RCS – I LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SHEAR Chapter III

CHAPTER III

LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SHEAR

3.1. Introduction
Beams resist loads primarily by means of internal moment M and shear V. In the design of
reinforced concrete members flexure is usually considered first, (i.e. sections are
proportioned and areas of longitudinal reinforcement determined for the moment M),
because flexural failure is ductile. The beams are then designed for shear. Because shear
failure is frequently sudden and brittle, the design for ensure that shear strength equals or
exceeds the flexural strength at all points in the beam. Fig 3.1 shows internal forces of a
simple beam.

Figure 3.1-1 Internal force in beams

3.2. Basic Theory

Stresses in an Uncracked Beam
From the FBD in Fig. 3.1-1 c, it can be seen that dM/dx = V. Thus shear forces exist in those
parts of a beam where the moment changes from section to section. The shear stresses, V
on elements 1 and 2 cut out of a beam (Fig. 3-2-1 a) is calculated from the equation,

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Where V = shear force on the cross section

I = moment of inertia of the section

Q = first moment of part of the cross-sectional area about the centroid

b = width of the member at which the stresses are calculated

e ) Photograph of half of a cracked reinforced concrete beam

Figure 3.2-1 Normal, shear and principal stress in a homogenous un-cracked beam

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For uncracked rectangular beam Fig. 3-2-1b gives the distribution of shear stresses on a
section. In regions where we have M and V we have biaxial states of stress and the principal
stresses are

√( )

√( )

The principal stresses on the elements are shown in Fig. 3-2-1c. The surfaces on which
principal stresses act in an uncracked beam are plotted by curved lines as in Fig 3-2-1d and
are known as stress trajectories. Since concrete cracks when the principal stresses exceed
the tensile strength of the concrete, the initial cracking pattern resembles the family of
curves (stress trajectories) shown in Fig 3-2-1d.
Two types of cracks can be seen. The vertical cracks occurred first, due to flexural stresses.
These start at the bottom of the beam where the flexural stresses are the largest. The
inclined cracks at the ends of the beam are due to combined shear flexure. These are
commonly referred to as inclined cracks, shear cracks or diagonal tension cracks. Such
cracks must exist before a beam can fail in shear.

Although there is similarity between the planes of maximum principal tensile stress and the
cracking pattern, it is by no means perfect, because in RC flexural cracks generally occur
before the principal tensile stress at mid height become critical. Once the flexural cracks has
occurred, the tensile stress perpendicular to the cracks drops to zero. To maintain
equilibrium, a major redistribution is necessary. As a result, the onset of inclined cracking in
a beam cannot be predicted from the principal stresses unless shear cracks precedes
flexural cracking. This very rarely happens in RC, but it does occur in some pre-stressed
beams.

Shear transfer of reinforced concrete beams heavily relies on the tensile and compressive
stresses of the concrete. Most of the time the problem of concrete in shear design is not
shear stress exceeding the shear strength of the concrete, but the major principal stress
exceeding the tensile strength of concrete due to the low tensile strength. When the tensile
stress exceeds the tensile strength then cracks will form. With the formation of cracks
ensues a complex pattern of stresses.

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3.3. Mechanism of shear resistance in concrete beams without shear
reinforcements
After formation of cracks we will have a different stress distribution. Fig 4-3-1a shows a
cracked beam.

Figure 3.3-1 Calculation of average shear stress between cracks

The concrete below the neutral axis in a cracked reinforced concrete beam is in a state of
pure shear because tensile stress is zero.

From fig 3-3-1b

From the moment equilibrium of the element

If the shaded portion of Fig 3-3-1b is isolated, the force ΔT must be transferred by horizontal
shear stress on the top of the element. The average value of these stresses below the top of
the crack is

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The distribution of the average horizontal shear stress is shown in Fig 3-3-1d. Since the
vertical shear stresses on an element are equal to the horizontal shear stresses on the same
element, the vertical shear stress distribution will be as shown in Fig. 3-3-1d.

Fig 3.3-2 shows mechanism of shear resistance across an inclined crack in a beam without
shear reinforcement (stirrups). Observe that a typical vertical plane cuts (passes): the
compression zone, the crack and the flexural reinforcement, unlike the entire section of the
un-cracked homogenous beam. Shear resistance along A, B, C is provided by the sum of
shear in the compression zone Vcz, the vertical component of force due to aggregate
interlock Vay and force due to dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement V d.

Figure 3.3-2 Internal force in a cracked beam without stirrups

Immediately after inclined cracking it is found that 40-60% of the shear is resisted by Vay and
Vd,

Considering portions D, E, F below the crack and summing up moments about E we see that
Va and Vd will have moment about E in the clockwise direction which should be balanced
moment due to compression force C’1.

From horizontal force equilibrium on vertical face A, B, D, E we see that T1=C1+C’1 and finally
T1 and C1+C’1 must equilibrate the external moment at the section.

As the crack widens Va decreases and much of the resistance is provided by Vcz and Vd. As Vd
gets larger it leads to splitting crack in the concrete along the reinforcement. When this
crack occurs Vd drops to zero. When Va and Vd disappear so do V’cz and C’1 with the result
that all shearing is transmitted in the width AB above the crack. This may cause crushing of
concrete in region AB.

It is important to note also that, if C’1 =0, T2 = T1 and T2=C1. In other words, the inclined crack
has made the tensile force at C to be a function of the moment on the vertical section A, B,

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D, E. This shift in tensile force must be considered when determining bar cutoff points and
when anchoring bars.

For a typical RC beam, the approximate proportions are

It has found that the dowel action is generally the first to reach its capacity followed by
failure of the aggregate interlock, which is followed by shear failure of the concrete in
compression (abruptly and explosively). However, the precise proportion is difficult to
establish and the shear strength is represented by a single expression accounting for all
mechanisms.

The shear resistance of the concrete depends on the tensile strength of concrete, shear
span to depth ratio, av/d, size of the member, aggregate interlock and the amount of
longitudinal reinforcement. Empirical relations are given in codes which may consider all of
these factors or only some.

EBCS 2 gives empirical relations as a function of the tensile strength of the concrete fctd, area
of longitudinal reinforcement, effective depth d, and breadth of web, bw.

( ) ⁄

( )

As the area of tensile reinforcement anchored beyond the intersection of the steel and the
line of possible 450 cracking starting from the edge of the section.

3.4. Design of shear reinforcement

In subsection 3.3 we saw that formation of diagonal cracks is followed by widening of cracks
and brittle compression failure. This type of failure can be suppressed and development of
full flexural capacity can be ensured using shear reinforcement. Inclined stirrups, bent up
longitudinal bars or vertical stirrups can be used.

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Figure 3.4-1 Inclined cracks and shear reinforcements

Figure 3.4-2 Vertical and Inclined Shear reinforcements

The most commonly used type is vertical stirrup. The use of bent bars has almost
disappeared. Inclined stirrups cannot be used beams resisting shear reversal such as
building resisting seismic loads.

Stirrups restrain the cracks from opening wide and so not only maintain the shear resistance
due to aggregate interlock and dowel action but also contribute to shear resistance. The
shear resistance at section of the beam is categorized into two contributions as the part
resisted by concrete and as shear by stirrups.

Where: Vc=Vcz+Vay+Vd, shear resisted by the concrete

Vs shear resisted by the stirrups
The stirrups are required to carry shear over and above the capacity of the concrete.

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Figure 3.4-3 Distribution of internal shears in a beam with web reinforcements

Figure 3.4-4 Internal force in a cracked beam with stirrups

The amount of shear reinforcement or the spacing S of the stirrups having cross sectional
area Av (of the two vertical bars) is obtained from a mathematical model called “Truss-
Analogy”. This model was proposed by Professor Mörsch in 1902 for the design of beam for
shear. The stirrups are modeled as vertical tension members, the longitudinal flexure
reinforcement as horizontal tension members the concrete diagonals between cracks as
diagonals compression members and the concrete in flexural compression as top horizontal
compression members as shown in fig 3.4-5.

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The shear reinforcement spacing ‘S’ can be calculated as follows because it has to carry ‘V s’,

( ) ( )

The horizontal projection of cross section A-A is and

No. of stirrups in this width is;

Therefore,

EBCS 2 gives

Figure 3.4-5 Truss analogy

Before determining the spacing of reinforcement S, whether diagonal compression failure of

concrete occurs or not should be checked. The average compression stress in the concrete
diagonal in concrete diagonals in fig.3.4-6 b is

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Figure 3.4-6Forces in stirrups and compression diagonals

The shear V on B-B has been replaced by diagonal compression force D and axial tension
force Nv as shown in Fig 3.4-6c.

( )

V is the shear at which diagonal compression failure occurs. Internal shear induced by loads
should be less than V. If internal shear is greater than or equal to 0.5f cdbwZ then the section
has to be increased.

EBCS 2 gives even a smaller limit on Vsd to avoid diagonal compression failure,

If Vsd>VRd, then the beam section has to be increased.

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Assuming uniform shear stress distribution in the concrete the resultant of V and D act at
mid height of the section as a result, Nv acts through mid-height which means that Nv/2 acts
in each of the top and bottom chord members.

At the bottom total tension, ⁄ ⁄ ,

At the bottom net compression, ⁄ ⁄ .

In design the value of θ should be 25º ≤ θ ≤ 65º. The choice of small value of θ reduces the
number of stirrups required but increases the compression stress in the web and increases
Nv, and hence the shift of moment diagrams. The opposite is true for large angles.

Because the shear within a distance of D from face of support is resisted by the support for
a 450 crack, the maximum design shear force is taken as the one at a distance d from face of
support.

Minimum shear reinforcement according to EBCS 2

Because shear failure of RC beams without shear reinforcement in brittle and sudden
minimum shear reinforcement should be provided in regions of beam where we need no
shear reinforcement theoretically.

The practical design procedure recommended by EBCS 2 is essentially empirical and may be
summarized as follows:

• Calculate the design shear force at the section to be designed, V sd

• If Vsd ≥ VRd, Diagonal compression failure, increase the cross sectional dimension
• If Vsd ≤ VRd and Vsd ≥ Vc, provide shear reinforcement , S, as

• If Vsd ≤ Vc , provide minimum reinforcement, ρmin

Maximum spacing according to EBCS 2,

S ≤ Smax =0.5d ≤ 300 mm if V ≤ 2/3VRd,

S ≤ Smax =0.3d ≤ 200 mm if VRd>V > 2/3VRd

The first limit is given so that a 450 crack will be intercepted by at least one stirrup.
Commonly used stirrup bars have diameters ranging between 6 mm and 10 mm.

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3.5. Bond and development length

3.5.1. Bond
In reinforced concrete, the concrete carries compression and the steel carries tension. In the
tension zone there is no slip between the concrete and the steel transfers its tension to the
surrounding concrete by shear stresses at the bar-concrete interface. This interface shear
stress is called bond stress.

This bond when fully developed enables the two materials to form a composite structure. If
this bond could not be developed then the bars pull out of the concrete and the tension
drops to zero.

The bond strength varies along the length of the bar Fig 3.5.1-1e and usually average bond
stress is used.

Figure 3.5.1-1 Steel, concrete and bond stresses in a cracked beam

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The mechanism by which smooth plane bars develop this bond is by adhesion between the
concrete and the bar surface and by a small amount of bar friction.

For a bar loaded in tension both of these will be lost quickly because of reduction in
diameter due to Poisson’s ratio and the bar pulls out. For this reason, smooth plane bars are
not used as reinforcement. For cases where smooth bars are embedded in concrete (anchor
bolts, stirrups made of small diameter bars, etc) mechanical anchorage in the form of hooks,
nuts and washers on the embedded end, or similar devices are used.

In deformed bars although adhesion and friction are present at first loading, this will be lost
quickly leaving the load to be transferred by bearing on the ribs (Fig 3.5.1-2). If these
bearing forces are too big, the radial component will cause splitting along the reinforcement
which propagate out to the surface along the shortest distance (fig 3.5.1-3)

Figure 3.5.1-2 Bond transfer mechanism

The load at which splitting failure develops is a function of:

1. The minimum distance from the bar to the surface of the concrete or to the next bar.
The smaller this distance, the smaller the splitting load.
2. The tensile strength of the concrete
3. The average bond stress. As this increase the wedging force increase leading to a
splitting failure.

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Figure 3.5.1-3 Typical splitting failure surfaces

Bond stresses arise from two situations; from anchorage of bars and from change of bar
force along the length of the bar such as due to change in bending moment (fig 3.5.1-4).

Average bond stress in a beam

If there are more than one bars

⇒
∑

Where ∑ p is the sum of perimeters of all

bars

Alternatively

Figure 3.5.1-4 Average flexural bond stress

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3.5.2. Development Length
The full design tensile strength of a deformed straight bar can be developed at a given
section provided the bar extends into the concrete a sufficient length beyond the section.
The length of the bar required to develop the length of the bar is known as development
length, lb or anchorage length. Since bond stress varies along the length of the bar, the
concept of development length is used instead of bond stress in codes.

This length lb is a function of

a) Whether we have tension or compression, longer lb is required for tension.

b) The quality of concrete surrounding the bar which in turn is affected by depth of the
section and position of the bar.
c) The diameter and grade of steel.

EBCS 2 gives the basic anchorage length lb for a bar of diameter  as

Where: fbd is the design bond strength defined below.

The design bond strength fbd depends on the type of reinforcement, the concrete strength
and the position of the bar during concreting. The bond conditions are considered to be
good for:

a) all bars which are in the lower half of an element

b) all bars in elements whose depth does not exceed 300mm.
c) all bars which are at least 300mm from top of an element in which they are placed
d) all bars with an inclination of 45-900 with the horizontal during concreting

For good bond conditions the design bond strength of may be obtained from

For other bond conditions the design bond strength may be taken as 0.7*the value for good
bond conditions. Local bond should be checked at sections where there are high shear
combined with rapid changes in bending moments such as: simply supported ends of a
member, points of contra flexure, supports of a cantilever, and points where tension bars
are terminated.

The required anchorage length lbnet depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in
the reinforcement.

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Where: a = 1.0 for straight bar in tension or in compression

a = 0.7 for hook anchorage with standard hooks in fig 3.5.2-1
As[calculated] and As [provided] are area of reinforcement calculated, and provided
respectively.
lb,min = minimum anchorage length:
 for bars in tension lb,min = 0.3lb ≥ 10ϕ or lb,min ≥ 200 mm
 for bars in compression lb,min = 0.6lb ≥ 10ϕ or lb,min ≥ 200 mm

Figure 3.5.2-1 Standard hooks

3.5.3. Lapped splices

When the available standard length of bars (which is 12m) is less than the required length
we extend reinforcement bars by lap splices. In lapped splices, the force in one bar is
transferred to the surrounding concrete which in turn transfers the force to the adjacent
bars. Due to the stress influence of the two bars in the surrounding concrete a large
development length is required for lapped splices than for anchorage.

The requirement in lapped splices is to locate in regions of small bending moment and avoid
splicing in critical zones (large tension zones).

EBCS 2 gives the lap length `lo’ to be at least,

Where: 

lb net and a are given in section 4.5.2

a1 is obtained from the following table; it is a function of percentage of rebars

lapped at one section. Lapped joints are considered to be at the same section
if the distance between their centers does not exceed the required lap
length.

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Distance between Distance to the Percentage of reinforcement

two adjacent laps nearest surface lapped with in required lap length

a b 20% 25% 33% 50% 100%

a < 10  and /or b < 5 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

a > 10 and b >5 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Table 3.5.3-1 values for a1

3.5.4. Bar cutoff

For economy some bars are cut off where they are no longer needed where the remaining
bars are adequate to carry the tension. The location of points where bars are cutoff is a
function of the tension due to moment and shear.

The flexure envelope tension diagram will be displaced horizontally by a1 as shown in Fig.
3.5.4-1 to take care of additional tension resulting from shear force.

Figure 3.5.4-2 Tensile force or M/Z diagram

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The displacement a1 depends on the spacing of potential shear cracks and may be taken as:

a) members without shear reinforcement (slabs) a1 = 1.0d

b) members with Vsd < 2Vc, a1= 0.75d
c) members with Vsd ≥ 2Vc, a1= 0.5d

Where Vsd is the applied design shear force

Near points of zero moment a1 ≥ d shall be taken for both positive and negative moments.

The anchorage length of reinforcement is as follows

1) Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist
tension for a length given by lb or lb.net ≥ d provided that in this case the continuing bars
are capable of resisting twice the applied moment at the section
2) The anchorage length of bars that are bent up as shear reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 1.3lb.net in zones subject to tension and to 0.7lb.net in zones subject to
compression

When considering anchorage of bottom reinforcement at supports, the following must be

applied

1. At least one-quarter of the positive moment reinforcement in simple beams and one-
half of the positive moment reinforcement in slabs shall be extended along the same
face of the member in to the support
2. The anchorage of this reinforcement shall be capable of developing the following tensile
force
3. The anchorage length is measured from
a) The face of the support for a direct support
b) A plane inside the support located at a distance of 1/3 the width of the support from
the face of the support for an indirect support
4. The anchorage length of the bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports shall be at
least 10Ф.

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