Spinal Muscular Atrophy

NLM Citation: Prior TW, Leach ME, Finanger E.
Spinal Muscular
Atrophy. 2000 Feb 24 [Updated 2020 Dec 3]. In: Adam MP, Mirzaa GM,
Pagon RA, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA):
University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2023.
Bookshelf URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/
Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Thomas W Prior, PhD, FACMG,1 Meganne E Leach, MSN, PNP,2 and Erika Finanger,
MD2
Created: February 24, 2000; Revised: December 3, 2020.
Summary
Clinical characteristics
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy resulting from progressive
degeneration and irreversible loss of the anterior horn cells in the spinal cord (i.e., lower motor neurons) and the
brain stem nuclei. The onset of weakness ranges from before birth to adulthood. The weakness is symmetric,
proximal > distal, and progressive. Before the genetic basis of SMA was understood, it was classified into clinical
subtypes based on maximum motor function achieved; however, it is now apparent that the phenotype of SMN1-
associated SMA spans a continuum without clear delineation of subtypes. With supportive care only, poor
weight gain with growth failure, restrictive lung disease, scoliosis, and joint contractures are common
complications; however, newly available targeted treatment options are changing the natural history of this
disease.
Diagnosis/testing
The diagnosis of SMA is established in a proband with a history of motor difficulties or regression, proximal
muscle weakness, reduced/absent deep tendon reflexes, evidence of motor unit disease, AND/OR by the
identification of biallelic pathogenic variants in SMN1 on molecular genetic testing. Increases in SMN2 copy
number often modify the phenotype.
Management
Treatment of manifestations: Therapies targeted to the underlying disease mechanism include nusinersen
(Spinraza®; an antisense oligonucleotide) for the treatment of all types of SMA and onasemnogene abeparvovec-
xioi (Zolgensma®; gene replacement therapy) for the treatment of type I SMA. These targeted treatments may
prevent the development or slow the progression of some features of SMA; efficacy is improved when treatment
is initiated before symptom onset. It is unclear what the long-term effect of these treatments will be or if new
phenotypes will arise in treated individuals.
Author Affiliations: 1 Center for Human Genetics Laboratory, UH Cleveland Medical Center, Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, Ohio; Email: thomas.prior@uhhospitals.org. 2 Division of Neurology and Pediatrics, Oregon Health
and Science University, Portland, Oregon; Email: leachm@ohsu.edu; Email: finanger@ohsu.edu.
Copyright © 1993-2023, University of Washington, Seattle. GeneReviews is a registered trademark of the University of
Washington, Seattle. All rights reserved.
2 GeneReviews®
Proactive supportive treatment by a multidisciplinary team is essential to reduce symptom severity, particularly
in the most severe cases of SMA. When nutrition or dysphagia is a concern, placement of a gastrostomy tube
early in the course of the disease is appropriate. Standard therapy for gastroesophageal reflux disease and
chronic constipation. Formal consultation and frequent follow up with a pulmonologist familiar with SMA is
necessary. As respiratory function deteriorates, tracheotomy or noninvasive respiratory support may be offered.
Surgical repair for scoliosis should be considered based on progression of the curvature, pulmonary function,
and bone maturity. Surgical intervention for hip dislocation for those with pain.
Surveillance: Presymptomatic individuals require monitoring for the development of symptoms to determine
appropriate timing to initiate targeted and/or supportive therapies. Multidisciplinary evaluation every six
months or more frequently for weaker children is indicated to assess nutritional state, respiratory function,
motor function, and orthopedic status, and to determine appropriate interventions.
Agents/circumstances to avoid: Prolonged fasting, particularly in the acutely ill infant with SMA.
Evaluation of relatives at risk: It is appropriate to determine the genetic status of younger, apparently
asymptomatic sibs of an affected individual in order to identify as early as possible those who would benefit from
prompt initiation of targeted treatment.
Genetic counseling
SMA is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. Each pregnancy of a couple who have had a child with SMA
has an approximately 25% chance of producing an affected child, an approximately 50% chance of producing an
asymptomatic carrier, and an approximately 25% chance of producing an unaffected child who is not a carrier.
These recurrence risks deviate slightly from the norm for autosomal recessive inheritance because about 2% of
affected individuals have a de novo SMN1 variant on one allele; in these instances, only one parent is a carrier of
an SMN1 variant, and thus the sibs are not at increased risk for SMA. Carrier testing for at-risk relatives and
prenatal testing for pregnancies at increased risk are possible if the diagnosis of SMA has been confirmed by
molecular genetic testing in an affected family member.
GeneReview Scope
Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Included Phenotypes
• Spinal muscular atrophy 0
• Spinal muscular atrophy I
• Spinal muscular atrophy II
• Spinal muscular atrophy III
• Spinal muscular atrophy IV
For synonyms and outdated names see Nomenclature.
Note: This review is restricted to the discussion of SMN1-related spinal muscular atrophy. For other genetic
causes of the spinal muscular atrophy phenotype, see Differential Diagnosis.
Diagnosis
A consensus document on the diagnosis of children with SMA was initially developed by Wang et al [2007] and
was updated by Mercuri et al [2018] (see Establishing the Diagnosis).
Suggestive Findings
Scenario 1. Abnormal newborn screening (NBS) result
Spinal Muscular Atrophy 3
• NBS for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is primarily based on real-time PCR that detects the common
SMN1 deletion and may also detect SMN2 copy number on dried blood spots [Chien et al 2017].
• Follow-up molecular genetic testing confirmation of a positive NBS result is recommended (see
Establishing the Diagnosis).
Scenario 2. Symptomatic individual who has EITHER atypical findings associated with later-onset SMA OR
infantile-onset SMA that has not been treated (either because NBS was not performed or because it yielded a
false negative result)
• History of motor difficulties, especially with loss of skills
• Proximal > distal muscle weakness
• Hypotonia
• Areflexia/hyporeflexia
• Tongue fasciculations
• Hand tremor
• Recurrent lower respiratory tract infections or severe bronchiolitis in the first few months of life
• Evidence of motor unit disease on electromyogram
Establishing the Diagnosis

The diagnosis of SMA is established in a proband with a history of motor difficulties or regression, proximal
muscle weakness, reduced/absent deep tendon reflexes, and evidence of motor unit disease; AND/OR by
identification of biallelic pathogenic variants in SMN1 on molecular genetic testing (see Table 1). Increases in
SMN2 copy number often modify the phenotype.
Molecular Genetic Testing Approaches

Scenario 1. Abnormal newborn screening (NBS) result
When NBS results suggest the diagnosis of SMA, confirmatory molecular genetic testing typically includes
single-gene testing. Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis to determine the dosage of SMN1 is performed
first for the SMN1 exon 7. If one copy of SMN1 exon 7 is present, perform sequence analysis of SMN1. If exon 7
is present in both copies of SMN1, consider other diagnoses (see Differential Diagnosis).
Because SMN1 sequence analysis cannot determine whether a putative inactivating variant is in SMN1 or SMN2
(see Molecular Genetics), one of the following is required to confirm that the variant is present in SMN1:
• Establish that the inactivating variant has previously been reported in SMN1; OR
• Sequence a long-range PCR product or a subclone of SMN1.
Note: Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis to determine SMN2 copy number can be performed to
provide additional information for clinical correlation if the diagnosis of SMA is confirmed on molecular genetic
testing (see Genotype-Phenotype Correlations).
See Figure 1 for a summary of the diagnostic algorithm for SMA as published by Mercuri et al [2018].
Scenario 2. A symptomatic individual with findings associated with later-onset SMA or untreated infantile-
onset SMA (resulting from NBS not performed or false negative NBS result)
Molecular genetic testing approaches can include single-gene testing (see above) or use of a multigene panel
that includes SMN1, SMN2, and other genes of interest (see Differential Diagnosis). Note: (1) The genes included
in the panel and the diagnostic sensitivity of the testing used for each gene vary by laboratory and are likely to
change over time. (2) Some multigene panels may include genes not associated with the condition discussed in
this GeneReview; thus, clinicians need to determine which multigene panel is most likely to identify the genetic
4 GeneReviews®
cause of the condition at the most reasonable cost while limiting identification of variants of uncertain
significance and pathogenic variants in genes that do not explain the underlying phenotype. (3) In some
laboratories, panel options may include a custom laboratory-designed panel and/or custom phenotype-focused
exome analysis that includes genes specified by the clinician. (4) Methods used in a panel may include sequence
analysis, deletion/duplication analysis, and/or other non-sequencing-based tests. For this disorder a multigene
panel that also includes deletion/duplication analysis is recommended (see Table 1).
For an introduction to multigene panels click here. More detailed information for clinicians ordering genetic
tests can be found here.
Table 1. Molecular Genetic Testing Used in Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Proportion of Pathogenic Variants 2 Detectable by
Proportion of SMA Method
Type of Testing Gene 1 Attributed to Pathogenic
Variants in Gene Gene-targeted deletion/
Sequence analysis 3
duplication analysis 4
Diagnostic, carrier,
SMN1 ~100% 2%-5% 5 95%-98% 6, 7
prenatal
Prognostic SMN2 NA NA See footnote 8.
1. See Table A. Genes and Databases for chromosome locus and protein.
2. See Molecular Genetics for information on allelic variants detected in this gene.
3. Sequence analysis detects variants that are benign, likely benign, of uncertain significance, likely pathogenic, or pathogenic. Variants
may include small intragenic deletions/insertions and missense, nonsense, and splice site variants; typically, exon or whole-gene
deletions/duplications are not detected. For issues to consider in interpretation of sequence analysis results, click here.
4. Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis detects intragenic deletions or duplications. Methods used may include quantitative
PCR and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) to detect single-exon deletions or duplications. Note that SMN1
and SMN2 are nearly identical; therefore, gene-targeted microarray cannot be used to determine SMN1 and SMN2 copy number.
5. Detects the 2%-5% of individuals who are compound heterozygous for an intragenic pathogenic variant and an SMN1 deletion of at
least exon 7 [Parsons et al 1998, Wirth 2000]
6. Bussaglia et al [1995], Lefebvre et al [1995], Parsons et al [1996], Hahnen et al [1997], McAndrew et al [1997], Talbot et al [1997],
Ogino & Wilson [2002]
7. False negatives may occur because about 5%-8% of the population have two copies of SMN1 on a single chromosome and a deletion
on the other chromosome, known as a [2+0] configuration. Individuals of sub-Saharan African heritage have a higher proportion of
the [2+0] configuration [Verhaart et al 2017] (see Carrier Detection, Interpretation of the results of carrier testing).
8. Note: Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis of SMN2 can be performed to provide additional phenotype information if the
diagnosis of SMA is confirmed on molecular genetic testing. The number of copies of SMN2 may range from zero to five. Quantitative
PCR and MLPA methods are often designed to detect both SMN1 and SMN2 copy number [Anhuf et al 2003, Arkblad et al 2006,
Scarciolla et al 2006] (see Genotype-Phenotype Correlations).
Testing to determine carrier status is reviewed in Genetic Counseling.
Clinical Characteristics
Clinical Description
SMA is characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy resulting from progressive degeneration and irreversible
loss of the anterior horn cells in the spinal cord (i.e., lower motor neurons) and the brain stem nuclei. The onset
of weakness ranges from before birth to adulthood. The weakness is symmetric, proximal greater than distal, and
progressive.
Before the advent of molecular diagnosis, attempts were made to classify SMA into discrete subtypes; however, it
is now apparent that the phenotype of SMA associated with SMN1 pathogenic variants spans a broad continuum
without clear delineation of subtypes. Newly approved treatment options (see Management, Treatment of
Figure 1. Diagnostic algorithm for SMA
Manifestations, Table 7) are changing the natural history of SMA phenotypes and blurring the boundaries even
further [Tizzano & Finkel 2017]. Nonetheless, the existing classification system (Table 2) based on age of onset
and maximum function attained with supportive care only is useful for prognosis and management.
Table 2. Spectrum of SMA Phenotypes at Presentation

Phenotype Age of Onset Life Span 1 Motor Milestones 1 Other Findings 1
• Severe neonatal hypotonia
• Severe weakness
• Areflexia
A few weeks, <6 • Respiratory failure at birth
SMA 0 Prenatal None achieved
mos • Facial diplegia
• ↓ fetal movements
• Atrial septal defects
• Arthrogryposis
• Loss of head control
Median survival Some head control, sit • Mild joint contractures
SMA I <6 mos
8-10 mos w/support only • Normal or minimal facial weakness
• Variable suck & swallow difficulties
• Developmental delay w/loss of motor skills
70% alive at age Independent sitting • ↓ or absent deep tendon reflexes
SMA II 6-18 mos
25 yrs when placed • Proximal muscle weakness
• Postural tremor of fingers
6 GeneReviews®
Table 2. continued from previous page.
Phenotype Age of Onset Life Span 1 Motor Milestones 1 Other Findings 1

• Proximal muscle weakness (i.e., difficulty w/stairs,
running)
Independent • Loss of motor skills
SMA III >18 mos Normal
ambulation • Fatigue
• Postural tremor of fingers
• Loss of patellar reflexes
• Fatigue
SMA IV Adulthood Normal Normal
• Proximal muscle weakness
1. With supportive care only
SMA 0 presents with severe weakness, hypotonia, and respiratory distress at birth. There may be a history of
decreased in utero movements, joint contractures, and atrial septal defects. Infants with SMA type 0 have severe
respiratory compromise/failure and, with supportive care only, rarely survive past age six months [Dubowitz
1999, MacLeod et al 1999]. There have not been any published reports of infants with SMA 0 who have been
treated with nusinersen or gene therapy (see Table 7).
SMA I manifests as marked weakness and developmental motor regression before age six months. The mean age
of symptom onset is 2.5 months [Lin et al 2015]. Infants may acquire head control and ability to roll, but quickly
lose these abilities. With supportive care only, affected children do not achieve the ability to sit independently.
Proximal, symmetric muscle weakness, lack of motor development with regression of motor function, reduced
or absent deep tendon reflexes, and poor muscle tone are the major clinical manifestations. Mild contractures
are often noted at the knees and, rarely, at the elbows.
With supportive care only, fasciculation of the tongue is seen in most but not all infants. While the muscles of
the face are relatively spared at initial presentation, bulbar weakness is present in the neonatal period or during
the first few months, and infants frequently have problems sucking or swallowing, leading to growth failure and
recurrent aspiration. Weakness of the intercostal respiratory muscles with relative preservation of diaphragm
musculature leads to characteristic "bell-shaped" chest and paradoxic respiration (abdominal breathing). The
diaphragm is not involved until late in the course of disease. Cognitive function is normal. Severe symptomatic
bradycardia has been noted in a study of the long-term survival of ventilator-dependent individuals with SMA I
[Bach 2007].
With supportive care only, prospective studies of children with SMA I have shown median survival of 24 months
[Oskoui et al 2007]; however, more recent studies have shown a median time to either death or >16 hours/day of
ventilation of 8-13.5 months [Finkel et al 2014, Kolb et al 2017]. With proactive respiratory and nutritional
supportive care, survival is improving [Grychtol et al 2018]. Promising new treatments are changing the natural
history of SMA I, particularly when treatment is initiated before onset of symptoms (see Table 7).
SMA II usually manifests between ages six and 12 months; the mean age of symptom onset is 8.3 months [Lin et
al 2015]. Although poor muscle tone may be evident at birth or within the first few months of life, individuals
with SMA II may gain motor milestones slowly until about age five years. With supportive care only, the
maximum motor milestone attained is the ability to sit independently when placed. Affected individuals then
have a slow decline in motor function and on average lose the ability to sit independently by the mid-teens
[Mercuri et al 2016]. Hand tremor is common. Deep tendon reflexes are decreased to absent. Scoliosis is
common with progression of disease. Cognition is normal. Cardiac abnormalities are unlikely to develop [Finkel
et al 2018]. Progressive respiratory muscle weakness leads to restrictive lung disease that is associated with
morbidity and mortality in these individuals.
With supportive care only, the life expectancy of persons with SMA II is not known with certainty. A review of
life expectancy of 240 individuals with SMA II from Germany and Poland found that 68% of individuals with
SMA II were alive at age 25 years [Zerres et al 1997]. The ability to stand is directly correlated with better
pulmonary function and long-term survival. This natural history, however, will likely be improved by newer
treatments (see Table 7).
SMA III typically manifests after age 18 months with a mean age of onset of 39 months ± 32.6 months [Lin et al
2015]. The legs are more severely affected than the arms. With supportive care only, individuals walk
independently but proximal muscle weakness may lead to more frequent falls or trouble walking up and down
stairs. Fatigue can adversely affect quality of life and function significantly.
Most children with SMA III treated only with supportive care make gains in their motor function until about age
six years and then experience a slow decline in function until about puberty. Puberty (until age ~20) may be
associated with a more rapid decline in function for adolescents with SMA III.
With supportive care only, adulthood is then associated with another, much slower decline in function [Montes
et al 2018]. Although individuals with SMA III develop the ability to walk, the vast majority will lose that ability
with time. If symptom onset is before age three years, loss of ambulation typically occurs in the second decade.
However, if symptom onset is between ages three and 12 years, loss of ambulation may occur in the fourth
decade [Wadman et al 2017]. Individuals with SMA III have little to no respiratory muscle weakness. Cardiac
and cognitive functions are normal. In a retrospective study of individuals with SMA, the life expectancy of 329
individuals with SMA III from Germany and Poland treated only with supportive care was not different from
that of the general population [Zerres et al 1997]. This natural history, however, will likely be improved by newer
treatments (see Table 7).
SMA IV typically presents with muscle weakness in the second or third decade of life. There is a specific pattern
of muscle involvement, with weakness disproportionately affecting the deltoids, triceps, and quadriceps. There
may be a loss of patellar reflexes, with sparing of the deep tendon reflexes in the upper extremities and Achilles.
Individuals may have a hand tremor. Cardiac and cognitive functioning is normal. With supportive care only,
findings are similar to but less severe than those described for SMA III, and if loss of ambulation occurs, it may
be after the fifth decade [Brahe et al 1995, Clermont et al 1995, Zerres et al 1997, Wadman et al 2017]. Life
expectancy is normal. SMA IV is the least common form of SMA and affects fewer than 5% of individuals with
SMA [Kolb et al 2017].
Potential Complications of SMA

Poor weight gain with growth failure, restrictive lung disease, scoliosis, joint contractures, and sleep difficulties
are common complications of SMA in those who receive supportive care only. At this time, it is unknown what
long-term complications may arise in individuals who receive early and/or presymptomatic targeted treatment.
Nutrition/gastrointestinal
• Bulbar dysfunction is universal in individuals with SMA I; the bulbar dysfunction eventually becomes a
serious problem for persons with SMA II and only very late in the course of disease for those with SMA
III.
• Gastrointestinal issues may include constipation, delayed gastric emptying, and potentially life-
threatening gastroesophageal reflux with aspiration.
• Growth failure can be addressed with gastrostomy tube placement as needed (see Management).
• Nonambulatory individuals with SMA II and III are at risk of developing obesity [Mercuri et al 2018].
Respiratory. Children with SMA I and II (and more rarely, type III) who are treated with supportive care only
have progressive decline in pulmonary function due to a combination of weak respiratory muscles, reduced
chest wall and lung compliance, and a reduction in alveolar multiplication [Chng et al 2003].
8 GeneReviews®
• Respiratory failure is the most common cause of death in SMA I and II.
• Decreased respiratory function leads to impaired cough with inadequate clearance of lower airway
secretions, hypoventilation during sleep, and recurrent pneumonia.
• Noninvasive ventilation, such as BiPAP, and airway clearance techniques are commonly used to improve
respiratory insufficiency in those with SMA (see Management).
Orthopedic. Scoliosis, hip dislocation, and joint contractures are common complications in individuals with
SMA. Scoliosis is a major problem in most persons with SMA II and in half of those with SMA III. With
supportive care only:
• Approximately 50% of affected children (especially those who are nonambulatory) develop spinal
curvatures of more than 50 degrees (which require surgery) before age ten years;
• Later in the disease course, nonambulatory individuals can develop thoracic kyphosis [Mercuri et al 2018];
• Progressive scoliosis impairs lung function and if severe can cause decreased cardiac output [Chng et al
2003].
Use of the vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib is a possible treatment for severe scoliosis (see
Management).
Metabolic. An unexplained potential complication of SMA is severe metabolic acidosis with dicarboxylic
aciduria and low serum carnitine concentrations during periods of intercurrent illness or prolonged fasting
[Kelley & Sladky 1986].
• Whether these metabolic abnormalities are primary or secondary to the underlying defect in SMA is
unknown.
• Although the etiology of these metabolic derangements remains unknown, one report suggests that
aberrant glucose metabolism may play a role [Bowerman et al 2012].
• Prolonged fasting should be avoided (see Agents/Circumstances to Avoid).
Prognosis
The availability of new targeted treatment options (see Table 7) will likely change the natural history of this
condition. Furthermore, diagnosis prior to symptom onset through newborn screening programs, coupled with
targeted therapies, will likely decrease the morbidity and mortality regardless of treatment strategy.
Genotype-Phenotype Correlations
SMN1. No correlation exists between the type of SMN1 pathogenic variants and the severity of disease: the
homozygous exon 7 deletion is observed with approximately the same frequency in all phenotypes.
SMN2. Small amounts (up to a quarter) of full-length transcripts generated by SMN2 produce functional protein
and result in the milder SMA II or SMA III phenotype. The number of copies (dosage) of SMN2 (arranged in
tandem in cis configuration on each chromosome) ranges from zero to five (see Molecular Genetics). The
presence of two copies of SMN2 is approximately 80% predictive of the SMA I phenotype, whereas the presence
of four or more copies of SMN2 is approximately 88% predictive of achieving the ability to ambulate with
supportive care only (SMA III/IV) [Calucho et al 2018]. Modifying factors that are not fully understood are
likely to contribute to the variability in clinical severity, as can be easily demonstrated with individuals who have
three copies of SMN2. Data from Calucho et al [2018] are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. SMN2 Copy Number and SMA Clinical Phenotype
SMN2 Copy SMA Clinical Phenotype 1

Number SMA I SMA II 2 SMA III/IV 3
1 96% 4% 0%
2 79% 16% 5%
3 15% 54% 31%
>=4 4 1% 11% 88%
Adapted from Calucho et al [2018]
1. Clinical phenotype with supportive care only
2. With supportive care only, the maximum motor function achieved is sitting.
3. With supportive care only, ambulation is achieved but may not be maintained.
4. Prior et al [2004] reported three asymptomatic, unrelated individuals homozygous for an SMN1 deletion who had five copies of
SMN2, demonstrating that expression levels consistent with five copies of SMN2 may compensate for the lack of SMN1 expression.
Other putative modifiers of SMA phenotype

• A single-base substitution – c.859G>C (p.Gly287Arg) – in exon 7 of SMN2 has been identified as a disease
modifier resulting in a milder disease [Prior et al 2009]. This substitution creates a new exon splicing
enhancer (ESE) element. The new ESE increased the amount of exon 7 inclusion and number of full-
length transcripts generated from SMN2.
• In some rare families with unaffected females who have biallelic SMN1 deletions, the expression of plastin
3 (encoded by PLS3 at chromosome locus Xq23) was higher than in their SMA-affected counterparts.
PLS3 was shown to be important for axonogenesis and therefore may act as a protective modifier [Oprea
et al 2008].
Nomenclature
SMA I was previously known as Werdnig-Hoffmann disease or acute SMA [Hoffmann 1892, Werdnig 1971].
SMA II was called chronic SMA or Dubowitz disease prior to the current classification.
SMA III has had the eponym "Kugelberg-Welander disease" and has also been referred to as juvenile SMA
[Kugelberg & Welander 1956].
SMA IV may also be referred to as adolescent- or adult-onset SMA.
Prevalence
The exact prevalence of SMA is unknown. Historical studies evaluating the prevalence of SMA were limited by
lack of genetic confirmation and may underestimate the prevalence of more severe phenotypes due to the
shortened life span. It has been suggested that the overall prevalence of SMA is between one and two per 100,000
people [Verhaart et al 2017]. In regions or groups with high consanguinity rates, the incidence of SMA can be
higher.
Table 4. Carrier Frequency and Incidence of SMA

Population Carrier Frequency Estimated Incidence
Arab 1:59 Not reported
Asian 1:48 1:8009
Asian Indian 1:71 1:9655
10 GeneReviews®
Population Carrier Frequency Estimated Incidence

Black (sub-Saharan African heritage) 1:100 1:18,808
White 1:45 1:7829
Hispanic 1:77 1:20,134
Jewish 1:56 1:10,000
Adapted from Verhaart et al [2017]
Genetically Related (Allelic) Disorders

No phenotypes other than those described in this GeneReview are known to be associated with pathogenic
variants in SMN1.
Differential Diagnosis
Table 5. Disorders to Consider in the Differential Diagnosis of Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA)
Clinical Features of
Gene(s) or Differential Diagnosis Disorder
Age of Onset Disorder MOI
Region
Overlapping w/SMA Distinguishing from SMA
Multiple congenital
Hypotonia,
X-linked infantile SMA UBA1 XL contractures, intrauterine
weakness, areflexia
fractures
Weakness, Distal predominant
SMARD1 1 (OMIM
IGHMBP2 AR respiratory failure, weakness, diaphragmatic
604320)
hypo- or areflexia paralysis
GARS1-related
Hypotonia, Diaphragmatic paralysis,
infantile-onset SMA 2 GARS1 AD
weakness, areflexia sensory involvement
(OMIM 619042)
Hypotonia, feeding
Prader-Willi syndrome 15q11.2-q13 3 See footnote 3. Poor respiratory effort is rare.
difficulties
Myotonic dystrophy Hypotonia, muscle
Congenital to <6 DMPK AD Marked facial weakness
type 1 weakness
mos
Congenital muscular AR Hypotonia, muscle CNS, eye involvement,
Many genes
dystrophy AD weakness possible increased tone
Zellweger spectrum PEX family of
AR Hypotonia Hepatosplenomegaly, CNS
disorder genes
CHAT
CHRNE
Congenital myasthenic COLQ AR Ophthalmoplegia, ptosis,
Hypotonia
syndromes DOK7 AD episodic respiratory failure
GFPT1
RAPSN 4
Pompe disease GAA AR Hypotonia Cardiomegaly
Other: congenital myopathies, 5 metabolic/mitochondrial myopathies, 6 peripheral neuropathies 7
Proximal muscle
Prominent cranial nerve
>6 mos Botulism NA NA weakness, decreased
palsies, acute onset
reflexes
Clinical Features of
Gene(s) or Differential Diagnosis Disorder
Age of Onset Disorder MOI
Region
Overlapping w/SMA Distinguishing from SMA
Guillain-Barré Subacute onset, sensory
NA Muscle weakness
syndrome involvement
Serum creatine kinase
Duchenne muscular Muscle weakness,
DMD XL concentration 10-20x >
dystrophy motor regression
normal
Hexosaminidase A Slow progression, progressive
deficiency (juvenile, Lower motor neuron dystonia, spinocerebellar
HEXA AR
chronic, & adult-onset disease degeneration, cognitive/
variants) psychiatric involvement
Later childhood
Fazio-Londe syndrome
Limited to lower cranial
(See Riboflavin SLC52A2 Progressive bulbar
AR nerves; progresses to death in
Transporter Deficiency SLC52A3 palsy
1-5 yrs
Neuronopathy.)
Predominantly cervical;
Monomelic amyotrophy
tongue may be affected
(Hirayama disease) Unknown Muscle weakness
(rare); other cranial nerves
(OMIM 602440)
spared
Other: peripheral neuropathies, 7 muscular dystrophies 8
Proximal muscle
Spinal and bulbar Gradually progressive;
weakness, muscle
muscular atrophy AR XL gynecomastia, testicular
atrophy,
(Kennedy disease) atrophy, ↓ fertility
fasciculations
Adulthood
Progressive
AD May begin w/pure
Amyotrophic lateral neurodegeneration; involves
Many genes 9 AR lower motor neuron
sclerosis both upper & lower motor
XL signs
neurons
AD = autosomal dominant; AR = autosomal recessive; MOI = mode of inheritance; SMARD = spinal muscular atrophy with
respiratory distress; XL = X-linked
1. SMARD spans a phenotypic spectrum [Guenther et al 2007].
2. Pathogenic variants in GARS1 are also associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy type 2D (CMT2D) and distal spinal
muscular atrophy V (dSMA-V) (see GARS1-Associated Axonal Neuropathy). CMT2D and dSMA-V are characterized by adolescent or
early-adult onset of unique patterns of motor and sensory manifestations with age of onset ranging from eight to 36 years.
3. Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is caused by an absence of expression of imprinted genes in the paternally derived PWS / Angelman
syndrome region (15q11.2-q13) of chromosome 15 by one of several genetic mechanisms (paternal deletion, maternal uniparental
disomy 15, and rarely an imprinting defect). The risk to the sibs of an affected child of having PWS depends on the genetic mechanism
that resulted in the absence of expression of the paternally contributed 15q11.2-q13 region.
4. Pathogenic variants in one of multiple genes encoding proteins expressed at the neuromuscular junction are currently known to be
associated with subtypes of CMS. The most commonly associated genes include those listed in the table (see Congenital Myasthenic
Syndromes).
5. Congenital myopathies: see X-Linked Centronuclear Myopathy
6. Metabolic/mitochondrial myopathies: see Glycogen Storage Diseases (GSD I, GSD II, GSD III, GSD IV, GSD V, GSD VI) and
Mitochondrial Disorders Overview
7. Peripheral neuropathies: see Charcot-Marie-Tooth Hereditary Neuropathy Overview
8. Muscular dystrophies: see Dystrophinopathies
9. See Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Phenotypic Series to view genes associated with this phenotype in OMIM.
Trauma of the cervical spinal cord can be considered as well, especially with breech delivery.
12 GeneReviews®
Management
Detailed recommendations on management of care in individuals with SMA have been published; see Finkel et
al [2018] (full text) and Mercuri et al [2018] (full text). Furthermore, treatment algorithms for infants diagnosed
through newborn screen have been published [Glascock et al 2018] (full text).
Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis

To establish the extent of disease and needs of an individual diagnosed with SMA, the affected individual should
be referred to a multidisciplinary clinic.
Regardless of SMA subtype, clinical care should be based on an individual's current functional status. Issues to
consider are listed in Table 6.
Table 6. Evaluations to Consider Following Initial Diagnosis in Individuals with Spinal Muscular Atrophy
System/Concern Evaluation Comment
Constitutional Assessment of growth parameters Plotted on a standard growth chart
• Incl evaluation of aspiration risk, 1 nutritional status, & time
Assessment for feeding dysfunction & required to complete a feed
Gastrointestinal/ gastroesophageal reflux disease • Consider evaluation for gastric tube placement in those w/
Feeding dysphagia &/or aspiration risk.
Assessment for constipation
Assessment of pulse oximetry &
Consider referral to pulmonologist familiar w/SMA. 2
capnography
• In children age >4-6 yrs, a handheld spirometer is accurate.
Consider forced vital capacity (FVC), as
• When FVC is >40%, decompensation during respiratory
appropriate to age.
Respiratory infection is less likely than when FVC is ˂40%.
Assessment of airway clearance function
by pediatric pulmonologist
In all individuals w/type I SMA, in those w/type II who are weak, & if
Consider sleep study (polysomnogram)
clinical evidence of or concern for nocturnal hypoventilation
Incl assessment of:
• Gross motor & fine motor skills

• Contractures, hip dislocation, & scoliosis
Orthopedic, physical medicine &
Musculoskeletal • Mobility, activities of daily living, & need for adaptive
rehabilitation, PT, & OT evaluation
devices 3
• Need for PT (to improve gross motor skills) &/or OT (to
improve fine motor skills)
System/Concern Evaluation Comment

Consultation w/clinical geneticist &/or
Incl genetic counseling
genetic counselor
Assess:
Miscellaneous/
Other • Use of community or online resources such as Parent to
Family support/resources Parent
• Need for social work involvement for parental support
• Need for home nursing referral
OT = occupational therapy; PT = physical therapy

1. Including consideration of a formal videofluoroscopic swallowing study
2. Wang et al [2007]
3. Assess equipment needed for safety (car seat / car bed) and independence, such as power chair and other equipment in the home to
improve the quality of life for the affected individual and the caregiver.
Treatment of Manifestations
Currently, there is no cure for SMA. Two treatment options that are targeted to the underlying mechanism that
leads to SMA have become available and have been shown to have a positive effect on disease progression (see
Table 7). These treatments are likely to also have a positive impact on the natural history of SMA [Finkel et al
2017, Mendell et al 2017, Finkel et al 2018, Mercuri et al 2018], particularly if treatment is initiated prior to
symptom onset.
The decision of when to initiate targeted therapy after detection of an affected individual via newborn screening
relies on genotype and presence of symptoms [Glascock et al 2018]. After confirmatory SMN1 genetic testing:
• Targeted treatment is recommended for all individuals who have two or three copies of SMN2, regardless
of whether symptoms are present;
• For individuals who have one copy of SMN2, targeted treatment is left to the discretion of the treating
physician, taking into account the severity of symptoms, which may have been present prenatally or at
birth;
• For individuals with four or more copies of SMN2, targeted treatment can be deferred until symptom
onset, although careful monitoring for the development of symptoms by a neuromuscular expert is
recommended.
Table 7. Targeted Treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy

SMA Subtype Treatment Dosage Mechanism
Treatment regimen: 5
1. Intrathecal loading dose of 12

mg (equivalent dose; 4-5 mL
depending on age) every 14
All
days for a total of 3 loading
subtypes Nusinersen (Spinraza®) 1-4 Antisense oligonucleotide 6
doses
of SMA
2. 4th loading dose 30 days after
3rd dose
3. Then, maintenance doses
every 4 mos
14 GeneReviews®
SMA Subtype Treatment Dosage Mechanism

Onasemnogene abeparvovec-
SMA Gene replacement therapy w/
xioi (Zolgensma®; formerly One-time intravenous injection
type I viral delivery of SMN1
AVXS-101) 7, 8
Treatments discussed in this table are targeted to address the underlying mechanism of disease causation and not specifically the signs
and symptoms experienced by an affected individual (see Table 8).
1. In the double-blind, sham-controlled Phase III clinical trial of nusinersen in 121 infants with SMA type I, 51% of treated infants
showed acquisition of a new motor milestone as assessed by the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (HINE) compared
with 0% of controls [Finkel et al 2017].
2. Further, event-free survival ("event" defined as death or requirement for permanent assisted ventilation) was higher in the nusinersen
group than in the control group (hazard ratio 0.53; P=0.005) as was the likelihood of overall survival (hazard ratio 0.37; P=0.004)
[Finkel et al 2017].
3. In the parallel double-blind, sham-controlled, Phase III trial including 126 children with later-onset SMA, those who received
nusinersen had significant and clinically meaningful improvement in motor function as compared with those in the control group
[Mercuri et al 2018].
4. The efficacy of treatment with nusinersen in those who already have symptoms is not completely understood [Shorrock et al 2018,
Gidaro & Servais 2019].
5. Shorrock et al [2018]
6. The antisense oligonucleotide is a single-stranded RNA molecule that is specifically designed to bind to the ISS-N1 regulatory motif
in the intron downstream of exon 7 in the SMN2 pre-mMRA [Rigo et al 2014]. Binding at this site promotes inclusion of exon 7,
leading to increased full-length SMN mRNA and thus full-length SMN protein.
7. A Phase I trial in 15 individuals with SMA type I showed event-free survival ("event" = death or need for permanent ventilator
assistance) at age 20 months in all 15 compared with only 8% of historical controls [Mendell et al 2017].
8. Treated individuals showed an improvement in motor milestones and an increase from baseline in objective motor function scales.
Supportive treatment of children with SMA is guided by the underlying subtype but should be individualized to
the affected individual and his/her current functional status (nonsitter, sitter, or walker) [Finkel et al 2018]. The
proportion of affected individuals who develop a given complication and the severity of the complication
depends on which subtype of SMA is involved and whether targeted treatment is initiated before or after
symptom onset [Shorrock et al 2018] (see Table 8).
Table 8. Supportive Treatment of Manifestations in Individuals with Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Manifestation/
Treatment Considerations/Other
Concern
• Most individuals w/SMA I have a
gastrostomy tube by age 12 mos. 1
Bulbar dysfunction
Placement of gastrostomy tube & • Low threshold for clinical feeding evaluation
leading to poor
nutritional supplementation &/or radiographic swallowing study if
weight gain
clinical signs or symptoms of dysphagia &/or
bulbar dysfunction
Obesity Regular nutritional evaluations For nonambulatory individuals w/SMA II & III
Gastroesophageal
Standard treatment
reflux disease
Bowel Stool softeners, prokinetics, osmotic
For constipation
dysfunction agents, or laxatives as needed
Respiratory insufficiency/ Palliative care &/or no respiratory
May be an option depending on family preference 2
failure options 3, 4 support
Manifestation/
Concern
• Incl mechanical in-exsufflator in conjunction
w/suctioning & chest physiotherapy,
particularly during acute illness
Airway clearance techniques &
• Use of mechanical in-exsufflation in
secretion management 5
treatment of children w/neuromuscular
diseases (incl those w/SMA) appears to
reduce pulmonary complications.
• For hypoventilation as demonstrated by ↓
oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry or by
obstructive sleep apnea 6
Noninvasive ventilation, 5 such as • Has been shown to improve sleep breathing
BiPAP parameters in those w/SMA I & II 7
• BiPAP may improve chest wall & lung
development, which may reduce lung
infections & pulmonary comorbidity.
Tracheotomy w/permanent Ethical questions re use of invasive ventilation in
mechanical ventilation severely affected infants must be addressed. 8
• Use of spinal orthosis for curvatures >20°
prior to surgical intervention is common. 9
Standard surgical intervention per
• Important consideration in spinal surgery:
orthopedist
leave a window for possibility of intrathecal
administration of future treatments. 10
Progressive
scoliosis Consider vertical expandable
For severe scoliosis
prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR). 11
• For gradual outpatient distractions controlled
Consider magnetically controlled
by an external remote device 12
growing rods (MGR).
• May ↓ need for repeated surgery 13
Consider surgery for those who have
Hip dislocation No surgery for those who are asymptomatic 14
pain.
Metabolic acidosis
Supportive care w/early intravenous
during intercurrent
fluids & glucose
illness
16 GeneReviews®
Manifestation/
Concern
Ensure appropriate social work
Ongoing assessment of need for palliative care
involvement to connect families w/
involvement &/or home nursing
Family/ local resources, respite, & support.
Community Coordinate care to manage multiple
subspecialty appointments, equipment,
medications, & supplies.
1. In those who receive supportive care only [Finkel et al 2014]
2. See Table 7 for targeted treatment options that may improve lung function in affected individuals.
3. Options should be discussed with parents / care providers before respiratory failure occurs.
4. The type of respiratory support is dependent on the individual's respiratory status, quality-of-life goals, and access to equipment.
5. Noninvasive pulmonary intervention should be incorporated into the management of all types of SMA.
6. Chatwin et al [2003], Miske et al [2004]
7. Petrone et al [2007]
8. Finkel et al [2018], Grychtol et al [2018]
9. There is insufficient evidence that spinal orthotics alter scoliosis in SMA.
10. Mercuri et al [2018]
11. Chandran and colleagues [2011] described the use of VEPTR in 11 children with SMA types I and II who were followed for an
average of 43 months after the initial surgery. The average age at time of surgery was six years. No surgical complications were
identified. Medical complications were seen in two affected individuals: postoperative pneumonia and anemia.
12. A small case series of individuals with neuromuscular disorders (2 of whom had SMA) evaluated MGR and pulmonary function.
Affected individuals showed an improvement in forced vital capacity and FEV1 (forced expired volume in 1 second) postoperatively
with spinal deformity correction, with very few complications [Yoon et al 2014].
13. Finkel et al [2018]
14. Sporer & Smith [2003]
Prevention of Primary Manifestations

See Table 7.
Surveillance
Presymptomatic individuals should be monitored for the development of symptoms to determine appropriate
timing to initiate targeted and/or supportive therapies. A treatment algorithm for the evaluation of
presymptomatic infants has been published [Glascock et al 2018].
Individuals with SMA are evaluated at least every six months; weaker children are evaluated more frequently.
Multidisciplinary surveillance at each visit includes assessments of nutritional state, respiratory function, and
orthopedic status (spine, hips, and joint range of motion).
Agents/Circumstances to Avoid
Prolonged fasting should be avoided, particularly in the acutely ill infant with SMA [Mercuri et al 2018].
Evaluation of Relatives at Risk

It is appropriate to determine the genetic status of younger, apparently asymptomatic sibs of an affected
individual in order to identify as early as possible those who would benefit from prompt initiation of targeted
treatment and preventive measures.
See Genetic Counseling for issues related to testing of at-risk relatives for genetic counseling purposes.
Pregnancy Management
There have been two published studies surveying the pregnancy experience of women with SMA [Awater et al
2012, Elsheikh et al 2017] as well as an international workshop on pregnancy in neuromuscular disorders
[Norwood & Rudnik-Schöneborn 2012]. From the collective experience, it appears that women with SMA may
have an increased rate of preterm birth (27%) and need for cesarean section (41%) [Awater et al 2012, Elsheikh
et al 2017] compared to unaffected women. While local anesthesia is preferred to general anesthesia in women
with SMA, an epidural can be difficult in people with severe scoliosis or spinal fusions [Awater et al 2012, Finkel
et al 2018]. Women with SMA may also experience a persistent worsening of their general muscle weakness after
delivery (32%) [Awater et al 2012, Elsheikh et al 2017]. Severe respiratory distress with maternal hypercapnia
and hypoxemia was attributed to one stillbirth at 26 weeks' gestation [Awater et al 2012]. Due to the risk of
respiratory failure, it is recommended that women with neuromuscular disorders, including those with SMA,
obtain baseline pulmonary function prior to becoming pregnant, with frequent monitoring during pregnancy
[Norwood & Rudnik-Schöneborn 2012].
No human pregnancies have been reported to have occurred during/after treatment with nusinersen. It is also
unknown if nusinersen is excreted through human breast milk. Animal models do not show an increased risk for
adverse fetal outcome with nusinersen exposure, or risk for future male or female infertility. However, as the risk
to a developing human fetus has not been determined, it has been recommended that women discontinue
treatment with nusinersen prior to conception.
There have not been any reported cases of pregnant women with SMA treated with gene therapy.
Therapies Under Investigation

A number of different therapeutic approaches are in development, including further studies on the approved
therapeutics discussed above. Newer approaches (including some directed at increasing full-length SMN protein
from SMN2, use of gene therapy to restore SMN1, and SMN-independent approaches) are being actively
investigated; see Shorrock et al [2018].
SMN2-targeted therapeutic approaches. Therapeutic approaches in this category aim to alter SMN2 splicing to
increase the proportion of transcripts containing exon 7 and thus increase full-length SMN protein. Antisense
oligonucleotides are single-stranded RNA molecules specifically designed to target complementary sequences in
the SMN2 transcript leading to inclusion of exon 7. Nusinersen also works through this mechanism. At least two
additional SNM2 splicing modifiers are currently in clinical trials in SMA, including Novartis Pharmaceuticals
LMI070 (NCT02268552) and Roche RG7916 (NCT02633709). Both of these agents are delivered orally. Results
of these trials are not yet available.
SMN-independent approaches. Molecules directed at increasing muscle strength in individuals with SMA are
also under investigation. CK-107 is a tropinin complex activator proposed to cause increased muscle force
output [Andrews et al 2018]. This molecule is being studied in a Phase II trial (NCT02644668) in individuals
with SMA II-IV. The trial has recently completed enrollment; results are not yet available.
A myostatin inhibitor SRK-015 has recently initiated enrollment in a Phase II trial (NCT03921528) in those with
SMA II or III [Long et al 2019].
Search ClinicalTrials.gov in the US and EU Clinical Trials Register in Europe for access to information on
clinical studies for a wide range of diseases and conditions.
18 GeneReviews®
Genetic Counseling
Genetic counseling is the process of providing individuals and families with information on the nature, mode(s) of
inheritance, and implications of genetic disorders to help them make informed medical and personal decisions. The
following section deals with genetic risk assessment and the use of family history and genetic testing to clarify genetic
status for family members; it is not meant to address all personal, cultural, or ethical issues that may arise or to
substitute for consultation with a genetics professional. —ED.
Mode of Inheritance
Spinal muscular atrophy is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
Risk to Family Members

Parents of a proband
• Approximately 98% of parents of an affected child are heterozygotes (i.e., carriers of one SMN1 pathogenic
variant).
• About 2% of parents are not carriers of an SMN1 pathogenic variant, as their affected child has a de novo
pathogenic variant [Wirth et al 1997]. The majority of de novo pathogenic variants are paternal in origin
[Wirth et al 1997].
• Heterozygotes are asymptomatic and are not at risk of developing the disorder.
Sibs of a proband
• At conception, each sib of an affected individual has an approximately 25% chance of being affected, an
approximately 50% chance of being an asymptomatic carrier, and an approximately 25% chance of being
unaffected and not a carrier.
Note: Recurrence risk in sibs is the same (i.e., ~25%) if one parent of the proband has a [2+0] SMN1
genotype (see Carrier Detection) and the other parent has an SMN1 exon 7 deletion [1+0] or SMN1
intragenic variant.
• Recurrence risk in sibs of a proband with one pathogenic variant known to have been inherited from a
carrier parent and one apparently de novo pathogenic variant (i.e., one of the parents does not have an
identifiable SMN1 pathogenic variant) is presumed to be low. However, due to the possibility that the
parent in whom an SMN1 pathogenic variant was not identified has germline mosaicism for an SMN1
variant, these sibs should still be considered at risk for SMA [Campbell et al 1998].
Offspring of a proband
• The offspring of an individual with SMA are obligate heterozygotes for an SMN1 pathogenic variant.
• The unrelated reproductive partner of an individual with SMA should be offered carrier testing. If the
partner shows at least two SMN1 copies, the partner has a one-in-670 probability of being a carrier (taking
into consideration the 2% frequency of two SMN1 copies on the same chromosome and the small risk of
an intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant). Thus, the risk to such a couple of having an affected child is one
in 1,340.
Other family members. Each sib of the proband's parents is at a 50% risk of being a carrier of an SMN1
pathogenic variant.
Carrier Detection
Molecular genetic testing to determine carrier status is recommended for:
• Parents of more than one child with molecularly confirmed SMA;

• Parents of a child with molecularly confirmed SMA who represents a simplex case (i.e., a single occurrence
in a family);
• Parents of a child with suspected but not molecularly confirmed SMA;
• Persons not known to have a family history of SMA (see Population Screening) who are reproductive
partners of known carriers.
Note: Preconception carrier screening for SMA in individuals with and without a family history of SMA has
been recommended by the ACMG and ACOG (see Population Screening).
Interpretation of the results of carrier testing. Approximately 6% of parents of a child with SMA resulting from
a homozygous SMN1 deletion have normal results of SMN1 dosage testing for the following two reasons:
• About 4% of carriers have two copies of SMN1 on a single chromosome [McAndrew et al 1997]. These
carrier individuals with two copies of SMN1 on one chromosome (a [2+0] genotype) are misdiagnosed as
non-carriers by the SMN1 dosage test (i.e., a false negative test result). A specific haplotype block is
associated with a [2+0] genotype in the Ashkenazi Jewish population [Luo et al 2014] and in black
individuals of sub-Saharan African heritage [Verhaart et al 2017].
• De novo deletion of exon 7 of one SMN1 allele occurs in 2% of individuals with SMA; thus, only one
parent is a carrier.
• In the United States pan ethnic population, the calculated a priori carrier frequency is 1/54 with a
detection rate of 91.2%. Therefore, an individual from this pan ethnic population with normal SMN1
dosage testing would have a ~1/500 residual risk of being a carrier [Sugarman et al 2012].
Determining Carrier Status

In parents of a child with molecularly confirmed SMA. If the child is confirmed to have exon 7 deleted from
both copies of SMN1, first perform SMN1 dosage analysis on both parents:
• If exon 7 is found to be deleted from one copy of SMN1 in both parents, carrier status is confirmed in the
parents.
• If exon 7 is found to be deleted from one copy of SMN1 in only one parent, the following are possible
explanations:
⚬ The parent in whom the exon 7 SMN1 deletion was not identified may have one chromosome 5 with
two copies of SMN1 and one chromosome 5 with no copies of SMN1 (i.e., a [2+0] SMN1 genotype).
⚬ Note: (1) Testing additional family members of the parent with the [2+0] SMN1 genotype may be
informative: usually one of his/her parents has a deletion (1/0 SMN1 genotype) and the other parent
has three or more SMN1 copies (2/1 SMN1 genotype). (2) If the parent of a child with SMA who has
one chromosome 5 with two copies of SMN1 and one chromosome 5 with no copies of SMN1 (i.e., a
[2+0] SMN1 genotype) has children with a known carrier, the children are at 25% risk of having
SMA as the result of inheriting the chromosome 5 with no copies of SMN1 from this parent and the
chromosome 5 with the SMN1 exon 7 deletion or SMN1 intragenic pathogenic variant from the
carrier parent.
⚬ The child may have a de novo deletion of exon 7 (if the child represents a simplex case [i.e., a single
occurrence in a family]).
⚬ Non-paternity
If the child is confirmed to have exon 7 deleted from one copy of SMN1 and an intragenic pathogenic variant in
the other copy of SMN1, first perform SMN1 dosage analysis on both parents:
• Typically, one parent is found to have the SMN1 deletion.
20 GeneReviews®
• Molecular genetic testing for the intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant identified in the child should be
performed on the parent in whom the exon 7 deletion was not detected.
• If the intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant is identified in the parent, carrier status is confirmed in that
parent.
• If the intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant identified in the child is not identified in the parent, possible
explanations include:
⚬ A de novo intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant in the child (if the child represents a simplex case
[i.e., a single occurrence in a family]);
⚬ Germline mosaicism for the intragenic SMN1 pathogenic variant in the parent;
⚬ Non-medical explanations including alternate paternity or maternity (e.g., with assisted
reproduction) and undisclosed adoption.
In parents of a deceased child with suspected but not molecularly confirmed SMA. As a first step, attempt to
test any available tissue samples, such as muscle biopsies (even if imbedded in paraffin) and blood spots from
newborn screening, as these samples can often provide enough DNA for molecular genetic testing.
If DNA is not available, perform SMN1 dosage analysis on both parents:
• If exon 7 is found to be deleted from one copy of SMN1 in both parents, carrier status is confirmed in the
parents.
• If exon 7 is found to be deleted from one copy of SMN1 in only one parent, sequence analysis of SMN1
should be considered in the parent in whom the deletion was not detected.
• If exon 7 is not found to be deleted from one copy of SMN1 in either parent, alternate diagnoses should be
considered.
Population Screening
Preconception carrier screening for SMA in individuals not known to have a family history of SMA has been
recommended by the ACMG and ACOG. Carrier screening for persons not known to have a family history of
SMA requires SMN1 dosage analysis. If such an individual is found to have at least two SMN1 copies, the
probability of being a carrier is approximately 1/670 (taking into consideration the 2% frequency of two SMN1
copies on the same chromosome and the small risk of being a carrier for an intragenic SMN1 pathogenic
variant).
Note: In the general population most people have one copy of SMN1 on each chromosome ([1+1]
configuration); however, about 5%-8% of the population have two copies of SMN1 on a single chromosome and
a deletion on the other chromosome, known as a [2+0] configuration. Black individuals of sub-Saharan African
heritage have a higher proportion of the [2+0] configuration and have a lower detection rate (70%) than other
populations [Verhaart et al 2017]. Individuals with a [2+0] SMN1 configuration will have a false negative carrier
screening result with the most common forms of carrier testing.
Related Genetic Counseling Issues

See Management, Evaluation of Relatives at Risk for information on evaluating at-risk relatives for the purpose
of early diagnosis and treatment.
Family planning
• The optimal time for determination of genetic risk, clarification of carrier status, and discussion of the
availability of prenatal/preimplantation genetic testing is before pregnancy.
• It is appropriate to offer genetic counseling (including discussion of potential risks to offspring and
reproductive options) to young adults who are affected, are carriers, or are at risk of being carriers.
DNA banking is the storage of DNA (typically extracted from white blood cells) for possible future use. Because
it is likely that testing methodology and our understanding of genes, allelic variants, and diseases will improve in
the future, consideration should be given to banking DNA of affected individuals.
Prenatal Testing and Preimplantation Genetic Testing

High-risk pregnancy. Once the SMN1 pathogenic variants in both parents are known or linkage has been
established in the family, prenatal testing and preimplantation genetic testing for SMA [Moutou et al 2003,
Malcov et al 2004] are possible. Although it would be predicted that a fetus with the same genotype (i.e.,
molecular genetic test result) as a previously affected sib would have similar clinical findings, there can be
intrafamilial variability in phenotypic presentation. An SMN2 copy number determination on the prenatal
specimen may help to better predict the phenotype of the affected child.
Note: Interpretation of test results and prediction of clinical findings in an affected child may be difficult and
should be done in the context of formal genetic counseling.
Low-risk pregnancy. For the fetus with reduced fetal movement at no known increased risk for SMA, SMA
needs to be considered, as do the disorders discussed in the Differential Diagnosis [MacLeod et al 1999].
Resources
GeneReviews staff has selected the following disease-specific and/or umbrella support organizations and/or registries
for the benefit of individuals with this disorder and their families. GeneReviews is not responsible for the
information provided by other organizations. For information on selection criteria, click here.
• Cure SMA
925 Busse Road
Elk Grove Village IL 60007
Phone: 800-886-1762 (toll-free)
Email: familysupport@curesma.org
www.curesma.org
• Medical Home Portal
• Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA) - USA
Phone: 833-275-6321
www.mda.org
• National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD)
55 Kenosia Avenue
PO Box 1968
Danbury CT 06813-1968
Phone: 800-999-6673 (toll-free); 203-744-0100; 203-797-9590 (TDD)
Fax: 203-798-2291
Email: RN@rarediseases.org; genetic_counselor@rarediseases.org; orphan@rarediseases.org
22 GeneReviews®
• NCBI Genes and Disease

Spinal muscular atrophy
• The Gwendolyn Strong Foundation
27 West Anapamu Street
Suite 177
Santa Barbara CA 93101
www.thegsf.org
• Claire Altman Heine Foundation, Inc.
A foundation whose focus is support and funding of population-based SMA carrier screening, and increasing
awareness of SMA in both the public and medical communities
1112 Montana Avenue
#372
Santa Monica CA 90403
Phone: 310-260-3262
Fax: 310-393-7154
Email: deb@preventsma.org
www.clairealtmanheinefoundation.org
• Medline Plus
• National Library of Medicine Genetics Home Reference
Spinal muscular atrophy
• Newborn Screening in Your State
Health Resources & Services Administration
www.newbornscreening.hrsa.gov/your-state
Molecular Genetics
Information in the Molecular Genetics and OMIM tables may differ from that elsewhere in the GeneReview: tables
may contain more recent information. —ED.
Table A. Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Genes and Databases

Gene Chromosome Locus Protein Locus-Specific Databases HGMD ClinVar
SMN1 5q13.2 Survival motor alsod/SMN1 genetic SMN1 SMN1
neuron protein mutations
SMN1 homepage - Leiden
Muscular Dystrophy
pages
SMN2 5q13.2 Survival motor alsod/SMN2 genetic SMN2 SMN2
neuron protein mutations
SMN2 database
Data are compiled from the following standard references: gene from HGNC; chromosome locus from OMIM; protein from UniProt.
For a description of databases (Locus Specific, HGMD, ClinVar) to which links are provided, click here.
Table B. OMIM Entries for Spinal Muscular Atrophy (View All in OMIM)
253300 SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, TYPE I; SMA1
253400 SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, TYPE III; SMA3
253550 SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, TYPE II; SMA2
271150 SPINAL MUSCULAR ATROPHY, TYPE IV; SMA4
600354 SURVIVAL OF MOTOR NEURON 1; SMN1
601627 SURVIVAL OF MOTOR NEURON 2; SMN2
602595 GEM NUCLEAR ORGANELLE-ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 2; GEMIN2
603519 SURVIVAL MOTOR NEURON DOMAIN-CONTAINING PROTEIN 1; SMNDC1
Molecular Pathogenesis
SMN1 produces a full-length survival motor neuron protein necessary for lower motor neuron function
[Lefebvre et al 1995]. SMN2 predominantly produces a survival motor neuron protein that is lacking in exon 7, a
less stable protein. SMA is caused by loss of SMN1 because SMN2 cannot fully compensate for loss of SMN1-
produced protein. However, when the SMN2 (dosage) copy number is increased, the small amount of full-length
transcript generated by SMN2 is often able to produce a milder type II or type III phenotype.
SMN1 and SMN2

Gene structure. The SMN region on chromosome 5q12.2-q13.3 is unusually complex, with repetitive sequences,
pseudogenes, retrotransposable elements, deletions, and inverted duplications [Biros & Forrest 1999].
Unaffected individuals have two genes encoding SMN protein that are arranged in tandem on each
chromosome: SMN1 (telomeric copy, NM_000344.3) and SMN2 (centromeric copy, NM_017411.3).
• Other terms that have been used to identify SMN1: telSMN, SMNt (t for telomeric), SMNT
• Other terms that have been used to identify SMN2: cenSMN, SMNc (c for centromeric), BCD541, SMNC
SMN1 and SMN2 each comprise nine exons and differ only in eight nucleotides (5 intronic; 3 exonic, 1 each
located within exons 6, 7, and 8) [Biros & Forrest 1999]. SMN1 and SMN2 share more than 99% nucleotide
identity, and both are capable of encoding a 294-amino acid RNA-binding protein, SMN, which is required for
efficient assembly of snRNP complexes.
For a detailed summary of gene and protein information, see Table A, Gene.
Pathogenic variants. Loss of SMN1 causes SMA. Individuals with SMA are either homozygous for a deletion of
at least exon 7 of SMN1 or are compound heterozygous for such a deletion along with an intragenic SMN1
inactivating pathogenic variant. Exon 7 of SMN1 is undetectable in more than 95% of individuals with SMA
irrespective of the clinical subtype of SMA, either as a result of homozygous deletions or gene conversion of
SMN1 sequence into SMN2 sequences (possible because of their high nucleotide identity).
Table 9. SMN2 Variants Discussed in This GeneReview

DNA Nucleotide Change Predicted Protein Change Reference Sequences
NM_017411.3
c.859G>C p.Gly287Arg
NP_059107.1
Variants listed in the table have been provided by the authors. GeneReviews staff have not independently verified the classification of
variants.
GeneReviews follows the standard naming conventions of the Human Genome Variation Society (varnomen.hgvs.org). See Quick
Reference for an explanation of nomenclature.
24 GeneReviews®
Normal gene product. SMN is localized to novel nuclear structures called "gems"; gems appear similar to (and
possibly interact with) coiled bodies, which are thought to play a role in the processing and metabolism of small
nuclear RNAs [Liu & Dreyfuss 1996]. Evidence supports a role for SMN protein in snRNP (small nuclear
ribonuclear protein) biogenesis and function [Fischer et al 1997, Liu et al 1997, Pellizzoni et al 1998]. SnRNPs
and possibly other splicing components require regeneration from inactivated to activated functional forms.
SMN is required for reassembly and regeneration of these splicing components [Pellizzoni et al 1998]. SMN
accomplishes this in a modular way, bringing together several RNA-binding proteins with several RNAs,
facilitating the assembly of specific proteins on the target RNAs.
The SMN protein has also been reported to influence other cellular activities such as apoptosis and translational
regulation [Strasswimmer et al 1999, Lefebvre et al 2002, Vyas et al 2002]. SMN modulates apoptosis by blocking
the activation of several caspases and other key regulators of cell survival [Anderton et al 2013]. SMN regulates
translation by associating with polysomes, resulting in repression of translation [Sanchez et al 2013].
Abnormal gene product. SMA may be the result of a genetic defect in the biogenesis and trafficking of the
spliceosomal snRNP complexes. Mutated SMN, such as that found in individuals with SMA, lacks the splicing-
regeneration activity of wild type SMN. Reduced SMN lowers the capacity of cells to assemble the snRNPs,
which leads to altered levels of spliceosomal components and defects in splicing, and impaired capacity to
produce specific mRNAs and their encoded proteins that are necessary for cellular growth and function. It
remains unclear how a defect of splicing results in a motor neuron-specific disorder [Workman et al 2012].
Chapter Notes
Author History
Erika Finanger, MD (2016-present)
Meganne E Leach, MSN, PNP (2019-present)
Thomas W Prior, PhD, FACMG (2000-present)
Barry S Russman, MD; Oregon Health and Science University (2000-2016)
Revision History
• 3 December 2020 (aa/ha) Revision: GARS1-related infantile-onset SMA added to Table 5
• 14 November 2019 (ma) Comprehensive update posted live
• 22 December 2016 (sw) Comprehensive update posted live
• 14 November 2013 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 27 January 2011 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 3 April 2006 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 15 July 2004 (br) Revision: Management
• 17 October 2003 (me) Comprehensive update posted live
• 24 February 2000 (me) Review posted live
• 28 February 1999 (br) Original submission
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NLM Citation: Prior TW, Leach ME, Finanger E.

Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Establishing the Diagnosis

Molecular Genetic Testing Approaches

Table 1. Molecular Genetic Testing Used in Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Testing to determine carrier status is reviewed in Genetic Counseling.

Figure 1. Diagnostic algorithm for SMA

Table 2. Spectrum of SMA Phenotypes at Presentation

Table 2. continued from previous page.

Phenotype Age of Onset Life Span 1 Motor Milestones 1 Other Findings 1

Potential Complications of SMA

Table 3. SMN2 Copy Number and SMA Clinical Phenotype

SMN2 Copy SMA Clinical Phenotype 1

Other putative modifiers of SMA phenotype

Table 4. Carrier Frequency and Incidence of SMA

Table 4. continued from previous page.

Population Carrier Frequency Estimated Incidence

Genetically Related (Allelic) Disorders

Table 5. continued from previous page.

Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis

• Gross motor & fine motor skills

Table 6. continued from previous page.

System/Concern Evaluation Comment

OT = occupational therapy; PT = physical therapy

Table 7. Targeted Treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy

1. Intrathecal loading dose of 12

Table 7. continued from previous page.

SMA Subtype Treatment Dosage Mechanism

Table 8. Supportive Treatment of Manifestations in Individuals with Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Table 8. continued from previous page.

Table 8. continued from previous page.

Prevention of Primary Manifestations

Evaluation of Relatives at Risk

Therapies Under Investigation

Risk to Family Members

• Parents of more than one child with molecularly confirmed SMA;

Determining Carrier Status

Related Genetic Counseling Issues

Prenatal Testing and Preimplantation Genetic Testing

• NCBI Genes and Disease

Table A. Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Genes and Databases

SMN1 and SMN2

Table 9. SMN2 Variants Discussed in This GeneReview

Hahnen E, Schonling J, Rudnik-Schöneborn S, Raschke H, Zerres K, Wirth B. Missense mutations in exon 6 of

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