6.

Human physiology

6.1 Digestion and absorption

The digestive system

 The digestive system consists of long, muscular tube, called gut or alimentary canal.
 The gut extends from the mouth to the anus and is specialised for movement, digestion and
absorption of food.
 Digestion is the biochemical breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble
molecules and is an example of hydrolysis. Only small molecules can enter cells and be used in
the body.
 Different enzymes are released in different sections of the digestive system and each one is
specific for one food type.

Enzyme type Example Source Substrate Products Optimum pH

amylase salivary salivary starch maltose 7
amylase glands
pancreatic pancreas maltose glucose 7–8
amylase
protease pepsin gastric glands protein polypeptides 2
in stomach
wall
endopeptidase pancreas polyypeptides amino acids 8
lipase pancreatic pancreas triglycerides fatty acids and 7
lipase (fats and oils) glycerol

 All digestive enzymes help to catalyse hydrolysis reactions and work most efficiently at about
37oC.

 Mouth, oesophagus and stomach

 In the mouth, food is broken into small pieces by the jaws and teeth, and mixed with saliva
containing the enzyme salivary amylase, which begins the digestion of starch.
 Food passes down the oesophagus to stomach by a sequence of muscle contractions known
as peristalsis.
 The stomach holds the food for up to four hours while digestion proceeds inside it.
 As the muscles of stomach contract between food and enzyme are mixed – this gives
maximum contact between food and enzyme molecules, and speed up the digestive process.
 Digestion of protein begins in the stomach, catalysed by the enzyme pepsin, which is secreted
in gastric juice from the gastric glands in the stomach wall.
 Hydrochloric acid activates the pepsin and maintains a pH of 1.5 – 2.0 in the stomach.
 This is the optimum pH for protein digestion and the acid also kills many bacteria present in
the food we eat.

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  Goblet cells in the stomach lining secrete mucus to protect the interior of the stomach from the
acid and enzymes.
 Food is transformed in the stomach to a semi – liquid called chyme and is then ready to move
to small intestine.

 Roles of small intestine

 Digestion
o Chyme leaves the stomach via a valve at the lower end and moves into the 5 m long small
intestine.
o As in all parts of the alimentary canal, food is moved along the small intestine by
peristalsis, which involves the two layers of muscles that make up the intestine wall.
o Longitudinal muscle run along the length of the intestine and circular muscle lie beneath
them and encircle the intestine.
o Contraction of the bands of circular muscle squeezes the area of the intestine behind a
portion of food, while longitudinal muscles relax and extend to accommodate it.
o Two set of muscles then relax and contract respectively so that food is gradually pushed
along the intestine.
o As waves of peristalsis move along the intestine, food is mixed with enzymes that are
secreted into it.
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 The action of longitudinal and circular muscles (peristalsis)

o Digestion is completed in the first section of the small intestine.

o Digestive juices are secreted into the lumen of the intestine from the liver, gall bladder,
pancreas and the mucosa of the intestine walls.
o Bile is added from the liver and gall bladder, and the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice
containing endopeptidase (a protease), lipase, amylase, and bicarbonate ions.
o The acidity of the chyme is reduced by bicarbonate ions, allowing the enzymes to work at
their optimum pH.
o The digestion of starch, which began with the conversion of starch to maltose in the
mouth, continues here as maltose is converted to glucose which can be absorbed through
the intestine walls.
o Three main types of food molecules that must be digested in the small intestine are
carbohydrates, polypeptides and lipids.
The table shows how these molecules are ingested and what is produced when they are
digested.

Type of molecule Form of the molecule in ingested food Monomers produced by digestion
carbohydrates monosccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides (e.g glucose)
polysaccharides (e.g starch, glycogen)
proteins proteins amino acids
lipids triglycerides fatty acids and glycerol
nucleic acids DNA, RNA nucleotides

 Absorption
o The inner surface of the small intestine is greatly folded to form thousands of tiny villi.

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o Each villus contains a network of capillaries and a lacteal.
o A lacteal is a small vessel of the lymphatic system
o Villi greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine and improve its efficiency as an
absorbing surface.
o Digested material must pass through the folded membranes (microvilli) of the epithelial
cells in order to reach a capillary or lacteal vessel
o Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and mineral ions and vitamins (which
are already very small molecules) come into contact with a villus, they are absorbed.
o These molecules may pass through the wall of small intestine by diffusion, facilitated
diffusion or active transport.
o Cells of the villi contain structures that are vital to the processes of absorption.
o The cells have many mitochondria, indicating that some absorption occurs using active
transport and requires energy.
o Many vesicles are present and these structure show that some materials are taken in from
the intestine by the process of pinocytosis.
o Digested molecules are small enough to pass through the epithelial cells and into the
bloodstream.
o Movement can occur by :
1) Simple diffusion can occur if molecules are small and can pass through the
hydrophobic part of the plasma membrane.
2) Facilitated diffusion occurs in the case of monomers, such as fructose which are
hydrophilic. Protein channels in the epithelial cell membrane enable these molecules to
move, provided they are small enough and there is a concentration gradient, which
permits diffusion.
3) Active transport is used to transport molecules that do not have a sufficiently high
concentration gradient to pass by diffusion. Glucose, amino acids and mineral ions are
absorbed by this method. Mitochondria produce the ATP neede for active transport by
the membrane pumps.
4) Pinocytosis also draws in small drops of liquid from the small intestine. Each droplet
is surrounded by small sections of membrane that invaginate to form a vesicle. The
vesicles are taken into the cytoplasm where their contents can be released.

o Amino acids and glucose enter the capillaries and are carried away in the bloodstream.
o Fatty acid and glycerol are taken into the lacteals and travel in the lymphatic system.

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 o Blood from the capillaries in the cell walls of the small intestine first travels to the liver,
which absorbs glucose and stores it so that it will be able to maintain constant level of
blood sugar when level fall.
o Amino acids form part of the reserve amino acids used to build new proteins in cells all
over the body.
o Fatty acids and glycerol enter the bloodstream from lymph vessels near the heart to be
used as an energy source or build larger molecules.

 Roles of large intesitine

o By the time food reaches the end of the small intestines, most useful substances have been
removed from it.
o Any remaining undigested material, including fibre (cellulose), passes into the large intestine,
which also contains mucus, dead cells from the intestine lining and alrge numbers of naturally
occuring bacteria.
o Bacteria living here are mutualistic organisms, gaining nutrients and suitable haibitat, while
synthesising vitamin K benefit for their human host.

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 o The main role of large intestine is reabsorbing water and mineral ions such as sodium (Na +)
and chloride (Cl-).
o What remains of the original food is now referred to as feces and is egested or eliminated
from the body, via the anus.
o After the digested food has been reabsorbed, it is carried around the body and enters cells to
become part of the body’s tissue or reserves. This is called assimilation.

 Cellulose
o Human cannot digest cellulose, which makes up the wall of the plant cells.
o Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate requiring the enzyme cellulase to catalyse its digestion.
o Human and other mammals are unable to produce this enzyme so cellulose (fibre) pass
undigested out of the body in feces.

ingestion : the act of feeding

digestion : a series of biochemical reactions that converts large ingested molecules into small,
soluble molecules.
absorption : the process by which small molecules are taken through the cells of the intestine and
pass into the bloodsteam.
assimilation :the process by which products of digestion are used or stored by body cells.
egestion : the process by which undigested material leaves the body at the end of the gut.

6.2 The blood system

Blood vessels
 Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart. They branch
and divide many times forming arterioles and eventually tiny capillaries that reach all our
tissue.
 Arteries have thicker outer wall of collagen and elastic fibres which withstand high blood
pressure and prevent vessels becoming overstretched or bursting.

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  Just beneath the outer covering is a ring of circular smooth muscle that contracts with each
heart beat to maintain blood pressure and keep blood moving along.
 Inside an artery, the lumen is narrow to keep blood pressure high. The lumen’s lining of
smooth epithelial cells reduces friction and keeps blood flowing smoothly.
 Capillaries are the smallest vessels – red blood cells must fold up in order to pass through.
 Some capillaries walls have spaces between their cells enabling plasma and phagocytes
(white blood cells) to leak out into the tissue.
 Veins carry blood back toward the atria of the heart from body tissue. Small veins called
venules join up to form large veins, which can be distinguished from arteries by their much
thinner walls, which contain few elastic and muscle fibres.
 Blood inside a vein does not pulse along and the lumen is alrge to hold the slow – moving
flow. The relatively thin walls can be compressed by adjacent muscles and this helps to
squeeze blood along and keep it moving. Many veins contain valves to prevent blood flowing
backward.

Transfer sections of an artery, a vein and a capillary

Artery Vein Capillary

thick walls thin walls walls one cell thick
no valves (except in aorta and valves sometimes present no valves
pulmonary artery)
blood pressure high blood pressure low blood pressure low
carries blood from the heart carries blood to the heart links small arteries to small
veins

The heart and circulation

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 The human heart

 Humans, like all mammals have a double circulation : a pulmonary circulation between the
heart and lungs and a larger circulation that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body
and back again. On any complete journey round the body, blood passes through the heart twice.
 The heart has four chambers – two smaller atria at the top and two larger ventricles below.
 Atria have thin walls as the blood they receive from the veins is under relatively low pressure.
Ventricles are stronger and more muscular as their job is to pump blood out of the heart.
 Left ventricle wall is thicker than the right as it must generate enough pressure to pump blood all
round the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to much shorter distance to the lungs.
 Atria are separated from ventricles by atrioventicular valves, which prevent blood flowing
backwards into the atria. A second set of valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries – the
semilunar valves – prevent backflow into the ventricles as they relax after a contraction.
 Heart muscle works continuosly, beating about 75 times per minute when a person is resting, so
it has a large demand for oxygen. Coronary arteries extend over the surface of the heart and
penetrate deep into muscle fibres to supply oxgen and nutrients.

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 The double circulation of blood through the heart

Control of heart beat

 Cardiac musle contracts and relaxes without stimulation from the nervous system. It is said to be
myogenic.
 Natural myogenic contractions are initiated at an inbuilt pacemaker, which keeps cardiac muscle
working in a coordinated sequence.
 The pacemaker, or sinoatrial node (SAN) is a special region of muscle cells in the right atrium
that sets the basic pace of the heart. The rate set by the SAN is also influenced by stimulation
from the nervous system and by hormones.
 At the start of every heart beat, the SAN produces an impulse that stimulates both atria to
contract. A second structure, the atrioventricular node (AVN) at the base of the right atria is also
stimulated. It delays the impulse briefly until the atrial contraction finishes and then transmits it on
down a bundle of modified muscle fibres – the bundle of His and Purkinje fibres – to the base of
the ventricles. Impulses radiate up through the ventricles, which contract simultaneous about 0.1 s
after the atria.
 The natural rhythm the pacemaker is modulated by nervous system so that the heart rate is
adjusted to our activity levels. It speeds up when we are exercising and need extra oxygen and
nutrients.
 Changes to our heart rate are not under our conscious control but result from impulses sent from
a control centre in the part of the brain stem known as the medulla. Impulses to speed up the
heart pass along the sympathetic nerve, which stimulates the pacemaker to increase its rate.
Impulses sent along the parasympathetic (vagus) nerve cause the heart rate to slow down.
 Emotions such as stress or increase in activity level can cause an increase in heart rate.

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 During periods of excitement, fear or stress the adrenal glands release the hormone epinephrine
(also called adrenalin), which travels in the blood to the pacemaker and stimulates it to increase
the heart rate.

How electrical impulses move through the heart

The cardiac cycle

 The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that takes place during one heart beat.
 As the heart’s chambers contract, blood inside them is forced on its way.
 Valves in the heart stop the blood from flowing backwards through the heart.
 The pressure and volume of blood in each of the chambers of the heart change during the cardiac
cycle.

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The cardiac cycle

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 Pressure and volume changes in the heart during the cardiac cycle

Coronary heart disease

 Three large coronary arteries branch from the aorta and supply heart muscle with oxygen – rich
blood. If any of these arteries is blocked, an area of the heart muscle will receive less oxygen and
cells in that region may stop contracting or even die. A blockage in a coronary artery or one of its
branches is known as coronary thrombosis or heart attack.
 One common cause of coronary heart disease (CHD) is atherosclerosis, a slow degeneration of
the arteries caused by a built – up material known as plaque inside them. Plaque becomes
attached to the smooth endothelium lining where it can accumulate. Over time, the diameter of the
artery becomes restricted so that blood cannot flow along it properly, and it loses elasticity.
 As the rate of flow slows down, blood may clot in the artery, further restricting the movement of
blood along it. Clot may also break free and travel to block another smaller artery elsewhere in the
body. If this artery is in the brain, the clot may cause a stroke.

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 The development of atherosclerosis

The blood
Composition of blood
Blood plasma is a pale yellow watery liquid that makes up 50 –
60% of our blood volume.
Suspended in plasma are three important groups of cells :
 erythrocytes (red blood cells) : to carry oxygen.
 leucocytes (white blood cells) : to fight disease.
 platelets (cell fragments) : are needed for blood clotting.

Functions of blood
Blood has two important roles : it is a vital part of body’s
transport network, carrying dissolved materials to all cells, and
it helps to fight infectious disease.

Substance transported Source and destination

nutrients glucose, amino acids, vitamins and mineral carried in plasma from the small
intestine to the cells.
oxygen carried by red blood cells from the lungs to all tissues.
carbon dioxide returned to the lungs in plasma and red blood cells from all respiring tissue.
urea carried in plasma from cells to the kidney for disposal.
hormones transported in plasma from glands to target cells.
antibodies protein molecules produced by certain lymphocytes to fight infection; distributed in
plasma.
heat distributed from warm areas to cooler ones to maintain core temperature.

6.3 Defence against infectious disease

 A pathogen is a living organism or virus that invades the body and causes disease.

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  Most pathogens are bacteria and viruses but fungi and parasitic worms can also be
pathogenic
 A virus takes over the nucleic acid and protein synthesis mechanisms of its host cell and
directs them to make more viruses.

The body’s first line of defence

 Our effective immune system prevents pathogens entering the body and deals with any that
do.
 The first line of defence against infection is our skin, a tough barrier to any potential invaders.
 Respiratory, urinary, reproductive and intestinal tracts are protected by the lining of mucous
membranes.
 Secretions such as tears, mucus and saliva all contain the enzyme lysozyme, which attacks
the cell walls of bacteria.
 If pathogens are swallowed in food or water, the acidic environment of the stomach helps to
kill them.

Blood clotting
 To prevent blood loss and entry of pathogens – when protective layer of skin is broken or cut
and blood vessels are broken – any blood that escapes from a damaged vessel quickly forms
a clot, which plugs the gap.
 Platelets, erythrocytes and leucocytes are all important in the clotting process.
 Platelets are small cell fragments, which form in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood
stream.
 Two inactive plasma proteins, prothrombin and fibrinogen, are activated when needed.
 If a small blood vessels is damaged, injured cells or platelets release clotting factors, which
cause platelets to stick to the area.
 These factors activate prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin activates the soluble protein
fibrinogen into active fibrin, which is insoluble and forms long threads.
 Fibrin forms a mesh of fibres that covers the damaged area and traps passing blood cells,
forming a soft clot.
 If a clot is exposed to air, it dries and forms a scab, which will protect the area until the tissue
beneath has been repaired.

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 The sequence of reactions in the blood – clotting

Non-specific immunity
 Phagocytic leucocytes respond to invaders by engulfing and destroying them in a process called
phogocytosis.
 This type of response provides non – specific immunity because the phagocytes respond in the
same way no matter what the pathogen.

Phagocytosis of a pathogen

Specific immunity and antibody production

 Antigens (antibody generating substances) are proteins found embedded in the plasma
membranes or cell walls of bacteria or in the protein coat of a virus.
 These antigens enable the body to recognise a pathogen as being ‘not self’ – that is, not a part of
the body – and they give a clear signal to switch on the immune response, with the rapid
production of antibodies.
 Antibodies are protein molecules that are produced by lymphocytes in response to any antigen
that enters the body.
 There are millions of different antibodies and each one is specific to an antigen.
 For example, the antibodies that lymphocytes produce in response to infection by an influenza
virus are quite different from those produced by different lymphocytes in response to a
tuberculosis bacterium.

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 Even fragments of pathogens, or their toxins, can stimulate the release of antibodies.
 After an infection has passed, some of the lymphocytes giving rise to antibodies specific to the
infecting antigen remain in the blood stream as memory cells.
 This means that the immune system can respond quickly if the same antigen enters the body
again later, by producing antibodies and preventing a widespread infection. The person is said to
have acquired immunity to the antigen.

Antibody production
 Each antibody molecule has a basic Y shape but the arrangement of molecules at the top of the
Y form specific binding sites that give every antibody its unique properties.

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 The basic structure of an antibody molecule
 These specific binding sites attach to the corresponding antigen site on the surface of the
pathogen or its toxin.
 Once the antibody has bound to an antigen, it can destroy it in one of a number of ways.
 Some cause bacterial cells to clump together, making the job of phagocytes easier. Others cause
cell walls to rupture, deactivate toxins or act as recognition signals for phagocytes, giving a clear
indication that action is needed.

The various way in which different antibodies can destroy bacteria or their toxins

Antibiotics
 Most bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics
 Antibiotics are natural substances that slow the growth of bacteria.
 Some antibiotics block the protein synthesis mechanism in bacteria while not affecting the process
in human cells.
 Others interfere with the formation of the bacterial cell wall and prevent bacteria growing and
dividing.
 Viruses are not living and have no metabolic pathways of their own. Since they use their human
host’s metabolism to build new viruses, antibiotics have no effect against viral infections.

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Antibiotic resistance
 Antibiotics kill or block the growth of bacteria but not all bacteria are susceptible to them.
 In any population of bacteria some individuals will have a natural resistance to the antibiotic used
to kill them, which may arise spontaneously by mutations.
 Resistant strains multiply along with susceptible strains but if antibiotics are used, only the
sensitive bacteria will be killed while the resistant ones survive.
 Resistant bacteria are also able to pass on their resistance to other bacteria via their plamids
 Treating a disease caused by resistant strains of bacteria becomes very difficult.
 Strong doses of antibiotic or different antibiotics are prescribed to kill the resistant bacteria.
 The more often antibiotic are used, and the more different types that are used, the greater the risk
that resistance will develop so over-use and the improper use of antibiotics are thought to have
contributed to the development of resistance.
 Bacteriologists are concerned that some diseases will become untreatable with currently available
antibiotics. The so-called superbug MRSA now has multiple resistance to many antibiotics and
recently strains of bacteria that cause tuberculosis and the sexually transmitted disease
gonorrhoea have been found to be resistant to all the antibiotics which have been used to treat
them.

HIV and AIDS

 Human immunodeficiency disease (HIV), first identified in the early 1980s, causes the series of
symptoms together known as acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS.
 HIV infects only the helper T – cells, a type of lymphocyte that is important in maintaining
communication between cells of the immune system.
 After a latent period of months or years, helper T – cells are gradually destroyed and as their
number fall, so does the body’s ability to fight infection.
 Helper T – cells instruct other lymphocytes to clone and generate antibodies and without them an
infected person can no longer fight off pathogens.
 Secondary infections result and the person is said to be suffering from AIDS.

HIV viruses consist of a spherical glycoprotein and lipid coat enclosing two strands of RNA.
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Causes and consequences of AIDS
 HIV is transmitted in blood, vagina secretions, semen, breast milk and sometimes across the
placenta.
 HIV has been transmitted in blood transfusions. Blood for transfussion is now screened for the
virus.
 The virus is most frequently passed from person to person in bodily fluids during sex and also
when non – sterile syringe needles are used to administer either legal or illegal drugs.
 AIDS is the end stage of an HIV infection. It is caused by a severe failure of immune system as
the HIV virus selectively infects helper T – cells
 Some infected individuals have no symptoms in the early stages of the disease while others may
be slightly unwell when first infected.
 Symptoms of AIDS develop as the number of active helper T – cells decreases.
 The symptoms occur as a result of secondary infections caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses that
the body is unable to resist due to its compromised immune system

International aspects of disease

 AIDS is worldwide pandemic but some regions are more seriosly affected than others.
 In 2008, the number of people living with HIV and AIDS was estimated at 25 million in sub-
Saharan Africa and almost 8 million in South and South East Asia.
 AIDS is the main cause of death for men and women aged between 16 and 50 years in these
countries, Latin America and the Caribbean.
 International travel means that pathogens can travel further and faster than ever before

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 Three stages of HIV infection

6.4 Gas exchange

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  Respiration is a chemical reaction that occurs in mitochondria and the cytoplasm and release
energy as ATP, a form that can be used inside cells.
 Oxygen is used by cells to carry out aerobic respiration and produce carbon dioxide as a
waste product. Oxygen is taken in from the air and carbon dioxide is returned to it in a passive
process known as gas exchange.
 Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs where oxygen from the air diffuses into blood
capillaries, and carbon dioxide passes in the opposite direction.
 Gases are also exchanged in the tissues where oxygen diffuses into respiring cells and is
exchanged for carbon dioxide.
 Whenever diffusion occurs, there must always be a concentration gradient with a high level
of the diffusing substance in one area than in another. Air inside the alveoli contains a higher
concentration gradient of oxygen than the blood, so oxygen diffuses into the blood. Blood
contains a higher level of carbon dioxide than inhaled air, so carbon dioxide diffuses into the
alveoli.
 For gas exchange to continue, these concentration gradients must be maintained. As oxygen
diffuse out of the alveoli, the level of oxygen inside them gradually falls and the level of carbon
dioxide rises.
 Stale air with high levels of carbon dioxide and low levels of oxygen must be expelled regularly
and replaced with a fresh supply to restore the concentration gradients of the two gases by
breathing in and out, a process known as ventilation.

 The human ventilation system

o Our lungs are protected inside the thorax in an air – tight cavity formed by the ribs and
diaphragm.
o The inside of the ribcage is lined with membranes that secrete fluid to lubricate the lungs,
making them slippery and reducing friction during breathing.
o Air is drawn in through the nose and passes down the trachea to the two bronchi, one of
which passes to each lung.
o Bronchi divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles, which end in tiny air
sacs or alveoli.
o The alveoli are covered with a network of capillaries and together provide us with a very
large surface area for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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Measuring changes in lung volume
o A spirometer is used to measure the amount of air that is exchanged during breathing.
o It can also measure the rate of breathing – for example, when a person is at rest or during
or after exercise.
o A simple spirometer has a chamber filled with oxygen or air, which is inverted over a
container of water. The subject is connected to the chamber via a tube and a mouth piece
(the nostrils are closed with a nose clip). As the subject inhales and exhales a trace is
produced on a rotating drum or computer monitor. Inhalation causes the chamber to fall,
producing a falling line on the trace. Exhalation causes the chamber to rise and produces
a rising line. The trace is called a spirogram and various volume measurements can be
made from it. Usually soda lime is used to absorb carbon dioxide that is exhaled.

22
Mechanism of ventilation

23
 o Breathing is brought about by two sets of intercostal muscles between the ribs, and by
the diaphragm, the sheet of muscle separating the thorax from the abdomen.

o During inhalation :
Contraction of the external intercostal muscles raises the ribs and contraction of the
diaphragm lowers the floor of the thorax. These movements increase the volume of the
chest cavity and lower the pressure on the lungs to below that of the air outside. Air is
drawn down the trachea to fill the lungs.
o Exhalation occurs as the intercostal and diaphragm muscles relax, reducing the volume of
the chest cavity. Elastic fibres around the alveoli return to their original length and pressure
forces air out of the lungs.
o Long or forced exhalations involve the internal intercostal muscles, which contract to lower
the ribs. Muscles in the abdominal wall also contract and push the relaxed diaphragm
upward. Pressure inside the chest cavity increases and air is forced out the lungs.
o External and internal intercostal muscles are antagonistic muscles. The work of external
intercostals produces an opposite effect to the contraction of the internal intercostals.
o The muscles of the diaphragm are also antagonistic to the abdominal muscles.
o Muscle can only produce an effect and do work when they contract.

Importance of alveoli
o Alveoli are roughly spherical in shape and made of pneumocyte cells less than 5 μ m thick.
o The capillaries that wrap around them also have thin walls of single epithelial cells. These
two thin layers make the distance for diffusion of gases as small as possible. Oxygen
diffuses through the alveolus and capillary into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in the
opposite direction.

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o Diffusion continues as long as the diffusion gradient is maintained.

o The walls of the alveoli contain two types of cells called pneumocytes
1) Type I pneumocytes covers most of the surface (97%) of the air sac and are
responsible for gas exchange.
2) Type II pneumocytes, which are larger and rounder cells that produce and secrete a
liquid containing a surfactant. The surfactant reduces the surface tension and prevents
the sides of the alo09veolus sticking to one another.

Type I cells are about twice as numerous as type II pneumocytes.

Type I pneumocytes cannot divide but if they are damaged type II cells can divide to
replace them.
Premature babies have immature type II pneumocytes, which only begin to develop fully
after 24 weeks. These infants are likely to suffer with Infant Respiratory Distress
syndrome due to the lack of surfactant in their alveoli. After about 35 weeks’ gestation the
production of surfactant is sufficient.

o Emphysema is a condition in which the surface area of the alveoli available for gas
exchange is reduced. It can be caused by environmental factors (cigarette smoking).
Chemicals in tobacco smoke cause neutrophils to secrete neutrophil elastase, which break
down elastic fibres in the alveoli. The walls of alveoli may break down so that millions of
tiny alveoli are replaced with large air spaces. The area for gas exchange decreases and
the a person suffering from emphysema has difficulty getting sufficient oxygen into their
blood. Alveoli also become less elastic and so it becomes even more difficult to ventilate
the lungs. The damage is irreversible.

o Adaptations of alveoli for gas exchange

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 Feature of alveoli Importance
many small, spherical alveoli provide a large area for gas exchange
thin walls of flatenned single cells short diffusion distance
rich blood supply from capilaries maintains concentration gradient and carries
absorbed gas away rapidly.

6.5 Neurons and synapses

The human nervous system

 The nervous system consists of neurons, or nerve cells, which

transmit information in the form of nerve impulses.

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 The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the neurons of the brain and the spinal cord.
 The CNS receives information from sensory receptors all over the body. Information is processed
and intrepreted before the CNS initiates suitable responses.
 The peripheral nerves are the network of neurons that carry information to and from the CNS.
 Peripheral nerves include sensory neurons, which carry information to the CNS, and motor
neurons, which transmit impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands that then cause a
response.
 Sensory and motor neurons transmit information to and from the CNS, while relay neurons
within the CNS form connections between them. Relay neurons within the CNS form connections
between them.

A motor neuron
 Many small dendrites receive information from relay neurons and transmit the impulses to the cell
body. One long axon then carries impulses away. The cell body contains the nucleus and most of
the cytoplasm of the cell.
 The axon is covered by myelin sheath formed from Schwann cells, which wrap themselves
around it.
 Myelin has a high lipid content and forms an electrical insulation layer that speeds the
transmission of impulses along the axon.

Transmission of nerve impulses

 Neurons transmit information in the form of impulses, which are short – lived changes in electrical
potential across the membrane of a neuron.
 All neurons contain Na+ and K+ ions.
 Impulses occur as these important ions move in and out through the plasma membrane.
 When a neuron is not transmitting an impulse, it is said to be at its resting potential. The resting
potential is the potential difference across the plasma membrane when it is not being stimulated –
for most neurons is – 70mV. The inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the
outside.

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 At rest, sodium ions are pumped out of the neuron and potassium ions are pumped in to establish
the resting potential. Inside the neuron is negatively charged because of the presence of chloride
and other negative ions.

 As a nerve impulse occurs, the distribution of charge across

the membrane is reversed. For a milisecond, the membrane is
said to be depolarised.
 As charge is reversed in one are of the axon, local currents
depolarise the next region so that the impulse spreads along
the axon. This impulse is known as action potential.

 As an action potential is generated :

(1) When a neuron is stimulated, gated sodium channels in the membrane open and sodium ions
(Na+) from the outside flow in. They follow both the electrical gradient and the concentration
gradient, together known as the electrochemical gradient, to move into the cell. The neuron is
now said to depolarised.
(2) For a very bried period of time, the inside of the axon becomes positively charged with respect
to the outside as sodium ions enter. At this point, the sodium channels close.
(3) Now, gated potassium channels open and K+ ions begin to leave the axon, moving down their
electrochemical gradient to re-establish the resting potential, a process known as
repolarisation.
(4) Because so many potassium ions start to move, the potential difference falls below the resting
potential. At this point, both sodium and potassium channels close. The resting potential is re-
established by the action of sodium-potassium pumps, which move ions back across the
membrane.

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 The action potential

 An action potential in one part of an axon causes the depolarisation of the adjacent section of the
axon because local currents are set up between adjacent regions and these cause ion channels
to open, allowing sodium ions in and potassium ions out of the axon and cause each successive
part of the axon to reach its threshold potential and become depolarised .
 The impulse can only pass in one direction because the region behind it is still in the recovery
phase of the action potential and is temporarily unable to generate a new action potential. The
recovery phase is known as the refractory period.
 The speed of conduction along an axon is affected by the diameter of the axon. A larger diameter
means faster conduction. Larger axons are myelinated while smaller ones are not.

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 At intervals along myelinated axons are gaps between the myelin covering known as nodes of
Ranvier. The sheath prevents the flow of ions across the membrane so the current must jump
from node to node – a process known as saltatory conduction, which speeds up the
transmission of the nerve impulse.

The synapse

 A synapse is the place where two neurons meet. Tiny gap between two neurons is known as
synaptic cleft.
 Action potential must be transmitted across the gap for the impulse to pass on its way and this is
achieved by the presence of chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitters are held in vesicles in the pre – synaptic cell until an action potential arrives.
They are then released into the synaptic cleft, and diffuse across to the post – synaptic
membrane. There they can cause another action potential to be produced and a nerve impulse to
be initiated, provided the threshold potential is reached.
 The synapse shown uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) and is a cholinergic synapse.

A cholinergic synapse
 Ach binds to receptors and causes depolarisation of the post – synaptic membrane and the
initiation of an action potential. Once an action potential is deactivated by acetylcholinesterase
enzymes and the products are reabsorbed by the pre – synaptic membrane to be remade and
repackaged in vesicles.
 Acetylcholine and noradrenalin are found throughout the nervous system; others (eg : dopamine)
are found only in brain.
 Many drugs and toxin affect synapses and influence the way nerve impulses are transmitted.
 Nicotine is an excitatory drug. It has a similar molecular shape to acetylcholine and affected the
post – synaptic membrane so that it transmits an action potential.
 Cocaine and amphetamines are also excitatory drugs, which stimulate synaptic transmission.
 Benzodiazepenes, cannabis and alcohol suppress the activity of the nervous system.

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 Cannabis binds to receptors in the brain and blocks synaptic transmission. These drugs affect a
person’s behaviour and some are highly addictive.
 Neonicotinoids are chemical pesticides used in insecticides. They are similar in structure to
nicotine and block transmission at the synapse of insects by binding to acetylcholine receptors.
Neonicotinoid pesticides have been linked to the decline of bee populations throughout the world.

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6.6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction

Homeostasis

 The control process that maintains conditions of the internal environment of the body within
certain limits, despite the changes that occur in the external environment is known as
homeostasis.
 The factors that are controlled include the water balance, blood glucose concentration, blood pH,
carbon dioxide concentration and body temperature.
 Both the nervous system and endocrine system are involved in homeostasis.
 The endocrine system consists of ductless endocrine glands, which release different hormones.
 Hormones circulate in the bloodstream but each one in a chemical messenger that only affects
the metabolism of specific target cells.

Insulin and glucagon, and control of blood glucose

 Blood glucose level is the concentration of glucose dissolved in blood plasma.

 Normally blood glucose level stays within narrow limits, between 4 mmol/dm 3 and 8 mmol/dm3 so
that the osmotic balance of the blood remains constant and body cells receive sufficient glucose
for respiration.
 Levels are higher after meals as glucose is absorbed into the blood from the intestine and usually
lowest in the morning as the food has not been consumed overnight.
 Glucose levels are monitored by cells in the pancreas. If the level is too low or too high, α and β
cells in regions of the pancreas known as the islets of Langerhans produce hormones that turn on
control mechanisms to correct it. (negative feedback).

Responses to a rise in blood glucose Responses to a fall in blood glucose

above normal below normal.
Pancreas β cells in the pancreas produce the α cells in the pancreas produce the
hormone insulin hormone glucagon.
Glucose Insulin stimulates cells in the liver and Glucagon stimulates the hydrolisis of
uptake or muscles to take in glucose and convert it glycogen to glucose in liver cells – glucose
release to glycogen and fat, which can be stored is released into the blood.
inside the cells – blood glucose levels fall.

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The positions of some endocrine glands in human body. Endocrine glands have no ducts and secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream, which carries them to target cells

The control mechanism for blood glucose

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Diabetes

 Diabetes is the inability of the body to control body glucose level.

 A diabetic person will experience wide fluctuations in their blood glucose above and below the
normal limits.
 In type I diabetes, the β cells in the pancreas do not produce insulin. Without insulin, glucose is
not taken up by body cells so blood levels remain high (hyperglycemia). Excess glucose is
excreted in urine and its presence is used to diagnose diabetes.
 Type II diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. The pancreas does produce insulin
although levels may fall as the disease progress. Type II diabetes occurs when body cells fail to
respond to the insulin that is produced. The blood glucose levels remain too high. (non-insulin-
dependent diabetes melitus). Individuals who have the condition develop insulin resistance, which
means that the receptor cells that normally respond to insulin fail to be stimulated by it, even
though the β cells in the pancreas still produce insulin.
 Type II diabetes is often associated with obesity, age, lack of exercise and genetic factors.

Blood glucose and insulin levels following intake of glucose in normal person and a person with
untreated type I diabetes.

Causes and symptoms of diabetes

 Type I diabetes is caused when the β cells in the pancreas do not produce insulin. It can be a
result of autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system destroys its own β cells.
 The causes of type II diabetes are not fully understood but there is a strong correlation of risk with
weight and diet.
 High level of fatty acids in the blood may be a factor causing the condition and people whose diets
are high in fat but low in fibre seem to be most at risk. Obesity, associated with lack of exercise or
genetic makeup that influences fat metabolism, is a key risk factor.

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 The symptoms of diabetes

(1) High glucose level in the blood

(2) Glucose in the urine
(3) Frequent need to urinate, which leads tto dehydration and increased thirst
(4) Tiredness and fatigue
(5) Some loss of weight
 In type II diabetes, these symptoms tend to develop slowly

Treatment of diabetes

 Type I diabetes must be controlled by regular insulin injections, but many people who have type II
diabetes are advised to control their blood sugar levels by following a healthy diet, taking exercise
and losing weight. They are advised to eat foods tha are low in saturated fat and salt but high in
fibre and complex (slowly absorbed) carbohydrates such as wholegrain cereals, pulses, beans.
These food help to keep blood sugar levels steady if they are taken at regular intervals during the
day. Foods that should be avoided include sugary snack foods and drinks, and food with a high
level of saturated fat that cause a rapid rise in blood sugar level.
 If left untreated, type II diabetes can lead to a long-term health problems such as kidney disease,
retinal damage, high blood pressure, stroke and heart attack.

Thyroxin and control of metabolic rate

 Thyroxin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland situated in the neck.

 Thyroxin contains iodine, which is a dietary requirement for a healthy thyroid gland.
 Thyroxin controls the body’s basal metabolic rate (the rate of the body’s metabolism at rest) and
so the hormone is also important in controlling growth.
 If a person has insufficient thyroxin present during childhood, their physical and mental
development does not proceed properly and a condition known as cretinism may result; short in
stature and have severe mental retardation.
 In adults, a shortage of thyroxin caused by an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) leads to a
decreased metabolic rate and accumulation in fat, general decrease in physical and mental
activity.
 An overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism) can cause greatly increased metabolic activity, loss
of body mass, an increased heart rate and a general increased metabolic activity, loss of body
mass, an increased heart rate and a general increased in physical and mental activity.
 Both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism can lead to a condition known as goitre, which is a
swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck.

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 The majority cases of goitre used to result from thyroxin deficiency caused by a lack of iodine in
the diet.
 Normal levels of thyroxin are maintained by homeostasis, in a negative feedback system.

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

 In normal conditions, thyroxin secretion is triggered by a stimulating hormone produced by the

pituitary gland. If too much thyroxin is present, it inhibits the pituitary gland and production is
decreased. The stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland is in turn influenced by the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus responds to other influences such as temperature so that, in
some animals, metabolism can be aligned to environmental factors such as the seasons.
 Thyroxin produced as a result of stimulation by the hypothalamus can speed up metabolism of
protein, fat and carbohydrates and increase body temperature by generating metabolic heat.

Control of body temperature

 Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain.

 The ‘set point’ is 36.7 oC. The hypothalamus responds to nerve impulses from receptors in the
skin and also to changes in the body’s core temperature.

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 If body temperature fluctuates above or below the set point, the hypothalamus coordinates
responses to bring it back to normal (negative feedback)
 Nerve messages are carried from the hypothalamus to organs that bring about warming or cooling
of the body.

The body’s responses to changes in core temperature.

Leptin and control of appetite

 Leptin is a protein hormone that is important in regulating energy intake and expenditure,
including appetite and metabolism.
 Human leptin is a protein of 167 amino acids. It is manufactured mainly by cells in white adipose
(fat) tissue and level of circulating leptin is directly proportional to the total amount of fat in the
body.
 It can also be produced by brown adipose tissue, cells in the placenta, ovaries, skeletal muscle
and gastric cells in the stomach.
 Leptin acts on receptor cells in the hypothalamus and it inhibits appetite by :
(1) counteracting the effect of chemicals secreted by the gut and hypothalamus that stimulate
feeding.
(2) promoting the synthesis of α MSH, a long-term appetite suppresant.

Medical use of leptin

 Leptin signals to the brain that the body has had enough to eat.
 The absence of leptin, or the receptor for it, leads to uncontrolled food intake.
 A very small group of humans possess homozygous mutations for the leptin gene and this leads
to a constant desire for food, resulting in severe obesity.
 The effects of leptin were observed by studying mutant obese mice that fall into two classes :
those having mutations in the gene for the protein hormone leptin and those having mutations in
the gene that encodes the receptor for leptin.
 When mice from the first group are treated with injections of leptin, they lose their excess fat and
return to normal body weight.

Melatonin and control of circadian rhythms

 Melatonin is a hormone produced by pineal gland, a pea-sized gland located just above the
middle of the brain.
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 One of the key influences of melatonin is to maintain the body’s circadian rhythms and especially
sleep-wake cycles.
 A vital factor in human sleep regulation is the exposure to light or darkness.
 Exposure of light stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina in the eye to the hypothalamus.
 Cell in the hypothalamus (the supra-chiasmatic nucleus,SCN) send signals to parts of the brain
that control hormones, body temperature and other functions that have a role in our feelings of
sleep or wakefullness.
 The SCN produces a signal that can keep the body on an approximately 24-hour cycle of activity.
 During the day, the pineal gland is inactive but during the hours of darkness, it is ‘turned on’ by the
SCN and begins to produce melatonin, which is released into the blood.
 Rising levels of melatonin cause our feelings of sleepiness. The level of melatonin remains high
for about 12 hours until the following morning when light causes it fall to a minimal level in the
blood.
 Even if the pineal gland is stimulated it will not produce melatonin unless a person is in a dimly lit
environment.

Jet lag

 Jet lag is caused by the disruption of the body’s day – night rhythms caused by long-distance
travel and arrival in a new time zone.
 Jet lag upsets the body clock because the expected patterns of light and darkness are out of
alignment.
 Light is the strongest stimulus for the sleep-wake pattern so jet lag can be controlled by avoiding
bright light so that the body time is reset.
 The effectiveness of melatonin tablets to adjust person’s body clock is not proved.

Hormones and reproduction

 The two reproductive systems enable the gametes to meet and the female reproductive system
provides a suitable place for fertilisation to occur and an embryo to develop. The ovaries and
testes also produce hormones that regulate the sexual development and reproduction.
 In the first week after conception, the sex of a fetus cannot be identified from its appearance.
 The formation of the testes from undifferentiated gonadal tissue is dependent on SRY gene on
the Y chromosome.
 From about 8 weeks after fertilisation, the fetal testes form and begin to secrete testosterone
which causes the formation of the male genitalia.
 If no Y chromosome (and so no SRY gene) is present, female reproductive organs and ovaries
form during the period between the second and sixth month of the fetal development and ovarian
follicles develop.

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 Male reproductive system

Female reproductive system

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Roles of testosteron

 The hormone testosterone, which is produced by the testes has important roles in the sexual
development and reproductive behaviour in males.
(1) During fetal development, testosterone causes the development of the male genitalia.
(2) At puberty, levels of testosterone rise and cause the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics including growth of muscle, deepening of the voice, enlargement of the penis
and growth of body hair.
(3) Testosterone stimulates the continuous production of sperm and behavior associated with the
sex drive.

Female sex hormones and menstrual cycle

 Ovaries produce two hormones, estrogen and progesterone.

 These hormones stimulate the development of female genitalia before birth and at puberty are
responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics including onset of the
menstrual cycle, development of breasts, growth of body hair and widening of the hips. They also
influence the changes in the uterus lining during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
 The pituitary gland in the brain produces two further hormones, luteinising hormone (LH) and
folicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
 FSH stimulates the development of immature follicles in the ovary, one of which will come to
contain a mature egg cell.
 LH stimulates the follicle to release the egg and subsequently to form the corpus luteum.
 Production of female gametes is a cyclical process, which lasts approximately 28 days.
 During the first half of this menstrual cycle the egg cell is produced and in the second half of the
uterus lining thickens to prepare for implantation of a fertilised egg.
 The cycle involves hormones that are released by the ovaries and the pituitary gland.
 The sequence of events begins at the start of menstruation.

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 The menstrual cycle
 During the first four or five days of the cycle, the endometrium (lining) of the uterus is shed and
leaves the body through the vagina. This indicates that fertilisation has not occurred during the
previous month.
 In the early part of the cycle, the pituitary gland secretes FSH, which stimulates the development
of an immature follicle in the ovary. The follicle then secretes estrogen, which enhances the
follicle’s response to FSH. At this stage of the cycle, estrogen has a positive feedback relationship
with FSH. As the level of estrogen rises, it also stimulates the repair of the uterus lining.
 As the follicle grows, estrogen levels rise to peak at around day 12, when they stimulate the
release of LH from the pituitary gland.
 As the LH levels reach their highest point, ovulation – the release of the egg cell from the follicle –
take place. Ovulation usually occurs at around the day of 14 of the cycle. LH stimulates the empty
follicle to form the corpus luteum. Levels of estrogen fall and as a result FSH and LH levels fall.
 The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which stimulates the thickening of the endometrium
and prepares the uterus to receive an embryo. It also inhibits the production of FSH and LH.
 if there is fertilization, zygote is formed. zygote  embryo. embryo sink into the uterus.
development of placenta. placenta  production of progesterone.
 if no fertilization :
 If the egg cell is not fertelised, the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone and estrogen
levels fall. The fall in progesterone stimulates the breakdown of uterus lining. FSH is no longer
inhibited, so a new follicle is stimulated and the cycle begins again.

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 Negative and positive feedback in the menstrual cycle.

In vitro fertilisation

 In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a technique used to help couples who have been unable to conceive
naturally.
 Reasons for infertility :
 Males : may have low sperm count, blocked or damaged sperm duct or unable to achieve an
erection.
 Females : may fail to ovulate or have blocked or damaged oviducts, or produce antibodies in
cervical mucus that destroy sperm.

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 The stages in IVF treatment

Ethical issues associated with IVF treatment

Arguments in favour of IVF

(1) Enable infertile couples to have a family

(2) Couples willing to undergo IVF treatment must have determination to become parents.
(3) Embryos used IVF treatment can be screened to ensure they are healthy and do not have certain
genetic conditions that would be inherited.
(4) IVF technique have led to further understanding of human reproductive biology.

Arguments against IVF

(1) Unused embryos produced by IVF are frozen for a limited period and then destroyed.
(2) Multiple births often result from IVF and this increases the risks to mother and babies.
(3) Infertiliy is natural whereas IVF is not, some religions object to it on this basis.
(4) Some causes of infertility are due to genetic conditions, which may be passed on to children born
as a result of IVF.
(5) There may be risks to the health of women who are treated with hormones during IVF.

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