Chapter 2

MANAGING ONESELF
– KEYS TO PERSONAL IMPROVEMENT

In the aftermath of Peter Drucker’s death, the Harvard Business

Press republished a book chapter that Drucker had included in his writings
about the management challenges of the 21st Century1. Drucker’s brilliance
as an author, professor, and consultant earned him the title of “The Father
of Modern Management” and his thinking about personal improvement
provides a pattern for achieving one’s highest potential that applies not
only to business leaders but to individuals at all organizational levels and
in organizations of all types2.

1
Drucker, P. F., (2007). Managing Oneself. Boston, MA: Harvard
Business Press.
2
Drucker, P. F., (1999). Management Challenges of the 21st Century. New
York: HarperBusiness.
 The focus of this chapter is on integrating Drucker’s ideas about
personal improvement with related principles that have been identified by
other prominent experts and that complement Drucker’s thinking. The
chapter begins by summarizing the profound insights offered by Drucker,
drawing upon five questions that he identified as critical to personal
improvement that he cited as critical to managing oneself 3. We then
identify how Drucker’s insights aligned with the thinking of other great
scholars, and identify eight principles that explain how individuals can
apply Drucker’s wisdom to improve the quality of their lives. The chapter
concludes with a challenge to those who seek self-improvement to
incorporate both Drucker’s suggestions and the eight principles in order to
achieve their highest potential.

Drucker on Managing Oneself

In managing oneself, Peter Drucker identified five questions that

he suggested were critical in determining where to focus in the quest for
self-improvement. Drucker described the application of these questions in
his own improvement process and provided numerous examples of other
people and organizations who had used these questions in their own efforts
to discover their potential. The following is a summary of Drucker’s
insights about each of these questions.

What are my strengths?

After intensive study, Drucker identified several realities about

one’s strengths. The first surprising reality is that people are often
incorrect in determining their strengths. Drucker not only advocated the
importance of regularly setting goals related to one’s strengths but in
regularly assessing the predictive validity of those strengths-related goals
on an annual basis4. His second finding was that people commonly make
the mistake of focusing on improving their weaknesses, rather than
3
Ibid., See “Managing Oneself,” pp.161-196.
4
Ibid. pp. 164-165.
working on developing the competencies that they do extraordinarily well 5.
Drucker’s third discovery was that many individuals develop a disabling
arrogance about areas outside of their expertise that can greatly hinder their
success.

Although individuals must develop adequate competencies

associated with their responsibilities that are outside of their area of
primary strength, such as being courteous and respectful of others, they
should primarily focus on their high competence and high skill areas.
Their focus should be on that which they do extremely well -- while
investing as little effort as possible on developing areas of minimal ability,
beyond those areas required to succeed in avoiding creating a self-
defeating problem6. Drucker explained that energy, resources, and time
should “go into making a competent person a star performer7.”

How do I perform?

Surprisingly, Drucker observed that “few people know how things

get done” or that how they perform their work is often much different than

5
Ibid, p. 166.
6
Ibid., pp. 166-168.
7
Ibid., p. 168.
the ways in which others work 8. How people learn in performing their
work is frequently unique to them – and those who work with others need
to recognize how to present information to those to whom they report in
order to have their recommendations received favorably 9. Although people
may be aware of how they learn, they may not be consciously act on this
knowledge effectively.

Individuals also need to understand whether they work best in

partnership with others or whether they prefer to study a problem or work
on a project on their own10. In understanding how they perform best,
individuals also need to know whether they are most effective as a leader,
as a facilitator of others, or as a subordinate. To be most effective,
individuals must recognize whether they are skilled working as part of a
team. They must understand whether they possess the skills required to be
an effective coach or mentor of others and they must clearly assess whether
they are most successful as a decision-maker or as an advisor of others.

What are my values?

8
Ibid., p. 168.
9
Ibid., p. 169.
10
Ibid., p. 174.
 By definition we value, or give priority in life, to those things that
are most important. The ability to manage oneself must align our actions
and those values11. The ethical lens through which each person sees the
world is the means by which (s)he defines “right” and “wrong” and enables
each person to confirm how (s)he makes moral choices. The test of those
values often requires thoughtful reflection about the roles that we are asked
to play and how we define ourselves. When working in an organization,
the alignment of its values and the way that it does its work must not
conflict with the values of its members. For individual organization
members to be effective contributors, their “values must be compatible
with the organization’s values12.”

An organization proclaims its values and priorities by the claims

that guide it – and then translates those claims into actions as its leaders
establish an organizational culture. Although a person’s strengths and the
way that they perform may be complementary, what they do well may not
always align with their value system – but if a conflict exists between
those strengths and a person’s values, they are likely to find themselves
personally frustrated, unfulfilled, and unhappy. Drucker unequivocally
declared that an individual’s values should be the ultimate test of how that

11
Ibid, pp. 175-178.
12
Ibid., p. 178.
person evaluates herself or himself and what (s)he chooses to do in
fulfilling her/his life choices13.

Where do I belong?

In the modern information-based economy the knowledge workers

of the 21st century must be able to integrate their strengths, how they
perform, and their values to determine where they belong 14. Drucker
observed that gifted people need time to determine precisely where they
can best utilize their skills and fulfill their potential. He added that it is
also critical for such individuals to correctly assess where they may not fit
and where they do not belong. That assessment should also include
identifying where their decision-making skills and personal attributes do
not match the role that they might be asked to play or the values of an
organization15.

Knowing the answer to these important questions enables a person

to accurately assess an opportunity and to enable a person to affirm, “This
is who I am!16” Drucker was clear in explaining that the choices made in
achieving one’s highest potential in a career were critical. He declared that
successful careers were the end product of individuals knowing and
13
Ibid., p. 178.
14
Ibid., p. 179.
15
Ibid., p. 179.
16
Ibid., p. 179.
developing their strengths, understanding the way that they work, and
matching their values with those of a compatible organization. He wrote
that “knowing where one belongs makes ordinary people—hardworking,
competent but mediocre otherwise—into outstanding performers 17.”

What is my contribution?

Identifying the contribution that one can make in the world is

about moving from knowledge to action and converting what one
understands about herself or himself into effectively managing one’s
performance18. For Drucker, however, performance management extends
far beyond self-interest and encompasses creating relationships with others,
becoming a valuable participant in an organization, and creating a better
world19. Performance management was ultimately about the contribution
that each individual can make to discover herself or himself, serve others,
and build a better future society 20. Making the best possible contribution
encompasses a moral obligation and duty – rather than a self-gratifying
personal experience21.

In a world made up of knowledge workers, the contributions which

those individuals make depend upon their ability to integrate the answers to
17
Ibid., p. 180.
18
Ibid., p. 180
19
Ibid, pp. 180-195.
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
Drucker’s questions with their capacity to constantly evolve, to learn, and
to apply knowledge in practical ways 22. Drucker called this commitment to
personal discovery a “revolutionary” experience that asked individuals to
identify how they can create powerful relationships with others that are
built upon high trust.

It is this trust, Drucker explained, that is ultimately the foundation

for creating interpersonal and organizational relationships that make each
person’s optimal contribution possible. To make this revolution possible,
Drucker wrote that each person must behave, in effect, as a Chief
Executive Officer who understands the needs of others and who is
committed to others’ successes as well as her or his own23.
Managing oneself and applying Drucker’s questions serve as a
formidable basis and a powerful foundation upon which to build in the
quest for self-improvement and performance management. Drucker’s
insights are cited as “classic” ideas for those who wish to lead or to achieve
personal success in life24. Drucker’s wisdom is also contained in the work
of other scholars and experts about self-improvement.

22
Ibid.
23
Ibid., p. 194.
24
Drucker, (2007), op. cit.
Eight Principles for Managing Oneself

The insights of other highly regarded experts about managing

oneself and self-improvement affirm the importance of the five questions
that Drucker offered while providing eight powerful principles. We
present these principles as a guide that can assist those committed to self-
improvement to adopt in their own lives.

1. Invest in personal self-discovery.

In their research about the identity, Peter Burke

and Jan Stets explained that personal self-discovery is
achieved as individuals examine their identities in a
thoughtful process of self-discovery25. Self-analysis is a
key element of self-awareness and a fundamental element
of Emotional Intelligence26. By understanding one’s
beliefs, values, and ethical priorities, individuals are able
to improve their ability to focus on how they can direct
their lives, achieve their goals, and obtain personal
fulfillment27. Research by Dr. Stephen R. Covey affirms
the importance of self-discovery in finding one’s voice by
beginning from the inside-out28.

25
Burke, P. J. & Stets, J. E., (2009). Identity Theory. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
26
Goleman, D., (2005). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More
than IQ. New York: Random House.
27
Caldwell, C. & Anderson, V., (2021). “Moral Identity and Finding Your
Voice.” In C. Caldwell & V. Anderson, (Eds.). Moral Identity and Self-
Discovery. Hauppage, NY: NOVA Publishing.
28
Covey, S. R., (2004). The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness.
New York: Free Press.
 2) Focus on your strengths and develop those qualities.

Using a regular review process to refine one’s

strengths has frequently been advocated as the key to
personal improvement. Gallup’s Don Clifton and Tom
Rath have developed a powerful analytic tool for personal
self-analysis that enables individuals to assess their
strengths and focus their personal development efforts 29.
Clifton and his colleagues have written repeatedly about
the importance of understanding what individuals do well
and has explained why emphasizing strengths rather than
focusing on weaknesses enables a person to develop their
personal excellence and self-mastery. Wise leaders
recognize that understanding their own capabilities and
weaknesses enables them to appreciate the importance of
working in partnership with others who can complement
their abilities30.

29
Clifton, D. & Rath, T., (2007). StrengthsFinder 2.0. New York: Gallup
Press.
30
Owens, B. P., & Hekman, D. R. (2012). “Modeling How to Grow: An
Inductive Examination of Humble Leader Behaviors, Contingencies, and
Outcomes.” Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 55, pp. 787-818.
 3) Treat others with dignity and respect.

Genuinely caring about others and treating them

with dignity and respect is a necessary requirement for
building relationships and a death knell of relationships for
individuals who disregard this principle 31. Personal
32 33
humility and love conveyed toward others are essential
qualities in establishing personal relationships and build
commitment with others when exhibited by leaders in
organizations34.

31
Goleman, (2005), op. cit.
32
Owens & Hekman (2012), op. cit.
33
See Fromm, E., (2006). The Art of Loving. New York: Harper Perennial
and Autry, J. A., (1992). Love and Profit: The Art of Caring Leadership.
New York: Avon Publishers.
34
Okpala, C. O. & Caldwell, C. (2019). “Humility, Forgiveness, and Love:
The Heart of Ethical Stewardship.” Journal of Values-Based Leadership,
Vol. 12 Summer 2019 and found online at
https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol12/iss2/10/
 The evidence about successful organizations and
those who fail confirm that managers and supervisors who
treat employees with dignity and respect are exponentially
more successful than peers who lack this quality35.

4) Assess how you and others learn.

Adult learners incorporate their decision-making

style, past experiences, and individual strengths in how
they learn36. The study of how individuals think and learn
confirms that recognizing personal learning styles and
applying that knowledge can expand learning, improve
communication, and enhance productivity37.

35
Clifton, J. & Harter, J., (2019). It’s the Manager. Omaha, NE: Gallup
Press.
36
Knowles, M., Holton, E. F. III, Swanson, R. A. & Robinson, P. A.,
(2020). The Adult Learner (9th ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire,
UK: Routledge Publishers.
37
Ritchhart, R., Church, A. & Morrison, K., (2011). Making Thinking
Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and Learning for
All Learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
 Recognizing how we individually learn can be vital to our
own self-development and can enhance our relationships with
others38. Respecting and aligning how we present information to
others can also help them in their lives and can also improve our
ability to be perceived as respectful of their needs and committed
to their welfare39.

5) Understand your ethical lens.

Each person’s ethical lens makes it easier to

interact with others effectively. . . or can be the source of a
loss in trust and the failure of a relationship 40. The ethical
lens and the accompanying values upon which it is based
are complex factors that are derived from our beliefs about

38
Mercer, N., (2013) “The Social Brain, Language, and Goal-Directed
Collective Thinking: A Social Conception of Cognition and Its
Implications for Understanding How We Think, Teach, and
Learn,” Educational Psychologist, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 148-168.
39
Covey, S. R., (2020). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (4th ed.).
New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 273-306.
40
Hosmer, L. T., (1995). “Trust: The Connecting Link between
Organizational Theory and Philosophical Ethics.” Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 379-403.
 self, others, correct principles, and perceptions about the
past, current reality, and the future41.

The growing evidence about ethics confirms that

there are a multitude of differing ethical perspectives and
each of them is based upon a well-established but often
conflicting philosophical foundation42.

6) Commit to constant learning.

In a world dependent upon information,

knowledge, and wisdom, the importance of constantly
investing in oneself is paramount43. Constant learning,

41
See, Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H. & Schoorman, F. D., (1995). “An
Integrative Model of Organizational Trust.” Academy of Management
Review, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 709-734, and Caldwell, C. & Anderson, V.,
(2019). “Trust from a Transformative Perspective.” In C. Caldwell & V.
Anderson (Eds.), Trust, Trustworthiness, and Stewardship: A
Transformative Perspective, Chapter 3.
42
See Hosmer, (1995), op. cit. and
43
Senge, P. M., (2006). The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the
Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday.
 however, is far more than a cognitive exercise. The
learning process requires the application of knowledge to
fully discern truth44. Abraham Maslow emphasized the
importance of constant learning and the application of
knowledge as conditions precedent to acquiring wisdom
and personal growth45.

7) Pursue your highest potential.

The story of many great lives affirms the

importance of seeking one’s highest potential in the quest
to making contributions to others, choosing a career path,
achieving professional success, and finding long-term
personal happiness46. Knowing one’s strengths, while
critically important, is not the same as going beyond
simply being excellent. Abraham Maslow has affirmed
that there is a state that can be achieved that goes even
beyond self-actualization – confirming that each person

44
Dewey, J., (1997). Experience and Education. New York: Touchstone.
45
Maslow, A. H., (1993). The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New
York: Penguin/Arkana.
46
Kennedy, J. F., (2006). Profiles in Courage. New York: Harper
Perennial.
 can transcend her/his expectations and far exceed what
was previously thought to be possible47.

8) Convert knowledge to action.

Personal improvement is much more than simply

understanding oneself. Achieving worthy goals requires
an investment of time, effort, and personal commitment
that enables individuals to convert their knowledge to
action and their wishes to reality 48. The capacity to
achieve important outcomes requires integrity as well as
knowledge. Competence is far more than the ability to
understand concepts and includes the ability to translate a
great strategy into its execution49.

47
Maslow, A. H., (1994). Religions, Values, and Peak-Experiences. New
York: Penguin Books.
48
Duckworth, A., (2018). GRIT: The Power of Passion and Perseverance.
New York: Scribner.
49
Pfeffer, J., (1998). The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting
People First. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.
 Integrating the wisdom of other scholars with Drucker’s insights
about personal improvement can enable individuals to manage their lives
in ways that not only empower them far beyond their present levels but that
change their capacity to serve others and make a better world. To Drucker,
the striving for self-improvement transcends personal growth and includes
the moral obligation to build a better world50.

Applications and Conclusion

Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of America’s pioneers in writing

morally rich and inspiring books and short stories, contributed to society an
enchanting short story, “The Great Stone Face 51.” The story is about a
young boy, named Ernest, who grows up in a populous valley bordered by

50
Drucker, (1999), op. cit., p. 195.
a mountain upon which there was formed, as if by a trick of nature, a rock
formation that resembled a great stone face that was visible to the residents
of the entire area. The legend of the valley’s residents was that this rock
formation had particular importance and represented a man who would one
day come to the valley and bless those who lived there. Hawthorne
described the impact of the Great Stone Face on the mountain as follows:

It was a happy lot for children to grow up to

manhood or womanhood with the Great Stone Face before
their eyes, for all the features were noble, and the
expression was at once grand and sweet, as if it were the
glow of a vast, warm heart, that embraced all mankind in
its affections, and had room for more.

According to those who lived within this valley,

the beliefs often told to young boys and girls at the foot of
their mothers was that the Great Stone Face contained
within it a prophecy. Hawthorne’s story explained.
The purport was, that, at some future day, a child
should be born hereabouts, who was destined to become

Hawthorne, N., (1850). “The Great Stone Face.” Found online on

51

August 21, 2021 at The Great Stone Face (americanliterature.com).

the greatest and noblest personage of his time, and whose
countenance, in manhood, should bear an exact
resemblance to the Great Stone Face. Not a few old-
fashioned people, and young ones likewise, in the ardor of
their hopes, still cherished an enduring faith in this old
prophecy. But others, who had seen more of the world, had
watched and waited till they were weary, and had beheld
no man with such a face, nor any man that proved to be
much greater or nobler than his neighbors, concluded it to
be nothing but an idle tale. At all events, the great man of
the prophecy had not yet appeared.
Hawthorne’s story recounts the evolution of this
young boy to become a man. Throughout his life, he and
others in the valley looked for a visitor to the village who
personified the image on the mountain. Several seemingly
great men came to the village from time to time, but none
of them seemed to resemble the image of the Great Stone
Face in their countenance or in their actions. Meanwhile,
Ernest devoted his life to serving others and was
eventually known and respected for his wisdom and his
beneficence. In his later years he became a minister who
went throughout the valley serving others.
One beautiful day, this kind preacher was asked to
speak to a group of his congregants. Hawthorne describes
the event.

Ernest began to speak, giving to the people of what

was in his heart and mind. His words had power,
because they accorded with his thoughts; and his
thoughts had reality and depth, because they
harmonized with the life which he had always lived.
It was not mere breath that this preacher uttered;
they were the words of life, because a life of good
deeds and holy love was melted into them. Pearls,
pure and rich, had been dissolved into this precious
draught.
 Those who were in attendance gazed at Ernest
whose face took upon itself the kindness that seemed
identical to the mountain. “The prophecy was fulfilled,”
people declared as they saw the likeness of this simple
man and its resemblance to the Great Stone Face.
Ironically, Ernst never heard those words and was never
aware of the profound influence he had on others or the
kind of person he had become.

Each one of us is likely to be much like Ernst in Hawthorne’s

story. We may be looking for the greatness that is in others yet may be
unaware of our own abilities, capacity, and potential. Nevertheless, like
Ernst, greatness lies within each one of us if we strive to become excellent
and honor correct principles52. The keys to discovering that greatness
come from making a constant effort . . . discovering by increasing our self-
understanding that we have the power to improve and grow if we recognize
who we truly are and make a constant effort.

REFERENCES:

Burke, P. J. & Stets, J. E., (2009). Identity Theory. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.

52
Maslow, (1994), op. cit.
Caldwell, C. & Anderson, V., (2021). “Moral Identity and Finding Your
Voice.” In C. Caldwell & V. Anderson, (Eds.). Moral Identity and
Self-Discovery. Hauppage, NY: NOVA Publishing.
Caldwell, C. & Anderson, V., (2019). “Trust from a Transformative
Perspective.” In C. Caldwell & V. Anderson (Eds.), Trust,
Trustworthiness, and Stewardship: A Transformative Perspective,
Chapter 3.
Clifton, D. & Rath, T., (2007). StrengthsFinder 2.0. New York: Gallup
Press.
Clifton, J. & Harter, J., (2019). It’s the Manager. Omaha, NE: Gallup
Press.
Covey, S. R., (2020). The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (4th ed.).
New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 273-306.
Covey, S. R., (2004). The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness. New
York: Free Press.
Dewey, J., (1997). Experience and Education. New York: Touchstone.
Drucker, P. F., (2007). Managing Oneself. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
Press.
Drucker, P. F., (1999). Management Challenges of the 21st Century. New
York: HarperBusiness.
Duckworth, A., (2018). GRIT: The Power of Passion and Perseverance.
New York: Scribner.
Fromm, E., (2006). The Art of Loving. New York: Harper Perennial and
Autry, J. A., (1992). Love and Profit: The Art of Caring
Leadership. New York: Avon Publishers.
Goleman, D., (2005). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More
than IQ. New York: Random House.
Hawthorne, N., (1850). “The Great Stone Face.” Found online on August
21, 2021 at The Great Stone Face (americanliterature.com).
Hosmer, L. T., (1995). “Trust: The Connecting Link between
Organizational Theory and Philosophical Ethics.” Academy of
Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 379-403.
Kennedy, J. F., (2006). Profiles in Courage. New York: Harper Perennial.
Knowles, M., Holton, E. F. III, Swanson, R. A. & Robinson, P. A., (2020).
The Adult Learner (9th ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire,
UK: Routledge Publishers.
Maslow, A. H., (1994). Religions, Values, and Peak-Experiences. New
York: Penguin Books.
Maslow, A. H., (1993). The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New
York: Penguin/Arkana.
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H. & Schoorman, F. D., (1995). “An Integrative
Model of Organizational Trust.” Academy of Management Review,
Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 709-734,
Mercer, N., (2013) “The Social Brain, Language, and Goal-Directed
Collective Thinking: A Social Conception of Cognition and Its
Implications for Understanding How We Think, Teach, and
Learn,” Educational Psychologist, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 148-168.
Okpala, C. O. & Caldwell, C. (2019). “Humility, Forgiveness, and Love:
The Heart of Ethical Stewardship.” Journal of Values-Based
Leadership, Vol. 12 Summer 2019 and found online at
https://scholar.valpo.edu/jvbl/vol12/iss2/10/
Owens, B. P., & Hekman, D. R. (2012). “Modeling How to Grow: An
Inductive Examination of Humble Leader Behaviors,
Contingencies, and Outcomes.” Academy of Management Journal,
Vol. 55, pp. 787-818.
Pfeffer, J., (1998). The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting
People First. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.
Ritchhart, R., Church, A. & Morrison, K., (2011). Making Thinking
Visible: How to Promote Engagement, Understanding, and
Learning for All Learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Senge, P. M., (2006). The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of the
Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday.