than black
and white films. Exposure setting must therefore be determined with greater degree of accuracy.
Use of exposure meter is highly adviced in the setting of correct exposure.
d. Color Perception
Inexperienced observer sometimes cannot recognize subtle tints mixtures and reflections
brought about by the effects of lighting condition and their surroundings.
e. Color Harmony
32
Color harmony is the systematic arrangement of colors to give a pleasing effect. This
subject is complex because of personal taste. This is a problem in commercialphotography and
illustrative work but seldom in Forensic work.
f. Color Blindness
People with this defective color vision have difficulty in distinguishing and naming
colors. They sometime see part of the spectrum as gray.
Review Questions:
1. Explain briefly how the chemical process in Photography.
2.What are the different formula of chemical process in Photography


33
MODULE 6
APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK
A. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL APPLICATIONS

After the theory, comes actual practice. Every difficult endeavor requires the integration
of two important areas so success can be obtained - theory and practice. There is almost always a
tendency to disregard the theoretical aspects associated with a special problem so that the
practical considerations can be studied. Without a sound framework relating to the significant
theory background of any problem.it is virtually impossible to ensure that the finish product is
the best possible one which can be obtained under a given set of circumstances. (Moreau 1994)
Photography has and still continue to serve a wide of functions in our criminal justice
system. The extent to which photography can be applied in the different pillars of our criminal
justice system will depend on the size of the organization, its financial capabilities, the
enthusiasm, imagination, and skill of its personnel.
Listed are some applications which are subject of our brief discussion and for practical
exercises during laboratory work to build the basic foundation of the skill of a beginner and of
one who is already in the practice of forensic photography.
1. Identification purposes
a. Prisoners, persons subject of investigation

b. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents, airline crash,
collapse of big buildings, shipwrecks, stampede, explosions, natural calamities
like earthquakes, landslides, cave-in of mines, tidal waves, massive flood, etc.
c. Missing persons (for publications and alert warnings)
d. Lost or stolen properties (work of art like paintings, sculpture, icons, antiques,
expensive jewelries, rare coins or books, etc.)
e. Civilian (police clearances for employment, travel abroad, other purposes).
2. Recording and preserving of evidences
a. Crime scenes (homicide or murder, theft or robbery, arson, other crimes listed
in the Revised Penal Code as well as other special laws (organized or syndicated,
crimes cyber-space or computer crimes).
b. Traffic accidents.
c. Objects of evidences (guns, bullet or shell, knife, clothings, shoes, other
personal belongings, etc.).
d. Evidential traces (fingerprints, shoe or tire prints, bloodstains and other body
fluids, toolmarks, bomb or explosive residues, etc.
3. Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye.
a. Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers
b. Magnification or enlargements of tiny objects by the application of

photomicrography or photomacrography
 Photomicrography - is the taking of photograph through a microscope. The camera is

attached to the eyepiece and it is the lens of the microscope that is used in photographing.
 Photomacrography or Macrophotography - is the taking of photograph with a short focus

lens. It is an extreme close-up of small objects to photographed to 1:1 or an actual size or
slightly bigger.
34
 Microphotography - is the taking of a photograph of an object in a very reduced size or
tiny images of large objects, for example, a microfilm.
b. Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays, and infrared rays
4. Recording action of offenders
a. surveillance
b. entrapment
c. extra-judicial confession
d. re-enactment of a crime
5. For court exhibits
a. individual photographs
b. slide projections
c. comparison charts
d. motion picture or video coverage/presentation
6. For crime prevention
Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, modus operandi of

"con game artist," snatchers or uppers, civil defense, informational services shared
with hold- other local or foreign police organization, business establishments
(banks, hotels) and industrial complex security.
7. Public Information
Photographs for press releases, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts,
etc.
Every police administrator must endeavor to build a good public image of

his organization and its personnel. Media coverage on sensational or high profile
crime is alright but he must not lose sight on the often ignored day- to-day
activities on the enforcement of laws. On humanitarian services rendered like
search and rescue missions during disasters and calamities, example are pictures
of a traffic policeman giving aid to an elderly or a child crossing a busy
intersection or a beat policeman doing his rounds on foul weather or in an empty
and desolate street at night, can portray an image that indeed the police is a public
servant, a protector, and a friend.
8. Police training
Prepared training films or video presentations of personnel indoctrination,
police tactics, investigative techniques, traffic control, civil disturbances
(demonstrations) control, riots or prison disorders, documentaries for pre- and
post-briefings on police operations, etc.
B. SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
1. Identification Photographs
An identification photograph should be an accurate likeness of the subject, from which he
can be recognized by witnesses or police officers. These photographs should strive to reproduce
every mole, scar, wrinkles and other marks which will help identify the subject. Generally, a full
front lighting will accomplish it. The standard photographs for identification is the head and
shoulder shot of the subject's front and profile (either full side view or quarter face). The ear of a
person is a very distinctive feature for identification so every effort to show it must be observed
especially with women or even men with long hairs. Shots with closed eyes or squinted eyes
35
should be retaken to show the normal appearance of the subject's eyes. Full length body shot or
stand-up are sometimes taken on suspects of serious crimes or like in a robbery case where
witness has seen the suspect at a distance or while running. This type of photograph can give
additional information on body contours or appearance and characteristic posture. A person
should be photographed with his head uncovered. If he normally wear glasses, he should be
photographed with it and another without glasses.
At a police headquarters or station, an ample space should be reserved for an

identification gallery where two lights with reflector, a clear and white background can be set-up
so identification photographs can be standardized The basic arrangement would be that the lamp
on the right of the camera will be 12 to 18 inches higher than the lens while the lamp on the left
will be 12 to 18 inches lower than the lens. The camera must be parallel to the subject's face with
the lens on the level of the eye of the subject.
With the popularity of the 35 mm camera and also automated printing machines for their
negatives, the ideal camera to subject distance should be pre-determined then maintained so the
size of photographs will be uniform without the necessity of either reduction or enlargement The
use of electronic flash unit for this purpose is also resorted to because of expediency but care
must be exercised that it will not produce harsh or distinct shadow of the subject in the
background. This can be avoided the subject is made to stand very close to the background or to
stand about 2 feet away.
In taking photographs of unknown cadavers for identification purposes, the face should
be washed and cleared of mud, dirt, grease, or other foreign matters before the picture taking.
Usually the subject is lying on his back so to maintain the parallelism of the camera and the face,
the photographer must stand straddle on the body of the victim.
A data board bearing the name of the subject or his alias, the police department or unit
handling the case, case number, the date, are some of information that are usually included in the
photograph.
In photographing objects of evidence or evidential traces to show their original

appearance and condition when received for laboratory examination, the standard procedure on
lighting, camera position, data board, and a ruler or measuring device placed at the bottom side
of the subject must be observed at all times.
At this point of time, while black and white photographs are still accepted, color
photographs are more preferred.
For a more efficient and effective filing system identification photographs for quick
search and retrieval, of for faster circulation the use of computers is highly adviced and
recommended, including use of digital cameras. relative higher price of these cameras can be
recovered on The savings on the cost of films, photographic papers, printing process, scanning,
on personnel time and effort. Since digital images can be sent via electronic communication
equipment, distribution or circulation of photographs of wanted persons, those on watchlists, or
suspects getting away from a scene of a crime, bank hold up, kidnapping, etc. can be forwarded
to patrol units who will set roadblocks to prevent their flight or escape.
2 Crime-Scene Photography
a. General consideration
The primary purpose of crime-scene photography is to provide information that will
assist the successful investigation and subsequent prosecution of a criminal case. Photography is
used as a permanent visual record of the exact and original location and condition of the different
aspects of the scene and vital evidences of proof. Hence, the indespensable photographing of the
crime scene should be done completely and accurately before objects of evidence are removed,
36
altered, or lost. In the initial stages of an investigation, there are certain aspects that are not
readily evident, but later they may affect vital issues of the case.
Generally, crime scene photography serve in the following areas:
1. To provide the investigator and the prosecutor with an accurate pictorial presentation of the
appearance and position of objects at the scene.
2. To aid in the questioning of suspects and witnesses when their sworn statements are being
taken.
3. To present to the court an accurate picture of the scene thereby enabling them to understand
the evidences better and evaluate intelligently the testimony concerning the distances of the
defendants and witnesses.
Take note that photography is a means of visual communication basically with a more
universal of conveying a message or idea than spoken or written words. The aim or goal is to
record maximum information in a series of photographs which will enable a viewer to
understand WHERE and HOW the crime was committed. The term "crime scene" refers not only
to immediate locality in which the criminal act was perpetrated but also to adjacent areas where
important acts took place immediately before or after the commission of the crime. The number
and type of photographs will naturally be determined by the circumstances and details of the
crime. Remember the forensic photography is the "documentation" of the scene. It is an accurate
and logical "story" as told by the scene in visual form. The immense value of the completeness
must be priority over the cost of films and other materials. It is a wise move to take more pictures
than too few.
Each crime has individual features which will be photographed. Keep in mind the nature
of the offense and try to show the features that establishes the elements of the offense. It is
prudent that the judgment should not be that of the photographer alone but in consultation with
the officer of the case.
As a basic guideline, the approach to complete representation of subject matters is the

progression "general to specific." This will involve the coverage of of the crime scene from
different major vantage positions:
a. the long range or general view

b. the medium range or medium view
c. the close-up
d. the extreme close-up
The photographic range or views can be categorized as:
a. focusing on the location of the crime

b. concentrating on the features of the offense
c. centering on the result of the crime
d. featuring the physical evidence existing at the scene
e. focusing on the follow-up activity not directly occurring at the immediate scene.
• The location photographs should depict the various places which are part of the crime scene
areas, an aerial photograph, exterior view of a whole building including nearly several rooms, are
some examples.
 The nature of the crime should be depicted by photographs which will assist the
investigator in determining the type of crime differentiating like in resolving whether it is
homicide or suicide or in cases which does not readily offer obvious answers.
 The result of a crime may have several aspects, for example in a rape incident which
began as a house break-in through a kitchen door continued with robbery and culminated
37
with the rape when the victim confronted the intruder/ Therefore the result of each
portion of the crime are depicted on a sequential fashion to reproduce the event of great
relevance is the photographing of the physical evidences and their relationship with other
evidences to establishing their connections to the accused
 The follow-up photographs represents an outgrowth of the crime investigation.

Photograph of the autopsy, bruises or wounds on live victims or suspects are some
examples/ These additional photographs will reveal a greater depth of understanding of
the activities of the crime scene.
In some cases, the taking of extreme close- up photographs are necessary where
evidential traces like fingerprints made of grease, blood or hardened paint which are
incapable of lifting technique, toolmarks, on unmovable objects, and other minute
objects.
b. Perspective/camera position
Since crime scene photographs are designed to to a viewer of the areas as would have
meet the sye of an average observer the procedure for taking the photographs is straight-forward.
It must have a good perspective or simply stated, the size and distances of objects in the
photograph must convey a normal impression to the average viewer. The general view of the
scene should be located and directed just as the eye of the witness would be observing the room
or areas. In short, photographs should be taken at an eye-level position. The term "eye-level" is
not restrictive. Taking photographs with the camera pointed up or down normally causes
photographic distortions but there are exceptions to this rule. Naturally, if you wish to show an
object not in a normal line of vision, the camera must be placed elsewhere. Photographic
distortions concerning vertical lines can undergo corrective treatment with large format cameras
with tilting front and swinging back (not possible with rigid front and back cameras) or during
the enlargement process.
c. Lenses
Two lenses are usually sufficient at a crime scene - a wide angle lens and a normal lens.
Very seldom that a telephoto lens is needed. A macro zoom lens is the most ideal for crime scene
work.
d. Lighting
Usually existing room lights, daylight and artificial lights may be satisfactory for taking
photographs of crime scenes. However, because of a wide variety lighting conditions in different
areas of a room, there is a need for a supplemental or additional lights. While the use of
photoflood lamp to add illumination to a room or a scene is sometimes considered yet it is often
impractical because electrical cords can get along the field of view of the camera; can impede
free movement within the scene; and setting it up is often time consuming. For ease and speed,
the use of illumination from one flash unit is necessary, the use of a slave unit or the application
of "painting with light" technique can do the job.
e. Markers in the field of view

Because of the objection of some lawyers and the courts to markings and marking devices
appearing in the photographs of crime scenes, it is therefore wise or prudent to take photographs
without it and one with. The legally accepted markers or marking devices are the following:
1. Ruler or measuring device

Rulers, yardsticks, or tape measures can show relative sizes and distances between
objects. It can also show the degree of magnification or reduction of the final print. These rulers
must be placed beside the subject. In the case of fingerprints or handwritings, they are usually
38
placed at the base to maintain uniformity of location in photographs that will be used for
comparison charts.
2. Identification data
A small sign is usually placed at the scene but its data should be limited to the date, time,
location, and case or job number.
3. Location markers.
These can be sticks or numbered signs to show specific locations of small objects not
readily seen in an over-all photograph. In selecting a marker, avoid using an article which
resemble an object that is originally found in the scene.
In placing these markers mentioned above, care must be exercised that they will not
obscure, conceal, or interfere with any significant part of the subject.
and retrieval of the negatives when a need for recopy or for court presentation. This will likewise
establish the "chain of position" of the original negatives and photographs printed. Here are some
of the informations needed:
File number:_________________________________________________________________
Nature of case:_______________________________________________________________
Date and time taken: __________________________________________________________
Name of Photographer:_________________________________________________________
Camera used:____________________________ Focal length of lens used:________________
Exposure settings:________________________ Source of light:________________________
Accessories used______________________________________________________________:
Film used: ______________________________ISO rating:___________________________
Developing time:_________________________Developer used:________________________
Date filed: __________________________________________________________________
Received by:_________________________________________________________________
Date/Time of recopy: _____________________Number of copies:______________________
Requested by:________________________________________________________________
Div./Sec./Unit: _______________________________________________________________
Approved by:_________________________________________________________________
Name of Police Officers/Forensic specialist and other people present at the crime scene
during the picture taking.
SPECIFIC CRIMES
Here are some suggestions of what photographs take n the following common crimes.
Again we remind you that the uidelines on this subject is the nature of the offense and the
lements of the crime.
1. Homicide or Murder
Since the investigation of death has a wide variety of forms, photographs should
provide informations concerning the manner and cause of death of the victim.
These set of photographs should help the investigator in the reconstruction of the
crime and in verifying statements of suspects and witnesses.
1-A. Manner of Death
To help explain how the crime took place, show from several angles the whole scene
and all possible elements of the crime.
a. General consideration
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1. Exterior of the building including surrounding areas which will show place and manner of
entry or exit, places of concealment, visibility of various points, shoe or footprints, tire
impressions, broken branches or shrubs, etc.
2.The room or area where the body was found..Also adjoining rooms.
3.Evidence of struggle such as overturned chairs, broken objects or articles in disartray.
4.Signs of prior to the occurrence like the presence of playing cards, bottles of liquors, cigarettes
butts, T.V. or radio sets on, etc. In general, articles apparently in use immediately prior to the
commission of the crime or articles that have been disturbed from ordinary position as well as
articles whose presence is foreign or "don't belong" to the scene.
5. Traced evidences like marks of conflict on the body, on clothings, tracks of bloodstains,
fingerprints, shoe or footprints, fragments of glass, metal and other potential clue materials.
To show the body in the scene and its position in relation to the articles in the room, least
two photographs of the body should be taken at right angle to each other and the camera position
drawn from the normal position of an observer. Other photographs should include close-ups of
visible wounds and other special aspects of the conditions of the body as well as the weapon.
Cause of Death
a. Crimes involving firearms

In cases where firearms was used in the commission of a crime, the work of the
photographer is more difficult and complex. The taking of photographs must be in consultation
and advice of a forensic ballistician and a medico-legal officer.
From the ballistician's opinions to determine the distance at which the firearm was
apparently fired and other issues relating to the trajectory.
From the medico-legal officer, opinion on wounds and path of the bullet through the body and
the distinction between the entrance and exit wounds.
In photographing the body, it should include views from the direction in which the
weapon was apparently fired and another from the opposite directions to show the area from
which the firearm was fired.
The usual technique adopted to show the path of the bullet is to stretch a white cord or
string from the body to the apparent point of discharge from the body to the bullet hole on walls
or ceiling or where bullets were imbedded and recovered.
For indoor scenes, take photographs or marks of bullets on impact with walls or other solid
objects from the point of fire. Take pictures of the height of bullet holes from the floor and its
distances to adjoining walls. Close-up photographs of bullet holes with a scale and one without
for possible determination of the caliber of the weapon, recovered bullets, cartridges, or shells on
the walls or furnitures.
For outdoor scenes, photographs should be taken to show possible long trajectory or
ricochet. Angle of direction of fire from many possibilities like shooting from another building,
from behind a tree or structure, from a vehicle (idle or moving) and a list of other possibilities.
b. Hanging
In death apparently due to hanging, doubt sometimes exist whether the occurrence is
homicide, suicide, or accidental. The original position of the body is of prime importance.
Naturally, the necessity of administering first aid measure offers results in complete change in
the original position. If the body was found undisturbed, the photograph that will help determine
the manner of death is in an over-all views of the body and the rope taken at torso and foot level.
Show the length of the body to the ground. It is said that a murderer usually tries to raise the
40
body completely while in suicide frequently does not get his feet clear of the floor and
sometimes found sitting or half-prone position. Photographs should also show relative position
of objects such as chair or stool which appears to have been kicked from under the feet of the
deceased.
Close-ups shots are the knot, its size, type, and location on the neck, depth and location of
the groove in the neck, black and blue marks along the groove (use of color film is adviced),
signs of violence about the neck, protrusion of the tongue, or binding in the hands or feet.
c.Drowning
In drowning case, the body is usually the object of interest since the crime scene itself is
uncertain except the location of where the body was found floating or snagged.
Photograph the whole body both from the standing observer position and from ground
level position. Close-up shots should show any foam in the mouth, the mouth whether open or
closed, wounds if any, peculiar markings, unusual discolorations. Articles found in the or
clothings, the use of color film is also adviced.
d. Electrocution
In case of death by electrocution, the usual are taken in the area of scene photographs
particularly the cause of the current flow, or from the electrical connection where the shock
could have originated like exposed wires, cracked insulations, presence of water near or
surrounding the body, the accessibility of metal fixtures to the deceased original position at the
time of shock, etc.
e. Explosion
In cases of explosion, take photographs that will help determine whether the explosion is
directed against property, against persons, or both.
To be considered in selecting objects that should be photographed are the following:
a. Nature of the explosive device - homemade, dynamite, liquid chemical, bomb or other
military hardware or stuff. Strewn about the scene are parts and pieces, fragments of its
container, fuse, tapes, wire, cloths, papers, metal parts that are imbedded on walls or other
objects at the scene
b.Undetonated parts of the explosive - they may be found at distances from the point of
explosion.
c. Traces of liquid explosives - stains on clothings, curtains, or walls, particles of wax or

paraffin, or spillage at the approaches of the scene.
d. Point of origin - the exact spot where the thing is placed and probably open windows
or doors where it was thrown.
e.Conditions of household items these may be objects which will show whether the
explosions was due to faulty gas line, gas leaks from the gas valve, ruptured pipes, or fittings,
etc.
Photographs should also show the degree of destruction and how wide was the area that
was affected.
Robbery Case
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a. General view of the exterior of the building.
b. Points of break or entry. Mark of force should be shown clearly with both medium views and
close-ups.
c. Point of exit
d. Conditions of the room. Be aware of characteristics patterns which will indicate modus-
operandi
e. Places where valuable materials were removed
f. Articles left behind like burglary tools (crowbars, metal saw, metal file, screw drivers, etc.)
g. Trace evidences like fibers adhering on window frames, soil, cigarette butts, burned matches,
powders, toolmarks, shoe or footprints, fingerprints which includes the places where they are
found or developed.
3. Sex Offenses
In the crime of rape, the photographs to be taken are the place of incidence, signs of
struggle or resistance on the part of the victim and objects of evidence.
The photograph of the general view should probably show the remoteness of the area to
normal traffic or its distance to the nearest dwelling place or that the place is not a normal
meeting place for social purpose.
Medium shots should show broken branches or pressed grasses if outdoor and crumpled
beddings or pillows strewn about if indoor.
Close-up should show buttons removed from cloths, torn clothing or garments, hairs or
fibers, presence of biological stains like blood or semen. On the body of the victim are signs like
contusions bruises or wounds. Before, it was the usual practice, to also photograph laceration
found on the private part of the victim but this is not compulsory but voluntary. However, a
written waiver is asked from the victim and from parents or guardian, if the victim is a minor.
4. Arson or Fire
The difficulty of proving arson- the willful - and malicious burning of property - is so
great that every technical aid must be brought to the photographing of an arson case is sometimes
long extending for a period of several days. It should begin as soon as possible usually pictures
of the fire in progress and continue throughout the search for evidence after the fire.
The photographs to be taken during the progress of the fire are the following:
a. Area of origin
b. Rapidity, direction, and manner of spread of the fire
c. The nature of the burning substance as indicated by the color of the smoke, and color
and size of the flame
d. The progressive stages of the burning as shown from various angles and significant
changes taking place .
e.unusual arrangements of doors and windows
f. Identity of spectators. The arsonist usually returns to the scene to witness the burning.
Photographic coverage of a suspected arson case should not be limited to still

photographs but must include motion picture or video.
The photographs to be taken after the fire are:
a. For exterior view - all sides of the building to show the extent of damage.
b. For the interior view look for the following:
1. Presence of incendiary devices or materials

2.Significant arrangements that are suspicious or that shows planned burning
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3. Burned areas with deepest intensity or the apparent origin of the fire as seen by witnesses or
firemen at the alleged point of origin of the fire, take a medium shot to identify the location then
close-up photograph of the following:
a. electrical entrances, meters, fuses, switches, and any evidence of tampering or repair.
b. Gas valves, pipings, connections and - also signs of tampering or repair.
c. Fire extinguisher - its operating mechanism to determine whether its operational or defective.
4.During the search for clues, the photographer should be around so he can immediately
photograph it.
Bear in mind that photographic subjects are generally black or dark objects so care must
be exercised that exposure setting will not result to under exposure. Usually an additional two to
four times increase on normal exposure will be the proper adjustment.
In some instances, the taking of photographs for public information, fire prevention, and
training of new recruits are included in the photo coverages. Photographs of this sort are the
firetrucks, ambulances, medical or rescue efforts, injuries and even death. Human interest
photographs of fire victims in panic, in agony and distress or even in comical situation are good
for press releases.
5. Traffic Vehicular Accidents

Death or serious injuries being investigated by the police involving motor vehicles should
be photographed with primary purpose to help determine whether there was negligence in the
operation of the vehicle, inadequate control due to excessive speed, or loss of control due to
defective mechanism or sudden physical disability of the driver. Distances, positions, speeds and
fragments left behind the scene of the usual photographic subjects. Since injured persons are
removed from the vehicle to the hospital or morgue; and vehicles involved are moved to the
sides to give way to traffic; the taking of photographs should be done with speed and precision.
The number and nature of the photographs to be taken will vary widely with the seriousness of
the accident and the difficulty involved in fixing responsibility. Be sure to include reference
points and details of the cause and responsibility of the accident. These lists had been found to be
applicable in any case.
1. General view
a. Exact location or area of collision. This should include debris lying on the roadway, skid mark
and other evidences.
b. Position of vehicles as they are found.
c. Surrounding areas. Take one or several photographs from a distance, if possible from a high
point from a window or roof of a building to show an intersection or the street as a whole for
possible road hazards like blind corners, potholes, tree branches or shrubs that may obscure
vision, traffic control mechanism or lights (operational or not), road signs and notices, etc.
d. To corroborate testimonies of eye-witnesses, take a picture from their eye-level standing

position.
Vehicles must be photographed individually for damaged areas. One picture should show
it in whole with its license plate for identification purposes. Take a close-up photograph of the
damage area to show the force of the collision speed at which the vehicle were traveling at the
moment of impact. The location of the damage may also help show how the accident took place.
To show dents and depth of the dent, proper lighting procedure should be planned. Care must
also be made in choosing the proper camera position so glare or confusing reflections are
43
avoided. The use of color film is essential if the cars involved are of different colors so paint
transfer during the collision are clearly visible or recognized.
Skid marks which are the result of the friction between the tires and the pavement when
the brakes are fully applied, must be photographed and also the tire marks. Photograph the skid
marks from two directions; first, end-on to show directions and, second, side-on to show the
length. Ordinarily, the camera should be placed as high as possible to give the best view of the
marks.
Close-up of the beginning and end of the marks should be taken to show that they are
truly skid marks. If there are interruptions in the skid marks, that must be recorded, too. To avoid
optical distortion on the perspective, as much as possible, a normal lens must be used in
photographing skid marks. (Of course, the investigator should take the actual measurement of its
length).
The need to take photographs of the tire marks is to identify the pattern of the tires of the
vehicles involved.
Some investigators prefer the reverse order starting with the close-up first and work back
toward the over-all or general view. In hit-and-run cases of when an eyewitness is absent, to
determine the identity of vehicle involved, all trace evidences at the scene and those found on the
victim must be photographed. Two photographs of each piece of evidence in their natural size
close-up are usually required; one showing its location at the scene and the other in the body or
clothing or on the suspect's vehicle. These pieces of evidence could be matched up later or on a
future date.
Photographs for orientation purpose must be in conjunction with measurements and

sketch.
Problem situations like inclement weather or fog make it necessary to use a flash unit. To
reduce reflections from rains or fog, use the flash unit above and away from the camera.
6. Articles or Objects of Evidence

Important items of evidence are usually photographed individually at the scene of a crime
as they are found upon receipt at a crime laboratory. These photographs serve the following
purpose:
1. à permanent record of the original appearance of the object
2. it can be in place of the evidence thereby lessen unnecessary handling that can cause
alteration.
Typical of these evidences are tools, a weapons, bullets, cartridges or shells, contrabands,
illegal drugs, cellphones, etc. It can also be a wound, contusions, bruises, scratches, identifying
marks on a body of a person, and others which might deteriorate or change in the passing of
time.
Several methods can be used in photographing these items at the laboratory. If the
purpose of such photograph is simply identification purpose, the image should be sharp in all
details, free from confusing shadows and large enough to show important details of the evidence.
Large objects or group of small objects shall be arranged symmetrically.
If the evidence is not flat, it has thickness or round. Focus the lens at midpoint of the
object or on the central object for a group of objects then stop down the lens to gain sufficient
dept of field until both ends of the thick object or all borders of the group of objects are in
acceptable focus or sharpness.
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If the texture of the object is to be shown or to show impressions of depth on the surface
by means of contrasting of shadows, sidelight or oblique is undertaken. Ordinarily though, even
lighting must be maintained with the use of adjustable or goose neck lamps. It is again stressed
that a ruler or a scale should be placed beside the object of evidence.
Being shared with you are the inspiring words of Dr. Paul L. Kirk, a famous American
Crime Scene Reconstruction Expert, prominently displayed at the Hall of Fame and Museum of
American Police at Cape Canaveral, Florida, USA.
"Whenever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves even unconsciously, will

serve as silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints, his footprints, but his hair, the
fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks; the tool marks he leaves; the paint he scratches; the
blood or semen he deposits or collects - all of these and more bear mute witness against him.
This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused in the excitement of the moment; it is not
absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong; it
cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent, only its interpretation can err. Only human
failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value.
D. SURVEILLANCE PHOTOGRAPHY
The purpose of surveillance photography is to gather pertinent facts or information, or

evidence of illegal acts of persons or if a place is being used for illegal activities. While still
photographs can be used to identify a person or a place motion picture or videography should be
used to record an act or activity. With still photography, there is always that chance that at the
moment of picture taking, the subject may bend down or turn to another direction or another
person vehicle, or another object may obstruct the view but motion picture or video will avoid
the possibility because of the large number of frames to choose from The main difference of this
type of photography to that of ordinary photography is the requirement of secrecy. To achieve
this, either the photograph is taken under cover of distance or if at close distance, the camera is
cleverly concealed so the picture taking is without the knowledge of great the subject. To be
more effective, the photographer must train or learn to take photographs blindly or without
looking at the viewfinder of the still camera or the monitor of a video camera. The use of a wide
angle lens for close distances and a small lens diaphragm for greater depth of field will certainly
be of great help.
Suggested equipment and materials:
1. Miniature camera with motor drive or automatic film advance

2. Telephoto lens with 400 mm or higher or 100-400 mmzoom lens with tele-extender 2X or 4X
3. A right angle lens attachment
4. A night viewing device with attachment to a 35 mm camera
5. Films with ISO 400/27 degree or higher
6. A high speed infra-red film
7. An infra-red flash unit
8. A miniature video camera with the following specifications
a. video camcorder for 8mm or 16mm cassette tape or video digital camera - 4 mega
pixel or higher
b. power source - 12 VDC
c. power output - 9 w
d. lens - 10.1 zoom - f 1.4 or f 1.2 10.5 mm-105 mm Auto/manual zoom macro
e. minimum light - 30 lux
f. optimum light - 150 lux
g auto/manual focus
h. playback, still, fast forward, rewind
i. high speed shutter
j. slow motion
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k. power/standby
1. color balance
m. remote control
n. time and date indicator
(Because of the very fast progress and development of digital photography, it is sometimes
impractical and perhaps misleading to recommend a particular type ormodel.)
9. Cellphones with camera or video capability
10. Tripod
E. FINGERPRINT PHOTOGRAPHY
Fingerprint is one of the most convincing means of establishing the fact that the suspect
was present at the crime scene. Without photography, such evidence would lose some of its
effectiveness/Since fingerprints are found on fixed objects and cannot be brought to the
laboratory or later, in court, while others are barely visible to the naked eye. These and other
difficulties are readily overcome by photography. Fingerprints are easily destroyed by careless
handling or exposure to weather so it must be recorded and preserved photographically.
Fingerprint is a record of the pattern of friction ridges of the skin of the fingers.
Fingerprints left accidentally at the scene of a crime or those impressed on a fingerprint card of
an individual are photographed to serve the following purpose:
1. Makes permanent records of fingerprints
2. Will bring out faint fingerprints which cannot be studied by the naked eye but often are of
great value for identification purposes.
3. It can magnify a fingerprint to almost any extent desired.
4. Will make possible the side-by-side comparisons of magnified fingerprints for the courts to
see whether or not two or more fingerprints are identical in detail
Whether chance impression are latent or visible, their photographing is a task calling for
technical skill and knowledge. An accidental impression is rarely as perfect as a prepared
impression with ink by a skilled fingerprint technician. Very often there are some parts
fragmentary or some parts smudge.
a. Types of Fingerprints
Since the photographing of fingerprints is to help the fingerprint expert to be able to study,
analyze, and compare fingerprints, in any type of fingerprint it must be taken at one is to one
(actual) size and to obtain good definition and proper contrast
.
1. Plain or black fingerprints on black or dark background.
2. White fingerprints on black or dark background.
When a fingerprint impression is developed with white or metallic powder on a black or

dark background, it is considered as a reversed print because the fingerprint ridges which are
supposed to be rendered black appears white instead. A corrective measure is to take photograph
or make a contact print on another film the negative of the fingerprint. This transparency is the
one that is printed or enlarged for examination and comparison.
3. Black fingerprint on colored background.
46
This may need the use of a filter. To obtain maximum contrast use a color filter with the
same color of the background to lighten it.
4. Black fingerprint on multi-colored background.
This should be photographed with ultraviolet radiation.
5. Fingerprints on glass, plastic materials or on polished metal.
The problem encountered in these types of materials is the reflections that they create when
lighted. The solution is in using a polarizing filter or the application of tent lighting technique or
both.
6. Fingerprints on paper.
Fingerprints on papers are not developed with powders but with iodine fuming or the application
or Ninhydrine solution. However, the fingerprints will fade after a few minutes so if this
procedure is undertaken, the camera and other
equipment must be made ready so when the fingerprints appear, they are immediately.
photographed
7. Fingerprints on mirror.
The problem is that the image of the camera lens can interfere with the fingerprint
pattern. To resolve the problem, soak a piece of chalk on water then carefully encircle the
fingerprint with it before photographing. Another method is to scrape of remove the coating of
the mirror at its back to make it transparent. Discretion and caution is however adviced on this
procedure because it might be subject to objection from the opposing lawyer in court.
In photographing the different types of fingerprints, the hoice of film to be used is

sometimes also critical. There are instances that an orthochromatic film may yield better result
than a panchromatic film. Since most subjects are for enlargements to size 8" x 10" or bigger, the
use of film rated ISO 100/21° or lower is adviced.
b. Equipment
1. A 35 mm (SLR) camera with 35-70 mm macro zoom lens

2. Extension rings or tubes (three layers) Example is the PK 11, PK 12, and PK 13 for Nikon
cameras - yellow, blue, orange or red.
3. Sets of filters – yellow, blue, orange or red polarizing
4. Tripod with invertible center post or reproductionstand
5. Cable release
6. Two pieces goose neck lamp
7. Ultraviolet lamp
F. QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PHOTOGRAPHY
In no other type of forensic examination is photography used so extensively in explaining

points of proof to the court than in questioned documents examination. In this photographic
work, the photographer should be under the guidance and supervision of the document examiner
so the photographic objective is clearly defined. The contrast balance and tonal reproduction that
is required to clearly show and record the paper and the writings' to line quality, pen pressure,
and their darkened edges is so critical and demanding every knowledge and technical skill of the
photographer. Some documents require exceedingly high or abnormal contrast to bring out what
does not respond to ordinary processes so again, the photographer must be innovative.
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a. General use of Photography in Questioned Documents Examination
1. Documents submitted for examination should be photographed immediately for record

purposes, a good photographic copy of the document can be used for case study thereby freeing
the possible soiling or mutilation of the original document. Moreover, when two or more
examiners have to examine the same document for a collegial expert opinion, it can easily be
replicated so every examiner can examine the document at the same time without bothering one
another.
2. Magnification. Handwritings and typerwritings are both too small in their original sizes
to study and determine whether it is genuine or forgery so they have to be enlarged.
3.Side by side comparison. Many people cannot see points of identity or difference until objects
that are compared are placed side-by-side. Photographs can be cut apart so the portions to be
compared are placed side by side.
b. Areas of photographic concern:
1. Handwritings
a. form of the handwriting
b. line quality
c. patching
d. sequence of crossed lines
e. writing over fold
f. differentiation of inks or pencils
2. Typewritings
a. type design
b. alignment
c. slant
d. evenness of impression
e. defective characters
f. substitution
g. identity of the operator
3. Papers
a. erasures
1. mechanical - sidelight photography
2. chemical - ultraviolet or infrared photography
b. Paper identification (watermarks) - transmitted light photography

c. Eliminations of paper background use of - filters.
4. Other concerns
a. faded writings
b. indented writings
c. obliterated writings
d. restoring erased writing
e. stamped out writings
f. burned papers (charred or burnt)
c. Equipment and materials that are used in questioned documents photography are the same as
those used in fingerprint photography. The only addition is those used in infrared photography
48
like infrared film, a Wratten filter no. 87. Another area of difference is in the size of
photographic papers used, normally the 11" x 14", or 16"x 24" (sheet or rolled).
G .ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY.
Ultraviolet photography is the taking of photograph rays or more specifically radiations
having a using ultraviolet wave length of 30-400 nanometers of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The operating principle of ultraviolet photography lies in that some materials will absorb
ultraviolet rays while other reflects these radiations, some others have partial absorption, some
partial reflections. This difference in reaction can be recorded, photographically when materials
are illuminated with this radiation.
1. Methods of Ultraviolet Photography
a. Reflected method
This method is accomplished by the following steps:
1. Illuminate the subject with an ultraviolet lamp or a light source emitting ultraviolet radiations.
2. Exclude all visible light in exposing energy. This is accomplished by placing a Wrattern filter
no. 18-A over the lens of the camera.
3. record the image in the camera using almost any type of film.
b. Flourescence Method
There are certain materials that will flouresce when subjected to ultraviolet rays. Very
often, this is in the visible light spectrum. This flourescence effect or reaction is recorded
photographically in the following procedure:
1. Set-up the camera on a tripod or reproduction stand inside a darkroom. Almost any type of
film can be used with this method.
2. An appropriate ultraviolet lamp is used to illuminate the subject so it will fluoresce.
3. Place a Wratten filter no. 2B (ultraviolet absorbing filter) over the lens of the camera.
4. Make the exposure. Since the emulsion speed the film, and the intensity of the light source are
not readily determined, test or trial exposures are as reference for the ideal exposure setting. of
made
As stated earlier, this is undertaken inside a darkroom. To solve the problem in the
difficulty of focusing, pre-focus the lens of the camera under ordinary room light or any ordinary
lamp. Stop down the lens diaphragm then put off the visible light before making the actual
exposure.
c. Light Sources.
There are many light sources that emits ultraviolet radiations but not all of them are
suitable for forensic photography. Listed are some and suitable light sources.\
a. sunlight
b. electronic flash unit
c. mercury vapor lamp
d. carbon arc lamp
e. fluorescent lamp
f. ultraviolet lamp popularly known as black lamp used by bank tellers is an ideal radiation
source and it is readily available in the market.
49
The exposed film is processed in the same chemical solutions with the same processing time.
d. Forensic Applications
The application is wide and varied but here is a short

list:
a. Fingerprints on multi-colored background
b. Questioned document examination particularly on chemical erasures, deciphering of erased
writings or figures, etc.
c. Detection of presence of semen covered with blood on clothing or undergarments in alleged
rape case.
d. Examination of precious or semi-precious stones in cases of fraud.
e. Presence of fluorescence powder in the hands of a suspect in cases of entrapment of extortion.
H. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
Infrared photography is the taking of photographs with radiations between 700-1000
nanometers of the electromagnetic spectrum. The difference between ordinary photography to
that of infrared lies in the type of film used, the kind of filter used, and in focusing method.
1. Film used - infrared film. Infrared film may be black and white color (reversal type)
2. Filters used - Wratten filter no. 87 or any deep, red filter for B & W and Wratten no. 12 for
color work.
3. Focusing method. Focus the lens of the camera under visible light. Once focused, readjust the
focus slightly to conform with the longer wave length of the exposing energy. To simplify this
procedure, most 35 mm SLR camera lens have a red dot or short line in focusing scale where this
added adjustment should be set. (Note When this adjustment is done, the image of the subject on
the groundglass or viewfinder will appear slightly blurred.)
a. Light sources
1. Sunlight
2. Electronic flash unit
3. Photoflood lamp
4. Carbon arc lamp
Note: An infrared lamp used for therapeutic purpose or those being used in hospitals are not
good for photographic use because the wave length of the radiation that they emit are beyond the
1000 nanometer or beyond the sensitivity of the present infrared films.
There are two types of infrared photography - the reflected method and the luminescence
method.
1. Infrared Reflected Method.

Load the camera with an infra-red film. Attach the filter on the camera lens. Illuminate
the subject with the appropriate light source then focus the lens of the camera as described earlier
then take your picture Since infrared film do not have emulsion speed indicator test or trial
exposure is also adviced to get the best exposure setting. The use of small lens opening like f-8
or f-11 is however adviced.
writings
2. Infrared Luminescence Method.
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Some materials when illuminated with visible light especially in the blue-green region
but is devoid of any infrared radiation will luminisce. Many dyes and pigments like the ballpoint
pen inks reacts this way. To record this phenomenon, the photographing is also done inside the
darkroom.
The film and filter used in reflected method should also be used but the additional
focusing adjustment is no longer necessary. To determine the ideal exposure setting, bracket the
settings widely apart.
Processing solutions and timing used in ordinary photography can also be used with both
methods.
1. FORENSIC APPLICATIONS
1. Chemical erasures in questioned documents examinations

2. Obliterated writings
3. Charred or burnt documents

4. Presence of gunpowder on skin or clothing of a victim that is covered with dried blood.
5. Blackout photography or the taking of photograph in total
darkness.
Review Questions:
1. What are the other forensic sciences?
.

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MODULE 7
PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
BASIC RULES ON ADMISSABILITY
It is an established fact that a photograph offered in evidence should be a true and faithful
representation of the scene or subject matter. The person viewing it should get an of the scene or
object which does not mislead in any of the important aspect. It should be free from unusual
distortion of lines, shapes, and color or any deceptive tone relationship. Important subjects
should be in sharp focus.
In the Philippines, the admissibility of a photograph as evidence was ruled in the case:
City of Manila vs. Cabangis 10 Phil. 151 a photograph is admissible in evidence upon proof of
exactness and accuracy. "That the photograph is a true and faithful representation of the subject
as seen by the naked eye."
As a matter of fact, the court have taken judicial notice of the photographic process as
being capable of producing an accurate representation because as Justice Sison of the Supreme
Court has ruled:
"...that the process by which the lens of a camera forms an image are dependent upon or
governed by the same natural law as an image is formed by the human eye."
However, the photographic image can also be manipulated to become misleading. It is for
this reason that before the photograph being offered in evidence is admitted, it must undergo
verification as to its exactness and accuracy. In our judicial system, those qualified to show proof
of faithfulness are :
1. The photographer who took the photograph

2. Any other person who has personal knowledge of the taking of the photograph and
have seen the subject.
It must be mentioned here that the requirement of law on "accuracy" is not mathematical
but substantive.
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Evidence photographs may be divided into two categories:
1. That which represent an object of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or verbal
description of it.
2. Those which are designed to prove a point bearing an issue on a case such as a comparison
chart of a fingerprint, handwriting or test bullets or shells.
A. TECHNIQUES FOR DEMONSTRATING EVIDENCE PRINTS
1. Composite Exhibits
This consists of two photographs placed side by side to show points of similarities or
differences. This is generally used in the comparison of fingerprint or handwriting
a. What do photographs show?
Photographs cannot and do not recreate the original subject. They do preserve a
visible record of a moment in time which may be recalled less perfectly by an eyewitness.
Verbal description may be inadequate to describe an object, a scene or an event.
A noted and famous investigator said: "When it comes to the exact description of
a complex detail of an existing object or the exact relationship of its parts or location with
respect to other objects, or the relationship of many articles to each photographs can go
far beyond verbal description" other,
Under the principle of the "best evidence" i our judicial system, a photograph is
generally regarded as secondary evidence. However, there are precedent court cases
which ruled that properly verified photograph to be true and faithful representation of an
object may cease to be such when the original object is lost and all efforts to locate it
proved futile, then said photograph will regarded as primary evidence."
2. Matching photographs
This is another technique of illustrating similarities. Place a part of one photograph over and in
careful alignment with the other. Used in toolmarks, shells, pair illustrations or in matching glass
fragments or paint chips.
3. Matching transparencies.
This is used to show two objects have identical outline. A positive transparency of one is placed
over the other, adjusted so the outline coincide, like in proving traced forgery.
B. DEGREE OF ENLARGEMENT OR SIZE OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITS
There are two choices in representing photographic prints as evidence.
1. A large display print which will easily show the Judge, the lawyers detailed attributes of a
subject being testified to by a witness. Forensic experts like document examiners or fingerprint
experts use this to provide a dramatic impact on their testimony. Print sizes of 11" x 14" or even
16" x 247
2 A more widely used and easier to accomplish is the handheld print of persons, objects, place or
incident. The usual size may be 4" x 5", or 5" x 7".
C. PERSPECTIVE, CORRECT VIEWING DISTANCE, NORMAL VIEWING

DISTANCE
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In the preparation for photographic exhibits, the photographer should seriously consider
perspective, the correct viewing distance and the normal viewing distance in determining the
degree of enlargement or size of his prints.
It is visually desirable and necessary to view photographs in its true and natural
perspective. When such prints are viewed correctly, the viewer will be able to make a more
reliable judgment of the information presented. It is for this reason that a trained forensic
photographer takes great care preparing prints to be introduced as court exhibits.
1. Perspective
To achieve true perspective, you must consider the geometric relationship between the
camera and the object at the time the picture was taken. rom a fixed vantage point, an object or
series of objects intersect at the s angle at a lens regardless of the focal length of the lens. The
object or objects are simply rendered larger or smaller depending on the focal length of the lens.
If the same angular relationship is established between the finished print and the viewer's eye, the
print will be viewed correctly and the eye will see the scene in its true same
2. Correct Viewing Distance

To reproduce the same angular relationship established by the camera position, the eye
must be on lens focal-length from a contact print of the camera negative. For enlargement from
the negative, the viewing distance must be increased to view the print in true perspective. The
viewing distance for any enlarged print is equal to the lens focal length multiplied by the number
of times the negative is enlarged or viewing distance (D) equals focal length (F) times
enlargement (N).
D=FxN
3. Normal Viewing Distance

Although the equation given above defines correct viewing distance for true perspective,
we must also consider the comfort of viewer and the print will finally be viewed and that is
handheld. According to vision tests, an average person holds an object or reading material about
15 inches (about 40 centimeters) from his eye and this distance is widely accepted as the normal
viewing distance for handheld materials.
To find the degree of enlargement we rearrange the equation thus:
N=D/F
Example:
For a camera with 35 mm film size
Lens Focal Length Print size (inches)
35 mm -------------------------- 11" x 15"

50 mm __________________ 58" x 11"
85 mm __________________ 4½" x 6"
D. TESTIFYING IN COURT
One day, you will be in court to give testimony to photographs that you have taken. This is
inevitable and expected. One must prepare for it to be able to give a good and credible testimony.
He should always consider himself to be a neutral witness with no personal interest in the
outcome of the case. His only concern is his objective desire to present an accurate photograph
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for the court's consideration. He must always keep in mind the quotation or the words of P.
Brouardel:
"A Man of Science"
If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science,

You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save,
You must be witness within the limits of science.
In testifying your purpose is to explain not defend your photographs. In the case of PP vs.
de Vega, G.R.L. 8626, Oct. 18, 1956, the court held:... "let the thing speak for itself."
Here are some tips to be observed during court appearances.
1. Dress properly and appropriately when going to court A formal attire like Barong Pilipino or
long sleeve with a necktie is highly advised. Wear your uniform if you have one.
2. When your name is called for the witness stand, rise and walk with normal strides. Remain
standing until you are sworn in, then wait for the instruction to sit down.
3. Upon sitting down maintain a comfortable, relax but dignified posture. Do not slouch, sit
straight and avoid crossing your legs and your arms should rest normally on your lap.
Nervousness is a normal emotion to everyone especially for beginners but you can control it with
several deep breaths and avoiding eye contact with the lawyer or anyone infront who affects your
self- confidence.
4. Show your respect to everyone by addressing the lawyers "Sir," and the judge "Your Honor."
5. Speak in a clear and distinct voice loud enough to be heard by the Judge, the lawyers, and the
people at the gallery.
6. The lawyer and the court will see to it that the case is properly developed. Preliminary
questions are usually asked first before questions on the issue of the case.
7. Questions which require a plain "Yes" or "No" answer must be done so. Answer questions
directly and completely but do not volunteer additional information unless necessary.
8. Before answering a question, be sure that you understand it clearly. If not, politely request for
clarification. If you feel or think that your answer to a certain question may give the lawyer or
the court an erroneous or wrong impression you must immediately ask for permission to amplify
or explain further his reply to a question.
9. If the answer to a question requires that you consult your notes, also ask the permission of the
court to do so. Be prepared to submit said notes if the court so require.
10. If a question asked is in regard to the "relevancy or materiality" of a photograph being

submitted in evidence, courteously state that you are leaving said issue to your lawyers.
11. When confronted by a question whether you consider yourself an expert or not, your
response should be that you leave it to the discretion of the honorable court. Any attempt on the
part of the witness to claim or represent himself as an expert may allow the opposing lawyer to
ask questions on the extreme technical subjects like physics of light or on the chemical
components and reactions during chemical processing. If you are confident however that your
knowledge on the subject is sufficient then you don't have to worry about it."
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12. Avoid the use of harsh or vulgar words during testimony. It does not only demean the
personality and character of the witness but also the honor and of the organization whom he
represents. prestige
13. Some lawyers in their desire to confuse or excite a witness may ask a very personal or
insulting question or remarks. Under such circumstances, show your professionalism and earn
the respect of the lawyer in the court by not arguing with him on the matter.
14. At the end of your testimony, politely ask for an excuse from the judge before standing.
Leave the witness stand with appearance of dignity and pride.
15. Try to remember the words of a famous trial lawyer- "If you know the law and you know the
facts, then you are ready for trial."
E. POINTS OF OBJECTION ON THE ADMISSIBILITY OF A PHOTOGRAPH
1. Accuracy of color.
The true color reproduction may be a point of contestations if color is of critical issue.
Questions may be directed on lighting, filters, and processing because they affect color balance.
2. Alterations on negatives or on prints.

Presence of any deliberate attempt to alter photographic evidence.
3. Computer generated image.

Computer technology brings with it new advancement capabilities to apply to problems
photographs. However, it also brings the chance of misunderstanding because images, even
colors are easily manipulated.
4. Enlargements.
Size that will conform with the correct or normal viewing distance and also in possibility
of cropping of crucial evidences.
5. Errors in printing.
Reverse prints, over-exposure or under-exposure, blurred prints, dodging or burning-in
efforts.
6. Equipment
Camera used, lens used, accessory equipment.
7. Lighting
Lighting procedure and technique used for artistic purpose can sometimes produce
interesting and deceptive result.
8. Markings on photographs such as lines, circles, arrows, numbers, etc., are to be avoided except
on comparison charts.
F. MISLEADING PHOTOGRAPHS
In addition to the previously listed points of objects ions arising over color balance,
optical distortions, markings, etc., the following could confuse or mislead a viewer of an
evidence photographs.
1. retouching on the negatives or prints

2. double or multiple exposure
3. paste-up or composite photographs
4. montage or superimposition
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5. camera viewpoint or position
6. effect of focal length of lens
7. effect of filters
8. effect of using another object to show the size of an objec
9. effect of under-exposure or over-exposure
10. effect of cropping
11. effect of lighting
12. reversed photographs
G. PHOTOGRAPHS AND EYEWITNESS COMPARED

It is well to remember that there are good photographs and bad photographs - just as there are
good witnesses and bad witnesses. Occasionally, we encounter photographs that lie, even as
witnesses sometimes do not tell the truth or the whole truth. When considering a photographic
evidence therefore, it is helpful to compare the "silent witness" (the photograph) and the human
witness. Let us see how they are alike and how they differ.
1. Faillings Common to Both.
a. Exaggeration
Photographs may exaggerate just like a human being. It is possible to see photographs of
scenes that distances between objects appears far greater than they are in fact or objects appears
much larger as taken than they really are. The technique used by the advertising photographer to
glorify and magnify his subject is generally out in legal photography.
c. Elaboration
The legal photograph must know what to leave out as well as what to include in his
picture. While in general it is better to show too much than too little, it is well to remember that
close-up usually have the most value provided they either show enough of the subject to avoid
deception by omission or supplemented by more distant views.
d. Omission
We swear the witness to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth because
it is known that the partial truth may be a lie.
e. Reversal of left and right.
People are always getting things around. Many persons do not seem to know their right
from their left. How often do we drive behind a person who turn on their left signal light to
indicate a right turn. Believe it or not, it is even easier for a photograph to be turned around so
that it is reversed from left to right.
f. Optical illusions.
Both the witness and the photograph may give false testimony because of the effect of
optical illusions. Such illusions are many and varied. In general a bright object appears larger
than a dark object of the same dimension. Vertical lines appear larger than horizontal lines of the
same length. The length of an empty space appears less than the length of a similar space
containing details and so on.
Since we can ordinarily photograph what we can see, a photograph usually make a
permanent record of an optical illusions and unless it is detected in the picture, it may be
deceiving, when the picture is introduced in evidence. The existence and cause of such visual
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illusion must be taken into account if a photograph are to fulfill functions as a true representation
of the subject.
There is a phenomenon usually cloned as optical illusion which may affect human vision
but will not be found in a photograph. Each human eye is blurred at a point where the optic nerve
enters the eyeball. In normal vision this ordinarily does not create a blind spot in the usual field
because the blind spot in the two eyes usually do not overlap a one-eyed person. However, a
totally blind in this portion of the retina, and hence, will have a blind spot in his peripheral visual
field. Of course, this optical illusion does not plague the photograph because there is no blind
spot on the photographic film.
2. Shortcomings of an Eyewitness
a. Perception error
Since a photograph is a permanent image of its subject, it is usually possible to recognize
the shortcomings of a picture and make allowances for them but the witness process of seeing is
far more complicated because the human eye is not just an image recording device, it is a highly
developed organ and is in fact a part of the brain. The brain is an originating as well as a
recording apparatus and therefore the witness cannot possibly observe a scene without
interpreting or misrepresenting it.
Many of the mistakes of the testimony of a witness are due to error in perception which is
the integration of all the sensory impression (sight, smell, touch, sound, etc.) received by the
brain and interpreted by the brain as according to its past experiences.
The description of a scene or object as detailed by a witness is subject to many sources of

errors that are non-existent in a photograph.
A photograph to some extent gives us an image which as it would be reflected to the

retina before it is transmitted to the recording and interpreting center of the brain. Therefore if
there are errors of perception to be considered in connection with photographic evidence, they
come into being only when a witness, judge, or attorney looks at the picture and are not in any
fault of the photograph itself.
b. Language problem
Any person may have some difficulty in adequately expressing himself when he become
a witness in court. The reliability of a description of a given person, place, or thing depends
largely upon his ability to say what he means in a language the court will understand.
It is here that photograph reign supreme as a witness. Photography is a universal

language understandable by anyone anywhere. It is ready-made expertise, a "lingua franca"
easily understood by the trier of fact of all nations and all tongue. The descriptive reliability of
good photograph particularly if it is in color far exceed the dependability and understandability
of the best human witness.
c. Memory lapse
Not only is a witness prone to error because of faulty perception and language problem
but also subject to the very human trait of forgetting. His testimony is usually what he thinks or
remember he saw. Here again the photograph is superior as a witness because it never forgets.
Photograph is the best means of recording visual impression with objective and permanence
which cannot be overlapped or wiped out by any new or additional images.
d. Hallucinations
When considering the testimony of an eyewitness it must be born in mind that there is
always the possibility that he did not see what he thinks he saw because he was the victim of
hallucination, trick of the senses causing a person to imagine he sees something that is not really
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present at all. More technically hallucination may be purely imaginary mental images usually
resulting from a nervous disorder or a functional psychosis without known neurological cause.
However, normal people may have hallucination when under emotional stress or in great fatigue.
Hallucination differ from optical illusion in that hallucination are not based upon images found
in the eye, whereas, optical illusion result on the mind misinterpretation of images. It is obvious
that hallucination are fault peculiar to the human witness. Optical illusion usually can be
photographed while hallucination cannot.
3. Shortcomings of Photographs
a. Single viewpoint
Generally a photograph is likely to be considered as an accurate reproduction of a scene
or object, whereas, as a matter of fact, except in the case of a document, a picture is best only
considered as a fair representation of a subject.
b. Compression of time
A still photograph speaks as one of the brief instant of time and even a motion picture
only record a definite period of time. Under some circumstances a court is prone to believe that
because of a scene or object was there at a particular instant or period it was always there and so
before the picture was taken and for sometime afterward. By compressing time therefore, a
photograph even a motion picture may create a misleading impression if we do not interpret it
properly.
Generally speaking, it is not practical to show a scene or object as it existed at every

instant over a long period of time, hence, allowances must be made for this limitation of a
photography.
c. Necessity of interpretation by a trier of fact.
Just as the testimony of a human witness must be interpreted by the trier of fact, so also
the photograph must be evaluated if it is to mean anything as evidence. The picture itself is
merely a mechanically recorded image of a scene or object. It means nothing unless and until it is
seen by a judge and what it means depends in part in the attention they give it. With this in mind,
when preparing the photographic evidence, we should attempt to make it as effective as possible.
We must also recognize that a photograph may fail to serve its purpose because the trier of fact
or the judge suffers from perception error as they interpret the picture. What a photograph does
in a limited way make the judge and the lawyer eyewitness of a court. Faulty interpretation of a
perfectly good photograph may destroy their usefulness as evidence.
Review Questions:
1. Explain how the photograph of evidence present in court?

.

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MODULE 8
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Law enforcement is always in the process of evolving due to scientific, legal and social
developments as well as in the changes in behavior of criminals. While many law enforcement
echniques are fundamental and remains basically the same over time, there are also significant
changes that occur in a continuing basis,
In the field of Photography, a global revolution is also aking place - and at a very fast
rate. Because of the diversity of equipment and technology available, digital photography is
becoming more popular than conventional photography.
Digital photography's universal format is its greatest advantage in that images can easily
be transferred to multiple devices and applications. Examples of these applications are the
addition of images to word processing format, E-mail, putting on Website, or the simple editing
of these images, manipulate or enhance or improve them.
Armed with RAM and CCD chips instead of films, digital cameras are slowly taking over
the market in photography. Why is this happening? For two reasons. First, it would be because
digital cameras offer features and convenience unheard of in a film-based camera like:
a. Instant color preview

b. Computer connectivity
c. Video output
d. Detachable lenses that still work when detached.
Secondly, because digital cameras remove film processing from the equation and save the
users more than enough money to justify their relatively high cost.
The disadvantage of digital imaging is its ability to be easily manipulated which will
inevitably prevent its widespread a courtroom. Conventional photography will continue to be the
prevailing format utilized through the traditional print, negative and slide which can be scanned
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into digital format for convenient access. The fact remains that in the field of forensic
photography the underlying number one criteria is the image must be a true and accurate
representation of the scene or subject. use in
A. Digital Camera
This type of camera digitize the image which can then be put into a computer and
enhance through a software package such as Adobe Photoshop.
With digital cameras, what feature will you look for? The most common yardstick for
measuring digital camera's value is found in its ability to record details and reproduce actual
color. With 35mm cameras, this responsibility is ruled by film types, their speeds or ISO rating,
and the developer type (fine grain developers). For digital cameras it will rely on built-in CCD
chip (also known as imager) to provide resolution, color quality, and speed.
Understanding how digital cameras capture and store information is essential in

comparing them. CCD chips differ in the number of pixels they have in the quality of color they
reproduce. Pixels replace silver-halide grain as the medium for capturing light from a scene and
are arranged like files across the surface of the CCD. The numbers quoted for resolution refer to
how many pixels there are in each row across the CCD (horizontal res.) and each column down
the CCD (vertical res.). For example: 640 x 480 pixels or 768 x 512 pixels. Higher pixel numbers
usually equate to higher resolution images and correspondingly larger data files, but some
manufacturer quote interpolated pixel counts rather than actual optical or physical counts. An
interpolated image has less resolution than image captured optically, with similar pixel counts.
That is because interpolation is a mathematical process for increasing resolution by doubling
pixels, it cannot add detail where none was captured but does help straight lines less jagged.
How sensitive a camera's CCD is to light intensity determines its speed (or ISO
equivalent to film speed). How discerning the individual pixels on the CCD are to different
levels of light determines the CCD's color bit depth. In order to reproduce color from what starts
out as monochrome CCD chip, digital cameras must assign the Red, Green and Blue color
spectrums that make up colors that we see it different pixels. They do so by placing a color filter
over the CCD so neighboring pixels measures different colors. Then, data from two or three
pixels is used to calculate a full color pixel. Most pixels can discern 256 shades per color (RGB)
which happens to coincide closely with the ability of the human eye. Together, the information
contained in the three-color planes can create more than 16 million color combinations (256 (R)
x 256 (G) x 256 (B) 16.7 million colors). To store the information from a camera with the
capability that requires 24 bits (or 3 bytes) per pixel. That is why many manufacturers refer to
their camera's 24-bit color ability instead of listing 16.7 million colors. Camera with less than 24-
bit color (like 16-bit) will show color banding and lower detail in shadows and highlights, while
cameras with higher bit depth (like 30 or 36 bits per pixel) will capture even higher quality
images than 24-bit cameras. Unfortunately, higher resolution images with greater bit depth
requires increasing larger amounts of storage and image processing time. But the good news is
that storage is becoming cheaper while image processing hardware and software becomes faster
every minute.
Presently, some digital cameras offer resolution as high as 640 x 480 pixels at 24-bit
color. This is also the actual resolution of most computer monitors and about the same resolution
as a sharp TV picture, so an image from a camera with this resolution will fill the screen on most
14 or 15 with monitors and looks great when displayed on TV. You can also make photographic
quality prints from these images on printers at a 200 dpi.
There are essentially two types of digital cameras.
1. those with fixed memory

2. those with removable memory
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Fixed memory cameras are limited in the number of images they can capture
before the user is forced either to erase the images or download them to a computer.
Removable memory cameras allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards
in much the same fashion as film is exposed and replaces with new film.
Removable media varies in storage size, in price, and in compatibility with computers and other
cameras.
Other Features of Digital Cameras
a. Digital cameras allow you to download images directly into a computer without a video
capture card. Fixed memory camera must do this via a connecting cable while removable
memory cameras may be able to load images via a card reader or cable.
b. LCD monitors - Digital point and shoot cameras sometimes do not have optical viewfinders.
These cameras feature a color LCD screen on the camera back which serves multiple duty as
viewfinder, control panel and instant playback monitor.
c. Flash unit - While it is not always required in digital cameras because some DC's have high or
adjustable ISO ratings to adopt to low light levels, yet it is sometimes required in back lighting or
really low-light levels.
d. Zoom lens capability - wide, normal, or tele and sometimes close-up or macro.
e. Sound recording - (Where you can record audio clips, such as short description of an image
taken or actual noise of the surrounding area).
f. Removable lens that can see around corner. One disadvantage though is it requires or use up
tremendous amount of battery power so you have to use rechargeable Ni-Cad or Lithium-Ion
batteries. When you buy a rechargeable battery, be sure to also buy a charger.
B. Computer Printers
Image produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed on a computer monitor or a TV set.
For hard (printed) copies of such images computer printers are used.
a. Dot-matrix
b. Laser
c. Ink-jet
d. Wax-jet
Dot-Matrix
Instead of completing an image in one single stroke, a dot-matrix printer produces an

image that is built-up by individual dots. These dots are made-up by pins:
- in 9-pin printers the dots are more apparent
- in 24-pin printers they are less or so
Some dot-matrix printers have a color-ribbon option. However dot-matrix printers are
quickly losing market in favor of ink-jet printers.
Laser Printers
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Also produce dots. The laser projects a light against a spinning mirror which flashes light
to a rotating drum. The printing toner adheres electrostatically to the charged areas of the drum
and then fused to the paper creating characters. Color laser printers are also available.
Ink-Jet Printers
Is basically ink-jets fire droplets of ink at a page to make the dots that forms the
characters. Ink-jet printers can print in multiple colors.
Wax-Jet Printers
Melt-wax and then spray it on paper. These are high- end printers that produce
outstanding colors.
C. Scanners
Whether you have a digital camera or not, you want to have a scanner to provide a convenient
way to get your existing conventional images like photo prints, 35 mm slides, negatives, even
advance photo system films - in a computer. There are many incredible things that can be done to
photos once you get them into a computer:
1. You can enhance them

2. You can remove defects (and unwanted elements)
3. Manipulate reality
4. Add text and other elements
Flatbed Scanners
In general, flatbed scanners are relatively simple devices with few moving parts. On the
outside, they consist of a housing, lid and glass place to be scanned. Inside there is a scanning
element (usually linear CCD) an optical arrangement of lenses and prisms, and a light source.
The CCD, lens set and light source are moved along the length of the scanning bed by a
precision stepping motor, and as this happens, the light illuminate the scanning object and
reflected back through the optical set- up to the CCD. The rest of the components within the
scanner are primarily electronic and include the analog- to-digital converter that turns the signal
from the CCD into digital dots, the stepping motor controls, and other components for
communicating with the computer.
Criteria capacity of the scanner (point of comparison):
a. Optical resolution
b. Color bit depth
c. Scanning time
d. Maximum scan size
D. Some Uses of Digital Photography in Law Enforcement
1. Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
In our country today, fingerprint examination continue to be labor extensive. To be able

to identify a person through his 10 fingerprint classification is quite easy, but if there is one, a
single print, as those developed and preserved at a crime scene, it will be a big problem. Unless
there is a suspect where fingerprint can be compared to it will remain unidentified.
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The AFIS has speed up the process of fingerprint identification and comparison
enormously. AFIS can supply a list of potential matches from prints submitted on record on file.
From these potential matches, the experienced fingerprint examiner or technician can then
personally examine and make the match.
2. Crime Scene Reconstruction
Crime scene reconstruction is the use of scientific method, physical evidence, deductive
and inductive reasoning, and their inter-relationship to gain explicit knowledge of a series of
events that surrounds the commission of a crime.
Known facts and inferences in mind will facilitate the reconstruction of a crime. By doing
so, the perpetrator's method of operation may be identified. It will also suggest the possible
existence of certain types of physical evidence and assist in establish line of investigation or
inquiry.
Actual photographs taken at the crime scene can be feed into a computer and with the use
of animation, suppositions or possibilities can be done to strengthen points of facts of a crime.
Crime Scene Reconstruction from the NBI Files
This is a shooting incident in the late 70's reconstructed by a young but hardworking agent who
became the NBI Director on July 4, 1995 to February 3, 1996, Atty. Mariano M. Mison.
Involved in this case, is a married woman shot fatally several times in the body and her alleged
lover shot once in the head.
Investigation showed that the allege lover shot the woman then shot himself. However, the of the
woman, accused and charged her husband with double murder
This was a very sensational case because all belong to a wealthy and prominent families.
The husband is a well known tough guy and trouble maker in night clubs along a famous
boulevard.
Facts of the case:
Early night of the incident, the alleged lover received a telephone call from the woman.
His brother testified that he heard him say to the woman "O' akala ko ba tapos na ang lahat sa
atin? Bakit ka pa tawag ng tawag?" (Oh, I thought everything between us is over. Why do you
keep on calling?) After sometime, he finally said "O sige, pupunta ako diyan pero saglit lang."
(Okay, I'll go there but I won't stay long. Although he owned a car, he took a taxi instead.
The cab driver gave the following account in a sworn statement: He picked up the male
victim at their house then was directed to drive to an apartment unit in another district of the city.
Upon arrival thereat, he was told to wait. The apartment unit was all dark. He saw the man
walked to the door opened it then went up the stairs. The room upstairs was lighted followed by
an exchange of harsh and foul language in loud voices. Then several gunshots were heard,
afterward silence. After a few seconds, another gunfire was heard. He was alarmed and
frightened so he sped off to the nearest police station and reported the matter.
The first policeman that arrived at the scene found the woman already dead but the man
still had a pulse, so he was rushed to a nearby hospital but died along the way, dead on arrival
(DOA).
These photographs convinced the Judge of the innocence of the husband and ruled a
verdict of "NOT GUILTY."
3.Computerized Composite Facial Sketching
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Example of this is the Facial Automated Composite and Editing System (FACES). Its
capabilities are the following:
1. Facial composition
Creation of color composites of faces of offenders, or suspects based on interviews of

victims and witnesses. The face is built not from drawings or sketches but actual photographs
from a database.
A composite image created can be matched against other composites or actual

photographs of offenders or other photographic databases like files of photographs of persons
applying for NBI or Police clearances. Photographs of persons with specific ethnic group can
also be programmed.
2. Cranial facial reconstruction of deceased persons with mutilated face.
3. Facial image enhancement
4. Missing person photograph update. Creation of various facial likeness by ageing facial
portrait and overlaying fashion accessories.
5. Image and demographic data base and retrieval.
D. Integrated Ballistic Identification System (IBIS)
With digital imaging, photomicrographs of strations and other minute markings found on bullets
or shells can be stored on a database which will also facilitate the identification and matching of
bullets or shells recovered at a crime scene.
These databases can be programmed so that search, matches and retrieval is not only on a local
area network (LAN) but also wide area network (WAN).
Markings or strations of test bullets or shells being examined by a local police could avail of
databases at regional or even at the central crime laboratory for a needed match or identification
of a firearm.
E. Legal Foundation of Digital Photography
1. Rules on Electronic Evidence
Acting on the Memorandum dated June 18, 2001 of the Committee on the Revision of Rules of
Court to draft on the E-Commerce Law (R.A. No. 8792) the Supreme Court, EN BANC,
approved the said resolution.
These rules shall apply to cases pending after effectivity date - August 1, 2001.
Rule II is on Audio, Photographic Video and Ephemeral Evidence.
Section 1. Audio, Video and Similar Evidence

Audio, photographic and video evidence of events, acts, or transactions shall be
admissible provided is shall be shown, presented, or displayed to tha court and shall be
identified, explained or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other
person competent to testify on the accuracy thereof.
3. International Association for Identification (IAI)Resolution number 97-9.
The 1997 Resolution and Legislative Committee presented to the IAI members during the
82nd Annual Training Conference at Danvers, Massachussets on August 1, 1996 formally
recognized that just as color film based a normal progression of the technological evolution of
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imaging for black-and-white film, electronic/digital imaging is a normal progression of the
technological evolution of the imaging from silver- halide film based; they resolved that the IAI
recognized the electronic/digital imaging as a scientifically valid and proven technology for
recording, enhancing and printing images like conventional halide-silver film based photography
it is accepted by professional, commercial and law enforcement photographer and the
identification community.
Further, that silver halide based photographs the quality and reality of an electronic/digital
imaging is dependent upon the technical specification of the equipment, the quality control and
the training, experience and ability of the photographer or imaging specialist.
4. Some guidelines for ensuring digital photographs admissibility.
1. Formulate a standard operating procedure (SOP) or Department Policy or General Order of the
Use of Digital Imaging. The SOP should include when imaging is used, chain of custody,
imaging security, image enhancement and release and availability of digital images. The SOP
should not apply just to digital but should also include film based and video application.
2. Most importantly, preserve the original digital images. This can be done in a variety of ways
including the saving of the image file to a hard drive or recording the image file to a CD. For
some agencies, elect to use image security software.
3. Digital images shall be preserved in their original file format. The saving of a file in some file
format subject to close compression. If close compression is used, critical image information
may be lost and artifacts introduced as a result of the compression process.
4. If images are stored on a computer work station or server, and several individuals would have
access to the image file, make the image file "Read Only" for all except your evidence and
photo-lab staff. Investigators can only view the image file but they cannot delete or overwrite
those files.
5. If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced, the new image file created should be saved as new
file name. The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a new file.
Review Questions:
1.What are the different types of printers?

2.Explain the application of photograph in other forensic science?
.
.

66
ANSWER KEY
MODULE 1
1. The components of photography are light, equipment and chemicals
2. Photography were used for the identification of criminals, documentation of evidence,
crime scene, demonstrate erasures in documents and comparison of bullets and cartridges
in the foundation of the field of ballistics.
MODULE 2
1. The three bending of light are Refraction, Reflection and Diffraction. Reflection involves
a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier, refraction of waves
involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another and
diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or
around a barrier in their path.
2. The three kinds of object as they behave to light. Transparent objects it allows sufficient
visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen,
translucent Objects it allows light to pass, however diffused it sufficiently that objects on
the other side may not be clearly distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other
side may be recognized but sharp detail and outline are obscured and
Opaque Objects-so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is
very difficult if not impossible.
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MODULE 3
1. In black and white film, the developer converts the silver halide crystals in the emulsion layer
into silver particles. In color film, the developer is oxidized when reacting with the exposed silver
halide crystals. this oxidized developer then reacts with dye couplers resulting in the formation of
color dye.
2. Yes photographic film are basically made up of emulsion , also photographic papers are basically
composed of a light sensitive coating (emulsion).
MODULE 4
1. Digital cameras - this type of camera digitalize the image which can then be put into a
computer and enhanced through a software package such as Adobe Photoshop.
There are two types of digital cameras
1. Those with fixed memory this camera has a limited number of image it can capture.
The user will then be forced to erase the image or download it into a computer.
2. Those with removable memory this camera allow the user to load and replace a
variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as film is exposed and replaced
with a new film. Removable media varies and size, in price, and compatibility with
computers and other cameras
2. The convergent or positive or convex lens this lens is always thicker at the center and thinner
at the sides. Light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens
meeting at point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is
coming from. While the divergent, negative, or concave lens this lens is always thinner at the
center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if
coming from a point. It produce a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is
coming from.
3.Type of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to these Lens Aberrations

1. Achromatic lens- is corrected for chromatic aberration,
2. Rapid- rectilinear lens- is corrected for distortion
3. Anastigmat lens- is corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens defect
4. Apochromat lens- is also corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction
to color.
4. The different methods of image formation
a. Pinhole- is a small or tiny hole which produce an image entirely free from distortion
but its image is so dim that it is impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is also not
practical to enlarge the hole for more light because the larger the hole, the more blurred is the
image.
b. Shadow method
Image formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of
application of this method is in X-ray photography and in making photograms.
c. Lens method
E. Convergent or positive lens
F. Divergent or negative lens
G. Diagram of a Kodak Ektar Lens with several lens components
MODULE 5
1. CHEMICAL PROCESSING
After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during
printing, the next step would generally be chemical processing/In black and white processing,
68
the steps are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color
development, stop-fix, and stabilizer.
1. Development - is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made

visible. In black- and-white emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver.
In a color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye./
In development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce exposed silver halide
crystals to form grains of metallic silver. This process or reaction is the same in both black and
white films and photographic papers.
2. Stop-bath - halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other. 15-20 uc
3. Fixation
A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In
this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and
removed from the emulsion of the photographic material./s- 71 Explain briefly how the chemical
process in Photography.
2. FORMULATION
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservative
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer
Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are determined whether it is
slow or fast acting, produce high, normal, or low contrast, achieves maximum emulsion
speedcreates fine grain or acts in a number of ways.
D-76 Film developer formula

1. Water 52C or 125 F - 750 ml
2. Elon - 2 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 100 grams 2 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
DEKTOL - Paper Developer

1. Water 52c or 125 F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
MODULE 6
1.The other forensic sciences
a. Fingerprint
b. Questioned Document
c. Ballistics
MODULE 7
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1. In order for photograph and video evidence to be admissible in court it must meet two basic
requirements: relevance and authenticity. In order for evidence to be relevant it must have
probative value. In other words, it must either support or undermine the truth of any point at issue
in the legal proceedings.
MODULE 8
1. The different types of printers
a. Dot- matrix
b. Laser printers
c. Ink jet printers
d. Wax Jet printers
2. Photography can also be used to bring out detail in a latent through the use of lighting filters,
processing controls and enhancement (in a program such as Adobe Photoshop) a faint latent
fingerprint can be enhanced. This is mostly done by building contrast between the latent and its
background.
Main Reference


70

Module 1 On Forensic Photography

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MODULE I ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF FORENSIC IMAGING

2. Equipment(1700) (The Camera)

Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in Paris “Daguerreotype” in

1861- James Clark Maxwell researched on colors

1914-U.S Eastmen Kodak made a color substractive process called Kodachrome.

1935- color process came out together with electronic flash.

1947- Edwin H. Land introduced “Polaroid’ the one-step photography.

1988-The arrival of true digital cameras.c2sg

D. LEGAL FOUNDATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

1. What are the components of photography?

Villarba W. 2008.Forensic Photography. Wiseman’s Book Trading Inc. Visayas

ADDITIVE COLOR MIXTURE

SUBTRACTIVE COLOR MIXTURE

This dynamic interplay of colors derives from simultaneous reflection of

Fluorescence is a phenomenon that occurs when a substance absorbs radiation of a

3. Diffraction-the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.

KINDS OF OBJECT AS TO HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHT

2. LASER (Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

4. Forensic Light Source

Villarba W. 2008.Forensic Photography. Wiseman’s Book Trading Inc. Visayas

Lesson I. Black and White Film

A. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

Characteristics of Black and White Film

The Different emulsion speed ratings are:

TYPES OF COLOR FILMS

A. Negative or Non-reversal film

Parts of a Colored Film

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

C. Contrast range or grade

1. Number 0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS FOR COLOR PRINTING

Villarba W. 2008.Forensic Photography. Wiseman’s Book Trading Inc. Visayas

b. Medium format cameras

c. Small format cameras

2. The viewing focusing system

a. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera

3. Overall design and functions

Example of this type is single lens reflex camera.

These are two types of digital cameras

1. Those with fixed memory

2. Those with removable memory

SLR- suited for Forensic Photography

Other features of a digital camera

1. Images produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a computer monitor or

2. A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor

4. Zoom lens capability- wide -angle, normal telephoto, even macro.

6. Removable lens that can see around corners.

C. Methods of image Formation

1. The convergent or positive or convex lens

2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens

E. INHERENT LENS DEFECT OR ABERRATIONS

Manufacturer of lenses tries to reduce this defect to anegligible quantity by using

7. Chromatic difference of magnification

F. Type of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to these Lens Aberrations

H. Type of Lenses as According to Focal Length

4. Zoom lens- is a lens with variable focal length

The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions