Fitter 1st Year (Volume II of II) TT

FITTER
NSQF
Revised LEVEL
in 2017 -5
1st Year (Volume II of II)
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Capital Goods & Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
(i)
Sector : Capital Goods and Manufacturing
Duration : 2 Years
Trade : Fitter - 1st year (Volume II of II) Trade Theory NSQF (Level - 5)
Developed & Published by
National Instructional Media Institute

Post Box No.3142
Guindy, Chennai - 600032
INDIA
Email: chennai-nimi@nic.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
Printed by
National Instructional Media Institute
Chennai - 600 032
First Edition : November 2018 Copies : 10,000

First Reprint : March 2020 Copies : 2,000
Second Reprint : September 2021 Copies : 2,000
Third Reprint : January 2022 Copies : 2,000
Rs.215/-
(ii)
FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Fitter - 1st Year (Volume II of II) - Trade Theory NSQF Level - 5 in
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Sector under annual Pattern. The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will
help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency
will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior
learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill
development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders
will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the
quality of Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
Director General,
Directorate General of Training,
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
(iii)
PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.
In order to perform the skills in a productive manner instructional videos are embedded in QR code of the
exercise in this instructional material so as to integrate the skill learning with the procedural practical steps
given in the exercise. The instructional videos will improve the quality of standard on practical training and
will motivate the trainees to focus and perform the skill seamlessly.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
(iv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Fitter under Capital Goods & Manufacturing Sector for ITIs.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. M. Sampath _ Training officer (Retd.)

CTI, Chennai-32.
Shri. M. Sangarapandian _ Training officer (Retd.)

CTI, Chennai - 32
Shri. K. Kesavan _ Asst. App. Advisor Junior (Retd)

DET, Tamilnadu
Shri. C.C. Subramanian _ Training officer (Retd.)

Balamandir PHM ITI, Chennai - 17
Shri. A. Stephen _ Instructor, St. John’s ITI

Manapparai
Trichy District - 621 307
Shri. A. Chandraprakash _ Vocational Instructor,

NSTI, Hyderabad
Shri. K.B. Shivaramu _ Junior Training officer

Government ITI, Mysore - 570007
Shri. D.C. Nataraja _ Junior Training officer

Government ITI, Mysore - 570007
Shri. Milind Rasu _ Instructor, Government ITI

Aliganj, Lucknow
NIMI - Co-ordinators
Shri. K. Srinivasa Rao _ Joint Director,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
Shri. G. Michael Johny _ Assistant Manager,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
(v)
INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the Fitter Trade. The contents are sequenced
according to the practical exercise contained in NSQF LEVEL - 5 syllabus on Trade practical. Attempt has
been made to relate the theoretical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to the extent possible. This
correlation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities for performing the skills.
Module 1 Drilling 150 Hrs
Module 2 Fitting assembly 150 Hrs
Module 3 Turning 125 Hrs
Module 4 Basic Maintenance 75 Hrs
Module 5 In-plant training/Project work 50 Hrs
Total 550 Hrs
The Trade Theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercises are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each
exercise.
The material is not for the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intented to be used in practical workshop . It consists of a series of practical
exercises to be completed by the trainees during the Fitter Trade course supplemented and supported by
instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed to ensure that
all the skills in compliance with NSQF LEVEL - 5 syllabus are covered.
The manual is divided into five modules.
The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centred around some
practical object. However, there are few instances where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
(vi)
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.

Outcome
Module 1: Drilling
2.1.61 Drills 1
2.1.62 Drill angles 4
2.1.63 - 65 Drilling - Cutting speed, feed and r.p.m , drill holding devices 6
2.1.66 Counter sinking 9
2.1.67 Reamers 16
2.1.68 - 69 Screw thread and elements 22
2.1.70 Tap wrenches, removal of broken tap, studs 1 32
2.1.71 Dies and die stock 36
2.1.72 - 73 Drill troubles - Causes and remedy, drill kinds 40
2.1.74 - 75 Standard marking system for Grinding wheels 46
2.1.76 Radius/Fillet gauge, feeler gauge, hole gauge 55
2.1.77 - 78 Pig Iron 60
Module 2: Fitting assembly
2.2.79 - 80 Necessity of Interchangeability in engineering field 63

2.2.81 Vernier height gauge 73
2.2.82 Wrought iron and plain carbon steels 2 75
2.2.83 - 85 Simple scrapers and scraping 81
2.2.86 - 88 Vernier micrometer, screw thread micrometer, graduation & reading 86
2.2.89 Dial test indicator, comparators, digital dial indicator 93
Module 3: Turning
2.3.90 Safety to be observed while working on lathes 102

2.3.91 Lathe main parts 104
2.3.92 Feeding & thread cutting mechanism 110
2.3.93 Holding the job between centre and work with catch plate and dog 113
2.3.94 Simple description of facing and roughing tool 115
2.3.95 Nomanclature of single point cutting tools and multi point cutting tools 117
2.3.96 Tool selection based on different requirements 120
2.3.97 Necessity of grinding angles 3 123
2.3.98 Lathe cutting speed and feed, use of coolants, lubricants 125
2.3.99 Chucks and chucking - the independent 4 jaw chuck 130
2.3.100 Face plate 136
2.3.101 Drilling 138
2.3.102 Boring & boring tools 139
2.3.103 Tool setting 141
2.3.104 Tool post 145
(vii)
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.
Outcome
2.3.105 Lathe operation - Knurling 147

2.3.106 Standard tapers 150
2.3.107 Screw thread 3 154
2.3.108 Principle of cutting screw thread in centre lathe 158
2.3.109 Principle of chasing screw thread 161
Module 4 : Basic Maintenance
2.4.110 Total productive maintenance 168

2.4.111 Routine maintenance 170
2.4.112 Preventive maintenance 172
2.4.113 Inspection, types of inspection and gadgets for inspection 4 177
2.4.114 Lubrication survey 180
2.4.115 Causes for assembly failures and remedies 183
2.4.116 Assembly techniquies 184
Module 5 : In-plant training/Project work
LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to
S.No Learning Outcome Lesson No
1 Produce components by different operations and check

accuracy using appropriate measuring instrument. [Different 2.1.61 to
Operations-Drilling, reaming, tapping, dieing., Appropriate 2.1.77 - 78
measuring instruments - Vernier, screw gauge, micrometer.]
2 Make different fit of components for assembling as per required
tolerance observing principle of interchargeability and check 2.2.79 - 80 to
for functionality. [ Different fit-sliding, angular, step fit, ‘T’ fit, 2.2.89
square fit and profile fit., Required tolerance; 0.04 mm, angular
tolerace: 30 min]
3 Produce components involving different operations on lathe
observing standard procedure and check for accuracy. 2.3.90 to
[Different operations - Facing, plain turning, step turning, 2.3.97
parting, chamfering, shoulder turn, grooving, knurling, boring,
taper turning, threading (external ‘V’ only.]
4 Plan & perform simple rapair, overhauling of different machines
and check for functionality. [ Different machines - Drill machine, 2.4.110 to
power saw, bench grinder and lathe.] 2.4.116
(viii)
SYLLABUS
Duration: Six Months
Week Ref. Learning Professional Skills

Professional Knowledge
No. Outcome (Trade Practical)
(Trade Theory)
with Indicative hours
27 Produce componentsby 61 Mark off and drill through holes. Drill- material, types, (Taper shank,
different operations and (5 hrs.) straight shank) parts and sizes.
check accuracy using Drill angle-cutting angle for different
62 Drill on M.S. flat. (1 hrs.)
appropriate measuring materials, cutting speed feed.
instruments.[Different 63 File radius and profile to suit gauge R.P.M. for different materials. Drill
Operations-Drilling, (13 hrs.) holding devicesmaterial,
Reaming, Taping, Dieing; 64 Sharpening of Drills.(1 hrs.) construction and their uses.
Appropriate Measuring
Instrument – Vernier, Screw 65 Practice use of angular measuring
Gauge, Micrometer] instrument. (5 hrs.)
28 -do- 66 Counter sink, counter bore and Counter sink, counter bore and spot
ream split fit (three piece fitting). facing-tools and nomenclature,
(5 hrs.) Reamermaterial,
types (Hand and machine reamer),
67 Drill through hole and blind holes.
kinds, parts and their uses,
(2 hrs.)
determining hole size (or reaming),
68 Form internal threads with taps to Reaming procedure.
standard size (through holes and Screw threads: terminology, parts,
blind holes).(3 hrs.) types and their uses. Screw pitch
69 Prepare studs and bolt.(15 hrs.) gauge: material parts and uses.
Taps British standard (B.S.W.,
B.S.F., B.A. & B.S.P.) and metric /
BIS (course and fine) material, parts
(shank body, flute, cutting edge).
29 -do- 70 Form external threads with dies to Tap wrench: material, parts, types
standard size. (10 hrs.) (solid &adjustable types) and their
uses removal of broken tap, studs
71 Prepare nuts and match with
(tap stud extractor). Dies: British
bolts.(15 hrs.)
standard, metric and BIS standard,
material, parts, types, Method of
using dies. Die stock: material,
parts and uses.
30 -do- 72 File and make Step fit, angular fit, Drill troubles: causes and remedy.
angle, surfaces (Bevel gauge Equality of lips, correct clearance,
accuracy 1 degree).(15 hrs.) dead centre, length of lips. Drill
73 Make simple open and sliding fits. kinds: Fraction, metric, letters and
(10 hrs.) numbers, grinding of drill.
31 -do- 74 Enlarge hole and increase internal Grinding wheel: Abrasive, grade
dia. (2 hrs.) structures, bond, specification,
75 File cylindrical surfaces.(5 hrs.) use, mounting and dressing.
Selection of grinding wheels.
76 Make open fitting of curved Bench grinder parts and use.
profiles.(18 hrs.) Radius/fillet gauge, feeler gauge,
hole gauge, and their uses, care
and maintenance.
(ix)
32 -do- 77 Correction of drill location by binding Pig Iron: types of pig Iron, properties
previously drilled hole.(5 hrs.) and uses. Cast Iron: types, properties
and uses.
78 Make inside square fit. (20 hrs.)
33 Make different fit of 79 Make sliding „T. fit.(2 hrs.) Interchangeability: Necessity in Engg,
components for field definition, BIS. Definition, types of
assembling as per limit, terminology of limits and fits-basic
required tolerance size, actual size, deviation, high and low
observing principle limit, zero line, tolerance zone Different
of interchangeability standard systems of fits and limits.
and check for British standard system, BIS system
f u n c t i o n a l i t y.
[Different Fit –
Sliding, Angular, Step
fit, ‘T’ fit, Square fit
and Profile fit;
Required tolerance:
±0.04 mm, angular
tolerance: 30 min.]
34 -do- 80 File fit- combined, open angular Method of expressing tolerance as per
and sliding sides. (10 hrs.) BIS Fits: Definition, types, description
of each with sketch. Vernier height
81 File internal angles 30minutes
gauge: material construction, parts,
accuracy open, angular fit.(15 hrs.)
graduations (English & Metric) uses,
care and maintenance.
35-36 -do- 82 Make sliding fit with angles other Wrought iron- : properties and uses.
than 90°.(25 hrs.) Steel: plain carbon steels, types,
properties and uses. Non-ferrous metals
(copper, aluminum, tin, lead, zinc)
properties and uses.
83 Scrap on flat surfaces, curved surfaces Simple scraper- circular, flat, half round,
37 -do-
and parallel surfaces and test. (5 hrs.) triangular and hook scraper and their
uses. Blue matching of scraped
84 Make & assemble, sliding flats, plain
surfaces (flat and curved bearing
surfaces. (15 hrs.)
surfaces)
85 Check for blue math of bearing
surfaces - both flat and
curved surfaces by with worth
method.(5hrs.)
38 -do- 86 File and fit combined radius and Vernier micrometer, material, parts,
angular surface (accuracy ± 0.5 mm), graduation, use, care and intenance.
angular and radius fit. (18 hrs.) Calibration of measuring instruments.
Introduction to mechanical fasteners and
87 Locate accurate holes & make
its uses.
accurate hole for stud fit.(2 hrs.)
Screw thread micrometer: Construction,
88 Fasten mechanical components / sub- graduation and use.
assemblies together using screws,
bolts and collars using hand tools.
(5 hrs.)
89 Make sliding fits assembly with Dial test indicator, construction, parts,
39 -do-
parallel and angular mating surface. material, graduation, Method of use, care
(± 0.04 mm) (25 hrs.) and maintenance. Digital dial indicator.
Comparators-measurement of quality in
the cylinder bores.
(x)
40 Produce components 90 Lathe operations- Safely precautions to be observed
involving different while working on a lathe, Lathe
91 True job on four jaw chuck using knife
operations on lathe specifications, and constructional
tool.(5 hrs.)
observing standard features. Lathe main parts
procedure and check for 92 Face both the ends for holding between descriptions- bed, head stock,
accuracy. [Different centers. (9 hrs.) carriage, tail stock, feeding and
Operations – facing, thread cutting mechanisms. Holding
93 Using roughing tool parallel turn ±
plain turning, step of job between centers, works with
0.1 mm. (10 hrs.)
turning, parting, catch plate, dog, simple description
chamfering, shoulder 94 Measure the diameter using outside of a facing and roughing tool and their
turn, grooving, knurling, caliper and steel rule.(1hrs.) applications.
boring, taper
turning, threading
(external ‘V’ only)]
41 -do- 95 Holding job in three jaw chuck.(2 hrs.) Lathe cutting tools- Nomenclature
ofsingle point & multipoint cutting
96 Perform the facing, plain turn, step turn,
tools, Tool selection based on
parting, deburr, chamfercorner, round
different requirements and necessity
the ends, and use form tools. (11 hrs.)
of correct grinding, solid and tipped,
97 Shoulder turn: square, filleted, throw away
beveled undercut shoulder, turning-
type tools, cutting speed and feed
filleted under cut, square beveled.
and comparison for H.S.S., carbide
(11 hrs.)
tools. Use of coolants and
98 Sharpening of -Single point Tools. lubricants.
(1 hrs.)
99 Cut grooves- square, round,V. Chucks and chucking the

42 -do-
groove. (10 hrs.) independent four-jaw chuck.
100 Make a mandrel-turn diameter to Reversible features of jaws, the
sizes. (5 hrs.) back plate, Method of clearing
the thread of the chuck-mounting
101 Knurl the job.(1 hrs.) and dismounting, chucks, chucking
102 Bore holes –spot face, pilot drill, true, face plate, drilling - method of
enlarge hole using boring tools. holding drills in the tail stock, Boring
(9 hrs.) tools and enlargement of holes.
43 -do- 103 Make a bush step bore-cut recess, General turning operations- parallel
turn hole diameter to sizes.(5 hrs.) or straight, turning. Stepped turning,
grooving, and shape of tools for the
104 Turn taper (internal and external).
above operations. Appropriate
(10 hrs.)
method of holding the tool on tool
105 Turn taper pins. (5 hrs.) post or tool rest, Knurling: - tools
description, grade, uses, speed and
106 Turn standard tapers to suit with
feed, coolant for knurling, speed,
gauge.(5 hrs.)
feed calculation. Taper – definition,
use and method of expressing
tapers. Standard tapers-taper,
calculations morse taper.
107 Practice threading using taps, dies Screw thread definition – uses and
44 -do-
on lathe by hand. (2 hrs.) application. Square, worm, buttress,
acme ( non standard-screw
108 Make external „V. thread.(8 hrs.)
threads), Principle of cutting screw
109 Prepare a nut and match with the thread in centre lathe –principle of
bolt.(15 hrs.) chasing the screw thread – use of
centre gauge,setting tool for cutting
internal and external threads, use
of screw pitch gauge for checking
the screw thread.
(xi)
45-46 Plan & perform 110 Simple repair work: Simple assembly Maintenance
simple repair, of machine parts from blue prints. -Total productive maintenance -
overhauling of (15 hrs.) Autonomous maintenance -Routine
different machines maintenance -Maintenance schedule
111 Rectify possible assembly faults during
and check for -Retrieval of data from machine
assembly.(19 hrs.)
f u n c t i o n a l i t y. manuals Preventive maintenance-
[Different Machines 112 Perform the routine maintenance with objective and function of Preventive
– Drill Machine, check list (10 hrs.) maintenance, section inspection.
Power Saw, Bench Visual and detailed, lubrication survey,
113 Monitor machine as per routine
Grinder and Lathe] system of symbol and colour coding.
checklist (3 hrs.)
Revision, simple estimation of
114 Read pressure gauge, temperature materials, use of handbooks and
gauge, oil level (1 hrs.) reference table. Possible causes for
115 Set pressure in pneumatic system assembly failures and remedies.
(2 hrs.)
47 -do- 116 Assemble simple fitting using dowel Assembling techniques such as
pins and tap screw assembly using aligning, bending, fixing, mechanical
torque wrench. (25 hrs.) jointing, threaded jointing, sealing, and
torquing.Dowel pins: material,
construction, types, accuracy and uses.
In-plant training / Project work

48-49 1 Pipe Fixture
2 Adjustable Clamp
3 Hermaphrodite/ Inside Caliper
4 Chuck Key
(xii)
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.61
Fitter - Drilling
Drills
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state drilling
• state the necessity of drilling
• name the types of drills used
• identify the parts of a twist drill.
Drilling: Drilling is the production of cylindrical holes of The flutes provide a correct cutting angle which provides
definite diameters in workpieces by using a multi-point an escape path for the chips. It carries the coolant to the
cutting tool called a ‘drill’. It is the first operation done cutting edge during drilling. (Fig 3)
internally for any further operation.
Types of drills and their specific uses
Flat drill (Fig 1) : The earliest form of drill was the flat drill
which is easy to operate,besides being inexpensive to
produce. But it is difficult to hold during operation,and the
chip removal is poor. Its operating efficiency is very low.
Twist drill : Almost all drilling operation is done using a

twist drill. It is called a twist drill as it has two or more
spiral or helical flutes formed along its length. The two
basic types of twist drills are, parallel shank and taper
shank. Parallel shank twist drills are available below 13mm
size (Fig 2).
The portions left between the flutes are called ‘lands’. The
size of a drill is detemined and governed by the diameter
over the lands.
The point angle is the cutting angle, and for general purpose
work, it is 118°. The clearance serves the purpose of
clearing the back of the lip from fouling with the work. It is
mostly 8°.
Deep hole drills
Deep hole drilling is done by using a type of drill known as

‘D’ bit (Fig 4)
Drills are made of high speed steel.

Parts of a twist drill : Drills are made out of high speed
steel. The spiral flutes are machined at an angle of
27 1/2° to its axis.
1
FIN216114
Drills are manufactured with varying helix angles for drilling
different materials. General purpose drills have a standard
FIN216115
helix angle of 27 1/2°. They are used on mild steel and
cast iron. (Fig 5a)
A slow helix drill is used on materials like brass, gun metal,

phosphor-bronze and plastics. (Fig 5b) A quick helix drill should never be used on brass
as it will ‘dig in’ and the workpiece may be
A quick helix drill is used for copper, aluminium and other thrown from the machine table.
soft metals (Fig 5c)
Drill (Parts and functions)

• state the functions of drills
• identify the parts of a drill
• state the functions of each part of a drill.
Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces.The

tool used is a drill. For drilling, the drill is rotated with a
downward pressure causing the tool to penetrate into the
material. (Fig 1)
Parts of a Drill (Fig 2)
The various parts of a drill can be identified from figure 2.
Point
The cone shaped end which does the cutting is called the
point. It consists of a dead centre, lips or cutting edges,
and a heel.
Shank Body
This is the driving end of the drill which is fitted on to the The portion between the point and the shank is called the
machine. Shanks are of two types. body of a drill.
The parts of the body are flute, land/margin, body clearance
Taper shank, used for larger diameter drills, and straight and web.
shank, used for smaller diameter drills. (Fig 3)
Flutes (Fig 3)
Tang
Flutes are the spiral grooves which run to the length of the
This is a part of the taper shank drill which fits into the slot drill. The flutes help
of the drilling machine spindle.
2 Capital Goods & Manufacturing: Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) RT for Ex No. 2.1.61
- To form the cutting edges The diameter of the drill is measured across the land/
margin.
- To curl the chips and allow these to come out
- The coolant to flow to the cutting edge. Body clearance (Fig 3)
Land/Margin (Fig 3) Body clearance is the part of the body which is reduced in
diameter to cut down the friction between the drill and the
hole being drilled.
Web (Fig 4)
Web is the metal column which separates the flutes. It

gradually increases in thickness towards the shank.
The land/margin is the narrow strip which extends to the

entire length of the flutes.
Capital Goods & Manufacturing: Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) RT for Ex No. 2.1.61 3
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise: 2.1.62
Fitter - Drilling
Drill angles
• identify the various angles of a twist drill
• state the functions of each angle
• list the types of helix for drills as per ISI
• distinguish the features of different types of drills
• designate drills as per ISI recommendations.
Like all cutting tools the drills are provided with certain Twist drills are made with different helix angles. The helix
angles for efficiency in drilling. angle determines the rake angle at the cutting edge of the
twist drill.
Drill angles
The helix angles vary according to the material being drilled.
They are different angles for different purposes. They are According to indian standards, three types of drills are
listed below. used for drilling various materials.
Point angle, helix angle, rake angle, clearance angle and • Type N - For normal low carbon steel.
chisel edge angle.
• Type H - For hard and tenaceous materials.
Point angle/ cutting angle (Fig 1)
• Types S - For soft and tough materials.
The type of drill used for general purpose drilling work is

type N.
Rake angle (Fig 5)
The point angle of a general purpose (standard) drill is

118°. This is the angle between the cutting edges (lips).
The angle varies according to the hardness of the material
to be drilled. (Fig 1)
Helix angle (Figs 2,3 and 4)
Rake angle is the angle of flute (helix angle).
Clearance angle (Fig 6)
4
The clearance angle is meant to prevent the friction of the Designation of drills
tool behind the cutting edge. This will help in the penetration
of the cutting edges into the material. If the clearance Twist drills are designated by the
angle is too much, the cutting edges will be weak, and if it
is too small, the drill will not cut. • Diameter
Chisel edge angle/web angle (Fig 7) • Tool type
• Material
Example
A twist drill of 9.50 mm dia. of tool type ‘H’ for right hand
cutting and made from HSS is designated as:
Twist drill 9.50 - H - IS5101 - HS
where H = tool type

IS5101 = IS Number
This is the angle between the chisel edge and the cutting HS = tool material
lip.
9.5 = diameter of the drill.
If the tool type is not indicated in the designation, it should

be taken as type ‘N’ tool.
DRILLS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Recommended drills
Material to be Point Helix angle Material to be Point Helix angle

drilled angle d=3.2-5 5-10 10- drilled angle d=3.5-5 5-
Steel and cast steel Copper (up to 30 mm

up to 70 kgf/mm2 drill diameter)
strength Al-alloys,forming
Gray cast iron curly chips
Malleable cast iron Celluloid
Brass
German silver, nickel.
Brass, CuZn 40 Austenitic steels

Magnesium alloys
Steel and cast steel Moulded plastics

70...120 Kgf/mm2 (with thickness s>d)
Moulded plastics,
with thickness s<d
Laminated plastics,
Stainless steel; hard rubber (ebonite)
Copper (drill diameter marble, slate, coal
more than 30 mm)
Al-alloy, forming
short broken chips
Zinc alloys
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 2.1.63 - 65
Fitter - Drilling
Drilling - Cutting speed, feed and r.p.m , drill holding devices

• define cutting speed
• state the factors for determining the cutting speed
• differentiate between cutting speed and rpm
• determine r.p.m/spindle speed
• select r.p.m for drill sizes from the tables.
For a drill to give a satisfactory performance, it must Cutting speed calculation

operate at the correct cutting speed and feed.
Cutting speed (V)
Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge
passes over the material while cutting, and is expressed
in metres per minute.
Cutting speed is also sometimes stated as surface speed n- r.p.m.

or peripheral speed.
v- Cutting speed in m/min.
The selection of the recommended cutting speed for drilling d- diameter of the drill in mm.
depends on the materials to be drilled,and the tool
material. = 3.14
Examples
Tool manufacturers usually provide a table of cutting
speeds required for different materials. Calculate the r.p.m for a high speed steel drill 24 to cut
mild steel.
The recommended cutting speeds for different materials
are given in the Table 1. Based on the cutting speed The cutting speed for mild steel is taken as 30 m/min from
recommended, the r.p.m, at which a drill has to be driven the table.
is determined.
TABLE 1
Recommendad cutting speeds
Materials being drilled (HSS Tool)

It is always preferable to set the spindle speed to the
Aluminium 70 - 100 nearest available lower range.
Brass 35 - 50
The r.p.m. will differ according to the diameter of the drills.
Bronze(phosphor) 20 - 35 The cutting speed being the same, larger diameter drills
Cast iron (grey) 25 - 40 will have lesser r.p.m and smaller diameter drills will have
higher r.p.m.
Copper 35 - 45
Steel (medium carbon/mild steel) 20 - 30 The recommended cutting speeds are achieved only by
actual experiment.
Steel (alloy, high tensile) 5-8
Thermosetting plastic (low speed
due to abrasive properties) 20 - 30
Feed in drilling
• state what is meant by feed
• state the factors that contribute to an efficient feed rate.
Feed is the distance (X) a drill advances into the work in Feed is expressed in hundredths of a millimeter.
one complete rotation. (Fig 1)
6
The table gives the feed rate which is based on the average
feed values suggested by the different manufacturers of
drills. (Table 1)
TABLE 1
Drill diameter Rate of feed

(mm) H.S.S (mm/rev)
1.0 - 2.5 0.040 - 0.060
2.6 - 4.5 0.050 - 0.100
4.6 - 6.0 0. 075 - 0.150
6.1 - 9.0 0.100 - 0.200
Example - 0.040mm/ rev 9.1 - 12.0 0.150 - 0.250
The rate of feed is dependant up on a number of factors. 12.1 - 15.0 0.200 - 0.300
15.1 - 18.0 0.230 - 0.330
• The finish required
18.1 - 21.0 0.260 - 0.360
• Type of drill (drill material)
21.1 - 25.0 0.280 - 0.380
• Material to be drilled
Too coarse a feed may result in damage to the cutting
Factors like rigidity of the machine, holding of the work- edges or breakage of the drill.
piece and the drill, will also have to be considered while
determining the feed rate. If these are not to the required Too slow a rate of feed will not bring improvement in surface
standard, the feed rate will have to be decreased. finish but may cause excessive wear of the tool point, and
lead to chattering of the drill.
It is not possible to suggest a particular feed rate taking
all the factors into account. For optimum results in the feed rate while
drilling, it is necessary to ensure the drill cutting
edges are sharp. Use the correct type of cutting
fluid.
Drill-holding devices
• name the different types of drill-holding devices
• state the features of drill chucks
• state the functions of drill sleeves
• state the function of drift.
For drilling holes on materials, the drills are to be held

accurately and rigidly on the machines.
The common drill-holding devices are drill chucks, sleeves

and sockets.
Drill chucks: Straight shank drills are held in drill chucks.

(Fig 1A) For fixing and removing drills, the chucks are
provided either with a pinion and key or a knurled ring.
The drill chucks are held on the machine spindle by means

of an arbor (Fig 1B) fitted on the drill chuck.
Taper sleeves and sockets (Fig 2): Taper shank drills

have a Morse taper.
Sleeves and sockets are made with the same taper so that
the taper shank of the drill, when engaged, will give a good
wedging action. Due to this reason Morse tapers are called
self-holding tapers.
Capital Goods & Manufacturing: Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) RT for Ex No. 2.1.63 - 65 7
In order to make up the difference in sizes between the
shanks of the drills and the bore of machine spindles,
sleeves of different sizes are used. When the drill taper
shank is bigger than the machine spindle, taper sockets
are used. (Fig 2)
While fixing the drill in a socket or sleeve, the tang portion

should align in the slot. This will facilitate the removal of the
drill or sleeve from the machine spindle.
Use a drift to remove drills and sockets from the machine

spindle. (Fig 3)
While removing the drill from the sockets/sleeves don’t

allow it to fall on the table or jobs.
The drills are provided with five different sizes of Morse
tapers, and are numbered from MT 1 to MT 5. Drill chucks are made from special alloy steel
Drill sleeves are made from case hardened
steel
8 Capital Goods & Manufacturing: Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) RT for Ex No. 2.1.63 - 65
Fitter - Drilling
Counter sinking
• state countersinking
• list the purposes of countersinking
• state the angles of countersinking for the different applications
• name the different types of countersinks
• distinguish between Type A and Type B counter sink holes.
What is countersinking? The commonly used countersinks have multiple cutting

edges and are available in taper shank and straight shank.
Countersinking is an operation of bevelling the end of a (Fig 2)
drilled hole. The tool used is called a countersink.
Countersinking is carried out for the following purposes:

• To provide a recess for the head of a countersink screw,
so that it is flush with the surface after fixing (Fig 1)
• To deburr a hole after drilling
• For accommodating countersink rivet heads For countersinking small diameter holes special
countersinks with two or one flute are available. This will
• To chamfer the ends of holes for thread cutting and other reduce the vibration while cutting.
machining processes.
Countersinks with Pilot (Fig 3)
Angles for countersinking
For precision countersinking, needed for machine tool
Countersinks are available in different angles for different
assembling and after machining process, countersinks
uses.
with pilots are used.
75° countersink riveting
They are particularly useful for heavy duty work.
80° countersink self tapping screws
The pilot is provided at the end for guiding the countersink
90° countersink head screws and deburring
concentric to the hole.
120° chamfering ends of holes to be threaded or other
Countersinks with pilots are available with interchangeable
machining processes.
and solid pilots.
Countersinks Countersink hole sizes
Countersinks of different types are available. The countersink holes according to Indian Standard IS
3406 (Part 1) 1986 are of four types: Type A, Type B, Type
C and Type E.
9
Type A is suitable for slotted countersink head screws,
cross recessed and slotted raised countersink head screws.
These screws are available in two grades i.e. medium and

fine.
The dimensions of various features of the Type 'A'

countersink holes, and the method of designation are given
in Table 1. (Fig 4 & 5)
Type 'B' countersink holes are suitable for countersink

head screws with hexagon socket.
The dimensions of the various features and the method of

designation are given in Table II. (Fig 6)
Type 'C' countersink holes are suitable for slotted raised

countersink (oval) head tapping screws and for slotted
countersink (flat) head tapping screws.
The dimension of the various features and the method of

designation are given in Table III. (Fig 7)
Type 'E' countersinks are used for slotted countersink

bolts used for steel structures.
The dimensions of the various features and the method of

designation are given in Table IV. (Fig 8)
Table I
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type A according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
Table I
For Nominal Size 1 1.2 (1.4) 1.6 (1.8) 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 (4.5)
Medium d1 H13 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.5 5
Series d2 H13 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.6 5.7 6.5 7.6 8.6 9.5
(m) t1 ³ 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.3
Fine d1 H12 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.8
Series d3 H12 2 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 5 6 7 8 9
(f) t1 ³ 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.7 2 2.2 2.4
t2 + 0.1 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.35 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.3
0
For Nominal Size 5 6 8 10 12 (14) 16 (18) 20
Medium d1 H13 5.5 6.6 9 11 13.5 15.5 17.5 20 22

Series d2 H13 10.4 12.4 16.4 20.4 23.9 26.9 31.9 36.4 40.4
(m) t1 ³ 2.5 2.9 3.7 4.7 5.2 5.7 7.2 8.2 9.2
Fine d1 H12 5.3 6.4 8.4 10.5 13 15 17 19 21
Series d3 H12 10 11.5 15 19 23 26 30 34 37
(f) t1 ³ 2.6 3 4 5 5.7 6.2 7.7 8.7 9.7
t2 + 0.1 0.2 0.45 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.2 1.2 1.7
0
Note 1 : Size shown in brackets are of second preference.

Note 2 : Clearance hole d1 according to medium and fine series of IS : 1821 ' Dimensions for
clearance holes for bolts and screws (second revision)'
Designation : A countersink Type A with clearance hole of fine (f) series and having nominal size 10 shall be designated
as – Countersink A f 10 - IS : 3406.
Table II
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type B according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
For Nominal Size 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 (14) 16 (18) 20 22 24
Fine d1 H12 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 8.4 10.5 13 15 17 19 21 23 25

Series d2 H12 6.3 8.3 10.4 12.4 16.5 20.5 25 28 31 34 37 48.2 52
(f) t1 ³ 1.7 2.4 2.9 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 13.1 14
t2 + 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1
Note 1: Sizes shown in brackets are of second preference.

Note 2: Clearance hole d1 according to medium and fine series of IS : 1821- 1982.
Designation : A countersink Type B with clearance hole of fine (f) series and having nominal size 10 shall be designated
as – Countersink B f 10 - IS : 3406.
Table III
Dimensions and designation of countersink - Type C according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
For Screw Size No. (0) (1) 2 (3) 4 (5) 6 (7) 8 10 (12) 14 (16)
d1 H12 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.2 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.7 8.4
d2 H12 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.2 8.1 8.7 10.1 11.4 13.2 16.6
t1 ³ 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.6 3 3.4 3.9 4.9
Note : Sizes given in brackets are of second preference.
Designation : A countersink Type C for screw size 2 shall be designated as – Countersink C 2 - IS : 3406.
Table IV
Dimension and designation of countersink - Type E according to IS 3406 (Part 1) 1986
For Nominal No. 10 12 16 20 22 24
d1 H12 10.5 13 17 21 23 25
d2 H12 19 24 31 34 37 40
t1 ³ 5.5 7 9 11.5 12 13
± 1° 75° 60°
Note: Clearance hole d1 according to fine series of IS : 1821 - 1982
Designation : A countersink Type E for nominal size 10 shall be designated as – Countersink E 10 - IS : 3406.
Methods of representing countersink holes in drawings

Countersink hole sizes are identified by code designation
or using dimension.(Fig 9 - 12)
Use of code designation
Use of dimension
The dimension of the countersink can be expressed by the
diameter of the countersink and the depth of the
countersink.
Counterboring and spot facing

• differentiate counterboring and spot facing
• state the types of counterbores and their uses
• determine the correct counterbore sizes for different holes.
Counterboring Counterbore (Tool)
Counterboring is an operation of enlarging a hole to a given The tool used for counterboring is called a counterbore.
depth, to house heads of socket heads or cap screws with (Fig 2) Counterbores will have two or more cutting edges.
the help of a counterbore tool. (Fig 1)
Spot facing
Spot facing is a machining operation for producing a flat

seat for bolt head, washer or nut at the opening of a drilled
hole. The tool is called a spot facer or a spot facing tool.
Spot facing is similar to counterboring, except that it is
shallower. Tools that are used for counterboring can be
used for spot facing as well. (Fig 4)
Spot facing is also done by fly cutters by end-cutting

action. The cutter blade is inserted in the slot of the holder,
which can be mounted on to the spindle. (Fig 5)
At the cutting end, a pilot is provided to guide the tool Counterbore sizes and specification
concentric to the previously drilled hole. The pilot also
helps to avoid chattering while counterboring. (Fig 3) Counterbore sizes are standardised for each diameter of
screws as per BIS.
There are two main types of counterbores. Type H and

Type K.
The type H counterbores are used for assemblies with

slotted cheese head, slotted pan head and cross recessed
pan head screws. The type K counterbores are used in
assemblies with hexagonal socket head capscrews.
For fitting different types of washers the counterbore

standards are different in Type H and Type K.
The clearance hole d1 are of two different grades i.e.

medium (m) and fine (f) and are finished to H13 and H12
Counterbores are available with solid pilots or with dimensions.
interchangeable pilots. The interchangeable pilot provides
flexibility of counterboring on different diameters of holes.
The table given below is a portion from IS 3406 (Part 2)
Dimensions for H and K Type counter bores
1986. This gives dimensions for Type H and Type K
counterbores. While representing counterbores in drawings, counterbores
can be indicated either by code designation or using the
Counterbore and Clearance Hole Sizes for Different Sizes
dimensions.
of Screws
Table - 1
For
Nominal size 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.5 3 (3.5) 4 5 6 8 10 12 (14) 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36
Medium (m) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.5 6.6 9 11 13.5 15.5 17.5 20 22 24 26 30 33 36 39
H13
d1
fine (f) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3 5.3 6.4 8.4 10.5 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 - - - -
H12
d2 H13 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 5 6 6.5 8 10 11 15 18 20 24 26 30 33 36 40 43 48 53 57
d3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15.5 17.5 19.5 22 24 26 28 33 36 39 42
Type H 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 1.6 2 2.4 2.9 3.2 4 4.7 6 7 8 9 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 - - - -
t1
Type K - - 1.6 1.8 - 2.3 2.9 3.4 - 4.6 5.7 6.8 9 11 13 15 17.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5 28.5 32 35 38
+0.1 +0.2 +0.4 +0.6

Tolerances 0 0 0 0
Note : Sizes given in brackets are of second preference. For details refer IS : 3406 (Part2) 1986.
Using code designation (Fig 7) Using dimensions (Fig 8)
Fitter - Drilling
Reamers
• state the use of reamers
• state the advantages of reaming
• distinguish between hand and machine reaming
• name the elements of a reamer and state their functions.
What is a reamer? Reaming by using hand reamers is done manually for

which great skill is needed.
A reamer is a multipoint cutting tool used for enlarging by
finishing previously drilled holes to accurate sizes. (Fig 1)
Machine reamers are fitted on spindles of machine tools
and rotated for reaming.
Machine reamers are provided with morse taper shanks for

holding on machine spindles.
Hand reamers have straight shanks with ‘square’ at the

end, for holding with tap wrenches. (Figs 2 (a) and (b)
Parts of a hand reamer
The parts of a hand reamer are listed hereunder. Refer to

Fig 3.
Advantages of ‘reaming’
Reaming produces
• High quality surface finish

• Dimensional accuracy to close limits.
• Also small holes which cannot be finished by other
processes can be finished.
Classification of reamers
Reamers are classified as hand reamers and machine
reamers. (Figs 2a and 2b)
Axis
The longitudinal centre line of the reamer.
Body
The portion of the reamer extending from the entering end

of the reamer to the commencement of the shank.
Recess
The portion of the body which is reduced in diameter below

the cutting edges, pilot or guide diameters.
16
Shank Cutting edge
The portion of the reamer which is held and driven. It can The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the
be parallel or taper. circular land or the surface left by the provision of primary
clearance. (Fig 4)
Circular land
Face
The cylindrically ground surface adjacent to the cutting
edge on the leading edge of the land. The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting edge
on which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
Bevel lead (Fig 4)
The bevel lead cutting portion at the entering end of the Rake angles
reamer cutting its way into the hole. It is not provided with
a circular land. The angles in a diametral plane formed by the face and a
radial line from the cutting edge. (Fig 5)
Taper lead
The tapered cutting portion at the entering end to facilitate

cutting and finishing of the hole. It is not provided with a
circular land.
Bevel lead angle
The angle formed by the cutting edges of the bevel lead and
the reamer axis.
Taper lead angle
The angle formed by the cutting edges of the taper and the
reamer axis.
Terms relating to cutting geometry
Flutes
Clearance angle
The grooves in the body of the reamer to provide cutting The angles formed by the primary or secondary clearances
edges, to permit the removal of chips, and to allow the and the tangent to the periphery of the reamer at the cutting
cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges. (Fig 4) edge. They are called primary clearance angle and secondary
clearance angle respectively. (Fig 6)
Helix angle
Heel The angle between the edge and the reamer axis. (Fig 7)
The edge formed by the intersection of the surface left by
the provision of a secondary clearance and the flute.
(Fig 4)
Hand reamers
• state the general features of hand reamers
• identify the types of hand reamers
• distinguish between the uses of straight fluted and helical fluted reamers
• name the materials from which reamers are made and specify reamers.
General features of hand reamers (Fig 1)
Parallel hand reamer with parallel shank (Fig 4a)
A reamer which has virtually parallel cutting edges with taper

and bevel lead. The body of the reamer is integral with a
Hand reamers are used to ream holes manually using tap shank. The shank has the nominal diameter of the cutting
wrenches. edges. One end of the shank is square shaped for tuning it
These reamers have a long taper lead.(Fig 2) This allows to with a tap wrench. Parallel reamers are available with
start the reamer straight and in alignment with the hole straight and helical flutes. This is the commonly used hand
being reamed. reamer for reaming holes with parallel sides.
Reamers commonly used in workshop produce H7 holes.
Hand reamer with pilot (Fig 4b)
Most hand reamers are for right hand cutting.
Helical fluted hand reamers have left hand helix. The left
hand helix will produce smooth cutting action and finish.
Most reamers, machine or hand, have uneven spacing of

teeth. This feature of reamers helps to reduce chattering
while reaming. (Fig 3) For this type of reamer, a portion of the body is cylindrically
ground to form a pilot at the entering end. The pilot keeps
Types, features and functions the reamer concentric with the hole being reamed.
Hand reamers with different features are available for

meeting different reaming conditions. The commonly used
types are listed here under:
Socket reamer with parallel shank (Figs 5a and 5b)
This reamer has tapered cutting edges to suit metric morse

tapers. The shank is integral with the body, and is square
shaped for driving. The flutes are either straight or helical.
The socket reamer is used for reaming internal morse

tapered holes.
Taper pin hand reamer (Fig 5c)
Material of hand reamers

When the reamers are made as a one-piece
construction, high speed steel is used. When
they are made as two-piece construction then
the cutting portion is made of high speed steel
while the shank portion is made of carbon
steel. They are butt-welded together before
manufacturing.
Specifications of a reamer
To specify a reamer the following data is to be given.

This reamer has tapered cutting edges for reaming taper
holes to suit taper pins. A taper pin reamer is made with a • Type
taper of 1 in 50. These reamers are available with straight • Flute
or helical flutes.
• Shank end
Use of straight and helical fluted reamers (Fig 6) • Size
Straight fluted reamers are useful for general reaming work. Example : Hand reamer, Straight flute, Parallel shank of
Helical fluted reamers are particularly suitable for reaming Ø 20 mm.
holes with keyway grooves or special lines cut into them.
The helical flutes will bridge the gap and reduce binding and
chattering.
Drill size for reaming

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• determine the hole size for reaming.
For reaming with a hand or a machine reamer, the hole Drill size = Reamed size – (Undersize + Oversize)
drilled should be smaller than the reamer size.
Finished size
The drilled hole should have sufficient metal for finishing
with the reamer. Excessive metal will impose a strain on Finished size is the diameter of the reamer.
the cutting edge of the reamer and damage it.
Undersize
Calculating drill size for reamer Undersize is the recommended reduction in size for
different ranges of drill diameter. (Table 1)
A method generally practised in workshop is by applying
the following formula.
Table 1
Note: If the reamed hole is undersize, the cause
Undersizes for reaming is that the reamer is worn out.
Diameter of Undersize of Always inspect the condition of the reamer before

ready reamed rough bored commencing reaming.
hole (mm) hole (mm)
For obtaining good surface finish
under 5 0.1.....0.2
Use a coolant while reaming. Remove metal
5......20 0.2.....0.3
chips from the reamer frequently. Advance the
21....50 0.3.....0.5 reamer slowly into the work.
over 50 0.5.....1
Defects in reaming - Causes and Remedies
Oversize
• Reamed hole undersize
It is generally considered that a twist drill will make a hole
- If a worn out reamer is used, it may result in the
larger than its diameter. The oversize for calculation
reamed hole bearing undersize. Do not use such
purposes is taken as 0.05 mm - for all diameters of drills.
reamers.
For light metals the undersize will be chosen 50% larger. - Always inspect the condition of the reamer before
using.
Example
• Surface finish rough
A hole is to be reamed on mild steel with a 10 mm reamer.
What will be the diameter of the drill for drilling the hole - The causes may be any one of the following or a
before reaming? combinations thereof.
- Incorrect application
Drill size = Reamed size – (Undersize + Oversize)
- Swarf accumulated in reamer flutes
(Finished size) = 10 mm
- Inadequate flow of coolant
Undersize as per
- Feed rate too fast
table = 0.2 mm
- While reaming apply a steady and slow feed-rate.
Oversize = 0.05 mm
- Ensure a continuous supply of the coolant.
Drill size = 10 mm -- 0.25 mm
- Do not turn the reamer in the reverse direction.
= 9.75 mm
Determining the drill size for reaming
Determine the drill hole sizes for the following reamers:
Use the formaula,
i 15 mm
ii 4 mm drill diameter = reamed hole size. (undersize + oversize)
iii 40 mm
Refer to the Table 1 for the recommended undersizes in
iv 19 mm Related Theory on DRILL SIZES FOR REAMING.
Answer
i _________________________________________
ii _________________________________________
iii _________________________________________
iv _________________________________________
Reaming
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the procedure for hand reaming and machine reaming.
Reaming
Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a hole

which has been previously drilled, bored, casteed holes.
The tool used is called a reamer, which has multiple cut-
ting edges. Manually it is held in a tap wrench and reamed.
Machine reamer are used in drilling machine using sleeves
(or) socket. Normally the speed for reaming will be 1/3rd
speed of drilling.
Hand Reaming
Drill holes for reaming as per the sizes determined.

Do not turn in reverse direction it will scratch the reamed
Place the work on parallels while setting on hole. (Fig 4)
the machine vice. (Fig 1)
Ream the hole through, ensure that the taper lead length
of the reamer comes out well and clear from the bottom of
Chamfer the hole ends slightly. This removes burrs and the work. Do not allow the end of the reamer to strike on
will also help to align the reamer vertically. (Fig 2) Fix the the vice.
work in the bench vice. Use vice clamps to protect the
finished surfaces. Ensure that the job is horizontal. (Fig 2) Remove the reamer with an upward pull until the reamer is
clear of the hole. (Fig 5)
Fix the tap wrench on the square end and place the reamer
vertically in the hole. Check the alignment with a try square. Remove the burrs from the bottom of the reamed hole.
Make corrections, If necessary. Turn the tap wrench in a
clockwise direction applying a slight downward pressure Clean the hole. Check the accuracy with the cylindrical
at the same time. (Fig 3) Apply pressure evenly at both pins supplied.
ends of the tap wrench.
Apply cutting force
Turn the tap wrench steadily and slowly, maintaining the

downward pressure.
Fitter - Drilling
Screw thread and elements

• state the terminology of screw threads
• state the types of screw threads.
Screw thread terminology

Parts of screw thread (Fig 1)
Minor Diameter
For external threads, the minor diameter is the smallest

Crest
diameter after cutting the full thread. In the case of internal
The top surface joining the two sides of a thread. threads, it is the diameter of the hole drilled for forming the
thread which is the minor diameter.
Root
Pitch Diameter (effective diameter)
The bottom surface joining the two sides of adjacent
threads. The diameter of the thread at which the thread thickness is
equal to one half of the pitch.
Flank
Pitch
The surface joining the crest and the root.
It is the distance from a point on one thread to a correspond
Thread angle ing point on the adjacent thread measured parallel to the
axis.
The included angle between the flanks of adjacent threads.
Lead
Depth
Lead is the distance of a threaded component moves along
The perpendicular distance between the roots and crest of the matching component during one complete revolution.
the thread. For a single start thread the lead is equal to the pitch.
Major Diameter Helix Angle
In the case of external threads it is the diameter of the The angle of inclination of the thread to the imaginary
blank on which the threads are cut and in the case of perpendicular line.
internal threads it is the largest diameter after the threads
are cut that are known as the major diameter. (Fig 2) Hand
This is the diameter by which the sizes of screws are The direction in which the thread is turned to advance. A
stated. right hand thread is turned clockwise to advance, while a
left hand thread is turned anticlockwise.( Fig 3)
22
Screw threads - types of V threads and their uses
• state the different standards of V threads
• indicate the angle and the relation between the pitch with the other elements of the thread
• state the uses of the different standards of V threads.
The different standards of V threads are: BSF thread
- BSW thread: British Standard Whitworth thread
This thread is similar to BSW thread except the number of
- BSF thread: British Standard fine thread TPI for a particular diameter. The number of threads per
inch is more than that for the BSW thread for a particular
- BSP thread: British Standard pipe thread
diameter. For Example, 1” BSW has 8 TPI and 1 “BSF has
- B.A thread: British Association thread 10 TPI. The table indicates the standard number of TPI for
different dia. of BSF threads. It is used in automobile
- I.S.O Metric thread: International Standard Organisation
industries.
metric thread
- ANS: American National or sellers’ thread BSP thread
- BIS Metric thread: Bureau of Indian Standard metric
This thread is recommended for pipe and pipe fittings. The
thread.
table shows the pitch for different diameters. It is also
similar to BSW thread. The thread is cut externally with a
BSW thread (Fig 1)
small taper for the threaded length. This avoids the leakage
in the assembly and provides for further adjustment when
slackness is felt.
BA thread (Fig 2)
It has an included angle of 55° and the depth of the thread

is 0.6403 x P. The crest and root are rounded off to a
definite radius . The Fig 1 shows the relationship between
the pitch and the other elements of the thread.
BSW thread is represented in a drawing by giving the major

diameter. For example : 1/2” BSW, 1/4” BSW. The table This thread has an included angle of 47 1/2°. Depth and
indicates the standard number of TPI for different diameters. other elements are as shown in the figure. It is used in small
BSW thread is used for general purpose fastening threads. screws of electrical appliances, watch screws, screws of
scientific apparatus.
Unified thread (Fig 3) For the fine series, the letter ‘M’ is followed by the major
diameter and pitch.
For both the metric and inch series, ISO has developed this
Ex : M14 x 1.5
thread. Its angle is 60°. The crest and root are flat and the
other dimensions are as shown in the Fig 3. This thread is
M24 x 2
used for general fastening purposes.
American National Thread (Fig 4)
These threads are also called as seller’s threads. It was
more commonly used prior to the introduction of the ISO
unified thread.
This thread of metric standard is represented in a drawing

by the letter ‘M’ followed by the major diameter for the
coarse series.
Ex : M14, M12 etc.
Screw pitch gauge

• state the purpose of a screw pitch gauge
• state the features of a screw pitch gauge.
Purpose The thread profile on each blade is cut for about 25 mm to

30 mm. The pitch of the blade is stamped on each blade.
A screw pitch gauge is used to determine the pitch of a The standard and range of the pitches are marked on the
thread. case. (Fig 1)
It is also used to compare the profile of threads.
Constructional features
Pitch gauges are available with a number of blades

assembled as a set. Each blade is meant for checking a
particular standard thread pitch. The blades are made of
thin spring steel sheets, and are hardened.
Some screw pitch gauge sets will have blades provided for
checking British Standard threads (BSW, BSF etc.) at one
end and the metric standard at the other end.
Taps
• state the uses of hand taps
• state the features of hand taps
• distinguish between the different taps in a set.
Use of hand taps: Hand taps are used for internal Features (Fig 1): They are made from high speed steel.
threading of components.
The threads are cut on the periphery and are accurately
finished.
To form the cutting edges, flutes are cut across the thread.
The end of the shank of the tap is made of square shape for
the purpose of holding and turning the taps.
The end of the taps are chamfered (taper lead) for assisting,
aligning and starting of the thread.
The size of the taps, the thread standard, the pitch of the
thread, the dia. of the tapping hole are usually marked on
the shank.
Marking on the shank are also made to indicate the type

of tap i.e. first, second and plug.
The taper tap is to start the thread. It is possible to form full
Types of taps in a set : Hand taps for a particular thread threads by the taper tap in through holes which are not
are available as a set consisting of three pieces. (Fig 2) deep.
These are: The bottoming tap (plug) is used to finish the threads of a
blind hole to the correct depth.
– First tap or taper tap
For identifying the type of taps quickly - the taps are either
– Second tap or intermediate tap numbered 1,2 and 3 or rings are marked on the shank.
– Plug or bottoming tap.
The taper tap has one ring, the intermediate tap has two
These taps are identical in all features except in the and the bottoming tap has three rings. (Fig 2)
tap lead.
Table for tap drill size
B.S.W. (55°) B.S.F. (55°)
Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill
(inch) inch size (mm) (inch) inch size (mm)
3/16 24 3.7mm 3/16 32 3.97mm

7/32 24 4.5mm 7/32 28 4.6mm
1/4 20 5.1mm 1/4 26 5.3mm
5/16 18 6.5mm 5/16 22 6.75mm
3/8 16 7.94mm 3/8 20 8.2mm
7/16 14 9.3mm 7/16 18 9.7mm
1/2 12 10.5mm 1/2 16 11.11mm
9/16 12 12.1mm 9/16 16 12.7mm
5/8 11 13.5mm 5/8 14 14mm
11/16 11 15mm 11/16 14 15.5mm
3/4 10 16.257mm 3/4 12 16.75mm
7/8 9 19.25mm 7/8 11 19.84mm
1” 8 22mm 1” 10 22.75mm
NPT National pipe thread
Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill size
(inch) inch size inch (inch) inch inch
1/8 27 11/32 1 11 1/2 1 5/32
1/4 18 7/16 1 1/4 11 1/4 1 1/2
3/8 18 19/32 1 1/2 11 1/2 1 23/32
1/2 14 23/32 2 11 1/2 2 23/16
3/4 14 15/16 2 1/2 8 2 5/8
Tap drill sizes ISO Inch (Unified) thread
NC National coarse NF National Fine

Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill size
(inch) inch size inch (inch) inch inch
1/4 20 13/64 1/4 28 7/32
5/16 18 17/64 5/16 24 17/64
3/8 16 5/16 3/8 24 21/64
7/16 14 3/8 7/16 20 25/64
1/2 13 27/64 1/2 20 29/64
9/16 12 31/64 9/16 18 33/64
5/8 11 17/32 5/8 18 37/64
3/4 10 21/32 3/4 16 11/16
7/8 9 49/64 7/8 14 13/16
1” 8 7/8 1” 14 15/16
1 1/8 7 63/64 1 1/8 12 1 3/6
1 1/4 7 17/64 1 1/4 12 1 11/6
1 3/8 6 17/32 1 3/8 12 1 19/64
1 1/2 6 1 11/32 1 1/2 12 1 27/64
1 3/4 5 1 9/16
2” 4 1/2 1 25/32
Machine taps
• state the characteristics of machine taps
• name the different types of machine taps
• state the features and uses of different types of machine taps.
Machine taps: Machine taps of different types are available. Flute-less taps are used for tapping through holes on
The two important features of machine taps are materials which are not thicker than the diameter of the
holes. Flutless spiral point taps are best suited for tapping
– Ability to withstand the torque needed for threading soft materials or thin metal sections.
holes
Helical fluted taps/spiral fluted taps: These taps have
– Provision for eliminating chip jamming.
spiral flutes which bring out the chips from the hole being
Types of machine taps tapped. (Fig 4)
Gun tap (Spiral pointed tap) (Fig 1)
These are useful for tapping holes with slots. The helical
land of the tap will bridge the interruption of the surface
These taps are especially useful for machine tapping of being threaded. The helical flutes of the tap provide a shear
through holes. In the case of blind hole tapping, there cutting action, and are mostly used to tap holes in ductile
should be sufficient space below to accommodate the materials like aluminium, brass, copper etc.
chips. While tapping, the chips are forced out ahead of the
tap. (Fig 2) Spiral fluted taps are also available with fast spiral. (Fig 5)
These taps are best suited for tapping deep holes as these
can clear the chips faster from the hole. (Fig 6)
This prevents the clogging of the chips and thus reduces

the chances of tap breakage. These taps are stronger
since the flutes are shallow. The flutes of these taps do not
convey chips.
Flute-less spiral pointed tap (Stub flute taps) (Fig 3):

Thread forming taps (Fluteless taps)
These taps form threads in the hole by displacing the

material and not by cutting action. (Fig 7)
These taps have short angular flutes ground on the chamfered

end, and the rest of the body is left solid. These taps are
stronger than gun taps.
These taps have projecting lobes which actually help in
forming the thread. (Fig 8) Since there are no chips in the
process, it is very valuable in places where chip removal
poses problems. These taps are excellent for tapping
copper, brass, aluminium, lead etc. The thread finish is
also comparatively better than in the fluted taps.
General informative points on taps

• differentiate between hand tap and machine tap
• identify the parts of a machine tap
• state the constructional features of a machine tap.
Unlike tapping with the three piece set of hand taps, the Accordingly three types of taps are available.
machine tap cuts the entire threaded profile in one operation.
The machine tap is normally made of tool steel and Type normal (Fig 3b ) with a rake angle of approximately
consists of the shank (2) and the cutting section (1) as 12°.
shown in (Fig 1). The cutting section itself is subdivided
into two areas. The start (3), which serves for cutting, and Type soft (Fig 3c) with a rake angle of approximately 20°.
the guiding section (4) for the feeding motion and smoothing
of the newly cut thread. (Fig 1) Type hard (Fig 3a) with a rake angle of approximately 3°.
The number of flutes (5), may be even or odd. With an even

number of flutes, measuring of the diameter (7) is easier. The normal type of rake angle taps can be used in most
(Figs 2a and 2b) cases. The start must be ground symmetrical. Before
using the tap, it is necessary to check that the cutting
edges are not chipped, and all the edges are sharp.
The ‘hard’ type tap is used for tapping brittle materials like
cast iron. In case a ‘normal’ type tap is used on cast iron,
the tap cutting edges get blunt soon and the tap cannot be
used again on ductile materials like mild steel. The fine
cast iron splinters wear the external diameter of the cutting
edges of the tap causing them to tend to become blunt, and
when the same tap is used on steel which is more flexible
it is elastically pressed away (8) at the cutting point.
Straight and spiral groove machine taps are available. The Behind the cutting edge the material returns to the machined
diameter of the shank and the shape of its end vary between diameter. The depth of the groove also causes jamming of
the various standards. The shank diameter may be the guiding section of the tap. (Fig 4)
smaller, equal to or larger than the thread diameter. The
shank ends are available in straight design, with square
ends as shown in (6) or with driving shoulders.
Chip removal (flow) takes place at the start of the tap. The
rake angle must be adapted to the material to be machined.
Hard and brittle materials require a small rake angle and
soft materials need a larger rake angle.
Pipe Threads and Pipe Taps
• state parallel and taper pipes threads
• determine the wall thickness and threads per inch (TPI) of BSP threads
• state the method of sealing pipe joints
• determine blank sizes for threading as per B.S 21 - 1973 and I.S. 2643 - 1964.
Pipe threads
The standard pipe fittings are threaded to British Standard
pipe (BSP). The internal pipe threads have parallel threads
whereas the external pipes have tapered threads as shown
in Fig 1.
The pipe joint shown in Fig 4 consists of the following:
1 Parallel female thread

2 Tapered male thread
3 Hemp packing
The hamp packing isused to ensure that any small space

between two metal threads (male and female threads) is
sealed to prevent any leakage.
B.S.P. threads
Glavinized iron pipes are available in sizes ranging from
1/2” to 6” in several different wall thickness. The table 1
shows outside diameters and threads per inch from
1/2” to 4”. (Fig 2)
Table 1
BSP - Pipe sizes Threads Outside diameter/
or DIN 2999 inch mm of the pipe (A)
(inside) (B)
1/2” 14 20.955 mm
3/4” 14 26.441
1” 11 33.249
The next two threads have fully formed bottoms but that
tops. (B) 11/4” 11 41.910
The last four threads have flat tops and bottoms. (C) 11/2” 11 47.803
2” 11 59.614
Sealing pipe joint
2 1/2” 8 75.184
Fig 3 shows that the pipe has several fully formed threads
3” 8 87.884
at the end. (A)
4” 8 113.030
Pipe taps In gauging internal pipe threads, the pipe plug thread gauge
should be screwed tight by hand into the pipe until the
Internal pipe threads are usually cut with standard taper notch on the gauge is flush with the face. When the thread
pipe taps. (Fig 5) is chamfered the notch should be flushed with the bottom
of the chamfer. (Fig 6)
Fitter - Drilling
Tap wrenches, removal of broken tap, studs

• name the different types of tap wrenches
• state the uses of the different types of wrenches.
Tap wrenches These are small, adjustable chucks with two jaws and a
handle to turn the wrench.
Tap wrenches are used to align and drive the hand taps
correctly into the hole to be threaded. This tap wrench is useful to work in restricted places, and
is turned with one hand only. Most suitable for smaller
Tap wrenches are of different types, such as double-ended sizes of taps.
adjustable wrench, T- handle tap wrench, solid type tap
wrench etc. Solid type tap wrench (Fig 3)
Double - ended adjustable tap wrench or bar type tap

wrench (Fig 1)
This is the most commonly used type of tap wrench. It is These wrenches are not adjustable.
available in various sizes- 175, 250,350mm long. These tap
wrenches are more suitable for large diameter taps, and They can take only certain sizes of taps. This eliminates
can be used in open places where there is no obstruction the use of wrong length of the tap wrenches, and thus
to turn the tap. prevents damage to the taps.
It is important to select the correct size of wrench. Material

Made from a single piece of solid Cast iron (or) steel. Cast
T- handle tap wrench (Fig 2)
iron and steel are used because of strong, durable and
unlikely to deform under pressure.
Removing broken taps

• name the different methods of removing broken taps
• state the methods of removing broken taps.
A tap broken above the surface of the workpiece can be Use of tap extractor (Fig 1)
removed using using gripping tools like pliers.
This is a very delicate tool and need very careful handling.
Taps broken below the surface pose a problem for removing.
Any one of the several methods given below can be used.
32
Use of arc welding
This is a suitable method when a small tap is broken at the

bottom of materials like copper, aluminium etc. In this
method the electrode is brought in contact with the broken
tap and stuck so that it is attached with the broken tap. The
This extractor has fingers which can be inserted on the tap may be removed by rotating the electrode.
flutes of the broken tap. The sliding collar is then brought
to the surface of the work and the extractor turned Use of nitric acid
anticlockwise to take out the broken tap.
In this method nitric acid is diluted in a proportion of about
A light blow on the broken tap with a punch will help to one part acid to five parts of water is injected inside. The
relieve the tap if it is jammed inside the hole. action of the acid loosens the tap and then it is removed
with an extractor or with a nose plier. The workpiece should
Use of punch (Fig 2) be thoroughly cleaned for preventing further action of the
acid.
In this method the point of the punch is placed in the flute
of the broken tap in an inclination and struck with a hammer
While diluting acid mix acid to water.
the positioning of the punch should be such that the broken
tap is rotated anticlockwise when struck. Use of spark erosion
For salvaging certain precision components damaged due

to breakage of taps, spark erosion can be used. In this
process, the metal (broken tap ) is removed by means of
repetitive spark discharges. The electrical discharge occurs
between an electrode and the electro - conductive workpiece
(tap) and the minute particles are eroded both from the
electrode and the workpiece. In many cases it may not be
necessary to remove the broken tap completely. ( After a
small portion has been eroded, a screwdriver or punch
can be used to remove the remaining portion of the tap.) The
shape of the electrode also need not be round. It can be for
assisting the tools for rotaing the broken tap.
Annealing and drilling the tap
This is a method adopted when other method fail. In the

process the broken tap is heated by flame or by other
methods for annealing. A hole is then drilled on the
annealed tap. The remaining piece can be removed either
by using a drift or using an EZY - OUT (extractor). This
method is not suitable for workpieces with low melting
temperatures such as aluminium, copper etc. (Fig 3)
Capital Goods & Manufacturing : Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) RT for Ex No. 2.1.70 33
Removing broken stud
• state the reasons for breakage of stud
• state different methods for removing broken stud.
The stud is used in place of a bolt ,when there is insufficient

space to accomodate the bolt head or to avoid use of an
unnecessarily long bolt. Studs are generally used to fix up
cover plates or to connect cylinder covers to engine
cylinders.
Reasons for breakage of stud/bolt.
Excessive torque is applied while screwing the stud into

the hole.
Corrosive attack on the thread.
Matching threads are not of proper formation.
Threads are seized.
Methods of removing broken studs
Prick punch method
If the stud is broken very near to the surface, drive it in an

anticlockwise direction, using a prick punch and hammer
to remove it. (Fig 1)
EZY - out method (Fig 4)

Ezy - out or a stud extactor is a hand tool, somewhat
similar to the form of a taper reamer but has left hand spiral.
It is available in a set of 5 pieces. The recommended drill
size is punched on each ezy - out .
After drilling the hole recommended ezy - out is set on it

and turned in an anti - clockwise direction by a tap wrench.
As it is rotated it penetrates into the hole increasing its grip
and in the process the broken stud gets unscrewed.
(Fig 4)
Filing square form

When the stud is broken a lilttle above the surface form a
square on the projecting portion to suit a standard spanner.
Then turn it anticlockwise using a spanner to remove it.
(Fig 2)
Using square taper punch
Broken stud can also be removed by drilling a blind hole

(hole diameter equals to half of stud diameter) and driving
a square taper punch into the hole as shown in Fig 3. Turn
the punch using a suitable spanner in an anti - clockwise
direction to unscrew the stud.
Making drill hole If all other method fail, drill a hole equal to the size of the
stud size or a little over and tap the hole with an oversize
Correctly find out the centre of the broken stud and drill hole tap.Now a special over size stud as shown in Fig 6 is to be
nearly equal to the core diameter of the stud down the made and fitted in position.
centre so that the threads only remain. Remove the thread
portion by the point of a scriber in the form of broken chips.
Re - tap the drill the hole to clear the threads. (Fig 5)
Fitter - Drilling
Dies and die stock

• identify the different types of dies
• state the features of each type of die
• state the use of each type of die
• name the type of diestock for each type of die.
Uses of dies
Threading dies are used to cut external threads on cylindrical

workpieces. (Fig 1)
FIN217113
Half die (Fig 4)
FIN217111
Types of dies
The folowing are the different types of dies.
FIN217114
• Circular split die (Button die)
• Half die
• Adjustable screw plate die Half dies are stronger in construction.
Circular split die/button die (Fig 2) Adjustments can be made easily to increase or decrease
the depth of cut.
These dies are available in matching pairs and should be

used together.
By adjusting the screw of the diestock, the die pieces can

be brought closer together or can be moved apart.
FIN217112
They need a special die holder.
Adjustable screw plate die (Fig 5)

This has a slot cut to permit slight variation in size.
This is another type of a two piece die similar to the half die.
Dies are made of high speed steel
This provides greater adjustment than the split die.
When held in the diestock, variation in the size can be
made by using the adjusting screws. This permits increasing The two die halves are held securely in a collar by means
or decreasing of the depth of cut. When the side screws are of a threaded plate (guide plate) which also acts as a guide
tightened the die will close slightly. (Fig 3) For adjusting the while threading.
depth of the cut, the centre screw is advanced and locked
in the groove. T his type or die stock is called button pattern When the guide plate is tightened after placing the die
stock pieces in the collar, the die pieces are correctly located and
rigidly held.
36
The bottom of the die halves is tapered to provide the lead
for starting the thread. On one side of each die head, the
serial number is stamped.
Both pieces should have the same serial numbers.
Die Nut (Solid Die) (Fig 7)
FIN217117
The die nut is used for chasing or reconditioning the
FIN217115
damged threads.
Die nuts are not to be used for cutting new

threads.
The die pieces can be adjusted, using the adjusting screws
on the collar. This type of die stock used is called quick cut The die nuts are available for different standards and sizes
diestock. (Fig 6) of threads.
The die nut is turned with a spanner.

FIN217116
Blank size for external threading

• determine the diameter of blank size for external thread cutting.
Why should the blank size be less? Formula, D = d - p/10
It has been observed from practice that the threaded = 12mm - 0.175mm
diameters of steel blanks show a slight increase in
= 11.825 or 11.8 mm.
diameter. such increase in the diameter will make assembly
of external and internal threaded components very difficult. d = diameter of bolt
To overcome this, the diameter of the blank is slightly
D = the blank diameter
reduced before commencing the threading.
p = pitch of thread
What should be the blank size?
Calculate the blank size for preparing a bolt of M16 x1.5?
The diameter of the blank should be less by 1/10th of the
pitch of the thread. Answer
Example .........................................................
For cutting the thread of M12 with 1.75mm pitch the .........................................................
diameter of the blank is 11.80.
.........................................................
External threading using dies
• cut external threads using dies.
Check blank size. Procedure
Blank size = Threads size -0.1 × pitch of thread Fix the die in the diestock and place the leading side of the
die opposite to the step of the diestock. (Figs 1a & 1b)
Use false jaws for ensuring a good grip in the

vice.
Project the blank above the vice - just the
required thread length only.
Place the leading side of the die on the chamfer of the work
(Fig 2)
Make sure that the die is fully open by tightening the centre
screw of the diestock. (Fig 3)
Start the die, square to the bolt centre line. (Fig 4)
Apply pressure on the diestock evenly and turn clockwise
direction to advance the die on the bolt blank. (Fig 5) Use a cutting lubricant.
Increase the depth of the cut gradually by adjusting the

outer screws.
Check the thread with a matching nut.
Repeat the cutting until the nut matches.
Too much depth of cut at one time will spoil the

threads. It can also spoil the die.
Clean the die frequently to prevent the chips
from clogging and spoiling the thread.
Cut slowly and reverse the die for a short distance in order
to break the chips
Fitter - Drilling
Drill troubles - Causes and remedy, drill kinds

• state the common drilling defects
• identify the causes of drilling defects
• suggest remedial steps for preventing drill failures.
The common defects in drilling are listed below.

• Oversized holes
• Overheated drills
• Rough holes
• Unequal and interrupted flow of chips
• Split webs or broken drills

Oversized holes
Oversized holes can be due to:

• The unequal length of the cutting edges (Fig 1)
Overheated drills
The drills may get overheated if the:
• The unequal angle of the cutting edges (Fig 2) • Cutting speed is too high
• Feed rate is too high
• Clearance angle is incorrect
• Cooling is ineffective
• Point angle is incorrect
• Drill is not sharp.
Rough holes
Rough holes are caused if the:
• Feed rate is too much

• The unequal thinning of the point (Fig 3)
• Drill cutting edges are not sharp
• The spindle running out of centre
• Cooling is ineffective.
• The drill point not being in centre. (Fig 4)
40
Unequal flow of chips (Fig 5 ) Broken drill or split web
Unequal flow of chips is caused if the cutting edges are
Broken drill or split web occurs when the:
not equal and the point angle is not in the centre of the
drill.
• Cutting speed is too high
• Feed rate is too high
• Work is not held rigidly
• Drill is not held correctly
• Drill is not sharp
• Point angle is incorrect
• Cooling is insufficient
• Flutes are clogged with chips.
Letter and number drills

• state the range of drill sizes in number and letter drill series
• determine the number and letter drills for given diameters referring to the chart.
Generally drills are manufactured to standard sizes in the

metric system. These drills, are available in specified Diameter
steps. The drills, which are not covered under the above Letter Inches mm
category, are manufactured in number and letter drills.
H .266 6.756
These drills are used where odd sizes of holes are to be
drilled. I .272 6.909
J .277 7.036
Letter drills:
K .281 7.137
The letter drill series consists of drill sizes from ‘A’ to ‘Z’. L .290 7.366
The letter ‘A’ drill is the smallest with 5.944 mm diameter,
and the letter ‘Z’ is the largest, with a 10.490 mm diameter. M .295 7.493
(Table 1) N .302 7.671
Table 1 O .316 8.026
Letter drill sizes P .323 8.204

Q .332 8.433
Diameter
R .339 8.611
Letter Inches mm
S .348 8.839
A .234 5.944 T .358 9.093
B .238 6.045 U .368 9.347
C .242 6.147 V .377 9.576
D .246 6.248 W .386 9.804
E .250 6.35 X .397 10.084
F .257 6.528 Y .404 10.262
G .261 6.629 Z .413 10.490
H .266 6.756
In the number drill and the letter drill series, the correct
I .272 6.909 diameter of the drill is gauged with the help of the respective
J .277 7.036 drill gauges. A drill gauge is a rectangular or square shaped
metal piece containing a number of different diameter
K .281 7.137 holes. The size of the hole is stamped against each hole.
L .290 7.366 (Fig 1)
Diameter
No.
Inches mm
17 .173 4.394
18 .1695 4.305
19 .166 4.216
20 .161 4.089
21 .159 4.039
22 .157 3.988
23 .154 3.912
24 .152 3.861
25 .1495 3.797
26 .147 3.734
27 .144 3.658
28 .1405 3.569
Number drills:
29 .136 3.454
The number drill series consists of drills numbered from 1
30 .1285 3.264
to 80. The No.1 drill is the largest, with 5.791 mm diameter,
and the No.80 drill is the smallest, with 0.35 mm diameter. 31 .120 3.048
(Table 2). There is no uniform variation in the drill diameters
32 .116 2.946
from number to number. To find the correct diameter of a
number drill, refer to a drill Size Chart or a Hand-book. 33 .113 2.870
Number drill series are also known as ‘wire gauge’ series.
34 .111 2.819
35 .110 2.794
Table 2
36 .1065 2.705
Number drill sizes
37 .104 2.642
Diameter
No. 38 .1015 2.578
Inches mm
39 .0995 2.527
1 228 5.791 40 .098 2.489
2 .221 5.613 41 .096 2.438
3 .213 5.410 42 .0935 2.375
4 .209 5.309 43 .089 2.261
5 .2055 5.220 44 .086 2.184
6 .204 5.182 45 .082 2.083
7 .201 5.105 46 .081 2.057
8 .199 5.055 47 .0785 1.994
9 .196 4.978 48 .076 1.930
10 .1935 4.915 49 .073 1.854
11 .191 4.851 50 .070 1.778
12 .189 4.801 51 .067 1.702
13 .185 4.699 52 .0635 1.613
14 .182 4.623 53 .0595 1.511
15 .180 4.572 54 .055 1.395
16 .177 4.496
Diameter Diameter
No. No.
Inches mm Inches mm
55 .052 1.321 68 0.031 0.79

56 .0465 1.181 69 0.0292 0.75
57 .043 1.092 70 0.0280 0.70
58 .042 1.067 71 0.0260 0.65
59 0.41 1.041 72 0.0240 0.65
60 .040 1.016 73 0.0240 0.60
61 0.0390 1.00 74 0.0225 0.58
62 0.0380 0.98 75 0.0210 0.52
63 0.0370 0.95 76 0.0200 0.50
64 0.0360 0.92 77 0.0180 0.45
65 0.0350 0.90 78 0.0160 0.40
66 0.033 0.85 79 0.0145 0.38
67 0.032 0.82 80 0.0135 0.35
Sharpening of drills (Grinding of drill)

• sharpen drills on an off hand grinder .
Why cutting angle should be checked and resharpened? The hand near the point should be pivoted lightly on the
tool-rest for easy manipulation. (Fig 2)
Drills will lose the sharpness of the cutting edges due to
continuous use.
Improper use of drills can also spoil the cutting edges.Worn

out drills are to be re-sharpened on a grinder.
How to grind drills?
Before grinding, check for loading, glazing, and truenes of

wheels and cracks or other damages. Dress and true the
wheel, if necessary.
While grinding the shank, the other end of the drill is held Hold the drill level and turn it to 59° to the face of the weel
lightly between the thumb and the first finger. (Fig 1) so that the cutting edge is horizontal and parallel to the
grinding wheel-face. (Fig 1)
Swing the shank of the drill slightly downward and towards

the left. (Fig 3)
Rotate the drill to the right by turning it between the thumb
and the finger.
This turning movement is not necessary for

small drills.
While swinging down, apply a slight forward motion. This

will help to form the clearance angle. (Fig 4)
While swinging and turning the drill make sure

you do not grind the other cutting edge.
All movements made to the drill i.e. angular turning

swinging and forward movements, should be well
coordinated. (Fig 5)
It should result in one smooth movement to produce a
uniformly finished surface. Check the lip clearance angle visually. The angle should be
between 8° to 12°.
Repeat the process to re-sharpen the second cutting edge,
using the same amount of drill movement uniformly.
How to check the angles of the cutting edges?
Check both the cutting edges with a drill angle gauge, for
correctness of the lip angle and equality of the lip length.
(Fig 6)
Fraction & Metric sizes of drills conversion table
Inches and millimeteres
(a) Inches to millimteres Basic: 1 inch = 25.4 millimetres
Inch 0 1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16

0 1.59 3.18 4.76 6.35 7.94 9.53 11.11
1 25.40 26.98 25.58 30.16 31.75 33.34 34.93 36.51
2 50.80 52.39 53.97 55.56 57.15 58.74 60.33 61.91
3 76.20 77.79 79.38 80.96 82.55 84.14 85.73 87.31
4 101.60 103.19 104.78 106.36 107.95 109.54 111.13 112.71
5 127.00 128.59 130.18 131.76 133.35 134.94 136.53 138.11
6 152.40 153.99 155.58 157.16 158.75 160.34 161.93 163.51
7 177.80 179.39 180.98 182.56 184.15 185.74 187.33 188.91
8 203.20 204.79 206.38 207.96 209.55 211.14 212.73 214.31
9 228.60 230.19 231.78 233.36 234.95 236.54 238.13 239.71
10 254.00 255.59 257.18 258.76 260.35 261.94 263.53 265.11
Inch 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16
0 12.70 14.29 15.88 17.46 19.05 20.64 22.23 23.81
1 38.10 39.69 41.28 42.86 44.45 46.04 47.63 49.21
2 63.50 65.09 66.68 68.26 69.85 71.44 73.03 74.61
3 88.90 90.49 92.08 93.66 95.25 96.84 98.43 100.01
4 114.30 115.89 117.48 119.06 120.65 122.24 123.83 125.41
5 139.70 141.29 142.88 144.46 146.05 147.64 149.23 150.81
6 165.10 166.69 168.28 169.86 171.45 173.04 174.63 176.21
7 190.50 192.09 193.68 195.26 196.85 198.44 200.03 201.61
8 215.90 217.49 219.08 220.66 222.25 223.84 225.43 227.01
9 241.30 242.89 244.48 246.06 247.65 249.24 250.83 252.41
10 266.70 268.29 269.88 271.46 273.05 274.64 276.23 277.81
Example: 25 3/4” = 20’ = (10 x 2” = 10 x 50.8 =) 508.00

= 654.05 mm
5 3/4” = 146.05
(b) Millimteres to Inches Basic: 1 Millimetre = 0.039369 inch
mm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0.039 0.079 0.118 0.157 0.197 0.236 0.276 0.315 0.354

10 0.394 0.433 0.472 0.512 0.551 0.591 0.630 0.669 0.700 0.748
20 0.787 0.827 0.866 0.905 0.945 0.984 1.024 1.063 1.102 1.142
30 1.181 1.220 1.259 1.299 1.338 1.378 1.417 1.457 1.496 1.535
40 1.575 1.614 1.653 1.693 1.732 1.772 1.811 1.850 1.890 1.929
50 1.968 2.007 2.047 20.87 2.126 2.165 2.205 2.244 2.283 2.323
60 2.362 2.401 2.441 2.480 2.520 2.559 2.598 2.638 2.677 2.716
70 2.756 2.795 2.835 2.874 2.913 2.953 2.992 3.031 3.074 3.110
80 3.149 3.189 3.228 3.268 3.307 3.346 3.386 3.425 3.464 3.504
90 3.543 3.583 3.622 3.661 3.701 3.740 3.779 3.819 3.858 3.897
mm 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0 3.94 7.87 11.81 15.75 19.68 23.62 27.56 31.49 35.43
1000 39.37 43.30 47.24 51.18 55.12 59.05 62.99 66.93 70.86 74.80
2000 78.74 82.67 86.61 90.55 94.48 98.42 102.36 106.30 110.23 114.17
3000 118.11 122.04 125.98 129.92 133.85 137.79 141.73 145.66 149.60 153.54
4000 157.47 161.41 165.35 169.20 173.22 177.16 181.10 185.03 188.97 192.91
5000 196.84 204.71 212.59 220.38 228.34 236.21 244.09 251.96 259.83 267.71
Example: 2256 mm = 2200 mm = 86.61”

=88.814”
56 mm = 2.204”
Fitter - Drilling
Standard marking system for grinding wheels

• interpret the marking on a grinding wheel
• specify a grinding wheel.
Introduction
Example (Marking system)
Standard wheel - markings specify all the important wheel
characteristics. The marking system comprises of seven 51 - A 46
symbols which are arranged in the following order. (Fig 1)
Specification of grinding wheels
A grinding wheel is specified by the standard wheel

markings like diameter of the wheel, bore diameter of the
wheel, thickness of the wheel type (Shape) of the wheel.
Example
32 A 46 H8V
250X20X32-
Straight wheel
FIN217411
Table 1 shows the relative position measuring of the marking system
Table 1
Position Position Position Position Position Position Position

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Manufac- Type of Grain Grade Structure Type of Manufac-

turer's abra- size (Optional) bond turer's
symbol sive own mark
for grit size (Optional)
abrasive
(Optional)
51 A 46 H 5 V 8
46
Chart illustrating the standard marking system is : 551-1966 (Table - 2)
Table 2
ORDER OF MARKING
3 1 2 3 4 5 6
Nature of Type of Grain Grade Structure Type of Manufacturer's
Wheel Abrasive Size bond Reference
51 A 36 L 5 V 23
Manufacturer's Manufacturer's
symbol indicating own identification
the exact nature of mark for the
Abrasive (optional) wheel (optional)
ALUMINIUM OXIDE –A
SILICON CARBIDES – C
V – VITRIFIED
S – SILICATE
R – RUBBER
RF – RUBBER REINFORCED
B – RESINOID (SYNTHETIC RESINS)
BF – RESINOID REINFORCED
E – SHELLAC
Mg – MAGNESIA
COARSE MEDIUM FINE VERY FINE

10 30 220
12 36 80 240
14 46 280
16 54 100 320
20 60 120 400 SPACING FROM THE CLOSEST
24 150 500 TO THE MOST OPEN
180 600 0 8
1 9
2 10
3 11
4 12
5 13
6 14
7
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
SOFT MEDIUM HARD
CHART ILLUSTRATING STANDARD MARKING SYSTEM IS : 551 – 1966
Construction of the grinding wheel
• state the different types of abrasives and their uses
• state the different grain sizes and their uses
• state the different grades of grinding wheels
• state the structure of a grinding wheel
• name the bonding materials used for grinding wheels.
In order to suit the grinding wheel for different work Structure

situations, the features such as abrasive, grainsize, grade,
structure and bonding materials can be varied. This indicates the amount of bond present between the
individual abrasive grains and the closeness of the individual
A grinding wheel consists of the abrasive that does the grains to each other. An open structure wheel will cut more
cutting, and the bond that holds the abrasive particles freely. That is, it will remove more metal in a given time and
together. produce less heat. It will not produce such a good finish as
a closely structured wheel.
Abrasives
Bond
There are two types of abrasives.
The bond is the substance which, when mixed with
• Natural abrasive abrasive grains, hold them together, enabling the mixture
• Artificial abrasive to be shaped to the form of the wheel, and after suitale
treatment to take on the necessary mechanical strength
The natural abrasives are emery and corrundum,These are for its work. The degree of hardness possessed by the bond
impure forms of aluminium oxide. is called the ‘grade’ of the wheel, and indicates the ability
of the bond to hold the abrasive grains in the wheel. There
Artificial abrasives are silicon carbide and aluminium are several types of bonding materials used for making
oxide. wheels.
The abrasives are selected depending upon the material Vitrified bond
being ground.
This is the most widely used bond. It has high porosity and
‘Brown’ aluminium oxide is used for general purpose strength which makes this type of wheel suitable for high
grinding of tough materials. rate of stock removal. It is not adversely affected by water,
acid, oils or ordinary temperature conditions.
‘White aluminium oxide is used for grinding ferrous and
ferrous alloys. Silicate bond
‘Green’ silicon carbide is used for very hard materials with Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less
low lensile strength such as cemented carbides. harshness than vitrified wheels. For this reason they are
suitable for grinding fine edge tools, cutters etc.
Grain size (Grit size)
Shellac bond
The number indicating the size of the grit represents the
number of openings in the sieve used to size the grain. The This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where
larger the grit size number, the finer the grit. a fine finish is required. For example, the grinding of
millrolls.
Grade
Rubber bond
Grade indicates the strength of the bond and, therefore, the
‘hardness’ of the wheel. In a hard wheel the bond is strong, This is used where a small degree of flexibility is required
and securely anchors the grit in place and, therefore, on the wheel as in the cutting off wheels.
reduces the rate of wear. In a soft wheel, the bond is weak
and the grit is easily detached resulting in a high rate of Resinoid bond
wear.
This is used for speed wheels. Such wheels are used in
foundries for dressing castings. Resinoid bond wheels are
also used for cutting off. They are strong enough to
withstand considerable abuse.
Wheel inspection and wheel mounting
• brief steps involved in grinding wheel inspection
• state the procedure for mounting of grinding wheel.
Wheel inspection Test a wheel for cracks by the following method
The wheel selected may have been damaged during - Suspend the wheel on a piece of string or support it
transport or storage and must be carefully inspected before with one finger through the bushing.
use.
- Allow the wheel to hang free.
Visual inspection (Fig 1)
- Tap the wheel with a non-metallic object such as a
small wooden mallet or tool handle.
- A clear ringing sound indicates that the wheel is not
cracked.
- A dull sound means that the wheel is cracked and must
not be used.
Warning
Discard any wheel that:

- Shows any sign of damage.
Look for - Does not ring clearly when struck.
Broken or chipped edges. If you are in doubt, do not use the wheel.
Clearly mark it and seek advice from your
Cracks supervisor. (Fig 3)
Damaged mounting bushing
Damaged paper washers
Testing for cracks (Fig 2)
Mounting the grinding wheel (Fig 4)
For correct and safe operation of a grinding machine it is

essential to mount the grinding wheel correctly on the
spindle.
Before fitting a new wheel, make sure that the spindle is

completely clean and free from surface irregularities.
The spindle of the grinding machine includes an inner
flange, an outer flange and a nut threaded on the spindle
to hold the grinding wheel in position.
The inner flange must be fixed to rotate with the spindle.
Each flange has a dished face towards the surface of the

wheel and has a true bearing surface at its area of contact.
Suitable paper discs are normally fitted to the wheel by

the manufacturer.
Mounting procedure (Fig 5)
Mount the wheel on the spindle of the grinding machine

as follows:
Check that the spindle surface is clean and free of

irregularities. Clean with a dry cloth, if necessary.
Check that the inner flange is fixed to the spindle and that
its bearing surface is clean and true.
Check that the wheel bush surface is clean and that it can
fits easily, but not loosely, onto the spindle. Clean the
bush before fitting the wheel on the spindle, if necessary.
Check that each side of the grinding wheel is fitted with a

soft paper disc of slightly larger diameter than the spindle
flanges.
Check that the diameter of each spindle flange is at least Caution

one third the diameter of the grinding wheel.
The nut should only be tightened sufficiently
Fit the grinding wheel to the spindle and place the outer to hold the wheel firmly. If it is tightened
spindle flange in position. excessively, the wheel may break.
The nut is threaded onto the spindle in a
Tighten the spindle nut against the outer spindle flange direction opposite to the direction of rotation
with a spanner of the correct size. of the spindle.
Replace the wheel guard correctly
- Run the wheel at its recommended speed in the grinding
machine for at least a minute. Do not use the wheel
during this period.
Points to note
Study these illustrations carefully and note the points to

watch when mounting grinding wheels. (Fig 6)
Washer of compressible material such as card board,

leather, rubber etc, not more than 1.5mm thick should be
fitted between the wheel and flanges. This prevents any
uneveness of the wheel surface is balanced and the tight
joint is obtained.
Grinding wheel dressing

• differentiate between loading and glazing
• state the effects of loading and glazing
• differentiate between dressing and truing.
Grinding wheels become inefficient due to two main causes Loading

known as loading and glazing.
When soft materials such as aluminium, copper, lead etc.
are ground, the metal particles get clogged in the pores of
the wheel. This condition is called loading. (Fig 1)
Excessive pressure on the grinding wheel will lead to the
fracture of the wheel, excessive heating of the wheel,
weakening of bonding of the wheel and bursting of the
wheel.
Dressing
The purpose of dressing is to restore the correct cutting

action of the wheel. Dressing removes the clogs on the
surface of the wheel and the blunt grains of the abrasive,
exposing the new sharp abrasive grains of the wheel which
can be cut and brought to shape efficiently.
Truing
FIN217441
Truing refers to the shaping of the wheel to make it run
concentric with the axis. When a new grinding wheel is
mounted, it must be trued before use. The cutting surface
Glazing of a new wheel may run out slightly due to the clearance
between the bore and the machine spindle. Grinding
When a surface of the wheel develops a smooth and wheels, which are in use, also can run out of true, due to
shining appearance, it is said to be glazed. This indicates uneven loading while grinding.
that the wheel is blunt, i.e. the abrasive grains are not
sharp. Dressing and truing are done at the same time.
When such grinding wheels are used, there is a tendency
to exert extra pressure in order to make the wheels cut.
Grinding wheel dressers

• name the common types of wheel dressers
• state the uses of each type of wheel dressers.
The wheel dressers used for off-hand grinders are star Star wheels are useful for pedestal grinders in which a
wheel dressers (Fig 1) (Huntington type wheel dresser) precision finish is not expected.
and diamond dressers.
Star wheel dressers should be used only on
wheels which are large enough to take the
load.
Diamond Dressers (Fig 2)

FIN217451
The star wheel dresser consists of a number of hardened

star-shaped wheels mounted on a spindle at one end and
a handle at the other end.
FIN217452
While dressing, the star wheel is pressed against the face

of the revolving grinding wheel. The star wheel revolves
and digs into the surface of the grinding wheel. This Bench type off-hand grinders used for sharpening cutting
releases the wheel loading and dull grains, exposing sharp tools are usually fitted with smaller and rather delicate
new abrasive grains. wheels.
These wheels are dressed and trued with diamond For dressing and truing, the dresser is slowly brought in
dressers. to contact with the wheel face and moved across.
Diamond dressers consist of a small diamond mounted The finish obtained depends on the rate at which the
on a holder which can be held rigidly on the work-rest. dresser is moved across the face.
How to use a wheel dresser (Fig 3) For roughing, the dresser is moved faster.
For fine finish, the dresser is moved slowly.
Roughing will be efficient with a dresser that has a sharp

point, while, for fine finishing, a blunt diamond dresser is
more suitable.
Abrasive stick
When only a light dressing is required, abrasive sticks

can also be used. There are abrasive materials made in
the form of sticks for the convenience of handling.
Diamond dressers, if moved too slowly, can

FIN217453
glaze the wheel.
Off-hand grinding with bench and pedestal grinders

• state the purposes of off-hand grinding
• name the machines with which off-hand grinding is done
• state the features of bench and pedestal grinders.
Off-hand grinding is the operation of removing material

which does not require great accuracy in size or shape.
This is carried out by pressing the workpiece by hand
against a rotating grinding wheel.
Off-hand grinding is performed for rough grinding of jobs and

resharpening of scribers, punches, chisels, twist drills,
single point cutting tools etc.
Off-hand grinders are fitted to a bench and pedestal

(Figs 1 and 2)
Bench grinders: Bench grinders are fitted on a bench or Adjustable work-rests are provided for both the wheels to
table, and are useful for light duty work. support the work while grinding. These work-rests must be
set very close to the wheels. (Fig 4)
Pedestal grinders: Pedestal grinders are mounted on a
base (pedestal), which is fastened to the floor. They are Extra eyeshields are also provided for the protection of the
used for heavy duty work. eyes. (Fig 4)
These grinders consist of an electric motor and the spindle

for mounting the grinding wheels. On one end of the spindle
a coarse-grained wheel is fitted, and on the other end, a
fine-grained wheel. For safety while working, wheel guards
are provided.
A coolant container (Fig 3) is provided for frequent cooling

of the work.
Fitter - Drilling
Radius/Fillet gauge, feeler gauge, hole gauge

• state what is radius and fillet gauge
• mention the sizes and uses of feeler gauge.
Radius and fillet gauges: Components are machined to

have curved formation on the edges or at the junction of two
steps. Accordingly they are called radius and fillets. The
size of the radius is normally provided on a drawing. The
gauges used to check the radius formed on the edges of
diameters are fillet and the gauges used to check the fillets
are called fillet gauges.
They are made of hardened sheet metal each to a precise

radius. They are used to check the radii by comparing the
radius on a part with the radius of the gauges.
Fig 1 shows the application of radius gauge to check the

radius formed externally. Fig 2 shows the application of a
fillet gauge to check the fillet formed on a turned component.
The other typical applications are: – Checking a radius formed by a milling cutter. (Fig 4)
The radius and fillet gauges are available in sets of several

blades which fold into a holder when not in use. (Fig 5)
Some sets have provisions to check the radius and fillet on

each blade. (Fig 6)
And some sets have separate sets of blades to check the
radius and fillet. (Fig 7)
– Checking the corner radius of a part being filed to shape.
(Fig 3)
55
Before using the radius gauge, check that it is clean and
undamaged.
Remove burrs from the workpiece.
Select the leaf of the gauge from the set corresponding to

the radius to be checked.
Fig 10 shows that the radius of the fillet and that of the
external radius are smaller than the gauge.
Try a smaller gauge to determine the radius dimension.
File or machine the workpiece if it has to be of the radius

of the gauge.
Fig 11 shows that the radius of the fillet and that of the
external radius are larger than the gauge.
Each blade can be swung out of the holder separately, and

has its size engraved on it. (Fig 8)
Fillet gauges are available in sets to check the radii and

fillets from:
1 to 7 mm in steps of 0.5 mm
7.5 to 15 mm in steps of 0.5 mm
15.5 to 25 mm in steps 0.5 mm.
Individual gauges are also available. They usually have Try a larger gauge if you need to find the radius dimension.
internal and external radii on each gauge and are made in
sizes from 1 to 100 mm in steps of 1 mm. (Fig 9) Fig 12 shows the workpiece having the same radius as that
of the gauge that is being used for checking.
Feeler gauge and uses The sizes of the feeler gauges in a set are carefully chosen
in order that a maximum number of dimensions can be
Features: A feeler gauge consists of a number of hardened formed by building up from a minimum number of leaves.
and tempered steel blades of various thicknesses mounted
The dimension being tested is judged to be equal to the
in a steel case. (Fig 13)
thickness of the leaves used, when a slight pull is felt while
withdrawing them. Accuracy in using these gauge requires
The thickness of individual leaves is marked on it. (Fig 13)
a good sense of feel.
B.I.S. Set: The Indian Standard establishes four sets of
Feeler gauges are used:
feeler gauges Nos.1,2,3 and 4 which differ by the number
of blades in each and by the range of thickness (minimum
– To check the gap between the mating parts
is 0.03 mm to 1 mm in steps of 0.01 mm). The length of
the blade is usually 100 mm. – To check and set the spark plug gaps
– To set the clearance between the fixture (setting block)
and the cutter/tool for machining the jobs
– To check and measure the bearing clearance, and for
many other purposes where a specified clearance must
be maintained. (Fig 14)
Example
Set No.4 of Indian Standard consists of 13 blades of

different thicknesses.
0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20,
0.30, 0.40, 0.50.
Telescopic gauge
• name the parts of a telescopic gauge
• state the constructional features of telescopic gauges
• state the ranges of telescopic gauges.
Telescopic gauges are popular for fine work as they are very
rigid and have a better 'feel'.
Uses
Used for measuring the sizes of holes, slots and recesses.
Construction (Figs 1 & 2)
Telescopic gauges are 'T' shaped. They consist of a pair

of telescopic legs or plungers connected to a handle. The
plungers are spring-loaded to force them apart. After
inserting the gauge in a hole or slot, it can be locked in
position by turning the knurled handle. It may then be
withdrawn from the hole and measured with a micrometer.
(Fig 3)
Telescopic gauges are available in a set of 6 nos, to
measure holes from 8 mm to 150 mm. (as per MITUTOYO
- Series 155)
No.1 8.0 mm to 12.7 mm
No.2 12.7 mm to 19.0 mm
No.3 19.0 mm to 32.0 mm
No.4 32.0 mm to 54.0 mm
No.5 54.0 mm to 90.0 mm
No. 6 90.0 mm to 150.0 mm
Small hole gauges

• identify the parts of a small hole gauge
• state the construction of a small hole gauge
• state the ranges of small hole gauges.
Telescopic gauges are not suitable for measuring holes

below 9 mm. For measuring smaller holes and slots, small
hole gauges are used.
Construction (Fig 1)
A small hole gauge consists of a tube having holes on the

opposite sides at one end where hardened balls are fixed.
The other end of the tube has an external thread. A screwed
thimble is fixed with the threaded tube. A plunger with a
tapered end, and spring-loaded, is inserted in the tube and
tightened with the screwed thimble.
At the end of the thimble a knurled handle is fitted. While

rotating the knurled handle in a clockwise direction the
plunger moves forward up, and pushes the balls out to
contact the surfaces.
A small hole gauge is an instrument used for indirect

measurement, while a micrometer is usually used for
measuring the sizes directly.
Small hole gauges are available in a set of 4 numbers to

measure holes from 3 mm to 13 mm. (as per MITUTOYO
- Series 154)
No.1 3 mm to 5 mm Radius gauges can be coverd in an oil-based spray as a
preventive measure against rust during storage. If a radius
No.2 5 mm to 7.5 mm gauge becomes rusty, the folding mechanism may seize
up. Further problems include the compromised accuracy
No.3 7.5 mm to 10 mm of the gauge’s measurement. The once precisely machined
radius may develop irregularities because of corrosion.
No.4 10 mm to 13 mm
Close away blades into the case carefully after use. This
Care and Maintenance of Feeler, radius and hole ensures the blades do not become bent or misshapen
gauges when the gauge is not in use. Radius gauge blades with fine
measuring surfaces are othen bought in assortmen to Be
Immediately after use, close funned out feeler gauge sure to use the plastic sleeve casing which allows neat and
blades. This should be done by grouping smaller blades orderly storage.
against the consecutively larger sizes for support. This will
prevent the thinner blades bending when they are closed Some types of small hole gauges have flattened ball ends
into the case. to permit use in shallow holes and recesses.Be care.
Observe the following practices for the care and upkeep of
Feeler gauges should be cleaned with an oily cloth before small hole gauges:
storage to prevent rust.
• Coat metal parts of small hole gauges with a light film
Wonkee Donkee recommends that you keep the blades oil to prevent rust.
closed at all times, other than when in actual use, to
prevent damage. Open - Measure - Close. The blades • Store gauges in separate containers.
should only be out for as long as it takes to measure or set • Keep graduation and markings clean and legible.
the gap. Tighten the adjusting screw, if there is one, for
additional security. • Do not drop small hole gauges. Small nicks and
scratches will result in inaccurate measurement
Fitter - Drilling
Pig Iron
• name the commonly used ferrous metals
• state the main raw materials used for the smelting of pig-pron and their uses
• name the ores used for producing pig-iron
• state the constructional features of a blast furnace
• state the properties and uses of pig-iron.
Metals which contain iron as a major content are called Flux

ferrous metals. Ferrous metals of different properties are
used for various purposes. This is the mineral substance charged into a blast furnace
to lower the melting point of the ore, and it combines with
The ferrous metals and alloys used commonly are: the non-metallic portion of the ore to form a molten slag.
- Pig-iron Limestone is the most commonly used flux in the blast

- Cast iron furnace.
- Wrought iron Blast furnace (Fig 1)

- Steels and alloy steels.
Different processes are used to produce iron and steel.
Pig-iron is obtained by the chemical reduction of iron ore.

This process of reduction of the iron ore to pig-iron is known
as SMELTING.
The main raw materials required for producing pig-

iron are:
- Iron ore
- Coke
- Flux.
Iron ore
The types of iron ores
- Magnetite
- Hematite
- Limonite
- Carbonate.
These ores contain iron in different proportions and are

FIN217711
'naturally' available.
Coke
Coke is the fuel used to give the necessary heat to carry The furnace used for smelting iron ore is the blast furnace.
on the reducing action. The carbon from the coke in the The product obtained from smelting in the blast furnace is
form of carbon monoxide combines with the iron ore to pig-iron. The main parts of the blast furnace are:
reduce it to iron.
- Throat
- Stack
- Bosh
60
- Hearth Smelting in a blast furnace
- Double bell charging mechanism The raw materials are charged in alternate layers of iron
ore, coke and flux in the furnace by means of a double bell
- Tuyeres.
mechanism. (Figs 1 & 2)
FIN217712
The hot blast is forced into the furnace through a number The molten iron may be cast in pig beds or used in other
of nozzles (Fig1) called tuyeres. processing plants for steel making.
The temperature of the furnace just above the level of the Properties and use of pig-iron
tuyeres (melting zone) is between 1000° C to 1700° C when
all the substances start melting. Pig-iron absorbs varying amounts of carbon, silicon, sulphur,
phosphorus and manganese during the smelting process.
The limestone, which serves as a flux, combines with the A high amount of carbon makes the pig-iron very hard and
non-metalic substances in the ore to form a molten slag brittle, and unsuitable for making any useful article.
which floats on the top of the molten iron. The slag is
tapped off through the slag hole. Pig-iron is, therefore, refined and remelted and used to
produce other varieties of iron and steel.
The molten iron is tapped at intervals through a separate
tapping hole.
Cast iron (types)

• name the different types of cast iron
• state the properties of each type of cast iron
• state the uses of each type of cast iron.
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. The carbon - Grey cast iron
content ranges from 2 to 4%.
- White cast iron
Types of cast iron - Malleable cast iron
The following are the types of cast iron. - Nodular cast iron
Grey cast iron White cast iron is produced by lowering the silicon content
and by rapid cooling. When cooled in this manner,it is
This is widely used for the casting of machinery parts and called chilled cast iron.
can be machined easily.
White cast iron cannot be welded.
Machine bases, tables, slideways are made of cast iron
because it is dimensionally stable after a period of aging. Malleable cast iron
Because of its graphite content, cast iron provides an Malleable cast iron has increased ductility, tensile strength
excellent bearing and sliding surface. and toughness when compared with grey cast iron.
The melting point is lower than that of steel and as grey cast Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron by a
iron possesses good fluidity, intricate casting can be prolonged heat-treatment process lasting for about 30
made. hours.
Grey cast iron is widely used for machine tools because Nodular cast iron
of its ability to reduce vibration and minimize tool chatter.
This is very similar to malleable cast iron. But this is
Grey cast iron, when not alloyed, is quite brittle and has produced without any heat treatment. Nodular cast iron is
relatively low tensile strength. Due to this reason it is not also known as:
used for making components subjected to high stress or
impact loads. Nodular iron - ductile iron - spheroidal graphite iron
Grey cast iron is often alloyed with nickel, chromium, This has good machinability, castability, resistance to
vanadium or copper to make it tough. wear, low melting point and hardness.
Grey cast iron is weldable but the base metal needs pre- Malleable and nodular castings are used for machine parts
heating. where there is a higher tensile stress and moderate impact
loading. These castings are less expensive and are an
White cast iron alternative to steel casting.
This is very hard and is very difficult to machine, and for this
reason, it is used in components which should be abrasion-
resistant.
Fitter - Fitting Assembly
Necessity of Interchangeability in engineering field

• state the advantages and disadvantages of mass production
• outline the meaning of the term,'interchangeability'
• state the necessity for the limit system
• name the different standards of system of limits and fits.
Mass production
Mass production means production of a unit, component or

part in large numbers.
Advantages of mass production
Time for the manufacture of components is reduced.

The cost of a piece is reduced.
Spare parts can be quickly made available. In modern engineering production, i.e. mass production,
there is no room for selective assembly. However, under
Disadvantages of mass production some special circumstances, selective assembly is still
justified.
Special purpose machines are necessary. Interchangeability
Jigs and fixtures are needed. When components are mass-produced, unless they are
Gauges are to be used instead of conventional precision interchangeable, the purpose of mass production is not
instruments. fulfilled. By interchangeability, we mean that identical
components, manufactured by different personnel under
Initial expenditure will be very high. different environments, can be assembled and replaced
without any further rectification during the assembly stage,
Selective assembly
without affecting the functioning of the component when
The figures illustrate the difference between a selective assembled.
assembly and a non-selective assembly. It will be seen in
Necessity of the limit system
(Fig 1) that each nut fits only one bolt. Such an assembly
is slow and costly, and maintenance is difficult because If components are to be interchangeable, they need to be
spares must be individually manufactured. manufactured to the same size which is not possible,
when they are mass-produced. Hence, it becomes
necessary to permit the operator to deviate by a small
margin from the exact size which he is not able to maintain
for all the components. At the same time, the deviated size
should not affect the quality of the assembly. This sort of
dimensioning is known as limit dimensioning.
A system of limits is to be followed as a standard for the
limit dimensioning of components.
Various standard systems of limits and fits are followed by
different countries based on the ISO (International Standards
Non-selective assembly Organisation) specifications.
Any nut fits any bolt of the same size and thread type.
The system of limits and fits followed in our
Such an assembly is rapid, and costs are reduced.
country is stipulated by the BIS. (Bureau of
Maintenance is simpler because spares are easily available.
Indian Standards)
(Fig 2)
Other systems of limits and fits
Non-selective assembly provides interchange-
ability between the components. International Standards Organisation (ISO)
British Standard System (BSS)
German Standard (DIN)
63
The indian standard system of limits & fits - terminology
• state the terms under the BIS system of limits and fits
• define each term under the BIS system of limits and fits.
Size Basic size

It is a number expressed in a particular unit in the It is the size based on which the dimensional deviations are
measurement of length. given. (Fig 1)
Actual size
It is the size of the component by actual measurement after

it is manufactured. It should lie between the two limits of
size if the component is to be accepted.
Limits of size
These are the extreme permissible sizes within which the

operator is expected to make the component. (Fig 2)
(Maximum and minimum limits)
Maximum limit of size
It is the greater of the two limit sizes.(Fig 2) (Table 1)
Minimum limit of size
It is the smaller of the two limits of size. (Fig 2) (Table 1)
Hole
In the BIS system of limits & fits, all internal features of a
component including those which are not cylindrical are
designated as ` hole'. (Fig 3)
Shaft
In the BIS system of limits & fits, all external features of a
component including those which are not cylindrical are
designated as shaft. (Fig 3)
Table 1 (Examples)
SL. UPPER LOWER MAX-LIMIT MIN-LIMIT

NO. SIZE OF COMPONENT DEVIATION DEVIATION OF SIZE OF SIZE
1 + .008
20 - .005 + 0.008 - 0.005 20.008 19.995
2 + .028
20 + .007 + 0.028 + 0.007 20.028 20.007
3 - .012
20 - .021 - 0.012 - 0.021 19.988 19.979
Deviation
It is the algebraic difference between a size, to its

corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative or
zero. (Fig 2)
Upper deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of

size and its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2) (Table 1)
Lower deviation
In addition to the above, four sets of letters JS, ZA, ZB & ZC
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of are included. For fine mechanisms CD, EF and FG are
size and its corresponding basic size.(Fig 2) (Table 1) added. (Ref.IS:919 Part II - 1979)
Upper deviation is the deviation which gives For shafts, the same 25 letter symbols but in small letters
the maximum limit of size. Lower deviation is are used. (Fig 5)
the deviation which gives the minimum limit of
size.
Actual deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the actual size and its

corresponding basic size. (Fig 2)
Tolerance
It is the difference between the maximum limit of size and

the minimum limit of size. It is always positive and is
expressed only as a number without a sign. (Fig 2) The position of tolerance zone with respect to the zero line
is shown in Figs 6 and 7.
Zero line
In graphical representation of the above terms, the zero line

represents the basic size. This line is also called as the line
of zero deviation. (Figs 1 and 2)
Fundamental deviation
There are 25 fundamental deviations in the BIS system

represented by letter symbols (capital letters for holes and
small letters for shafts), i.e for holes - ABCD....Z excluding
I,L,O,Q & W. (Fig 4)
The fundamental deviations are for achieving The grade of tolerance refers to the accuracy of
the different classes of fits. (Figs 8 and 9) manufacture.
In a standard chart, the upper and lower deviations for each

combination of fundamental deviation and fundamental
tolerance are indicated for sizes ranging up to 500 mm.
(Refer to IS 919)
Toleranced size
This includes the basic size, the fundamental deviation and

the grade of tolerance.
Example
25 H7 - toleranced size of a hole whose basic size is 25.

The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter
symbol H and the grade of tolerance is represented by the
number symbol 7. (Fig 11)
25 e8 - is the toleranced size of a shaft whose basic size

is 25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the
letter symbol e and the grade of tolerance is represented
by the number 8. (Fig 12)
Fundamental tolerance
This is also called as 'grade of tolerance'. In the Indian

Standard System, there are 18 grades of tolerances
represented by number symbols, both for hole and shaft,
denoted as IT01, IT0, IT1....to IT16. (Fig 10) A high number
gives a large tolerance zone.
A very wide range of selection can be made by the
combination of the 25 fundamental deviations and 18
grades of tolerances.
Example
In figure 13, a hole is shown as 25 ± 0.2 which means that

25 mm is the basic dimension and ± 0.2 is the deviation.
As pointed out earlier, the permissible variation from the

basic dimension is called 'DEVIATION'.
The deviation is mostly given on the drawing with the The difference between the maximum and minimum limits
dimensions. is the TOLERANCE. Tolerance here is 0.4 mm. (Fig 16)
In the example 25 ± 0.2, ± 0.2 is the deviation of the hole

of 25 mm diameter. (Fig 13) This means that the hole is of
acceptable size if its dimension is between
25 + 0.2 = 25.2 mm
or 25 - 0.2 = 24.8 mm.
All dimensions of the hole within the tolerance zone are of

acceptable size as in Fig 17.
25.2 mm is known as the maximum limit. (Fig 14)

As per IS 696, while dimensioning the
24.8 mm is known as the minimum limit. (Fig 15) components as a drawing convention, the
deviations are expressed as tolerances.
Fits and their classification as per the Indian Standard

• define 'Fit' as per the Indian Standard
• list out the terms used in limits and fits as per the Indian Standard
• state examples for each class of fit
• interpret the graphical representation of different classes of fits.
Fit shaft,) followed by the symbol for the hole, and by the
symbol for the shaft.
It is the relationship that exists between two mating parts,
a hole and a shaft, with respect to their dimensional Example
differences before assembly.
H7
Expression of a fit 30 H7/g6 or 30 H7 - g6 or 30
g6
A fit is expressed by writing the basic size of the fit first,
(the basic size which is common to both the hole and the
Clearance
In a fit the clearance is the difference between the size of

the hole and the size of the shaft which is always positive.
Clearance fit
It is a fit which always provides clearance. Here the

tolerance zone of the hole will be above the tolerance zone
of the shaft. (Fig 1)
Minimum Clearance
In a clearance fit, it is the difference between the minimum

hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig 5)
Example 20 H7/g6
With the fit given, we can find the deviations from the chart.
For a hole 20 H7 we find in the table + 21.
These numbers indicate the deviations in microns.
(1 micrometre = 0.001 mm) The minimum clearance is 20.000 - 19.993 = 0.007mm.

(Fig 6)
The limits of the hole are 20 + 0.021 = 20.021 mm and 20
+ 0 = 20.000mm. (Fig.2)
The maximum clearance is 20.021 - 19.980 = 0.041 mm.

(Fig 7)
For a shaft 20 g6 we find in the table – 7

– 20.
So the limits of the shaft are
20 – 0.007 =19.993 mm
and 20 – 0.020 =19.980mm.(Fig .3)

There is always a clearance between the hole and the
Maximum clearance shaft. This is the clearance fit.
In a clearance fit or transition fit, it is the difference between

the maximum hole and minimum shaft. (Fig 4)
Interference In the example shown in figure 9
It is the difference between the size of the hole and the shaft The maximum interference is = 25.035 – 25.000
before assembly, and this is negative. In this case, the
= 0.035
shaft is always larger than the hole size.
The minimum interference is = 25.022 – 25.021
Interference Fit
= 0.001
It is a fit which always provides interference. Here the Transition fit
tolerance zone of the hole will be below the tolerance zone
It is a fit which may sometimes provide clearance, and
of the shaft. (Fig 8)
sometimes interference. When this class of fit is represented
graphically, the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft will
overlap each other. (Fig 12)
Example: Fit 25 H7/p6 (Fig 9)
Example Fit 75 H8/j7 (Fig 13)
The limits of hole are 25.000 and 25.021 mm and the limits
of the shaft 25.022 and 25.035 mm. The shaft is always The limits of the hole are 75.000 and 75.046 mm and those
bigger than the hole. This is an interference fit. of the shaft are 75.018 and 74.988 mm.
Maximum interference Maximum Clearance = 75.046 - 74.988 = 0.058 mm.
In an interference fit or transition fit, it is the algebraic If the hole is 75.000 and the shaft 75.018 mm, the shaft is
difference between the minimum hole and the maximum 0.018 mm, bigger than the hole. This results in interference.
shaft. (Fig 10) This is a transition fit because it can result in a clearance
fit or an interference fit.
Hole basis system
In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of the

hole is kept constant and the size of the shaft is varied to
get the different class of fits, then it is known as the hole
basis system.
Minimum interference The fundamental deviation symbol `H' is chosen for the
holes, when the hole basis system is followed. This is
In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference between because the lower deviation of the hole `H' is zero. It is
the maximum hole and the minimum shaft. (Fig 11) known as `basic hole'. (Fig 14)
Shaft basis system The hole basis system is followed mostly.This is because,
depending upon the class of fit, it will be always easier to
In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of the alter the size of the shaft because it is external, but it is
shaft is kept constant and the variations are given to the difficult to do minor alterations to a hole. Moreover the hole
hole for obtaining different class of fits, then it is known as can be produced by using standard toolings.
shaft basis. The fundamental deviation symbol `h' is
The three classes of fits, both under hole basis and shaft
chosen for the shaft when the shaft basis is followed. This
basis, are illustrated in (Fig 15).
is because the upper deviation of the shaft `h' is zero. It
is known as `basic shaft'. (Fig 15)
The BIS system of limits and fits- reading the standard chart
• refer to the standard limit system chart and determine the limits of sizes.
The standard chart covers sizes upto 500 mm (I.S. 919 of Then refer to the chart and note the upper and lower
1963) for both holes and shafts. It specifies the upper and deviations which are given in microns, with the sign.
lower deviations for a certain range of sizes for all Accordingly add or subtract from the basic size and
combinations of the 25 fundamental deviations, and 18 determine the limits of size of the components.
fundamental tolerances.
Example
The upper deviation of the hole is denoted as ES and the
lower deviation of the hole is denoted as E I. The upper 30 H7 (Fig 1)
deviation of the shaft is denoted as es and the lower
deviation of the shaft is denoted as ei.
“ES is expanded as ECART SUPERIEUR and

“EI” as ECART INFERIEUR.
Determining the limits from the chart
Note whether it is an internal measurement or an external It is an internal measurement. So we must refer to the chart
measurement. for 'holes'.
Note the basic size. The basic size is 30 mm. So see the range 30 to 40.
Note the combination of the fundamental deviation and the
grade of tolerance.
Look for ES, and EI values in microns for H7 combination The minimum limit of the hole is 30 + 0.000 = 30.000mm.
for 30 mm basic size.
Refer to the chart and note the values of 40 g6.
It is given as
The table for tolerance zones and limits as per IS 2709 is
Therefore, the maximum limit of the hole is 30 + 0.025 = attached.
30.025mm.
British standard limits and fits BS 4500: 1969
International Tolerance Grades (IT)
The specific tolerance for a particular IT grade is calculated T is the tolerance in micrometres [ μ m]
via the following formula:
D is the geometric mean dimension in millimeters [mm]
3
T = 100.2 × (ITG - 1)
. (0.45 × D + 0.001 × D) ITG is the IT Grade, a positive integer.
NOMINAL (BASIC) SIZES

(INCHES) INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADES OVER UP TO INCL.
OVER UP TO INCL IT4 IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13
0 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.25 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.5 4 6
0.12 0.24 0.15 0.20 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.8 3.0 5 7
0.24 0.40 0.15 0.25 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.4 2.2 3.5 6 9
0.40 0.71 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.6 2.8 4.0 7 10
0.71 1.19 0.25 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.2 2.0 3.5 5.0 8 12
1.19 1.97 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.5 4.0 6 10 16
1.97 3.15 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.8 3.0 4.5 7 12 18
3.15 4.73 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.4 2.2 3.5 5 9 14 22
4.73 7.09 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.6 2.5 4.0 6 10 16 25
7.09 9.85 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.8 2.8 4.5 7 12 18 28
9.85 12.41 0.6 0.9 1.2 2.0 3.0 5.0 8 12 20 30
12.41 15.75 0.7 1.0 1.4 2.2 3.5 6 9 14 22 35
15.75 19.69 0.8 1.0 1.63 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 40
19.69 30.09 0.9 1.2 2.0 3 5 8 12 20 30 50
30.09 41.49 1.0 1.6 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 40 60
41.49 56.19 1.2 2.0 3 5 8 12 20 30 50 80
56.19 76.39 1.6 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 40 60 100
76.39 100.9 2.0 3 5 8 12 20 30 50 80 125
100.9 131.9 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 40 60 100 160
131.9 171.9 3 5 8 12 20 30 50 80 125 200
171.9 200 4 6 10 16 25 40 60 100 160 250
Tolerances in Thousandths of an Inch (0.001)
Table 1 for Tolerance Zones & Limits (Dimensions in Pm)
72
Vernier height gauge

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you will be able to
• identify and name the parts of a vernier height gauge
• state the constructional features of a vernier height gauge
• state the functional features of a vernier height gauge
• identify the various applications of the vernier height gauge in engineering.
Parts of a vernier height gauge (Fig 1) The beam is graduated with the main scale in mm as well
as in inches. The main slide carries a jaw upon which
various attachments may be clamped. The jaw is an
integral part of the main slide.
The vernier scale is attached to the main slide which has

been graduated, to read metric dimensions as well as the
inch dimensions. The main slide is attached with the finer
adjusting slide. The movable jaw is most widely used with
the chisel pointed scriber blade for accurate marking out as
well as for checking the height, steps etc. Care should be
taken to allow for the thickness of the jaw depending on
whether the attachment is clamped on the top or under the
jaw for this purpose.
The thickness of the jaw is marked on the instrument. As

like in a vernier caliper, the least count of this instrument
is also 0.02 mm. An offset scriber is also used on the
movable jaw when it is required to take measurement from
the lower planes. (Fig 2) The complete sliding attachment
along with the jaw can be arrested on the beam to the
desired height with the help of the lock screws. The vernier
height gauges are available in ranges of capacities reading
from zero to 1000 mm.
A Beam
B Base
C Main slide
D Jaw
E Jaw clamp
F Vernier scale
G Main scale Functional features of the vernier height gauge:
H Finer adjusting slide Vernier height gauges are used in conjunction with the
surface plate. In order to move the main slide, both the
I Finer adjusting nut
locking screws of the slide and the finer adjusting slide have
J&K Locking screws to be loosened. The main slide along with the chisel
pointed scriber has to be set by hand, for an approximate
L Scriber blade
height as required.
Constructional features of a vernier height gauge:
The finer adjusting slide has to be locked in position, for an
The construction of a vernier height gauge is similar to that
approximate height as required. To get an exact markable
of the vernier caliper that it is vertical with a rigid base. It
height, the finer adjustments have to be carried on the slider
is graduated on the same vernier principle which is applied
with the help of the adjusting nut. After obtaining the exact
to the vernier caliper.
markable dimension, the main slide is also to be locked in
position.
73
Modern vernier height gauges are designed on the screw
rod principle. In these height gauges, the screw rod may
be operated with the help of the thumb screw at the base.
In order to have a quick setting of the main slide, it is
designed with a quick releasing manual mechanism. With
the help of this, it is possible to bring the slide to a desired
approximate height without wastage of time. For all other
purposes, these height gauges work as ordinary height
gauges. In order to set the ‘zero’ graduation of the main
scale for the initial reading.
Some vernier height gauges are equipped with a sliding

main scale which may be set immediately for the initial
reading. This minimises the possible errors in reading the
various sizes in the same setting.
Another kind of modern vernier height gauge has a rack and The vernier height gauge is used with the dial indicator to
pinion set up for operating the sliding unit. This is shown check hole location, pitch dimensions, concentricity and
in Fig 3. eccentricity.
It is also used for measuring depth, with a depth attachment.
It is used to measure sizes from the lower plane with the
help of an offset scriber.
Vernier height gauge is made of invarsteel/

stainless steel.
Care and maintenance of vernier height gauge
• After using the vernier height gauge, you should wipe

the measuring faces with a clean, dry cloth.
• After use, it is important that you should check the
beam of your vernier height gauge for any unwanted
residue that may affect the sliding motion of the vernier
scale.
• Apply a small drop of oil to the beam of the height gauge,
clean it with a cloth and slide the vernier scale backward
and forward a couple of times.
• Vernier height gauge should be stored in a well ventilated
humid free environment.
Various applications of a vernier height gauge: The
vernier height gauge is mainly used for layout work. • Most height gauge come with a protective case to keep
(Fig 4) them safe when not in use.
It is used for measuring the width of the slot and external • You should regularly cheek the calibration of your
dimension. height gauge, to make sure that it is working correctly.
Wrought iron and plain carbon steels

• state the manufacturing process of wrought iron
• state the properties and uses of wrought iron.
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron. The analysis of

wrought iron shows as much as 99.9% of iron. (Fig 1)
The hot metal is then passed through grooved rollers which

convert blooms into bars called Muck bars or Puddle bars.
These bars are cut into short lengths, fastened together in

piles, reheated to welding temperatures and again rolled
When heated, wrought iron does not melt, but only becomes
into bars.
pasty and in this form it can be forged to any shape.
Aston process
Modern methods used to produce wrought iron in large
quantities are the: In this process molten pig-iron and steel scrap are refined
in a Bessemer converter.
- Puddling process
The refined molten metal is poured into an open hearth
- Aston or Byers process. furnace in the iron silicate stage. This removes most of
the carbon.
Puddling process
The slag cools the molten metal to a pasty mass which is
Wrought iron is manufactured by refining pig-iron. later squeezed in a hydraulic press to remove most of the
slag. Rectangular blocks known as blooms are formed
By refining pig-iron silicon is removed completely, a greater from this mass.
amount of phosphorus is removed, and graphite is converted The hot bloom is immediately passed through rolling mills
to combined carbon. to produce products of wrought iron of different shapes and
sizes.
The above process is carried out in a puddling furnace.
COMPOSITION OF WROUGHT IRON
Puddling furnace
Carbon - 0.02 to 0.03%
This furnace is a coal-fired reverberatory furnace. (Fig 2)
Silicon - 0.1 to 0.2%
The term reverberatory is applied because the charge is not Manganese - 0.02 to 0.1%
in actual contact with the fire, but receives its heat by
reflection from the dome shaped furnace roof. Sulphur - 0.02 to 0.04%
Phosphorous - 0.05 to 0.2%
The product obtained is taken out from the furnace in the
form of balls (or blooms) having a mass of about 50 kgs. Iron forms of the rest of the content.
75
Properties and uses of Wrought Iron
Properties Uses
Malleable and ductile. Architectural works.

It can neither be hardened nor tempered.
Tough, shock-resistant fibrous structure; easy for Crane hooks, chain links, bolts and nuts &
forge welding. Ultimate tensile strength of about railway couplings.
350 newtons per sq. mm.
No effect in salt water. Marine works.
Will not retain the magnetism. Temporary magnets.
Core of dynamos.
Corrosion resistant. Agricultural equipment.
Easy to forge - wide temperaturerange Pipes, flanges etc.
850°C to 1350°C.
Steel (plain carbon steel)

• state the composition and properties of plain carbon steel.
Steel is fundamentally an alloy of iron and carbon, with the Plain carbon steels are classified according to their carbon
carbon content varying up to 1.5%. The carbon present is content.
in a combined state.
Classification and content of Plain Carbon Steel is given in
Table 1.
Table 1
Classification and content of Plain Carbon Steel
Name of the plain Percentage of Carbon Properties and uses

carbon steel
Dead mild 0.1 to 0.125 % Highly ductile. Used for making wire
steel rods, thin sheets & solid drawn tubes.
Mild steel 0.15 to 0.3% Relatively soft and ductile. Used for general
workshop purposes, boiler plates, bridge work,
structural sections and drop forgings.
Medium carbon 0.3 to 0.5% Used for making axles,drop forgings,
high tensile tubes, wires and agricultural tools.
- do - 0.5 to 0.7% Harder, tougher and less ductile.

Used for making springs, locomotive
tyres, large forging dies, wire ropes, hammers
and snaps for riveters.
High carbon steel 0.7 to 0.9% Harder,less ductile and slightly less tough.
Used for making springs, small forging dies,
shear blades and wood chisels.
- do - 0.9 to 1.1% Used for making cold chisels, press dies,
punches, wood-working tools, axes,etc.
- do - 1.1% to 1.4% Used for making hand files, drills, gauges,
metal-cutting tools & razors.
Non-ferrous metals - copper
• name the commonly used copper alloys
• state the properties and uses of copper
• state the composition and uses of different types of brasses
• state the composition and uses of different types of bronze.
Metals without iron are called non-ferrous metals. Eg.

Copper, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead and Tin.
Copper
This is extracted from its ores ‘MALACHITE’ which

contains about 55% copper and ‘PYRITES’ which contains
about 32% copper.
Properties
Reddish in colour. Copper is easily distinguishable because

of its colour.
The structure when fractured is granular, but when forged

or rolled it is fibrous.
It is very malleable and ductile and can be made into sheets
or wires. Copper alloys
It is a conductor of electricity. Copper is extensively used Brass
as electrical cables and parts of electrical apparatus which
conduct electric current. (Fig 1) It is an alloy of copper and zinc. For certain types of
brass small quantities of tin or lead are added. The colour
of brass depends on the percentage of the alloying
elements. The colour is yellow or light yellow, or nearly
white. It can be easily machined. Brass is also corrosion-
resistant.
Brass is widely used for making motor car radiator core

and water taps etc. It is also used in gas welding for hard
soldering/brazing. The melting point of brass ranges from
880 to 930oC.
Brasses of different composition are made for various ap-

plications. The following Table-1 gives the commonly used
Copper is a good conductor of heat and also highly brass alloy compositions and their application.
resistant to corrosion. For this reason it is used for boiler
fire boxes, water heating apparatus, water pipes and Bronze
vessels in brewery and chemical plants. Also used for
making soldering iron. Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. Sometimes
zinc is also added for achieving certain special properties.
The melting temperature of copper is 1083o C. Its colour ranges from red to yellow. The melting point of
bronze is about 1005oC. It is harder than brass. It can be
The tensile strength of copper can be increased by easily machined with sharp tools. The chip produced is
hammering or rolling. (Fig 2) granular. Special bronze alloys are used as brazing rods.
Bronze of different compositions are available for various
applications. Table-2 gives the type compositions and
applications of different bronzes.
Table 1 - Composition of different types of Brass
Composition (%)
Name
Copper Zinc Other Applications
elements
Cartridge brass 70 30 - Most ductile of the copper/zinc alloys. Widely used in sheet
metal pressing for severe deep drawing operations. Originally
developed for making cartridge cases, hence its name.
Standard brass 65 35 - Cheaper than cartridge brass and less ductile. Suitable for
most engineering processes.
Basic brass 63 37 - The cheapest of the cold working brasses. It lacks ductility
and is only capable of withstanding simple forming operations.
Muntz metal 60 40 - Not suitable for cold working, but suitable for hot-working.
Relatively cheap due to its high zinc content. It is widely used
for extrusion and hot-stamping processes.
Free-cutting 58 39 3% lead Not suitable for cold working but excellent for hot working and
brass high speed machining of low strength components.
Admirality brass 70 29 1% tin This is virtually cartridge brass plus a little tin to prevent
corrosion in the presence of salt water.
Naval brass 62 37 1% tin This is virtually Muntz metal plus a little tin to prevent corrosion
in the presence of salt water.
Gilding metal 95 5 - Used for jewellery.
Table 2 - Composition of different types of bronze
Composition (%)
Name Copper Zinc Phosphorus Tin Applications
Low tin 96 - 0.1 3.9 This alloy can be severely cold-worked to harden
bronze to to it so that it can be used for springs where good
0.25 3.75 elastic properties must be combined with corro-
sion resistance,fatigue-resistance and electrical
conductivity. Eg.Contact blades
Drawn 94 - 0.1 5.9 This alloy is used for turned components requiring
phosphor/ to to strength and corrosion resistance, such as valve
bronze 0.5 5.5 spindles.
Cast 89.75 0.03 10 Usually cast into rods and tubes for making bear-
phosphor/ to to ing bushes and worm wheels. It has excellent
bronze 89.97 0.25 anti-friction properties.
Admirality 88 2 - 10 This alloy is suitable for sand casting where fine-
gun-metal grained, pressure-tight components such as pump
and valve bodies are required.
Leaded 85 5 - 5 Also known as ‘red brass’ this alloy is used for the
gun-metal (5%lead) same purposes as standard, admirality gun-metal.
(free cutting) It is rather less strong but has improved toughness
and machining properties.
Leaded 74 (24%lead) - 2 This alloy is used for lightly loaded bearings where
(plastic) alignment is difficult. Due to its softness, bearings
bronze made from this alloy “bed in” easily.
Lead
• state the properties of lead
• state the various uses of lead
• state the uses of babbit metal.
Lead is a very commonly used non-ferrous metal and has Lead Alloys
a variety of industrial applications.
Babbit metal
Lead is produced from its ore ‘GALENA’. Lead is a heavy
metal that is silvery in colour when molten. It is soft and Babbit metal is an alloy of lead, tin, copper and antimony.
malleable and has good resistance to corrosion. It is a It is a soft, anti-friction alloy, often used as bearings.
good insulator against nuclear radiation. Lead is resistant
to many acids like sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. An alloy of lead and tin is used as ‘soft solder. (Fig 2)
It is used in car batteries, in the preparation of solders

etc. It is also used in the preparation of paints. (Fig 1)
Zinc
• state the properties and uses of zinc
• state the uses of zinc alloys.
Zinc is a commonly used metal for coating on steel to Its melting point is 420o C.
prevent corrosion. Examples are steel buckets, galvanized
roofing sheets, etc. It is brittle and softens on heating; it is also corrosion-
resistant. Due to this reason it is used for battery con-
Zinc is obtained from the ore-calamine or blende. tainers and is coated on roofing sheets etc.
Galvanized iron sheets are coated with zinc.
Tin
• state the properties and uses of tin
• name the common tin alloys and state their uses.
Tin It is mainly used as a coating on steel sheets for the

production of food containers. It is also used with other
Tin is produced from cassiterite or tinstone. It is silvery metals, to form alloys.
white in appearance, and the melting point is 231o C. It is
soft and highly corrosion-resistant. Example: Tin with copper to form bronze. Tin with lead to
form solder. Tin with copper, lead and antimony to form
Babbit metal.
Aluminium
• state the properties and uses of aluminium
• name the commonly used aluminium alloys and their uses
• name the ores from which aluminium is produced.
Aluminium low tensile strength. Aluminium is very widely used in

aircraft industry and fabrication work because of its
Aluminium is a non-ferrous metal which is extracted from lightness. Its application in the electrical industry is also
‘BAUXITE’. Aluminium is white or whitish grey in colour. It on the increase. It is also very much in use in household
has a melting point of 660o C. Aluminium has high electrical heating appliances. Some typical aluminium alloys, their
and thermal conductivity. It is soft and ductile, and has composition and applications are given in the table that
follows.
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS - COMPOSITION - USES
Composition(%) (Only the percentage of alloying elements is

shown. The remaining is aluminium.) Category Applications
Copper Silicon Iron Manganese Magnesium Other

elements
0.1 0.5 0.7 0.1 - - Wrought. Fabricated assemblies, Electri-

max. max. max. max. Not heat cal conductors. Food and brew
treatable. ing, processing plants.
Architectural decorations.
0.15 0.6 0.75 1.0 4.5 to 0.5 Wrought. High strength ship building and
max. max. max. max. 5.5 Chromium Not heat engineering products. Good
treatable. corrosion resistance.
1.6 10.0 - - - - Cast, not General purpose alloy for mode-
heat rately stressed pressure die-
treatable. castings.
- 10.0 to - - - - Cast, not One of the most widely used
13.0 heat treatable alloys. Suitable for sand,gravity
and pressure die castings.
Excellent foundry characteristics
Used for large marine,
automotive and general
engineering castings.
4.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.3 Wrought. Traditional‘Duralumin’. General
Titanium Heat machining alloy. Widely used for
(option) treatable. stressed components in aircraft.
- 0.5 - - 0.6 - Wrought. Corrosion-resistant alloy for
Heat lightly stressed components
treatable. such as glazing bars, window
sections and automotive body
components.
1.8 2.5 1.0 - 0.2 0.15 Cast. Suitable for sand and gravity die
Titanium Heat casting. High rigidity with moder-
1.2 treatable. ate strength and shock resis-
Nickel tance. A general purpose alloy
- - - - 10.5 0.2 Cast. A strong, ductile and highly corro-
Titanium Heat sion-resistant alloy used for air
treatable. craft and marine castings, both
large and small.
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise: 2.2.83 - 85
Simple scrapers and scraping

• state the necessity of scraping surfaces
• state what is high spots
• state what is bearing surface
• list the types of scrapers used, material and size
• hold the scraper at correct angle/position.
Necessity of scraping surface: Scrapers are used to

correct slight errors on all flat or curved surfaces that must
be finished more decorately.
Scraping is used to produce a high degree of fit between

two flat or two curved surfaces particularly where the
surfaces can rub together in use.
After a surface is filed or machined as accurately as

possible, it can be further improved by rough scraping after
which finish scraping is employed. Finish scraping is used
to remove minute amount of material.
High spots and bearing surfaces: On the surface plate

3 Non-contact point, have not been in contact with the
apply the coating of Prussian blue or red lead mixed with
marking compound.
oil or apply used carbon. Placing the job to be scraped,
move the job under light downward pressure keeping all
– After third scraping completed and testing the shining
edges of the job within the limits of surface. Carefully lift off
shows the shiny spots are more than those coloured
the job in a perpendicular direction.
with marking compound. The patches are greater in
number in size more evenly distributed. (High spots)
Study the patches of marking compound before you begin
(Fig 4)
scraping.
– First test having 3 shiny patches. Only patch 3 would

be scraped (high spots) (Fig 1)
– The enlarged view of the pattern of scraping marks on

the small patches shown in Fig 5.
– Second test having even distribution of marking

compound. (High spots) (Fig 2)
– Further testing, scraping would produce a more even

distribution of larger number of smaller sized patches
(bearing spots). (Fig 6)
– Types of bearing contact obtained (Fig 3)
1 Metal contact with the surface plate. The points have

been rubbed shiny.
2 They have been conduct with the marking compound
and coloured by it. This portion is called normal contact
point.
81
In 25 mm SQ = 25 bearing parts. Scraper material: High grade tool steel or special alloy
steel and tungsten carbide tipped tool.
Types and uses of scraper: For scraping flat surfaces
Specification: The overall length of blade and handle may
– Flat scrapers with rectangular blades. (Fig 7) range from 150 to about 500 mm.
Holding position of flat scraper: The handle of the
scraper is held and pushed by right hand. Hold the right
elbow out of from the body when beginning forward cutting
stroke. As you finish the short cutting stroke bring the
Used for scraping large flat surfaces. The working edge is elbow into the body.
not thicker than 3 mm. The blade is guided and pressed down by the left hand.
Grasp the blade with the root of the little finger above the
– Hook scrapers with rectangular blades. (Fig 8) blade and about 40 mm to 50 mm from the cutting edge.
(Fig 12)
Hook scrapers are used for scraping the center portion of

large flat surface where it is not convenient to use of flat
scraper.
For scraping curved surfaces
– Half round scraper is curved slightly towards the curved

surfaces. (Fig 9)
It is used to scrape bearing blocks or brasses, pressure is

applied in radial direction and cutting edge moved at right
angles to its length. So that scraping marks are
circumferential.
Curl the little finger and second finger lightly around the
– Three square or triangular scraper blade. The first finger lies loosely around the blade and
thumb lies on top of the blade and at right angle to it.
Each of the three faces are hallow ground Fig 10. It is used
for scraping small diameter holes and deburring edges of For work of average hardness blade of scraper is held at an
accurate holes. The cutting edge is moved at right angles angle about 30° to surface. For very hard work the angle
to its length. may be greater, while for softer metals this angle may be
decreased to about 20°. (Fig 13)
– Bull-nose scraper is forged to a disc like end. (Fig 11)

It is used for scraping large bearings. It can be used two
ways either with the circumferential movement of a flat
scraper or with the longitudinal movement of flat scraper.
After scraping in one general direction and testing in the Care and maintenance of scrapers
surface plate. Change the general direction of scraping by
about 90°. (Fig 14) • Scrapers must be sharp and kept with good condition
to handle.
• Cover the cutting edge with rubber or leather sheath.
• After use apply grease on cutting edge to avoid corroding.
• Scraper should not fall down from the bench.
• Don’t mix with other tool.
Originating true flat surfaces by three-plate method (Whitworth principle)

• originate flat scraped surfaces by the three-plate method.
How does one obtain a flat surface?

It is easy to say that it is scraped but how does one know
where to take off the high points.
If three plates are compared with one another

in alternate pairs, they will only mate parfectly
in all positions when they are absolutely flat.
(Fig 1)
Keep both the pieces together and rub the plates back and
forth against each other. (Fig 4)
File and ensure that all the three plates are finished to size
and square. (Fig 2)
Observe the high spots on the plates X and Y remove by
scraping. (Fig 5)
Check the level with the knife edge/straight

edge
Stamp the plates X,Y and Z with a letter punch.

Apply a very thin uniform coating of Prussion blue on the
feces of plates X and Y which are to be scrapped. (Fig 3)
Clean the faces with knitted cotton cloth. Repeat the same procedure till both the faces of the plates
X and Z are mating with good
Rub with an oilstone gently to remove the burrs and again
clean with knitted cotton cloth. Repeat the procedure till the faces of plates Y and Z are
mating with good bearing surfaces.
Repeat the same procedure till both the faces are mating
with good bearing surfaces. Now one cycle of operation is completed.
Apply a very thin uniform coating or Prussion blue on the Note: Plate X will mate with plates Y and Z but
face of the plate Z which is to be scraped. Y and Z will not mate. All the three plates mate
only when all the three are flat.
Keep the faces of the plates X and Z together and rub the
plates back and forth against each other. Repeat the cycle a number of times till interchangeable,
flat, good bearing surfaces are achieved.
Observe the high spots on the plate Z and remove by
scraping (Figs 6 and 7) Clean all the plates with kerosene.
Use knitted cotton cloth for cleaning.
A good bearing surface is achieved when 5 to 10 points are

visible and uniformy distribuited per cm2 on the workpiece
surfaces after finishing.(Fig 8)
Three trainees will work in a group for this

exercise.
Each trainee will be given one plate for
scraping.
Each trainee will compare his plate with those
Do not scrape plate X. This is taken as a of the other trainees as per the above procedure
reference surface. and generate flat surfaces by the three-plate
method.
Scraping curved surfaces

• scrape and test curved surfaces.
A half round scraper is the most suitable scraper for Method

scraping curved surfaces. This method of scrapping differs
For scraping curved surfaces the handle is held by hand in
from that of flat scraping.
such a way as to facilitate the movement of the scraper in
the required direction.(Fig 1)
Pressure is exerted with other hand on the shank for
cutting.
Rough scraping will need excessive pressure with longer

strokes.
For fine scraping, pressure is reduced and the stroke

length also becomes shorter.
Use a master bar to check the correctness of the surface
Cutting action takes place both on forward and return being scraped.(Fig 5)
strokes. (Fig 2)
During the forward movement one cutting edge acts, and on

the return stroke, the other cutting edge acts.
Apply a thin coating of Prussion blue on the master bar to
After each pass, change the direction of cutting. This
locate the high spots.
ensures a uniform surface. (Figs 3 & 4)
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exerise: 2.2.86 - 88
Vernier micrometer, screw thread micrometer, graduation & reading

• state the graduations of a vernier micrometer (metric)
• read a vernier micrometer
Vernier micrometer
Ordinary metric micrometers can measure only to an

accuracy of ±.01mm.
For taking more accurate measurements, vernier micro-

meters are useful. Vernier micrometers can measure to an
accuracy of ±.001 mm.
Example
Construction and graduation
After measuring, read the full mm divisions visible on the
Vernier micrometers are very similar to ordinary micrometers barrel.
in construction. The difference is in the graduation. These
micrometers have additional, equally spaced graduations full divisions in mm. 9 mm
(vernier graduations) given above the datum line. There are
ten such vernier graduation lines marked parallel above the Note the half divisions, if any, visible on the barrel.
datum line. (Fig 1) The space between these 10 lines is
equal to 9 divisions in the thimble. (Fig 1) 1 half division
Read the thimble divisions below the datum line. (Fig 2)
46 divisions
Note the vernier division coinciding with the thimble division.
3rd division
Add up all the readings together
Calcuation
The range of micrometer is 0 to 25 mm
A Full mm division
visible before
the thimble edge = 1.00 x 9 = 9.00 mm
The value of 10 vernier divisions is
B Half mm division
.0 1 mm X 9 visible after the full mm
=.09 mm. divsion on barrel. = 0.5 x 1 = 0.50 mm
C Thimble division below
The value of a vernier division the index line = 46 X 0.01 = 0.46 mm
D Vernier division coinsiding
with thimble division = 3 X 0.001 = 0.003 mm
Reading = 9.963 mm
The least count = 1 thimble division – 1 Vernier division
= 0.01 – 0.009mm = .001 mm
Vernier micrometers are made of invar steel.
(Fig 3)
Reading a vernier micrometer (Fig 2)
86
Care and maintenance • Care should be taken while handling the micrometer
and not to drop on floor.
• Clean the circumference of the spindle and both
measuring faces with dry linen cloth regularly before • Recalibrate the vernier micrometer if it is accidently
use. droped.
• Clean and apply thin layer of oil on the spindle and • Store vernier micrometer in a ventilated place with low
measurring faces after the use. humidity and ideally at room temperature.
• Ensure that there is a gap between measuring faces,
when it is not in use.
Calibration of measuring instrument

• state the importance of calibration
• state calibration and its procedure.
Why calibration is important ? It is also referred as checking the integrity of an instrument,

alternately ascertaining whether the instrument is fit enough
The accuracy of all measuring devices degrade over time. to be used for measurement.
This is typically caused by normal wear and tear. However,
changes in accuracy can also be caused by electric or The instrument calibration is carried out as per (ISS) Indian
mechanical shock or a hazardous manufacturing Standard Specification published by the Bureau of Indian
environment in which it is being used, it may degrade very standards (BIS), which also gives the permissble error, that
quickly or over a long period of time. The bottom line is that, can be allowed in the relavant standard for each instrument.
calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device.
Accurate measuring devices improve product quality. Calibration is mandatory in most of the global quality
standards and is covered under a special clause called
When should you calibrate your measuring device? measuring system analysis (MSA) for automobile industry
standard ISO/TS 16949. Calibration should be carried out
A measuring device should be calibrated: by an accredited laboratory or by following relevant
documents of the certifying agency, NABL India (National
• According to recommendation of the manufacturer.
Accreditation Board for calibration testing laboratries, the
• After any mechanical or electrical shock. accrediting body in our country.
• Periodically (annually, quarterly, monthly).
A part from following the standard specification for calibration
What is calibration of an instrument, the environmental condition of the lab is
critical with respect to temperature, humidity, vibrations
Calibration is defined as a scientific and systematic proper lighting, magnetic interference etc., which are
method of identifying deviations (error) in a instrument by specified in IS:199 or the NABL document, essential
comparing with a master, having higher accuracy and criteria for the calibration lab, which should adopt the
rational traceability.
quality system standard (QSS) as per ISO/IEC/170235 - these instruments are also calibrated for zero error in the
2015. The vital factor in calibration of an instrument is the fully closed position and flatness and parallelism of the
frequency of calibration, which is determined based on the measuring surfaces. For the calibration of the scale, a
importance & criticality of the measurement process. calibrated slip gauge is used. A calibrated optical flat is
used to check the flatness and parallelism.
A good calibrated instrument will maintain both precision
& accuracy, the essential requirement of any measuring
system
Calibration of your measuring instruments has two

objectives. It checks the accuracy of the instrument and it
determines the traceability of the measurement. In practice,
calibration also includes repair of the device if it is out of
calibration. A report is provided by the calibration expert,
which shows the error in measurements with the measuring
device before and after the calibration.
To explain how calibration is performed we can use an

external micrometer as an example. Here, accuracy of the
scale is the main parameter for calibration. In addition,
Mechanical fasteners
• define mechanical fasteners
• classification of fasteners
• state the application of various fasteners & their uses.
Definition Uses
A mechanical fastener is a device that mechanically joins These types of fasteners are used for assembling two (or)
two (or) more components together easily and also can be more components together to make a sub-assembly (or) to
dismantled without damaging any components using hand make a full assembly.
tools (or) power tools.
Semi permanent fasteners
Classification
The fasteners like rivets are used to hold the plates (or)
According to the need and usage they are classified into steel sections firmly. The rivets are placed through the pre
three categories. drilled appropriate holes in parts to be joined (or)
assembled.By using rivet sets, the tail part of the shank is
- Temporary (or) removable fasteners formed into the head closing the hole.
- Semi permanent fasteners
The plates are held between the heads on cooling. Rivet is
- Permanent fasteners a cylindrical rod either carbon steel (or) wrought iron (or)
non-ferrous metal. It consists of a head and shank tapering
Temporary (or) removable fasteners at the end facilitating easy placement in the rivet holes.
During dismantling the rivets may be drilled to remove the
• The fasteners like bolts, nuts, screws, studs etc.,
plates already joined together without spoiling them. This
enable us to join two (or) more components easily and
process is a permanent as well as a semi-permanent in
also can be dismantled without damaging any component
nature. According to the head type the rivets are called
using hand tools (or) power tools.
snap head, pan head, countersunk head, flat head etc.
• The most common types of male fasteners used in
industry are hexagonal head, square head, flat (or) Uses
counters sunk head, round head, socket head (or) allen
head, button head and socket set screws etc. Rivets are used in ship building, bridge girders, structural
towers, goods wagons, boilers and heavy pressure vessels
• The most common types of female fasteners (ie nuts) industry and also for small scale applications too.
used in industry are regular hexagonal nut, square nut,
round nut and nylon ring elastic stop nuts etc.
Permanent fasteners Uses
To hold steel plates (or) structures together like goods
Arc welding, gas welding and brazing are the operations
wagon building, ship building, bridge structures assembling
used in industry during permanent fastening of components
etc. Sometimes before doing welding the components (or)
and structures. Once the arc welding, gas welding and
the parts hold together with temporary fasteners like bolts,
brazings has been done, the components (or) the structures
nuts, screws, rivets etc.
cannot be separated without damage, hence these type of
fastening is called permanent fastening.
Screw thread micrometer - Thread measurement (effective diameter) using

screw thread micrometer
• state the features of a screw thread micrometer
• state the features of the three-wire system of measurement with the help of tables
• select the best wire with the help of tables for using in the three-wire method.
The Screw thread micrometer: This micrometer (Fig 1)

is used to measure the effective diameter of the screw
threads. This dimension is important, because the area
of the thread flanks in the vicinity of the pitch line is where
the greatest transmission of force occurs between mating
threads.
The three-wire method: This method uses three wires of

the same diameter for checking the effective diameter and
the flank form. The wires are finished with a high degree of
accuracy.
The size of the wires used depends on the pitch of the

thread to be measured.
This is very similar to the ordinary micrometer in construction
but has facilities to change the anvils.
For measuring the effective diameter, three wires are
suitable placed between the threads. (Fig 4)
The anvils are replaceable and are changed according to
the profile and pitch of the different systems of threads.
(Figs 2 & 3)
The measuring wires are fitted in wire-holders which are

supplied in pairs. One holder has provisions to fix one wire
and the other for two wires. (Fig 5)
While measuring the screw thread, the holder with the one
wire is placed on the spindle of the micrometer and the
other holder with two wires is fixed on the anvil. (Fig 6)
Selection of ‘best wire’ (Fig 7): The best wire is the one
which, when placed in the thread groove, will make contact
at the nearest to the effective diameter. The selection of the
wire is based on the type of thread and pitch to be
measured. The selection of the wire can be calculated and
determined but readymade charts are available from which
the selection can be made.
Table 1
Measurement with measuring wires. Metric threads with coarse pitch (M)
Thread Pitch Basic measure- Measuring Dimension

designation ment mean wire dia. over wire
P (mm) d2 (mm) W1 (mm) M1 (mm)
M1 0.25 0.838 0.15 1.072

M 1.2 0.25 1.038 0.15 1.272
M 1.4 0.3 1.205 0.17 1.456
M 1.6 0.35 1.373 0.2 1.671
M 1.8 0.35 1.573 0.2 1.870
M2 0.4 1.740 0.22 2.055
M 2.2 0.45 1.908 0.25 2.270
M 2.5 0.45 2.208 0.25 2.569
M3 0.5 2.675 0.3 3.143
M 3.5 0.6 3.110 0.35 3.642
M4 0.7 3.545 0.4 4.140
M 4.5 0.75 4.013 0.45 4.715
M5 0.8 4.480 0.45 5.139
M6 1 5.350 0.6 6.285
M8 1.25 7.188 0.7 8.207
M 10 1.5 9.026 0.85 10.279
M 12 1.75 10.863 1.0 12.350
M 14 2 12.701 1.15 14.421
M 16 2 14.701 1.15 16.420
M 18 2.5 16.376 1.45 18.464
M 20 2.5 18.376 1.45 20.563
M 22 2.5 20.376 1.45 22.563
M 24 3 22.051 1.75 24.706
M 27 3 25.051 1.75 27.705
M 30 3.5 27.727 2.05 30.848
Table 2
Measurement with measuring wires. Metric threads with fine pitch (M)
Thread designation Basic measurement Measuring wire dia.mean Dimension over wire
d2 (mm) W1 (mm) M1 (mm)
M 1 x 0.2 0.870 0.12 1.057

M 1.2 x 0.2 1.070 0.12 1.257
M 1.6 x 0.2 1.470 0.12 1.557
M 2 x 0.25 1.838 0.15 2.072

M 2.5 x 0.35 2.273 0.2 2.570
M 3 x 0.35 2.773 0.2 3.070
M 4 x 0.5 3.675 0.3 4.142

M 5 x 0.5 4.675 0.3 5.142
M 6 x 0.75 5.513 0.45 6.214
M8x1 7.350 0.6 8.285

M 10 x 1.25 9.188 0.7 10.207
M 12 x 1.25 11.188 0.7 12.206
M 14 x 1.5 13.026 0.85 14.278

M 16 x 1.5 15.026 0.85 16.278
M 18 x 1.5 17.026 0.85 18.277
M 20 x 1.5 19.026 0.85 20.277

M 22 x 1.5 21.026 0.85 22.277
M 24 x 2 22.701 1.15 24.420
M 27 x 2 25.701 1.15 27.420
M 30 x 2 28.701 1.15 30.419
Dial test indicator, comparators, digital dial indicator

• state the principle of a dial test indicator
• identify the parts of a dial test indicator
• state the important features of a dial test indicator
• state the functions of a dial test indicator
• identify the different types of stands.
Dial test indicators are instruments of high prescision,

used for comparing and determining the variation in the
sizes of a component. (Fig 1) These instruments cannot
give the direct reading of the sizes like micrometers and
vernier calipers. A dial test indicator magnifies small
variations in sizes by means of a pointer on a graduated
dial. This direct reading of the deviations gives an accurate
picture of the conditions of the parts being tested.
Principle of working
The magnification of the small movement of the plunger or

stylus is converted into a rotary motion of the pointer on a
circular scale. (Fig 2)
1 Pointer
Types 2 Rotatable bezel
Two types of dial test indicators are in use according to 3 Bezel clamp
the method of magnification.They are 4 Back lug
Plunger type (Fig 3) 5 Transparent dial cover
6 Stem
Lever type (Fig 4)
7 Plunger
The Plunger Type dial test indicator 8 Anvil
The external parts and features of a dial test indicator are 9 Revolution counter
as shown in Fig 3.
For converting the linear motion of the plunger, a rack and
Dial test indicators are made out of Inver steel pinion mechanism is used. (Fig 2)
material
93
The lever type dial test indicator (Fig 4) It has a stylus with a ball- type contact, operating in the
horizontal plane.
In the case of this type of dial test indicators, the
magnification of the movement is obtained by the This can be conveniently mounted on a surface gauge
mechanism of the lever and scroll. (Fig 5) stand, and can be used in places where the plunger type
dial test indicator application is difficult. (Fig 6)
Important features of dial test indicators
An important feature of the dial test indicator is that the

scale can be rotated by a ring bezel, enabling it to be set
readily to zero.
Many dial test indicators read plus in clockwise direction

from zero, and minus in the anti-clockwise direction so
as to give plus and minus indications.
To compare the dimensions of a workpiece against a known
standard, eg.slip gauges.
To check plane surfaces for parallelism and flatness.
To check parallelism of shafts and bars.
To check concentricity of holes and shafts.
Indicator stands (Fig 8)
Dial test indicators are used in conjunction with stands for

holding them so that the stand itself may be placed on a
datum surface of machine tools.
The different types of stands are (Fig 9)
Uses (Figure 7 shows few applications) - Magnetic stand with universal clamp
- Magnetic stand with flexible post
- General purpose holder with cast iron base.
The arrows indicate the provisions in the

clamps for insertion of the dial test indicator.
Care and maintenance of dial test indicator.
• Keep the dial test indicator spindle and point clean

using a soft cloth.
• Store the dial test indicator in a safe, dry place and
cover them to keep the dust and moisture out.
• Do the dial test indicator under gaging conditions at
intervals during the operating day.
Comparators
• state the principle of working of comparator gauges
• state the essential features of a good comparator gauge
• state the purpose of a comparator gauge.
Purpose of a comparator gauge Microcator (Fig 1)
The purpose of all comparator gauges is to indicate the

difference in the size between the standard (slip gauge
or ring gauge) and the work being measured by means
of some form of pointer on a scale at a magnification
which is sufficient to read to the accuracy required.
Almost every possible principle known to the Science of
Physics for providing magnification has been used for
the construction of these comparator gauges.
Essential features of a good comparator gauge
• Should be compact.
• Maximum rigidity.
• Maximum compensation for temperature effects.
• No backlash in the movement of the plunger and
recording mechanism.
• Straight line characteristics of the scale readings. This is a simple and ingeneous design, giving a very high
magnification up to 25000 times (0.02 μ ie. 0.00002 mm.
• Most suitable measuring pressure which remains
least count) It is compact, robust and free from friction
uniform throughout the scale.
and backlash.
• Indicator should be consistent in its return to zero.
When the plunger moves up, the bell crank lever is tilted
• Method of indication should be clear and the pointer
and the twisting strip elongates. The helix angle in the
‘dead beat’ (ie. free from oscillations).
twisted strip reduces and this causes the pointer, which
• Should be able to withstand reasonable wrong usage. is fixed along the helix of the strip, to move to one side.
This movement is then read on the scale fitted behind
• Should have a wide range of operations.
it. When the plunger moves down, the entire process of
Principles of working movement is reversed and the pointer moves to the
opposite side and this reading is read against the scale.
The following principles are employed in the commonly
used comparator gauges. Sigma comparator (Fig 2)
• Mechanical
• Electronics
• Pneumatic
• Optical
Mechanical comparators
These are widely used and the familiar ones are the dial
indicator fitted to the comparator stand, microcator, sigma
comparator and red comparator.
Dial indicator fitted to the comparator stand.
Here, the plunger type dial indicator is used. The
magnification is achieved by a suitable combination of
gears, rack and pinion, steel band and levers. Generally
the magnification range is between 100 or 1000 (least
count 10 micron or 1 micron).
This also gives a magnification of the same order as
the microcator. When the plunger moves up, the knife
edge resting on the sapphire bearing block also moves
up, causing an imbalance to the hinged block which, in
turn, causes the ‘Y’ arm to move down. The
phospher-bronze band drives the drum and causes the
pointer to move.
‘Red’ comparator
This design is also equally popular. Figures 3a, 3b

and 3c explain the mechanism of this comparator.
In Fig 4a, as the plunger (1) moves up, the armature

(2) is lifted up, causing an imbalance in the
electrical field created by the electromagnets (3 & 4).
This causes an induced electromotive force in the
circuits. These changes are amplified electronically to
as much as 100000 times.
Fig 4b shows the electronic gauging system.
Pneumatic comparator (Fig 5)
Electrical/Electronic comparator
These are power-amplified with a continuous analogue
output. The electronic comparator offers advantages
like widely adjustable magnification, electrical zero
adjustment, adding or subtracting signals from a number
of measuring heads, relay functions etc.
(Figs 4a and 4b)
This comparator is fast, rigid, accurate and suitable for Optical comparator (Fig 7)
use on the shop floor especially in mass production.
As no mechanical contact exists between the gauge
unit and the measured surface, these are used where
other instruments are unsuitable. The air stream from
the measuring jet also has a cleaning effect on the
measuring surface.
In the figure, as the gap ‘d’ between the component and

the jet ‘B’ decreases, the outflow of the air experiences
some resistance to its free flow. This causes a back
pressure in the air-line causing the liquid column inside
the manometer tube to go down. When the distance
‘d’ increases, the liquid column in the manometer tube
rises up. These variations ‘h’ are read from the scale
fitted behind the manometer tube which correspond to
the variations in ‘d’.
Fig 6 explains the pneumatic comparator wherein

compressed air at 6 to 10 atmospheric pressure is made
use of.
These instruments employ the principle of reflection

of light rays. Very large magnifications are attainable and
the instrument is free from friction and backlash.
Accuracy of measurements upto 1μ is possible with
these comparators.
As the measuring plunger goes up, the light ray falling

on mirror ‘B’ gets tilted and the tilted ray falls on mirror
‘D’ and gets reflected accordingly. This tilt in the light ray
is read against the scale ‘E’ through the eyepiece ‘H’.
Digital dial indicator
• define digital dial indicator.
Digital dial indicator
With the advent of electronics, the clock face (dial) in some

indicators are now a days replaced with digital displace
(usually LCD’s) and the dial readings are also replaced by
linear encoders.
Digital indicators have some advantages over their analog

predecessors, many models of digital indicator can record
and transmit the data electronically through a computer,
through an interface such as RS 232 or USB, this
facilitates statistical process control (SPC), because a
computer can record the measurement results in a tabular
dataset (such as database table or spread sheet) and
interpret them (by performimg statistical analysis on them).
This obviates manual recordings of long columns of
numbers, which not only reduce the risk of the operator
by avoding errors (such as digit transpositions) but also
really improves the productivity of the process by freeing
the human efforts from time - consuming data recording
and copying tasks.
Therefore the digital dial indicator is having more advantage
Another advantages is that they can be switched between over the ordinary dial indicator.
metric and british units by the press of a button, thus
avoids the provision of separate unit conversion system. The digital dial indicator accuracy is 0.001mm in metric
and 0.0001 inch in british.
Measurement of quality in cylindrical bore using three point internal

micrometer
Objectives: This shall help you to
• state the uses of a three-point internal micrometer
• identify the parts of a three-point internal micrometer
• state the features of the three-point internal micrometer.
The three-point internal micrometers (Fig 1) are useful for: - Measuring the diameters of through and blind holes.
- Checking cylindricity and roundness of bores.
The commonly used three-point internal micrometers have

a least count of 0.005 mm.
Parts
- Measuring head consisting of three measuring anvils

- Ratchet stop
- Thimble
- Barrel
This micrometer has a cone spindle which advances when

the thimble is rotated clockwise. The movement of the
cone spindle makes the measuring anvils to move forward
and backward uniformly. The three measuring anvils
facilitate self-alignment of the instrument within the bore.
Three-point internal micrometers are available in different Depending on the depth of the bore the length of the
sizes permitting measurement within a range. micrometer cab be varied using an extension rod. (Fig 4)
The ratchet stop permits uniform pressure between the

anvils and the work-surface being measured.
These micrometers are provided with one or more zero

setting rings. (Fig 2)
A spanner is provided for changing the extension rods.

(Fig 5)
These instruments are available in various sizes for different

uses.
They are also available in analogue or digital read-outs.
Before taking measurement, the zero setting has to be

checked using setting ring. (Fig 3)
The position of the anvils can be reset by loosening the

barrel using a screwdriver provided for this purpose.
Fitter - Turning
Safety to be observed while working on lathes

• state the precautions to be observed before starting work on a lathe, during work and after.
Before starting the work
Ensure that the lubricating system is functioning.
The mating gears should be in proper mesh and the power

feed levers are in neutral position.
The work area should be clean and tidy.
The safety guards should be in place.
During work
Never try to stop a rotating chuck with your hand. A

rotating chuck is dangerous.
Switch off the machine before making any adjustment on

the lathe. You must always know where the emergency stop switch
is.
It is dangerous to leave the chuck key in the chuck.
Remove it immediately after use. (Fig 1) After work
Single point tools are sharp and dangerous. Be extra Clean the lathe with a brush and wipe with cotton waste.
careful when using them.
Oil the bedways and lubricating points.
Chips are sharp and dangerous. Never remove them with
your bare hands. Use a chip rake or brush. Clean the surroundings of the lathe, wipe the dirt and
coolant and remove the swarf.
Specification of a centre lathe

• specify a centre lathe.
Specification of a lathe (Fig 1) The length of the bed. The length of the bed-ways.
The maximum length of work that can be turned between
centres.
The range of threads that can be cut. The capacity of the
lathe. The swing over carriage.
The value of each division on the graduated collars of the
cross-slide and compound slide.
Range of spindle speeds.
Range of feeds.
Size of the spindle bore.
Type of spindle nose.
A lathe is to be specified by the following.
The specifications help in communication between the seller
The maximum diameter of a work that can be held. and the buyer of the lathe.
The swing over bed. This is the perpendicular distance It helps the operator of the lathe to decide whether the
from the lathe axis to the top of the bed. work in hand can be accommodated for performing the
operations.
102
Constructional features of lathe
• name the main parts of a lathe
• state the constructional features of lathe
• explain the principle of a lathe.
Centre lathe is a machine which is used to bring the raw to axis it produces cylindrical surface and when it rotates
material to the required shape and size by metal removal. at some angle, it produces taper surface.
This is done by feeding a cutting tool against the direction
of rotation of the work. Constructional features of a lathe
The machine tool on which turning is carried out is known A lathe should have provision :
as a lathe.
- To hold the cutting tool, and feed it against the direction
Lathe is a machine tool which holds the job in between of rotation.
the centre and rotates the job on its own axis. Due to this
- To have parts, fixed and sliding, to get a relative
quality of holding the job from the centre and rotating the
movement of the cutting tool with respect to the rotation
job, it is called centre lathe. Work can be held on a chuck
of the work.
and face plate. Chuck and face plate are mounted on the
front of spindle. Cutting tool is fed against work after holding - To have accessories and attachments for performing
it in the tool post firmly. The work rotates on it own axis different operations.
and tool is moved parallel to work. When tool moves parallel
The following are the main parts of a lathe. (Fig 1)
- Headstock Working principle of Lathe (Fig 2)

- Tailstock
- Carriage
- Cross-slide
- Compound slide
- Bed
- Quick change gearbox
- Legs
- Feed shaft
- Lead screw
Fitter - Turning
Lathe main parts

• name the parts
• state the functions of the parts
Lathe bed
Functions of a lathe bed
The functions of a lathe bed are:
- To locate the fixed units in accurate relationship to

each other.
- To provide slide-ways upon which the operating units
can be moved. The bed-ways are of three types.
Constructional features of a lathe bed (Fig 1) Flat bed-way (Fig 3)
'V' bed way (Fig 4)
The lathe bed generally consists of a single casting. In

larger machines, the bed may be in two or more sections
accurately assembled together. Web bracings are
employed to increase the rigidity. For absorbing shock
and vibration,the beds are made heavy.
A combined swarf and coolant tray is provided on lathes. Combination bed way (Figs 5a & 5b)
This may be an integral part with the lathe bed.
Normally the bed-ways stop at a distance away from the
The bed is generally made by cast iron or welded sheet headstock with a gap at this point. This enables to mount
metal legs of box section. This provides the necessary larger diameters of the work.
working height for the lathe. Very often the electrical switch
gear unit and the coolant pump assembly are housed in Some lathes have a detachable section of the bed, which
the box section of the legs at the headstock end. can be fitted when desired, to enable the saddle to operate
close to the headstock.
Bed-ways (Fig 2)
The bed-ways are highly finished by grinding. Some lathes
The bed-ways or slideways assist in accurate location have their bed-ways hand scraped. Some have their bed-
and sliding of the accessories/parts mounted on this. ways hardened and ground. The wear-resisting qualities
of bearing surfaces are improved by employing chilled iron
castings.
104
The beds are mostly made up of closely ground, grey
cast iron.
Gap bedway (Fig 6)
Headstock
• state the function of the headstock
• differentiate between cone pulley headstock and all geared headstock.
Functions (Fig 1) 1 All geared headstock.

2 Cone pulley headstock.
All geared headstock (Fig 2)
To provide a means to assemble the work-holding devices.

Transmit the drive from the main motor to the work.
To accommodate shafts, gears and levers for a wide range

of varying work speeds. It is a box section casting having a removable top cover. It
has internal webs for stiffening, and to take shaft bearings.
To ensure arrangement for lubricating the gears, shafts It has an input shaft which is connected by means of 'V'
and bearings. belts to the main motor, and it runs at a constant speed. It
is equipped with clutches and a brake.
Types of headstocks
The following are the two types of headstocks.
There may be two or more intermediate shafts on which back gear shaft is parallel to the axis of the main spindle.
sliding gears are mounted. The main spindle is the last The back gear is engaged or disengaged with the cone
driven shaft in the headstock assembly. The nose of the pulley system by means of a lever. The back gear unit is
spindle is outside the headstock casting, and is designed engaged for reducing the spindle speeds. (Fig 4)
to accommodate the work-holding devices.
The levers operating the forks for the sliding gears are
situated outside in front of the headstock casting.
In the all-geared headstock, lubricating oil is filled for splash

lubrication of the internal gears. A sight glass with an oil
level mark is provided to see the oil level.
Cone pulley headstock (Fig 3)
A three-stepped cone pulley headstock provides 3 direct

ranges of speeds through a belt connection. With the back
gear in engagement, 3 further ranges of reduced speeds
It has a stepped cone pulley mounted on the main spindle, can be obtained.
and it is free to revolve. It is connected by means of a flat
belt to a similar cone pulley, with steps arranged in the Advantages
reverse order. This cone pulley gets the drive from the
main motor. • Can take up heavy load.
• Less noise during working.
The spindle is mounted on the bearing on the headstock
casting and has a gear wheel called 'bull gear' keyed to it. • Easy to maintain.
A pinion is coupled to the cone pulley.
Disadvantages
The back gear unit has a shaft which carries a gear and a
pinion. The number of teeth of the gear and pinion on the The number of spindle speeds is limited to the number of
back gear shaft corresponds to the number of teeth on the steps in the cone pulley.
bull gear and pinion on the cone pulley. The axis of the
It takes time to change the spindle speeds.
Carriage
• state the functions of a carriage
• name the parts of a carriage.
Carriage is the feature of a lathe that provides the method Apron (Fig 2)
of holding and moving the cutting tool. (Fig 1) It can be
The apron is bolted to the front of the saddle. It contains
locked at any desired position on the lathe bed. It
mechanism for moving and controlling the carriage. The
consists of two major parts namely, apron and saddle.
main parts of an apron are :
It is a 'H' shaped casting having 'V' guide grooves at the
bottom face, corresponding to the lathe bed-ways for
mounting on the lathe bed and for sliding.
Parts of a saddle
Cross-slide
The cross-slide is mounted on the top of the saddle, and it
provides cross movement for the tool. This is fitted at
right angles to the bed and is moved by means of a screwed
spindle, fitted with a handle. A graduated collar, mounted
on the screw rod along with the hand wheel, helps to set
the fine movements of the cross- slide.
Compound rest
The compound rest is fitted on the top and to the front of
the cross-slide. The compound rest can be swivelled
horizontally through 360°.
Top slide
The top slide is fitted on the top of the compound rest. It
supports the tool post which holds the cutting tool. The
top slide provides a limited horizontal movement for the
cutting tool.
By swivelling the compound rest, the top slide can be

set at an angle to the cross-slide (Fig 4). Usually the
compound rest is set in such a way that the top slide is at
right angles to the cross-slide.
- Traversing hand wheel
- Feed lever
- Feed selector
- Lead screw engagement lever.
Saddle (Fig 3)
Tailstock
• list the parts of a tailstock
• state the uses of a tailstock
• explain the function of a tailstock.
Tailstock Functioning of a tailstock

It is a sliding unit on the bed-ways of the lathe bed. It is By rotating the hand wheel, the barrel can be moved forward
situated on the right hand side of the lathe. It is made in or backward. The barrel can be locked in any required
two parts namely the `base' and the `body'. The base position. The hollow end of the barrel at the front is provided
bottom is machined accurately and has `V' grooves with a Morse taper to accommodate the cutting tools with
corresponding to the bed-ways. It can slide over the bed a taper shank. Graduations are sometimes marked on
and can be clamped at any position on the bed by means the barrel to indicate the movement of the barrel. With the
of the clamping unit. The body of the tailstock is assembled help of the adjusting screws, the body can be moved over
to the base. Graduations are marked on the rear end of the base laterally, and the amount of movement may be
the base and a zero line is marked on the body. read approximately refering to the graduations marked.
This arrangement is to offset the centre of the tailstock as
When both zero lines coincide,the axis of the tailstock is required for taper turning.
in line with the axis of headstock.
Purpose of the tailstock
The body and base are made out of cast iron. The parts
of a tailstock are: (Fig 1)
To accommodate the dead center to support lengthy work
to carry out lathe operations. (Fig 2)
a Base
b Body To hold cutting tools like drills, reamers, drill chucks
provided with taper shank. (Fig 3)
c Spindle (barrel)
d Spindle locking lever
e Operating screw rod
f Operating nut
g Tailstock hand wheel
h Key
i Set screw/set overscrew
j Clamping bolt
To turn external taper by offsetting the body of the tailstock
with respect to the base. (Fig 4)
Fitter - Turning
Feeding & thread cutting mechanism

• name the parts of the feeding mechanism
• state the functional features of the feeding mechanism.
Feed mechanism (Fig 1) Tumber gear unit
The tumbler gear unit set of three gears, having the same
number of teeth and it connects the spindle gear to the
fixed gear. It is also called the reversing gear unit as it is
used to change the direction of feed of the tool for the
same direction of rotation of the spindle.It can be
engaged and disengaged with the fixed stud gear by the
operation of the hand lever provided in the unit. (Fig 2)
The feed mechanism of a lathe enables automatic feeding

for the tool longitudinally and transversely as needed. By
automatic feeding the finish on the work will be better, the
feeding of the tool will be at a uniform continuous rate and
it takes less time to finish the operation while manual
labour is avoided.
The feed mechanism comprises the following.

The fixed stud gear
- Spindle gear (A)
- Tumbler gear unit (B) The fixed stud gear gets the drive from the main spindle
gear through the tumbler gear unit and runs at the same
- Fixed stud gear (C) number of revolutions per minute as the spindle gear on
- Change gear unit (DEFG) most lathes.
- Quick change gear box (H) Change gear unit
- Feed shaft / Lead screw (I)
The fixed stud gear transmits its drive through a change
- Apron mechanism (Fig 5) gear unit to the quick change gear box. The change gear
unit has provision for changing the driver, the driven and
The proportionate tool movement for each revolution of work
the idler gears from the set of change gears available for
is achieved through all the above units of the feed
the purpose of feed changing as an additional unit. (Fig 3)
mechanism.
Quick change gear box
Spindle gear
The quick change gear box is provided with levers outside
The spindle gear is fitted to the main spindle, and it is
the box casting, and by shifting the levers, different gears
outside the headstock casting. It revolves along with the
are brought in mesh so that different feed rates can be
main spindle.
given to the tool. A chart listing the different feed rates for
the different positions of the levers is fixed to the casting,
and by referring to the table, the levers may be engaged in
position for the required feed rate. (Fig 4)
110
The feed shaft
The feed shaft gets its drive from the quick change gear
box, and through the apron mechanism, the rotary
movement of the feed shaft is converted into the linear
movement of the tool.
The apron mechanism
The apron mechanism has the arrangement for transmitting

the drive from the feed shaft to the saddle for longitudinal
movement of the tool or to the cross-slide for the transverse
movement of the tool. (Fig 5)
Thread cutting with simple and compound gear trains

• thread cutting with simple and compount gear trains.
Change gear train
Change gear train is a train of gears serving the purpose of

connecting the fixed stud gear to the quick change gearbox.
The lathe is generally supplied with a set of gears which
can be utilized to have a different ratio of motion between
the spindle and the lead screw during thread cutting. The
gears which are utilized for this purpose comprise the
change gear train.
The change gear tran consists of driver and driven gears

and idler gears.
Simple gear train
A simple gear train is a change gear train having only one

driver and one driven wheel. Between the driver and the
driven wheel, there may be an idler gear which does not
affect the gear ratio. Its purpose is just to link the driver
and the driven gears, as well as to get the desired direction Fig 2 shows mountings of the driver and driven gears in a
to the driven wheel. lathe.
Fig 1 shows an arrangement of a simple gear train.
Capital Goods & Manufacturing : Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) : RT for Ex.No. 2.3.92 111
Compound gear train
Sometimes, for the required ratio of motion between the

spindle and the lead screw, it is not possible to obtain one
driver and one driven wheel. The ratio is split up and then
the change gears are obtained from the available set of
gears which will result in having more than one driver and
one driven wheel. Such a change gear tain is called a
compound gear train.
Fig 3 shows the arrangment of a compound gear train.
The driver gear and the driven gear are changed according
to the pitch of the thread to be cut on the job.
112 Capital Goods & Manufacturing : Fitter (NSQF Level - 5) : RT for Ex.No. 2.3.92
Fitter - Turning
Holding the job between centre and work with catch plate and dog
• preparing work for turning between centre
• to set the catch plate
• working with catch plate and dog
Turning work in-between centres avoids the need for truing Select a suitable lathe carrier according to the diameter of
the work. The work turned will be parallel through-out. But the work and fasten it on one end of the work with the bent
it requires great skill to perform operations especially like tail pointing outwards. (Fig 2)
knurling, thread cutting, undercutting. It is limited to
external operations only. The work needs the following
preparations to be carried out before the actual operations
are to be performed.
Face both sides of the work, and maintain the total length
accurately within limits.
Choose the correct size and type of centre drill and do

centre drilling at both ends.
Diamantle the chuck from the spindle nose and assemble

the driving plate or catch plate.
Assemble the spindle sleeve to the spindle nose and fix

live centre to the sleeve.
Ensure that the spindle sleeve and live centre are free
from damages, burrs and are thoroughly cleaned before Work that has a finished surface should be protected by
assembly. inserting a small sheet of copper or brass between the
end of the screw in the carrier and the work. (Fig 3)
Check for the true running of the live centre. (Fig 1)
Apply a suitable lubricant (soft grease) to the centre hole

of the workpiece to be engaged by the tailstock dead
centre.
Move the tailstock to a position on the bed to suit the

length of the workpiece. The tailstock spindle should extend
approximately 60 to 100 mm beyond the tailstock.
Ensure there is sufficient space for the saddle to operate

before clamping the tailstock to the bed.
113
Clamp the tailstock in position by tightening the tailstock
clamp nut. (Fig 4)
Move the tail of the carrier back and forth. At the same
time adjust the hand wheel until only a slight resistance is
Engage the work-centre hole with the point of live centre felt.
and with the tail of the lathe carrier in the slot in the catch
plate. Hold the work in this position with hand. Tighten the tailstock spindle clamp at this position and
check that the resistance does not change. Set the
Ensure that the tail of the lathe carrier does not rest on machine for about 250 r.p.m. and allow the work to run for
the bottom of the slot in the driving plate. This will not a few seconds.
permit the centre entering the centre hole of the work for
Check once again for the resistance and adjust the
proper seating. (Fig 5)
tailstock spindle, if needed.
Work is now ready for operations. (Fig 7)
Advance the tailstock spindle by the hand wheel rotation Before holding the work in between centres ensure that
until the point of dead centre enters the centre hole of the the centres are aligned.
work with proper seating eliminating all endwise
movement. (Fig 6)
Fitter - Turning
Simple description of facing and roughing tool

• state the purpose of facing
• setting the rough facing tool
• state the reasons for the defects
• state the remedies to overcome the defects in facing
Facing
This is an operation of removing metal from the work-
face by feeding the tool at right angles to the axis of the
work. (Fig 1)
Purpose of facing
To have a reference plane to mark and measure the

step lengths of the work.
To have a face at right angle to the axis of the work.
To remove the rough surface on the faces of the work

and have finished faces instead. Finish facing is done by choosing a cutting speed about
twice that of the cutting speed for roughing, with a fine
To maintain the total length of the work. feed rate of 0.05 mm approximately and with a depth of
cut of not more than 0.1 mm.
Facing may be rough or finish facing. Rough facing is
done to remove the excess metal on the face of the work The following are the defects found in facing work
by coarse feeding with more depth of cut, leaving sufficient (Fig 3)
metal for finishing. Rough facing is done by feeding the
tool from the periphery of work towards the centre of the A concave face
work. Finish facing is the operation to have a smooth face
by removing the rough surface produced by the rough This is caused by the tool digging into the work during the
facing. feeding as the tool is not clamped rigidly. By clamping
the tool rigidly with minimum overhang, this defect can be
Finish facing is done by feeding the tool from the centre of avoided.
the work towards the periphery. (Figs 2a and 2b)
A convex face
Rough facing is done by choosing a spindle RPM
according to the average diameter of the work, the This is caused by the blunt cutting edge of the tool and
recommended cutting speed, with a coarse feed and more the carriage not being locked. To avoid this defect,
depth of cut. re-sharpen the tool and use it; Also lock the carriage to
the bed of the lathe.
115
A pip left in the centre
This is due to the tool not being set to the correct centre
height. By placing the tool to the centre height, this defect
can be avoided.
Fitter - Turning
Nomanclature of single point cutting tools and multi point cutting tools
• name the types of cutting tool
• state the nomanclature of single point cutting tools
• state the nomanclaure of multi point cutting tools
Lathe cutting tools are divided into two groups.These are

1 Single point cutting tools
2 Multi point cutting tools
Single point cutting tool nomenclature
The tool acts like a wedge during turning. The wedge shaped
cutting edge penetrates into the work and removes the
metal. This necessitates the grinding of a tool cutting edge
to a wedge shape.
When we sharpen a pencil with a pen knife by trial and
error, we find that the knife must be presented to the wood
at a definite angle, if success is to be achieved. (Fig 1)
If, in the place of a wooden pencil, a piece of soft metal

such as brass is cut, it will be found that the cutting edge
of the blade soon becomes blunt, and the cutting edge
gets crumbled. For the blade to cut the brass successfully, 4 Side rake angle
the cutting edge must be ground to a less acute angle.
5 Front clearance angle
(Fig 2)
6 Side clearance angle
The angle shown in Fig 1 is called as clearance angle and
Multi point cutting tools used in lathe are:
that shown in Fig 2 is a wedge angle.
- Drill RT for Ex.No. 2.1.61
Angles ground on a lathe cutting tool (Fig 3)
- Reamer RT for Ex.No. 2.1.67
All the angles given below may not be located or found in
every tool. As an example a roughing tool is chosen. The - Tap RT for Ex.No. 2.1.70
angles and clearances ground on this tool are:
- Die RT for Ex.No.2.1.71
1 Approach angle
2 Trail angle
3 Top rake angle
117
Hand chasers and their uses
• state what is a hand chaser
• state the constructional features of a hand chaser
• state the uses of a hand chaser.
It is not possible to cut a full thread form with a single point - Internal thread chasers Fig 3
cutting tool as errors like improper crest flat, root radius and
profile etc are likely to occur. The same may be corrected
by using a tool known as a chaser. (Fig 1)
Constructional features
They are made up of a rectangular cross-section of tool
steel, hardened and tempered, and ground to correct size.
At the front, multi-point cutting teeth are formed with a
proper rake angle. On the other end it is narrower to fix the
handle. The teeth pitch corresponds to the thread pitch on
the work to be finished. The chasing rest must be kept
close up to the workpiece, so that the chaser cannot be
dragged down between the rest and the workpiece. (Fig 4)
Hand chasers
Hand chasers are the devices which are used to remove

less amount of material at the time of correcting and When chasing, the thread is cut slightly oversize, then
finishing a thread. trimmed down to size with the chaser; constantly check
the thread with a thread ring gauge, if necessary.
There are two types of hand chasers.
Alternatively, a full thread may be cut from the solid, using
- External thread chasers Fig 2 a circular form tool. The form on the tool is slightly modified
to allow for the distortion caused by the rake angle, so that
the true form is cut. Such form tools are very expensive
compared to a single point tool, and care must be taken not
to chip them by incorrect usage. (Fig 5)
A button die held in a die-holder and mounted in the

tailstock may also be used to finish threads to size and
even cut them from the solild when threading low strength
materials. (Fig 6)
Fitter - Turning
Tool selection based on different requirements

• state the qualities of good cutting tool material
• state the factors to be remembered when selecting tool
• name the different types of tool
• name the shapes of the tool
Cutting tool materials - The total quantity of production and the rate of
production.
Tool materials should be:
- The dimensional accuracy required and the quality of
- Harder and stronger than the material being cut surface finish.
- Tough to resist shock loads - The amount of coolant applied and method of
application.
- Resistant to abrasion thus contributing to long tool
life. - Condition and form of material to be machined.
Cutting tool material should possess the following Grouping of tool material
qualities.
The three groups under which tool materials fall are:
- Cold hardness
- Red hardness - ferrous tool materials
- Toughness - non-ferrous tool materials

- non-metallic tool materials.
Cold hardness
Ferrous tool materials
It is the amount of hardness possessed by a material at
normal temperature. Hardness is the property by which it These materials have iron as their chief constituent. High
can cut/scratch other metals. When hardness increases, carbon steel (tool steel) and high speed steel belong to
brittleness also increases,and a material, which has too this group.
much of cold hardness, is not suitable for the manufacture
of cuttting tools. Non-ferrous tool materials
Red hardness These do not have iron, and they are formed by alloying
elements like tungsten, vanadium and molybdenum. Stellite
It is the ability of a tool material to retain most of its cold belongs to this group.
hardness property even at very high temperatures. While
machining, the friction between the tool and the work, the Carbides
tool and the chips, causes heat to be generated, and the
tool loses its hardness, and its efficiency to cut diminishes. These materials are also non-ferrous. They are
If a tool maintains its cutting efficiency even at increased manufacutred by powder metallurgy technique. Carbon and
temperatures during cutting, it can be said that it possesses tungsten are the chief alloying elements.
the red hardness property.
Non-metallic materials
Toughness
These tool materials are made out of non metals.
The property to resist breakage due to sudden load that Ceramics and diamonds belong to this group.
results during metal cutting is termed as `toughness' This
will reduce the breakage of the cutting edges of tools. High carbon steel is the first tool material introduced for
manufacuring cutting tools. It has poor red hardness
The following factors are to be considered, when selecting property, and it loses its cutting efficiency very quickly.
a tool material. Alloying elements like tungsten, chromium and vanadium,
are used to produce high speed steel tool material. Its
- Material to be machined. red hardness property is more than that of high carbon
steel.
- Condition of the machine tool.(rigidity and efficiency)
120
High speed steel is used for making solid tools, brazed Brazed tools (Fig 3)
tools and inserted bits. It is costlier than high carbon
steel. Carbide cutting tools can retain their hardness at
very high temperatures, and their cutting efficiency is higher
than that of high speed steel. Due to its brittleness and
cost, a carbide tool cannot be used as a solid tool. It is
used as a brazed tool and throw away tool bit.
Lathe cutting tool types
The tools used on lathes are

- Solid type tools
- Brazed type tools These tools are made up of two different metals. The
cutting portions of these tools are of cutting tool
- Inserted bits with holders materials, and the body of the tools do not possess any
- Throw-away type tools. (carbide) cutting ability, and are tough. Tungsten carbide tools are
mostly of the brazed type. Tungsten carbide bits of square,
Solid tools (Fig 1) rectangular and triangular shape are brazed to the tips of
the shank. The tips of the shank metal pieces are machined
on the top surface according to the shape of the fits so as
to accomodate the carbide bits. These tools are
economical, and give better rigidity for the tools than the
inserted bits clamped in the tool-holders. This is applicable
to high speed steel brazed tools also.
Throw-away type tools (Fig 4)
These are tools having their cutting edges ground on solid

bits of square, rectangular and round cross-sections. Most
of the lathe cutting tools are of the solid type, and high
carbon steel and high speed steel tools are used. The
length and cross-section of the tool depend upon the
capacity of the machine, the type of tool post and the
nature of the operation. Carbide brazed tools when blunt or broken need grinding
which is time consuming and expensive. Hence, they are
Inserted bits with holders (Fig 2) used as throw-away inserts in mass production. Special
tool- holders are needed and the carbide bits of rectangular,
square or triangular shapes are clamped in the seating
faces and machined on this type of special
holders.
The seating faces are machined in such a way that the

rake and clearances needed for the cutting bits are
automatically achieved when the bits are clamped.
Lathe cutting tool shapes

Lathe cutting tools are available in a variety of shapes for
performing different operations. Some of the lathe cutting
Solid high speed steel tools are costly; hence, they are tools generally used are:
sometimes used as inserted bits. These bits are small in
sizes, and are inserted in the holes of the holder. These
holders are held and clamped in the tool posts to carry
out the operations.The disadvantage in this type of tools
is that the rigidity of the tool is poor.
- Facing tool (Figs 5a and 5b) - Broad nose finishing tool (Fig 9)
- Undercutting tool/parting off tool (Fig 10)

- Knife edge tool (Fig 6)
- Roughing tool (Fig 7)
- External threading tool (Fig 11)
- Round nose finishing tool (Fig 8)
- Boring tool (Fig 12)
Fitter - Turning
Necessity of grinding angles

• name the different angle of the tool
• state use of the each angle
• state the effect of the incorrect angle.
Approach angle (Fig 1)
This is also known as side cutting-edge angle. This is Top or back rake angle (Fig 4)
ground on the side of the cutting tool. The cutting will be
oblique while cutting. The angle ground may range from
25° to 40° but as a standard a 30° angle is normally
provided. The oblique cutting has the advantages over the
orthogonal cutting, in which the cutting edge is straight.
More depth of cut is given in the case of oblique cutting,
since, when the tool is fed to the work, the contact
surface of the tool increases gradually as the tool
advances, whereas in the case of the orthogonal cutting,
The rake angle ground on a tool controls the geometry of
the length of the cutting edge for the given depth fully
chip formation. Thereby, it controls the cutting action of
contacts the work from the begining itself which gives a
the tool. The top or back rake angle of the tool is ground
sudden maximum load on the tool face. The area over
on the top of the tool, and it is a slope formed between the
which heat is distributed is greater in oblique cutting.
front of the cutting edge and the top of the face. If the
(Fig 2)
slope is from the the front towards the back of the tool, it
is known as a positive top rake angle, and if the slope is
from the back of the tool towards the front of the cutting
edge, it is known as a negative back rake angle. (Fig 5)
Trail angle (Fig 3)

The top rake angle may be ground positive, negative or
It is also known as end-cutting edge angle, and is ground zero according to the material to be machined. When
at 30° to a line perpendicular to the axis of the tool, as turning soft, ductile materials, which form curly chips, the
illustrated. positive top rake angle ground will be comparatively more
than for turning hard brittle metals.
The approach angle and trail angle ground will form the
wedge angle of 90° for the tool.
123
When turning hard metals with carbide tools, it is the usual It is the slope between the front of the cutting edge to a
practice to give a negative top rake. Negative top rake line perpendicular to the axis of the tool drawn downwards
tools have more strength than tools with positive top rake which is known as the front clearance angle. The slope is
angles. from the top to the bottom of the tool, and permits only the
cutting edge to contact the work, and avoids any rubbing
Side rake angle (Fig 6) action. If the clearance ground is more, it will weaken the
cutting edge.
Side clearance angle (Fig 8)
Fig 8
A side rake angle is the slope between the side of the

cutting edge to the top face of the tool width wise. The
slope is from the cutting edge to the rear side of the tool.
It varies from 0° to 20°, according to the material to be
machined. The clearance angle is the slope formed between the side
cutting edge of the tool with a line perpendicular to the
The top and side rake, ground on a tool control the chip tool axis drawn downwards at the side cutting edge of the
flow, and this results in a true rake angle which is the tool. The slope is from the top of the side cutting edge to
direction in which the chip that shears away from the work the bottom face. This is also ground to prevent the tool
passes. from rubbing with the work, and allows only the cutting
edge to contact the work during turning. The side clearance
Front clearance angle (Fig 7) angle needs to be increased when the feed rate is
increased.
When grinding rake and clearance angles, it is better to

refer to the standard chart provided with the
recommended values and grind. However, actual
operation will indicate the performance of the tool, and will
indicate to us, if any modifications are needed for the angles
ground on the tool.
Fitter - Turning
Lathe cutting speed and feed, use of coolants, lubricants

• distinguish between cutting speed and feed
• read and select the recommended cuting speed for different materials from the chart
• point out the factors governing the cutting speed
• state the factors governing feed.
Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge Example

passes over the material, and it is expressed in metres
per minute. (Fig 1) Find out the rpm of a spindle for a 50 mm bar to cut at 25
m/min.
πdn 1000V
V = n=
1000 πxD
1000x25 500
= = 159pm
3.14x50 3.14
Factors governing the cutting speed
- Finish required
- Depth of cut
- Tool geometry
When a work of a diameter 'd' is turned in one revolution
the length of the portion of work in contact with the tool is - Properties and rigidity of the cutting tool and its
x d. When the work is making 'n' rev/min, the length of mounting.
the work in contact with the tool is x D x n. This is
converted into metres and expressed in a formula form as - Properties of the workpiece material
- Rigidity of the workpiece
- The type of cutting fluid used.
Feed (Fig 3)
where
The feed of the tool is the distance it moves along the
V = cutting speed in m/min. work for each revolution of the work and it is expressed in
mm/rev.
= 3.14
The factors governing the feed are:
d = diameter of the work in mm.
- Tool geometry
n = RPM.
- Surface finish required on work
When more material is to be removed in lesser time, a - Rigidity of the tool.
higher cutting speed is needed. This makes the spindle
to run faster but the life of the tool will be reduced due to Rate of metal removal
more heat being developed. The recommended cutting
speeds are given in a chart. As far as possible the The volume of metal removal is the volume of chip that is
recommended cutting speeds are to be chosen from the removed from the work in one minute, and it is found by
chart and the spindle speed calculated before performing multiplying the cutting speed, feed rate and the depth of
the operation. (Fig 2) Correct cutting speed will provide cut.
normal tool life under normal working condition.
125
Cutting speed 30 m / min Length of metal passing Calculated
over cutting tool in one revolution RPM of spindle
Fig 2
25 mm ----------------78.56 mm 1528
50 mm ----------------157.12 mm 764
75 mm ----------------235.68 mm 509.3
Relationship of RPM to the cutting speed on

different diameters.
Table 1
Cutting speeds and feeds for H.S.S tool
Material being Feed Cutting speed
turned mm/rev m/min
Aluminium 0.2-1.00 70-100
Brass 0.2-1.00 50-80

(alpha)-ductile
Brass 0.2-1.5 70-100

(free cutting)
Bronze 0.2-1.00 35-70

(phosphor)
Cast iron (grey) 0.15-0.7 25-40
Copper 0.2-1.00 35-70
Steel (mild) 0.2-1.00 35-50
Steel 0.15-0.7 30-35

(medium-carbon)
Steel 0.08-0.3 5-10

(Alloy-high tensile)
Thermo-setting 0.2-1.00 35-50

plastics
Note
For super HSS tools the feeds should remain the same,
but cutting speeds could be increased by 15% to 20%.
A lower speed range is suitable for heavy, roughing cuts.

A higher speed range is suitable for light, finishing cuts.
The feed is selected to suit the finish required and the rate
of metal removal.
When carbide tools are used, 3 to 4 times higher cutting
speed to that required for H.S.S. tools may be chosen.
Comparison of HSS and Carbide Tools
HSS Tool Carbide Tool
• Ferrous tool material have iron as their • Non-Ferrous tool material do not have iron.
chief constituent.
• Alloying tungstan, chromism and • Carbide cutting tools can retain their
vanadium to high carbon steel, high speed hardness at very high temperature that of
steel tool material is produced. high speed steel.
• Cutting speed is low. • Cutting speed is high.
• Solid tool. • It is a brazed tool bit and throw away
tool bit die to brittleness.
• Cost low. • Cost high.
Coolants & lubricants (Cutting fluids)

• state the properties of cutting fluids
• state the purpose of using a cutting fluid
• name the different cutting fluids
• distinguish the characteristics of each type of cutting fluids
• select a proper cutting fluid to suit various materials and machining operations.
Coolants (Cutting fluids) - Resistant to separation from solution after it is mixed

with water
Coolants (Cutting fluids) play an important role in
reducing the wear of cutting tools. - Transparency
- Relatively low viscosity

Coolants (Cutting fluids) are essential in most metal
cutting operations. During a machining process, - Non-flammability
considerable heat and friction are created by the plastic
deformation of metal occurring in the shear zone when the The following are the main purposes of cutting
chip slides along the chip tool interface. This heat and fluids.
friction cause the metal to adhere to the cutting edge of
the tool, and the tool may break down. The result is poor - To cool the cutting tool and the workpiece as heat is
finish and inaccurate work. generated during cutting operation because of friction
between the tool and the workpiece.
The advantages of a cutting fluid is it :
- To cool the cutting edge of the tool and to prevent any
- Cools the tool and the workpiece wear on the tool.
- Lubricates the chip / tool interface and reduces the - To prevent the formation of chip welding.
tool wear due to friction - To give a good cutting efficiency to the tool.
- Prevents chip welding - To give a good surface finish on the job.
- Improves the surface finish of the workpiece - To act as a lubricant for the tool and the machine.
- Flushes away the chips
The different types of cutting fluids are:
- Prevents corrosion of the work and the machine.
- Soluble mineral oils
A good cutting fluid should have the following
properties. - Straight mineral oils
- Good lubricating quality - Straight fatty oils

- Compounded or blended oils
- Rust resistance
- Sulphurised oils.
- Stability both in storage and in use
Cutting fluids - Types and Characteristics Lard oils
Soluble mineral oils Lard oils are usually blended with mineral oils to prevent
deterioration, reduce cost and destroy the objectionable
They are made from mineral oils with emulsifying material odour. For machining under extreme conditions, they are
added to make for mixing with water. Soluble oil is diluted an excellent lubricant.
with water to form an emulsion. The water cools whilst
the oil lubricates. The extent of dilution depends upon the Sulphurised oils
type of operation.
To suit extreme cutting conditions of modern tools
Straight mineral oils sulphurised oils have been devised. The addition of sulphur
improves performance on difficult operations. Its lubricating
They are purely mineral oils. Lighter oils are used when property prevents the welding of chip on to the tool.
cooling and lubrication are required. Heavier oils are used
when lubrication is mainly essential. They are used on Coolants (Cutting fluids) plan an important role in
automats. They protect the machine parts and workpieces reducing the wear of cutting tools.
from rusting.
Recommended cutting fluids for various metals
Material Drilling Reaming Threading Turning Milling

Aluminium Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
Soluble oil
Kerosene Kerosene Kerosene and Lard oil
Kerosene and Mineral oil Lard oil Mineral oil
Lard oil
Brass Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Lard oil
Mineral oil
Lard oil
Bronze Dry Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Lard oil
Mineral oil Mineral oil Mineral oil
Lard oil Lard oil Lard oil
Cast iron Dry Air jet Dry Dry Dry Dry
Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Lard oil Mineral oil Mineral oi
Lard oil Lard oil
Copper Dry Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Dry
Soluble oil
Mineral oil Lard oil Lard oil
Lard oil
Kerosene Oil
Steel Alloys Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Mineral oil
Mineral oil Mineral oil Lard oil
Lard oil Lard oil
General Soluble oil Soluble oil Sulphurized oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
purpose steel
Sulphurized oil Sulphurized oil Lard oil Lard oil
Lard oil Lard oil
Lubricants
• state the purpose of using lubricants
• state the properties of lubricants
• state the qualities of a good lubricant.
With the movement of two mating parts of the machine, Oiliness

heat is generated. If it is not controlled, the temperature
may rise resulting in total damage of the mating parts. Oiliness refers to a combination of wettability, surface
Therefore a film of cooling medium with high viscosity is tension and slipperiness. (The capacity of the oil to leave
applied between the mating parts which is known as a an oily skin on the metal.
‘lubricant’.
Flas point
A ‘lubricant’ is a substance having an oily property available
in the form of fluid, semi-fluid, or solid state. It is the It is the temperature at which the vapour is given off from
lifeblood of the machine, keeping the vital parts in perfect the oil (it decomposes under pressure soon).
condition and prolonging the life of the machine. It saves
the machine and its parts from corrosion, wear and tear Fire point
and it minimises friction.
It is the temperature at which the oil catches fire and
Purpose of using lubricants contines to be in flame.
• Reduces friction Pour point

• Prevents wear The temperature at which the lubricant is able to flow when
• Prevents adhesion poured.
• Aids in distributing the load Emulsification and de-emulsibility
• Cools the moving elements
Emulsification indicates the tendency of an oil to mix
• Prevents corrosion immediately with water to form a more or less stable
• Improves machine efficiency emulsion. De-emulsibility indicates the readiness with
which subsequent separation will occur.
Properties of Lubricants
Viscosity
It is the fluidity of an oil by which it can withstand high

pressure or load without squeezing out from the bearing
surface.
Fitter - Turning
Chucks and chucking - the independent 4 jaw chuck

• state the constructional features of a 4 jaw chuck
• name the parts of a 4 jaw chuck.
4 Jaw chuck (Fig 1)
The parts of a 4 jaw chuck are:
- Back plate
The four jaw chuck is also called as independent chuck,
since each jaw can be adjusted independently; work can - Body
be trued to within 0.001" or 0.02mm accuracy, using this
- Jaws
chuck.
- Square threaded screw shaft.
This type of chuck is much more heavily constructed than
the self-centering chuck, and has much greater holding Back plate
power. Each jaw is moved independently by a square thread
screw. The jaws are reversible for holding large diameter The back plate is fastened to the back of the body by
jobs. The independent 4 jaw chuck has four jaws, each means of Allen screws. It is made out of cast iron/steel.
working independently of the others in its own slot in the Its bore is tapered to suit the taper of the spindle nose. It
chuck body and actuated by its own separate square has a key way which fits into the key provided on the
threaded screw. By suitable adjustment of the jaws, a spindle nose. There is a step in front and on which the
workpiece can be set to run either true or eccentric as thread is cut. A threaded collar, which is mounted on the
required. spindle, locks the chuck by means of the thread, and
locates by means of the taper and key. Some chucks do
To set the job for the second time, it can be trued with the not have back plates.
help of a dial test indicator.
Body (Fig 1)
The check on the workpiece should be carried out near
the chuck and repeated as far from it as the workpiece The body is made out of cast iron/cast steel and the face
permits, to ensure that the work is not held in the chuck is flame-hardened. It has four openings at 90° apart to
at an angle to the axis of rotation. assemble the jaws and operate them. Four screw shafts
are fixed on the periphery of the body by means of finger
The independent adjustment also provides the facility of pins. The screw is rotated by means of a chuck key. The
deliberately setting the work off-centre to produce an body, hollow in the cross-section, has equi-spaced
eccentric workpiece. (Fig 2) circular rings provided on the face, which are marked by
numerical numbers. Number 1 starts in the middle, and
increases towards the periphery.
130
Jaws (Fig 1) Screw shaft (Fig 1)
Jaws are made out of high carbon steel. hardened and The screw shaft is made out of high carbon steel, hardened,
tempered, which slide on the openings of the body. These tempered and ground. The top portion of the screw shaft
jaws are reversible for holding hollow work. is provided with a square slot to accommodate the chuck
key. On the body portion, a left hand square thread is cut.
The back side of the jaws are square-threaded which
In the middle of the screw shaft, a narrow step is made
help in fixing the jaws with the operating screws.
and held by means of finger pins. The finger pins permit
the screws to rotate but not to advance.
3 jaw chuck
• identify the parts of a 3 jaw chuck
• state the constructional features of a 3 jaw chuck
• distinguish between a 3 jaw chuck and a 4 jaw chuck
• state the merits and demerits of a 4 jaw chuck over a 3 jaw chuck
• specify a chuck.
3 Jaw chuck (Fig 1) Back plate (Fig 1)
The back plate is fastened at the back of the body by

means of allen screws. It is made out of cast iron. Its
bore is tapered to suit the taper of the spindle nose. It has
a keyway which fits into the key provided on the spindle
nose. There is a step in the front on which the thread is
cut. The threaded collar, which is mounted on the spindle,
locks the chuck by means of the thread and locates by
mean of the taper and the key.
Body (Fig 1)
The body is made out of cast steel, and the face is

hardened. It has three openings 120° apart to assemble
the jaws and operate them. Three pinions are fixed on the
periphery of the body to operate the jaws by means of a
chuck key. It is hollow in its cross-section. A crown
The 3 jaw chuck is also known as a self-centering chuck. wheel is housed inside the body.
The majority of the chucks have two sets of jaws for holding
internal and external diameters. Only perfect round work Jaws (Fig 1)
with equally spaced flats divisible by three should be held
in a 3 jaw chuck. The jaws are made out of high carbon steel, hardened and
tempered, which slide on the openings of the body.
From the construction of a 3 jaw chuck it is seen that the Generally there are two sets of jaws viz. external jaws
scroll not only clamps a component in place, it also and internal jaws. External jaws are used for holding
locates the component. This is fundamentally a bad solid works. Internal jaws are used for holding hollow works.
practice, since any wear in the scroll and/or the jaws Steps on the jaws increase the clamping range. The back
impairs the accuracy of location. Further there is no means side of the jaws is cut with scroll thread. Each jaw is
of adjustment possible to compensate for this wear. numbered in a sequential manner, which helps in fixing
the jaws in the corresponding numbered slots.
The jaws of this type of chuck are not reversible, and
separate internal and external jaws have to be used. Crown wheel (Fig 1)
The parts of a 3 jaw chuck are: The crown wheel is made out of alloy steel, hardened and
tempered. On one side of the crown wheel, a scroll thread
- Back plate is cut to operate the jaws, and the other side is tapered on
which bevel gear teeth are cut to mesh with the pinion.
- Body
When the pinion is rotated by means of a chuck key, the
- Jaws crown wheel rotates, thus causing the jaws to move inward
- Crown wheel and or outward, depending upon the rotation .
- Pinion.
Pinion (Fig 1) top of the pinion a square slot is provided to
accommodate the chuck key. It has a tapered portion on
Pinion is made out of high carbon steel, hardened and which bevel gear teeth are cut, which match with the crown
tempered. It is fitted on the periphery of the body. On the wheel.
Comparison between 3 jaw chuck and 4 jaw chuck
3 Jaw chuck 4 Jaw chuck
Only cylindrical, hexagonal work can be held. A wide range of regular and irregular shapes can
be held.
Internal and external jaws are available. Jaws are reversible for external and internal holding.
Setting up of work is easy. Setting up of work is difficult.
Less gripping power. More gripping power.
Depth of cut is comparatively less. More depth of cut can be given.
Heavier jobs cannot be turned. Heavier jobs can be turned.
Workpieces cannot be set for eccentric turning. Workpieces can be set for eccentric turning.
Concentric circles are not provided on the face. Concentric circles are provided which help for
approximate setting of jaws.
Accuracy decreases as the chuck gets worn out. There is no loss of accuracy as the chuck gets
worn out.
Merits of a 4 jaw chuck • Run out cannot be corrected.

• Only round and hexagonal components can be held.
• A wide range of regular and irregular shapes can be
held. • When accurate setting or concentricity with an existing
diameter is required, a self-centering chuck is not used.
• Work can be set to run concentrically or eccentrically
at will.
Specification of chuck
• Has considerable gripping power, and hence heavy cuts
can be given. To specify a chuck, it is essential to provide :
• The jaws are reversible for internal and external work.
• Type of chuck.
• Work can be readily performed on the end face of the
• Capacity of chuck.
job.
• Diameter of the body.
• There is no loss of accuracy as the chuck gets wornout.
• Width of the body.
De-merits of a 4 jaw chuck
The method of mounting to the spindle nose.
• Workpieces must be individually set.
Example
• The gripping power is so great that fine work can be
easily damaged during setting. 3 Jaw self-centering chuck.
Merits of a 3 jaw chuck Gripping capacity 450 mm.
• Work can be set with ease. Diameter of the body 500 mm.
• A wide range of cylindrical and hexagonal work can be
held. Width of the body 125 mm.
• Internal and external jaws are available. Tapered or threaded method of mounting.
De-merits of a 3 jaw chuck
• Accuracy decreases as chuck becomes worn out.
Method of cleaning the thread of the chuck mounting
• state the uses of thread cleaner.
Thread cleaners are used to clean all the mating parts of

the chuck and spindle as, otherwise, the dirt on these
surfaces could result in the following.
Cause the chuck to run out of true.
Damage the threads or taper on the spindle or chuck.

(Fig 1)
Mounting and dismounting of chucks

• explain the method of mounting and dismounting chucks from spindle noses.
To perform lathe operations on work materials, it may not

be always possible to have only one type work-holding
device fitted to the spindle. Hence it becomes an absolute
necessity for dismounting the work-holding device already
assembled to the spindle and mount that work-holding
device which is needed for the work in hand.
For an easy understanding of different spindle noses and

their applications, the mounting of different work-holding
devices are illustrated.
When mounting a chuck on the headstock spindle,

exercise care to prevent damage occurring to the chuck
or spindle.
Damage may reduce the accuracy of the lathe. The points

set out below are important and should be followed.
Before mounting
Before attempting to mount a chuck, ensure that it is the

correct one for the lathe and for the job in hand.
Do not use power to mount a chuck on spindle

noses.
To prevent such damage from occuring, take the following

steps.
Place a wooden board on the lathe bed when mounting

light chucks to prevent damage to the slideways. (Fig 1) Always seek assistance when mounting large and heavy
chucks.
For large chucks place a wooden cradle between the
chucks and the lathe bed. (Fig 2) Lubricate the mating surfaces with a light film of oil.
In addition to protecting the bed slideways it makes fitting After mounting

the chuck easier and safer.
Set the speed-change lever to the slowest speed.
Turn on the power to the motor. Switch off the motor.
Switch on the motor. Hence the chuck on the wooden board or cradle and slide
it close to the spindle nose.
Engage the clutch lever.
Turn the spindle by hand until the key on the spindle nose
The chuck would now begin revolving. lines up with the keyway in the chuck.
Check that the diameter and face of the chuck are running Set the speed-change lever to the slowest speed.
true by observing the surfaces.
Push the chuck on to the spindle and turn the locking ring
Mounting chuck on to the threaded spindle (Fig 3) anticlockwise. (Fig 4)
The figure given here illustrates a small chuck held with

both hands and being mounted. Engage the special ‘C’
spanner on the locking ring.
The spanner should fit around the top of the locking ring
with the handle pointing downwards. Grip the end of the
handle with one hand and firmly strike the other end with
the other hand in an anticlockwise direction. This would
securely tighten the locking ring. (Fig 5)
Switch off the motor.
Place the chuck on the wooden plank or cradle and slide

it close to the spindle nose.
Turn the spindle anticlockwise by hand and engage the

chuck on the spindle threads. (Fig 3)
Set the speed-change lever to the slowest speed. Screw

the chuck in until it fits firmly on the spindle.
The chuck should easily screw into the spindle. If any Mounting on a cam-lock spindle (Fig 6)
resistance is felt, remove the chuck and check that the
threads are clean and not damaged.
Mounting on tapered spindle (Fig 4)
Hold the chuck in position when fitting nuts.
Place the chuck on a wooden board or cradle and slide it
close to the spindle nose. Disengage the clutch to permit Tighten the nuts in an anticlockwise direction using a
free rotation of the spindle. Insert the correct chuck key spanner on the opposite nuts.
into a cam-locking screw on the spindle.
Dismounting chucks from a threaded spindie (Fig 9)
Turn each cam-locking screw so that the registration line
is vertical or aligns with the corresponding line on the
spindle. Turn the spindle by hand until the clearance holes
on the spindle align with the cam-lock studs on the chuck.
Set the speed. Change lever to the slowest speed. Push

the chuck on to the spindle. Tighten each cam-lock screw
in a clockwise direction.
Mounting on to a bolted spindle (Figs 7 and 8)
Switch off the motor. Set the speed change lever to the
slowest speed. Place a solid wooden block between one
of the chuck jaws and the rear of the lathe-bed.
The length of the wooden block should be slightly less
than the centre height of the lathe.
Turn the lathe spindle clockwise by hand to loosen the
chuck from the spindle nose.
Remove the wooden block. Place the wooden board or
cradle on the lathe-bed. Unscrew the chuck from the
spindle. Clean and store the chuck (Fig 10)
Place the chuck on a wooden board or cradle. Remove

nuts and washers from the studs on the chuck. Disengage
the clutch to permit free rotation of the spindle. Turn the
spindle by hand until the key in the spindle lines up with
the slot in the chuck. Set the speed- change lever to the
slowest speed. Push the chuck on to the spindle. Fit
washers and nuts to the studs.
Fitter - Turning
Face plate
• state the types of face plate
• state the uses of face plates
The different types of face plates are: - Face plates with elongated radial slots and additional
parallel slots. (Fig 3)
- Face plates with only elongated radial slots (Fig 1)
Face plates are used along with the following accessories.
Clamps, ‘T’ bolts, Angle plate, Parallels, counterweight,

Stepped block, ‘V’ Block etc.
- Face plates with elongated slots ‘T’ slots. (Fig 2)
Large, flat, irregular shaped workpieces, castings, jigs and
fixtures may be firmly clamped to a face plate for various
turning operations.
A work can be mounted on a face plate while the face

plate is on the lathe spindle or on the workbench. If the
workpiece is heavy or awkward to hold, the workpiece is
mounted while the face plate is on the workbench. Before
mounting the face plate set up to the spindle, it is
advantageous to locate the workpiece on the face plate
and centre the workpiece. Centre a punch mark or hole
approximately on the face plate. This makes it easier to
true the work after the face plate is mounted on to the
spindle.
The poisition of the bolts and clamps is very important, if a
workpiece is to be clamped effectively.
If a number of duplicate pieces are to be machined, the
face plate itself can be set up as a fixture, using parallel
strips and stop blocks.
136
The application of the face plate with accessories in different
set ups is shown in the sketches below.
(Figs 4, 5 & 6)
Fitter - Turning
Drilling
• state the drilling process done in a lathe
• state the methods of holding the drill in the tail stock.
Lathe can be used for drilling • By using drill chuck (Fig 2)

Before doing internal operation like boring, reaming and
tapping. Although lathe is not a drilling machine time and
effort are saved by using the lathe for drilling operations
instead of changing the work to the other machines. Prior
to drilling the end of the work piece on the lathe, the end
face to be drilled must be spotted (center punched) and
then centre drilled so that the drill will start properly
The head stock and tail stock spindle should be alingned
for all drilling, reaming and tapping in order to produce a
true hole.
Straight shank and taper shank drills can be held in the
tailstock spindle as held in the drilling machine spindle • By directly fitting in the tailstock spindle (Fig 3)
using drill chuck sleeve and sockets. Since the tail stock
spindle has the morse taper. (Fig 1)
Methods of holding drills in a tail stock (Fig 1)
• By using drill sleeve (Fig 4)
• By using drill socket (Fig 5)
The different methods of holding drill in the tailshock are
138
Fitter - Turning
Boring & boring tools

• state the operation boring
• state the different types of boring tools.
Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging and truing a hole

produced by drilling, punching, casting or forging. Boring
cannot originate a hole. Boring is similar to the external
turning operation and can be performed in a lathe by the
following two methods.
The work is revolved in a chuck or a face plate and the tool

which is fitted to the tool post is fed into the work. This
method is adopted for boring small sized works. A solid
forged tool is used for boring small holes, whereas a boring
bar with a tool bit attached to it is suitable for machining a
large hole. The depth of cut is given by the cross-slide
screw and the feed is effected by the longitudinal travel of
the carriage. (Fig 1)
Advantages
• Regrinding is easy.
• Alignment is easy.
• Mounting and removal is easy.
Boring bars with inserted bits
Square and round tool bits made from HSS are inserted
and fixed in the boring bar. The inserts can be set at an
angle of 30°, 45° or 90° in the bar. It is used for heavier
cuts than those made by the solid boring tool.
Types of boring tools For plain boring, the inserts are set square to the axis of
the bar. For facing the shoulder, or threading up to the
Solid forged tools shoulder, the inserts are set at an angle.
Solid forged boring tool is made from HSS with the end Boring bars used are of two types. (Fig 4)
forged and ground. It resembles a left hand turning tool
and the operation is performed from right to left. There are
• Plain boring bar
two types, solid boring tool (Fig 2) and solid forged bar in
a tool-holder (Fig 3). They are used for light duty and on • End cap boring bar
small diameter holes.
139
Advantages
• Used for heavy duty boring operations.
• Tool changing is faster.
• Low cost
• Boring tools can either be set square or at an angle
quickly.
Fitter - Turning
Tool setting
• set the tool in the tool post for performing the operation.
For optimum cutting, the effective rake angle and clearance Shims must be flushed with the edge of the seating face.
angle of the clamped tool must be equal to the ground
angles of the tool. This requires clamping of the tool to Place the tool in the tool post on the shims, with the rear
have its axis perpendicular to the lathe axis, with the tool butting against the wall of the seating face. (Fig 3)
tip at the workpiece centre. (Fig 1)
It is difficulat to determine the effective angles of the tool

when it is not set to the centre height.
The tool nose can be set to the work centre by means of

a tool-holder with adjustable height. (Fig 1)
The unsupported length of the overhanging end of the

turning tool should be kept to a minimum. As a rule, the
overhanging length of tool is equal to the tool shank width
x 1.5.
The tool nose can be set to the exact centre height by Tighten the tool with the centre screw of the tool post.
placing the tool in the tool post on the shims or packing
strips. These packing strips should be preferably a little Check the centre height with a height setting gauge.
less in width than the wideth of the tool but should never (Fig 4)
be more. The length of these strips should be according
to the shank length and the tool seating face of the tool
post. (Fig 2)
Remove or add shims and check the height when the tool
is tightened by the centre screw.
Tighten the other two tool-holding scews alternate applying

the same amount of pressure.
The procedure to follow is given below.
When both the screws have a full gripping pressure, tighten
Clean the tool post seating face, and place the shims on the centre screw fully.
the seating face.
Check once again with a tool height setting gauge.
Use a minimum number of shims for height
adjustment.
141
Note: The gauge should be made according to
the size of the machine. If a gauge is not
available, use a surface gauge and set the
pointer tip to the dead centre height fixed in
the tallstock. Use this as the height to which
the tool is to be set.
Parallel or straight turning

• define plain turning
• distinguish between the two stages of plain turning.
Plain turning (Parallel turning) (Fig 1) Rough turning
By rough turning the maximum amount of material is

removed and the job is brought close to the required size,
leaving sufficient metal for finishing. Surface finish and

accuracy are not good. While rough turning, the spindle
speed is less and the feed is more. A roughing tool or a
knife tool is used.
While plain turning for roughing or finishing, long jobs are

This operation involves removal of metal from the work and held between centres. It is necessary to change the ends
it has a cylinder for the full travel of the tool on the work, to obtain a true parallel surface throughout the length.
keeping the same diameter throughout the length. (Fig 3)
Plain turning is done in two stages. Finish turning
- Rough turning, using roughing tool or knife tool. It is done, after the rough turning is completed to bring the
(Fig 2 ) size of the work to the required accuracy and good
surface finish by removing the rough marks produced by
the rough turning. For finish turning, the speed is higher
(1 to 2 times more than for rough turning) and the feed is
very less. A round nose finish turning tool or a knife with a
larger nose radius than normal is used for finish turning.
- Finish turning using a finishing tool. (Fig 4)
The spindle speed is calculated according to the material

being turned, the tool material and the recommended
cutting speed.
Step turning
• define step turning
Step turning
It is an operation of producing various steps of different

diameters in the work piece as shown in Fig 1 & 2. This
operation is carried out in the similar way as plain turning.
Grooving
• state what is grooving
• name the types of grooves
• state the specific uses of each type of groove.
Grooving When a diameter is to be finished to size by grinding, a

groove is generally cut against the shoulder to provide
Grooving is the process of turning a grooved form or channel clearance for the grinding wheel and to ensure a square
on a cylindrically turned workpiece. The shape of the cutting corner.
tool and the depth to which it is fed determine the shape
of the groove. Square grooves are cut with a tool bit ground to the width
of the square groove to be formed.
Types of grooves
A square groove also serves the purpose of providing space
Square grooves for forks of shift levers in sliding gear assemblies.
Square grooves are frequently cut at the end of a section Round groove
to be threaded in order to provide a channel into which a
threading tool may run. A square groove cut against a Round grooves serve the same purpose as square grooves.
shoulder allows a matching part to fit squarely against the They are generally used on parts subjected to stress. The
shoulder. (Fig 1) round groove eliminates the sharpness of the square
corners and strengthens the part at the point where it tends
to fracture. A tool bit with a round nose ground to the
required radius is used to cut round grooves. (Fig 2)
‘V’ shaped groove
‘V’ shaped grooves are most commonly found on pulleys

driven by ‘V belts. The ‘V shaped groove eliminates much
of the slip which occurs in the other forms of the belt drive.
A ‘V groove may also be cut at the end of a thread to
provide a channel into which the threading tool may run.
(Fig 3)
A tool bit ground to the desired angle is used to cut a
shallow ‘V’ groove. Larger ‘V’ grooves such as those found
on pulleys should be cut with the lathe compound rest to
form each face of the groove individually.
Fitter - Turning
Tool post
• name the commonly used types of tool posts
• compare the features of different types of tool posts.
The tool post holds and firmly supports the tool or tools. It consists of a circular tool post body and a pillar with a
The tool post is fitted on the top slide. (Fig 1) slot for accommodating the tool or tool-holder. A ring base,
a rocker arm (boat piece) and a tool clamping screw
complete the assembly of this type of tool post.
The tool is positioned on the boat piece and clamped.
The centre height of the tool tip can be adjusted with the
help of the rocker arm and the ring base. Only one tool
can be fixed in this type of tool post. The rigidity of the tool
is less as it is clamped with only one bolt.
Indexing type tool post (Fig 3)
The commonly used types of tool posts are:
- American type tool post or single way tool post.

It is also called as square tool post or a four-way tool
- Indexing type tool post or square tool post. post. Four tools can be fixed in this type of tool posts,
- Quick change tool post. and any one can be brought into the operating position,
and the square head is clamped with the help of the handle
Single way tool post (Fig 2) lever. By loosening the handle lever, the next tool can be
indexed and brought in to the operating position. The
indexing is manually.
The advantages are as follows.
Each tool is secured in the tool post by more than one

bolt, and, therefore, the rigidity is more.
Frequent changing of the tool for different operations need

not be done as all the four tools can be clamped at the
same time.
The disadvantage is that skill is required to set the tools,

and it takes more time to set to the centre height.
145
Quick change tool post (Fig 4) Modern lathes are provided with this type of tool posts.
Instead of changing the tools, the tool holder is changed
in which the tool is fixed. This is expensive and requires a
number of tool-holders. But it can be set to the centre
height easily, and has the best rigidity for the tool.
Fitter - Turning
Lathe operation - Knurling

• define knurling operation
• state the purpose of knurling
• list the different types of knurls and knurling patterns
• name the grades of knurls
• distinguish between the various types of knurling tool-holders.
Knurling (Fig 1)
Straight knurling (Fig 3)
It is the operation of producing straight lined, diamond

shaped pattern or cross lined pattern on a cylindrical
external surface by pressing a tool called knurling tool.
Knurling is not a cutting operation but it is a forming
operation. Knurling is done at a slow spindle speed (1/3
the turning speed). However speed & feed given for knurling
is to be divided according to the job material and the finish It is a knurling of straight lined pattern. This is done by
required. using either a single roller or a double roller with straight
teeth.
Purpose of knurling
Cross knurling (Fig 4)
The purpose of knurling is to provide:
- A good grip and make for positive handling.

- Good appearance
- For raising the diameter to a small range for assembly
to get a press fit.
Types of knurls and knurling patterns

It is a knurling having a square shaped pattern. It is done
The following are the different types of knurling patterns. by a set of rollers, one having straight teeth the other having
teeth at right angles to the axis of knurl.
Diamond knurling, Straight knurling, Cross knurling,
Concave knurling and Convex knurling. Concave knurling (Fig 5)
Diamond knurling (Fig 2)
It is a knurling of diamond shaped pattern. It is done by

using a set of rolls. One roller has got right hand helical
teeth and the other has left hand helical teeth.
147
This is done by a convex knurl on a concave surface. This Single roller knurling tool-holder (Fig 8)
is done only by plunging the tool. The tool should not be
moved longitudinally. The length of the knurling is limited
to the width of the roller.
Convex knurling (Fig 6)
It has only one single roller which produces a straight

lined pattern.
Knuckle joint type knurling tool-holders (Fig 9)

This is done by using a concave knurl on a convex surface.
This is also done by plunging the tool.
Grades of knurling (Fig 7)
Knurling can be done in three grades. This tool holder has a set of two rollers of the same knurling
pitch. The rollers may be of straight teeth or helical teeth.
Coarse knurling, Medium knurling and Fine knurling It is self-centering.
Coarse knurling is done by using coarse pitched knurls of Revolving head knurling tool (Fig 10)
1.75 mm pitch. (14 TPI)
Medium knurling is done by using medium pitched knurls

of 1.25 mm pitch. (21 TPI)
Fine knurling is done by using fine pitched knurls of 0.75

mm pitch. (33 TPI)
Types of knurling tool-holders
The different types of knurling tool-holders are:

This tool-holder is also called a universal knurling tool-
- Single roller knurling tool-holders (parallel knurling tool- holder. It is fitted with 3 pairs of rollers having coarse,
holders) medium and fine pitches. These are mounted on a revolving
- Knuckle joint type knurling tool-holders head which pivots on a hardened steel pin. It is also self-
centering.
- Revolving type knurling tool-holders (universal knurling
tool-holders).
A knurling tool-holder has a heat-treated steel shank and

hardened tool steel knurls. The knurls rotate freely on
hardened steel pins.
Difference between different types of knurling tool-holders
Single roller Knuckle joint Revolving type
Only one roller is used A pair of rollers are used Three pairs of rollers are used
Only one pattern of knurling can be Cross of diamond knurling pattern Knurling patterns of different
produced with this type of knurling can be produced pitches can be produced
tool-holder
It is not self-centering It is self-centering It is self-centering
Fitter - Turning
Standard tapers
• define a taper
• state the uses of tapers
• state the method of expressing tapers
• state the methods to be adopted while specifying tapers
• distinguish between the features of self-holding and self-releasing tapers
• name the different types of self-holding tapers and state their features
• state the features of self-releasing tapers
• state the features of pin taper and keyway taper.
Definition of Taper
Taper is a gradual increase or decrease in the dimention

along its length of the job.
Tapers are used for:
- Self-alignment/location of components in an
assembly.
- Assembling and dismantling parts easily.
- Transmitting drive through assembly.
Tapers have a variety of applications in engineering

assembly work.(Figs 1,2 & 3)
Tapers of components are expressed in two ways.
- Degree of arc (Fig 4)

- Gradient (Fig 5)
150
The method adopted for expressing tapers depends on:
Standard tapers
- The steepness of the tapers
- The method adopted for measuring. Tapers for tool-holding
Specification of tapers Two types of tapers are used for tool-holding on machines.
While specifying taper in drawings it should indicate the: - Self-holding tapers
- Angle of the taper - Self-releasing tapers
- Size of the component. (Figs 6,7, 8 & 9) Self-holding tapers
Self-holding tapers have less taper angle. These are used

for holding and driving cutting tools like drills, reamers
etc. without any locking device. (Fig 10)
Spindle noses and arbors used on milling machines are
usually provided with self-releasing tapers. The standard
self-releasing taper is 7/24. This is a steep taper which
helps in the correct location and release of the components
in the assembly. This taper does not drive the mating
component in the assembly. For the purpose of driving,
additional features are provided.
The commonly used 7/24 taper sizes are: 30,40,45,50

and 60.
The taper of a 7/24 taper of No.30 will have a maximum

diameter of (D) 31.75 mm and No.60, 107.950 mm. All
other sizes fall within this range.
Tapers used in other assembly work

The standard tapers used for this are:
A variety of tapers are used in engineering assembly
- The metric taper work. The most common ones are:
- The morse taper. - pin taper

Metric taper
- key and keyway taper.
The taper on diameter is 1:20. The commonly used shank
sizes in metric tapers are metric 4, 6, 80, 100, 120, 160 Pin taper
and 200. The shank size indicating the metric taper is
the diameter at D. (Fig 11) This is the taper used for taper pins used in assembly.
(Fig 13)
Morse taper
The commonly used taper shank sizes are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
The taper is varying according to the size of the Morse

taper. It varies from 1:19.002 to 1:20.047.
Self-releasing 7/24 taper (Fig 12)

The taper is 1:50.
The diameter of taper pins is specified by the small

diameter.
Taper pins help in assembling and dismantling of

components without disturbing the location.
Key and keyway tapers
This taper is 1:100. This taper is used on keys and
keyways. (Figs 14 and 15)
Note: For further information about the tapers

used for special application refer to: IS: 3458 -
1981.
Fitter - Turning
Screw thread
• define screw thread
• state the use of screw thread.
Definition
Thread is a ridge of uniform cross-section which follows

the path of a helix around the cylinder or cone, either
externally or internally. (Fig 1)
- To make accurate measurements. (Fig 4)
Helix is a type of curve generated by a point which is

moving at a uniform speed around the cylinder or cone
and at the same time, moves at a uniform speed parallel
to the axis. (Fig 1) - To apply pressure. (Fig 5)
Uses of Screw threads
Screw threads are used
- As fasteners to hold together and dismantle

components when needed. (Fig 2)
- To make adjustments. (Fig 6)
- To transmit motion on machines from one unit to

another. (Fig 3)
154
Square, worm, buttress and acme threads
• identify square thread and specify its uses
• state the relationship between the pitch and the other elements of square threads
• identify the modified square thread and its applications
• identify the different forms of trapezoidal threads and their uses
• state the relationship between the pitch and the other elements of all the different forms of trapezoidal
threads.
Square and trapezoidal threads Modified square thread
Square and trapezoidal threads have more cross-sectional Modified square threads are similar to ordinary square
area than ‘V’ threads. They are more suitable to transmit threads except for the depth of the thread. The depth of
motion or power than ‘V’ threads. They are not used for thread is less than half pitch of the thread. The depth
fastening purposes. varies according to the application. The crest of the thread
is chamfered at both ends to 45° to avoid the formation of
Square thread burrs. These threads are used where quick motion is
required.
In this thread the flanks are perpendicular to the axis of
the thread. The relationship between the pitch and the Trapezoidal threads
other elements is shown in Fig 1.
These threads have a profile which is neither square nor
‘V’ thread form and have a form of trapezoid. They are
used to transmit motion or power. The different forms of
trapezoidal threads are:
- Acme thread
- Buttress thread
- Saw-tooth thread
- Worm thread.
Acme thread (Fig 2)

This thread is a modification of the square thread. It has
an included angle of 29°. It is preferred for many jobs
because it is fairly easy to machine.
Square threads are used for transmitting motion or power.

Eg. screw jack, vice handles, cross-slide and compound
slide, activating screwed shafts.
Designation
A square thread of nominal dia. 60mm and pitch 9mm

shall be designated as Sq. 60 x 9 IS: 4694-1968. The
dimensions a, b, e, p, H1, h1, h2 & d1 are changed as per
thread series (fine, normal & coarse).
Acme threads are used in lathe lead screws. This form of
thread enables the easy engagement of the half nut. The
metric acme thread has an included angle of 30°. The
relationship between the pitch and the various elements
is shown in the figure.
Buttress thread (Fig 3)
In buttress thread one flank is perpendicular to the axis of

the thread and the other flank is at 45°. These threads are
used on the parts where pressure acts at one flank of the
thread during transmission. Figure 3 shows the various
elements of a buttress thread. These threads are used in
power press, carpentry vices, gun breeches, ratchets etc.
Buttress thread as per B.I.S. (Fig 4)
H1 = 0.75 P
h3 = H1 + ac = 0.867 77 P
This is a modified form of the buttress thread. Figure 4 a = 0.1 P (axial play)
shows the various elements of the buttress thread. The
bearing flank is inclined by 7° as per B.I.S. and the other ac = 0.117 77 P
flank has a 45° inclination.
Saw-tooth thread as per B.I.S. 4696 W = 0.263 84 P
This is a modified form of buttress thread. In this thread, e = 0.263 84 P - 0.1 Ö P = W - a

the flank taking the load is inclined at an angle of 3°,
whereas the other flank is inclined at 30°. The basic profile R = 0.124 27 P
of the thread illustrates this phenomenon. (Fig 5) The
proportionate values of the dimensions with respect to the D1 = d - 2 H1 = d - 1.5 P
pitch are shown in Figs 6 and 7.
d3 = d - 2 h3
The equations associated with the dimensions indicated
d2 = D2 = d - 0.75 P
in the two figures (Figs 6 and 7) are given below.
S = 0.314 99 Ao, where Ao = basic deviation (= upper The linear pitch of the worm thread must be equal to the
deviation) for external thread in the pitch diameter. circular pitch of the worm gear. When the worm gear is of
D.P. then the linear pitch of the worm thread in mesh is
Worm thread equal to p/DP. When the worm gear is of module teeth,
then the linear pitch of the worm thread is equal to module
This is similar to acme thread in shape but the depth of x p. In some of the lathes, a chart illustrates the position
thread is more than that of acme thread. This thread is of levers of the quick change gearbox together with the
cut on the worm shaft which engages with the worm wheel. change gear connections for cutting D.P. or module worm
Figure 8 shows the elements of a worm thread. threads.
Knuckle threads
The shape of the knuckle thread is not trapezoidal but it
has a rounded shape. It has limited application. The
figure shows the form of knuckle thread. It is not sensitive
against damage as it is rounded. It is used for valve
spindles, railway carriage couplings, hose connections
etc. (Fig 9)
The worm wheel and worm shaft are used in places where
motion is to be transmitted between shafts at right angles.
It also gives a high rate of speed reduction. The worm
wheel is generally cut by diametral pitch (D.P) or module
pitch cutters. Diametral pitch (D.P) is the ratio between
the number of teeth to the pitch diameter (P.D.) of the
gear. Module is the ratio between the pitch diameter of the
gear and the number of teeth of the gear.
Fitter - Turning
Principle of cutting screw thread in centre lathe

• state the principle of thread cutting by a single point tool
• list the parts involved in the thread cutting mechanism and state their functions
• derive formula for change gear calculation.
Principle of thread cutting
The principle of thread cutting involves producing a uniform

helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by rotating
the job at a constant speed, and moving the tool longitudinally
at a rate equal to the pitch of the thread, per revolution of
the job.
The cutting tool moves with the lathe carriage by the

engagement of a half nut with the lead screw. The shape
of the thread profile on the work is the same as that of the
tool ground. The direction of rotation of the lead screw
determines the hand of the thread being cut.
Parts involved in thread cutting
Figures 1 & 2 illustrate how the drive is transmitted from the

spindle to the lead screw through a change gear
arrangement. From the lead screw the motion is transmitted
to the carriage by engaging the half nut with the lead screw.
Derivation of the formula for change gears When the job rotates once, the lead screw should make
one revolution to move the tool by 4 mm. Hence, if the stud
Example gear (Driver) has a 50 teeth wheel, the lead screw should
CASE 1 : To cut 4 mm pitch (lead) thread on the job in a be fixed with a gear of 50 teeth (Driven) to get the same
lathe having a lead screw of 4 mm pitch. number of revolutions as the spindle. (Fig 3)
158
CASE 2 : To cut 2 mm pitch threads instead of 4 mm in Stating the above in a formula,
the same lathe.
When the job makes one rotation, the lead screw should
rotate 1/2 revolution so that the lead screw rotation is
slower. Therefore, the driven wheel (lead screw gear) Solved examples
should be of 100 teeth if the driver (stud gear) is of 50 teeth.
(Fig 4) 1 Find the change gears required to cut a 3 mm pitch on
a job in a lathe, having a lead screw of 6 mm pitch.
(Fig 6)
Ratio = Driver = Lead of work

CASE 3 : If we have to cut a 8 mm pitch thread on a job,
with a 4mm lead screw pitch, the tool should move 8 mm
per revolution of the job. The lead screw should rotate 2
revolutions when the job makes one rotation, making the
L S to run twice as fast as the spindle. So the driven wheel
(lead screw gear) should be of 25 teeth if the driver wheel Driver = 60 teeth
is of 50 teeth. (Fig 5)
Driven = 120 teeth
2 Find the change gears required to cut a 2.5 mm pitch

in a lathe, having a lead screw of 5 mm pitch. (Fig 7)
Let us compare the above three examples.
Examples : Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Pitch(Lead)of job 4 2 8
Pitch(Lead) of L.S 4 4 4
Driver 50 50 50
Driven 50 100 25
3 Calculate the gears required to cut a 1.5 mm pitch in a
lathe having a lead screw of 5 mm pitch. (Fig 8)
Fitter - Turning
Principle of chasing screw thread

• state the necessity of a thread chasing dial
• state the constructional details of a British thread chasing dial
• state the functional features of a British thread chasing dial.
Thread chasing dial The number of teeth on the worm gear is the product of
the number of threads per inch on the lead screw and the
To catch the thread quickly and to save manual labour, number of numbered divisions on the dial.
use of a chasing dial is very common during thread cutting
by a single point cutting tool. A thread chasing dial is an Each numbered division represents 1 inch travel of the
accessory. carriage.
Constructional details (Fig 1) Let the worm wheel have 16 teeth, and the lead screw 4
TPI. The number of numbered graduations and unnumbered
graduations are 4 each.
The half nut can be engaged 8 times for one revolution of

the graduated dial. The movement of the carriage for one
complete revolution of the dial is 4". (Fig 2) Since the dial
is having totally 8 graduations marked, each graduation
represents 1/2" travel of the carriage.
The figure shows constructional details of a British thread

chasing dial. It consists of a vertical shaft with a worm
wheel made out of brass or bronze, attached to the shaft
at the bottom. On the top, it has a graduated dial. The
shaft is carried on a bracket in bearing (bush) which is The chart given here shows the positions at which the half
fixed to the carriage. The worm wheel can be brought into nut is to be engaged when cutting different threads per
an engaged or disengaged position with the lead screw as inch, when a British thread chasing dial with the above
needed. When the lead screw rotates it drives the worm data is fitted to the lathe.
wheel which causes the dial to rotate. The movement of
the dial is with reference to the fixed mark (‘O’ index line).
The face of the dial is usually graduated into eight (8)

divisions, having 4 numbered main divisions and 4
unnumbered subdivisions in between.
161
THREAD CHASING DIAL CHART
Threads per inch to be cut Dial graduation at which the half nut can Reading on the dial illustrated
be engaged to catch the thread
Threads which are a multiple Engage at any position the half nut Use of dial unnecessary.
of the number of threads meshes.
per inch of the lead screw.
Example T.P.I. to be cut - 8
DR T.P.I. on lead screw 4 1 Predetermined travel = 1 x 1"= 1"

= = =
DN T.P.I to be cut 8 2 4 4
The predetermined travel of 1/4" is represented by the dial position in the exact middle between any numbered division
and adjacent un-numbered division. The half nut engagement can be done at any position at which it can be engaged
(ie. 16 positions).
Referring to the dial is not necessary.
Even number of threads Engage at any graduation 1

on the dial. 1 1/2
2
2 1/2
3
3 1/2
4
8 positions 4 1/2
DR T.P.I. on lead screw 4 2 Predetermined travel = 2 x 1"= 1"

= = = 4 2
DN T.P.I to be cut 6 3
The predetermined travel of 1/2" is represented by dial movement from any numbered division to the next adjacent
unnumbered division. The half nut can be engaged when any numbered or unnumbered graduation coincides with the
zero line (8 positions).
Odd number of threads Engage at any main division. 1

2
3
4 positions 4
DR T.P.I. on lead screw 4 4 Predetermined travel = 4 x 1" = 1"

4
= = =
DN T.P.I. to be cut 5 5
The predetermined travel of 1" is represented by the dial movement from any numbered division to the next numbered
division or from any unnumbered division to the next unnumbered division. Therefore, if the first cut is taken when a
numbered division of the dial coincides with zero, then the half nut engagement for successive cuts can be done when
any numbered division coincides with the zero mark. If the first cut is taken when an unnumbered division coincides with
the zero, then the half nut for successive cuts, is engaged when any unnumbered division coincides with the zero.
(4 positions)
Half fractional number Engage at every other 1&3
of threads main division. or
2&4
2 positions
Example T.P.I. to be cut - 3 1/2
DR T.P.I. on lead screw 4 8

Predetermined travel = 8 x 1" = 2"
= = =
4
DN T.P.I. to be cut 3 1/2 7
The half nut can be engaged only at opposite numbered or unnumbered graduations (2 positions).
Quarter fractional number Engage at the same 1

of threads main division. or
2
or
3
or
4
1 position

= = = Predetermined travel = 16 x 1" = 4"
DN T.P.I. to be cut 2 3/4 11 4
The half nut can be engaged to catch the thread only when the same numbered or unnumbered graduated line, at which
the first cut is taken, coincides with the zero line (1 position only).

= = = Predetermined travel = 16 x 1" = 4"
DN T.P.I. to be cut 1 3/8 11 4
The half nut engaged for the first cut should remain at the engaged position till thread cutting is completed and the machine
is reversed as it takes a long time to cover the predetermined travel arrived at by calculation.

Predetermined travel = 32 x 1" = 8"
= = = 4
DN T.P.I. to be cut 1 3/8 11
The half nut engaged for the first cut should remain at the engaged position till thread cutting is completed and the machine
is reversed as it takes a long time to cover the predetermined travel arrived at by calculation.
Centre gauge
• define centre gauge
• write the uses of centre gauge.
Centre gauge: (Fig 1) In the image, the gauge on the left is called a fishtail gauge
or centre gauge, and the one on the right is another style
of center gauge.
These gauges are most commonly used when hand

grinding threading tool bits on a bench grinder, although
they may be used with tool and cutter grinders.
When the tool bit has been ground to the correct angle,
they may then be used to set the tool perpendicular to the
workpiece.
They can incorporate a range of sizes and types on the

Centre gauges and fish tail gauges are gauges used in one gauge, the two most common being metric or UNS at
lathe work for checking the angles when grinding the 600, and BSW at 550. Gauges also exist for the acme
profiles of single point screw cutting tool bits and centers. thread form.
Tool setting - external thread

• tool setting to cut external thread by half angle method.
Check the diameter of the workpiece to be threaded by

referring to the drawing.
To provide thread clearance, it is good practice

to turn the diameter of the workpiece
undersize depending upon the requried.
Set the lathe spindle speed to about one fourth of the

turning speed.
Set the gerarbox according to the pitch of thread to be

cut.
Swivl the compound slide to 90° from the horizontal position

to bring it in line with the cross-slide.
Swivel to the right 1° less than the half included angle of

the thread it is a right hand thread. (Fig 1)
The angle to which the compound rest is set

affects the cutting action of the cutting tool by
producing a shearing action on the trailing
edge of the tool. THis produces a smooth cut. Advance the cutting tool to the work surface by operating
the cross-slide hand wheel.
Set the tool in the tool post with a minimum overhand
perpendicular to the axis and also set with a centre gauge. When the tip of the tool just touches the work surface,
(Fig 2) stop further advancement and set the cross-slide and
compount slide graduated collars to zero.
Mark out the length of the workpiece to be threaded.
Move the carriage to the right until the end of the tool
Chamfer the end of the workpiece surface with the leading clears the work.
edge of the cutting tool to a depth, just greater than the
minor diameter of the thread to be cut. Feed the tool in about 0.1 mm using the top slide hand
wheel.
Check the thread formation with a pitch gauge.
Advance the tool by the cross-slide hand wheel toll zero

postion.
Give depth of cut with the top slide handle.
Start the machine and allow the tool to cut the thread.
(Fig 6)
Engage the half nut referring to be chasing dial.
Take a trial cut along the workpiece to be threaded. (Fig 3)
Use plenty of coolant during theading.
Repeat the steps till the required depth is reached. (Fig 7)
At the end of the trial cut, withdraw the tool immediately,

winding it clear off the workpiece by operating the
crossslide hand wheel and simultaneously reversing the
machine. (Fig 4)
Note: At the end of each cut, the tool is

Allow the carriage to move to the right till it is cleared from withdrawn from the work by the cross-slide
the end of the work, and stop the machine. (Fig 5) hand wheel and the carriage is brought to the
starting point. The cross-slide hand wheel is
brought to zero position and a depth of cut is
given by the top slide.
Cutting an internal thread
• tool setting to cut an internal thread.
Mount the job on four jaw chick/three jaw chuck/ collect.
Drill and bore the job to the core diameter of the thread to
required length/through hole.
For a blind hole, cut a recess at the end of the bore enough
to permit the cutting tool to clear thread.
The recess must be larger than the major diameter of the

thread. (Fig 1)
Mark the boring bar to indicate the required depth to entry

into the bore.
Ensure that the boring bar does not foul anywhere on the
job.
Chamfer the front end to 2x45°. Reverse the cross slide until the tool point just touches
the bore.
Set the compount rest at 29° to cut 60° included angle as
shown in Fig 2. Set the cross-slide and compount slide graduated collars
to zero.
Withdraw the cutting tool from the bore.
Set the spindle speed to 1/3 of the calculated r.p.m.
Start the machine.
Adjust the depth of cut to 0.1 mm.
Engage the half nut.
At the end of the cut, simultaneously reverse the chunk

and clear the tool just away from the thread.
Ensure that the tool should not touch the thread in both
side of the bore.
When cutting tool comes out of the bore stop the machine.
Set the gear box levers to the required pitch.
Give the depth of cut and run the machine in forward
Fix the correctly ground threading tool in a boring bar. direction. Similarly finish the thread until final depth is
achieved.
Fix the boring bar parallel to the lathe centre line and set
the point of the cutting tool to lie on the centre. Check the finished thread with a thread plug gauge or a
threaded bolt.
Align the cutting tool with a help of centre gauge as shown
in Fig 3.
Screw pitch gauge (Refer Related theory for exercise.no. 2.1.68-69)
• state the purpose of a screw pitch gauge
• state the features of a screw pitch gauge.
For obtaining accurate results while using the screw pitch

gauge, the full length of the blade should be placed on the
threads. (Fig 1)
Fitter - Basic Maintenance
Total productive maintenance

• explain the concept of TPM
• state advantages of TPM
• explain the concept of OEE
• describe the components of OEE and their effects.
Total Productive Maintenance(TPM) concepts - Reduce customers complaints.

- Reduce accidents.
TPM aims to maximize overall equipment effectiveness.
Establishes a complete system of productive maintenance - Follow pollution control measures.
for the machines/equipments entire lifespan is implemented
- Favourable change in the attitude of the operator.
by various departments. [Engineering, Operations,
Maintenance, Quality and Administration]
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)
TPM can be considered as the medical science of Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a concept
machines. utilized in a lean manufacturing implementation. OEE is
described as one such performance measurement tool
TPM involves every single employee, from top management
that measures different types of production loses and
to all the operators on the shop floor. TPM raises and
indicate areas of process development. The OEE concept
implements productive maintenance based on autonomous
normally measures the effectiveness of a machine center
small group activities.
or process line, but can be utilized in non-manufacturing
operation also.
TPM is a maintenance program which involves a newly
defined concept for maintaining plants and equipments.
The high level formula for the lean manfacturing OEE is
The goal of TPM is to an extent increase production while,
OEE = Availability x Productivity x Quality
at the same time, increasing employee morale and job
satisfaction. Availability
TPM brings maintenance into focus as a necessary and
The availability is part of the above equation measures the
vitally important part of the business. It is no longer
percentage of time the machine/equipment of operation
regarded as a non-profit activity.
was running compared to the available time. For example
if the machine was available to run 20 hours but was only
Downtime for maintenance is scheduled as a part of the
run for 15, then the availability is 75 percent 15/20. The
manufacturing day. In some cases as an integral part of
five hours when the machine didn’t run would be set up
the production process.
time, breakdown or other downtime. The 4 hours the
company did not plan to run the machine is rarely used in
The goal of TPM is to stop the emergency and unscheduled
the calculation.
maintenance.
Performance
Form different teams to reduce defects and self
maintenance.
The performace part of the equation measures the running
speed of the operation compared to its maximum capability
Advantages of TPM
often called the rated sppe. For example, if a machine
produced 80 pieces per hour while running, but the
- Avoids wastage in quickly changing economic
capability of the machine is 100, then the performance is
environment.
80% (80/100). The concept can be used multiple ways
- Produces goods without reducing product quality. depending on the capability number. For example, the
- Reduces maintenance cost. machine might be capable of producing 100 pieces per
hour with the perfect part, but only 85 on that particular
- Produces a low batch quantity at the earliest possible order. When the capability of 100 is used for the
time. calculation, the result is more a measure of facility OEE.
- Ensures the non defective goods to the customers.
168
Quality Autonomous Maintenance
The third portion of the equation measures the number of Autonomous Maintenance put simply is the restoration
good parts produced compared to the total number of parts and preventionof accelerated deterioration and has a major
made. For example if 100 parts are made and 95 of them positive effect on OEE. It is a step by step improvement
are good, the quality is 95% (95/100). process, rather than production teams taking on
maintenance tasks.
Combining the above example into the OEE equation the
OEE is
• Understanding the equipment functions and safety
OEE = 75% x 80% x 95% = 57% risks.
The seven steps of Autonomous Maintenance
1 Initial cleaning - Detect problem of the lives and restore the

(Initial inspection & registration) original state.
- Start managing the line autonomously
(5s, Minor stops, quality) autonomously
- Create & perform temporary “cleaning/lubrication
produces”
2 Source of contamination Solve “sources of contamination” and hard

& Hard-to-reach areas to reach clear (Cleaning, Inspection
lubrication)
Develop tentaive standards for cleaning

3 Standard of cleaning & lubrication
lubrication and inspection.
4 General Inspection Provide training on their equipments, products

and materials, inspection skills and other Am
skills.
5 Autonomous Inspection Develop a routine maintenance standard
by operations.
6 Standadize autonomous maintenance Standadize routine operation related to work

operation place management such as quality inspection
of products, life cycle of jigs, tools, set up
operation and safety
Autonomous team working.

7 Autonomous management
Routine maintenance
• state the need for routine maintenance
• describe the functions of routine maintenance
• state the advantages of routine maintenance.
Routine Maintenance the maintenance event is preplanned, and all future

maintenance is preprogrammed. Planned maintenance is
- In order to get trouble free service from productive created for every item separately according to
equipment. manufacturers recommendation or legislation. Plans can
be date-based, based on equipment running hours, or on
- Following activities is necessary to carry out.
the distance travelled by the vehicle. A good example of
i Lubrication planned maintenance program is car maintenance, where
time and distance determine fluid change requirements. A
ii Periodic inspection good example of condition based maintenance is the oil
iii Adjustments of various parts pressure warning light that provides notification that you
should stop the vehicle because engine lubrication has
iv Cleaning stopped and failure will occur.
All the above maintenance operations are carried out while Planned maintenance has some advantages over condition-
the machine is running or during pre-planned shutdowns. based maintenance (CBM), such as:
This type of maintenance may prevent breakdown of • Easier planning of maintenance and ordering spares.
equipments.
• Costs are distributed more evenly.
Routine maintenance should not interfere with production • No initial costs for instruments used for supervision of
schedules. equipment.
Planned preventive maintenance (PPM), more commonly Disadvantages are:

referred to as simply planned maintenance (PM) or
scheduled maintenance, is any variety of scheduled • Less reliable than equipment with fault reporting
maintenance to an object or item of equipment. associated with CBM.
Specifically, planned maintenance is a scheduled service
visit carried out by a competent and suitable agent, to • More expensive due to more frequent parts change.
ensure that an item of equipment is operating correctly • Requires training investment and on going labour costs.
and to therefore avoid any unscheduled breakdown and
downtime. Parts that have scheduled maintenance at fixed intervals,
usually due to wearout or a fixed shelf life, are sometimes
Along with condition based maintenance planned known as time-change interval or TCI items.
maintenance comprises preventive maintenance, in which
Maintenance schedule
• describe the normal procedure followed in machine tool maintenance in shop floor.
Any kind of action or activity there should be some - Initial cleanup

procedure and sequence likewise maintenance also has
- Identification of fault
some normal procedure to execute the maintenance
activity without any confusion. If maintenance is not - Dismantling
followed any procedure there will be time loss and the - Inspection
machine and equipment could not be ready in time. The
procedure guides the maintenance people how to start, - Identification of cause for defect
execute, where to inpect and how to complete the - Inspection and replacement/ Repair of spares
maintenance in time. The maintenance is carried out with
the following procedure. - Reassembling
170
- Trial run Inspection and replacement/ repair of spares
- Inspection with standards
The damaged or broken spares are procured from stores/
- Maintaining records repaired and the same is inspected to the standards.
Initial cleanup Reassembling
Main machine, connected accessories, lubrication system, The next course of action is assembling the parts in reverse
panels and adjacent parts are to be cleaned first. manner of dismantling order.
Identification of fault Trial run
The fault of the machine is to be identified by visual After completion of assembling the machine is to run first
inspection and getting information from the complaint and manually and all the lubrication, electrical connection to
justified the same. be given. Finally the machine should run on is trial run for
some time and observed for any unusual sound from the
Dismantling machine.
The fault area is dismantled with the referring to the manual Inspection with standards
and all the spares are kept seperate in a tray and preserved
safely. The machine is finally checked/inspected for geometry
accuracy safety hazards etc., according to the
Inspection manufacturer standard any other recommended standard
as required by the nature of maintenance work carried.
All the dismantled parts such as gear, bearing, shaft, key,
etc. are cleaned and inspected for any damages. Any Maintaining records
damages/breakage is recorded in the maintenance
checklist. All the activities related to fault attended, spares changed,
etc. to be recorded in the inspection report/maintenance
Identification of cause for defect record, machine history cards suitably for future reference.
The defect in spare parts thoroughly examined and

analysed the causes for damage and the same has to be
rectified.
Preventive maintenance
• state the need for preventive maintenance
• describe the functions of the P M department
• state the advantages of P M
• state the advantages of maintenance records and periodic inspection of machines.
Need for Preventive maintenance Functions of preventive maintenance department
The machine tools are of high precision, and are sensitive - Periodic inspection of machines and equipments as
and expensive. per the ‘Check- lists’. (Annexure I)
- Lubrication of machines and equipments as per the
They must be handled and maintained carefully in order to
manufacturer’s instruction manuals.
give good and long service.
- Servicing and overhauling of machine and equipment
The basic function of the maintenance department is the as per the P M schedule.
upkeep of the machines and equipments in good operating
- Keeping basic records of each machine and equipment.
condition.
(Annexure II)
Earlier the maintenance of the equipment used to receive - Analysis of inspection reports and systematic review
attention only when the equipment suffered some set-back of reports of machines and equipments.
or breakdown as a result of some minor/major fault. Such
breakdowns not only brought a serious production Periodic inspection of machines and equipments as
hold-up but also used to upset the production flow of the per the check-list
industry where the other equipment also had to stand
idle. This resulted in a more cautious approach to the The check-list items for the inspector about all the points
maintenance of the equipment and this brought up the to be checked on individual machines. While preparing
more scientific way of tackling the maintenance problem, the check-list of the machine, make sure that no machine
through preventive maintenance. (P M) part or item that is omitted needs attention. The inspection
of machine tools like lathe and drilling machine includes
Preventive maintenance the following.
Preventive maintenance consists of a few engineering - Driving system and feeding system
activities which help to maintain the machine tools in good
- Lubricating and coolant system
working order.
- Slides and wedges and gibs
The basic activities of preventive maintenance are the:
- Belts, bearings, clutch, brake and operating controls
- Periodic inspection of machines and equipments to - Guideways, lead screws and their mating parts
uncover conditions leading to production breakdowns
or harmful depreciation After inspection of each machine, the inspector has to
make out the list of parts which need repairs or spares for
- Upkeep of machines and equipments to avoid such
replacement.
conditions or to adjust, repair or replace them while
they are still in the initial stages. Frequency of inspection
Advantages of preventive maintenance system The frequency of inspection depends on the age, kind of
- Less down time in production. machine and its operating conditions. Frequent inspection
of machines and equipment may be expensive and
- Improves quantity and quality of product.
frequency with long intervals may result in more
- Standby equipment is not needed which saves capital breakdowns. A good balance is needed to bring optimum
investment. savings.
- Lower unit cost of manufacture.
- Reduces major and repetitive repairs of machines.
- P.M. helps in prolonging the life of the machines
and reduction in un-expected breakdowns.
172
Lubrication of machines and equipments Keep a detailed record of faults, failures, repairs and
replacements done for machines. It is useful to analyse
The length of time a machine will retain its accuracy and
the cause of a fault and rectification.
give satisfactory service depends on the lubrication and
care it receives. It is essential that lubrication of machines Maintenance records analysis
should be carried out systematically at regular intervals
Systematic review and regular analysis of the equipment
as recommended in the service manual supplied by the
records will help to:
machine manufacturer.
- Re-design the weak part which gives repetitive trouble
The manufacturer’s manual contains all the necessary
details like grade of oil, grease, oiling and greasing points - Substitute with better material for high cost items
and also indicates the time intervals of lubrication. - Minimise frequent breakdowns
Maintenance records (Annexure III) - Reduce the cost of production.
Keep a detailed record of faults, failures, repairs and
replacements done for machines. It is useful to analyse
Preventive Maintenance Programme

Name of the Machine : Location of the machine :
Machine Number :
Model No. & Make : Annexure I
CHECK-LIST FOR MACHINE INSPECTION
Inspect the following items and tick in the appropriate column and list the remedial measures for the defective
items.
Items to be checked Good working/satisfactory Defective Remedial measures
Level of the machine
Belt and its tension
Bearing sound
Driving clutch and brake
Exposed gears
Working in all the speeds
Working in all feeds
Lubrication system
Coolant system
Carriage & its travel
Cross-slide & its movement
Compound slide & its travel
Tailstock’s parrallel movement
Electrical controls
Safety gaurds
Inspected by
Signature
Name :
Date : Signature of in-charge
EQUIPMENT RECORD Annexure II
History sheet of machinery & equipment
Description of equipment:
Manufacturers’ address:
Supplier’s address:
Order No. and date:
Date on which received:
Date on which installed and placed:
Date of commissioning:
Size: Length X Width X Height
Weight:
Cost:
Motor particulars: Watts: r.p.m: Phase: Volts
Bearings/Spares record:
Belt specification:
Lubrication details:
Major repairs and overhauls

carried out with dates.
Annexure III
MAINTENANCE RECORDS
Sl.No Name of the machine Nature of fault rectified Date Signature of in-charge
Difference between breakdown maintenance and preventive maintenance
Sl.No. Breakdown Maintenance Preventive Maintenance
1 Maintenance is undertaken only after Maintenance is undertaken only before

breakdown breakdown
2 No attempt is made to prevent breakdown Maintenance is made to prevent breakdown
3 This is unpredictable activity Predictable activity
4 Maintenance cost less Cost of maintenance is high
5 Not suitable for equipments like cranes, hoists, Can be applied to all types of equipments
pressure vessels
6 Results in production loss and more “Down time” Such disadvantages are eliminated
Reactive Maintenance Purpose of maintenance
The oldest maintenance approach is reactive. Equipment The importance use of routine maintenance is to ensure
is not repaired or replaced until it breaks. In this that all equipment required for production is operating at
maintenance equipment fails with little or no warning so 100% efficiency at all times. Through short daily
this could be down until replacement parts arrive, resulting inspections, cleaning, lubricating and making small
in income loss. In this maintenance cost and down time adjustment small problems can be detected and corrected
increased and also create safety issues. Reactive before they become major problem that can shutdown a
maintenance can be suitable in some situation such as production line. A good maintenance program requires
for non critical and low cost equipment with little or no risk company wide participation and support by everyone
of capital loss or production loss. ranging from the top executive to the shop floor personel.
Importance of breakdown maintenance and

preventive maintenance in productivity
The importance of an effective maintenance program

cannot be overlooked because it plays such an important
role in the effectiveness of lean manufacturing. As in
personal health care insurance, maintenance may be
considered the health care of our manufacturing operation,
business or service operation. The cost of routine
maintenance is very small when its compared to the cost
of a major breakdown at which time there is no production.
Inspection, types of inspection and gadgets for inspection

• retrieval of data from machine manual
• state the need of inspection
• state the function of inspection
• list out the type of inspection
• discuss the each type of inspection
• list out the gadgets used for inspection.
Retrieval of data from machine manual Inspection
Manual is one of the integral and necessary literary part Inspection is necessary for any machine/equipment where
that the operator has to know before handling and remarkable risk to health and safety may arise from wrong
operationg the machine. It will be provided by true installation, re-installation or any other circumstances. The
manufacturer along with the supply of the machine. purpose of inspection is to find whether machine can be
operated, adjusted and maintained safely. The need for
Manual furnish all information about the machine like size inspection and inspection intervals to be determined
of the machine, foundation and errection method, safety through risk assessment.
procedure to be followed, operating procedure and
periodical maintenance required. The summary of inspection should be recorded and same
should be kept atleast until the next inspection of that
The machine manual will also provide about the required machine. Machine/equipment that required inspection
power supply, safety precaution grade of lubrication oil to should not be used unless the machine has been
be used etc., availability of suitable spare parts and details inspected.
of dealer/supplier has to be provided in the manual
otherwise use of any other parts will not suit and the If the machine/equipment obtained from any other source
machine will get damaged. (eg. hired). One should be ensure that physical evidence
of last inspection is accompanied with the machine, such
We have to refer and follow manual if any problem/defects as inspection report, some form of tagging, labelling system
arises during operation of the machine. or colour coding.
The manual will also provide the brand and type of tools Function of Inspection in maintenance
that can be used, time period/life of the tools to be replaced
based on the usage and periodical inspection to be carried 1 Periodic inspection of machines and equipments as
out. per checklist (Annexure 1)
2 Keeping basic records of each machine & equipments.
In general manual to provide information right from starting
of the machine, operating method of machine and stopping 3 Preparation of list which need for repairs (or) spare for
the machine, incase of emergency to stop the machine. replacements.
4 Analysis of inspection report and systematic review of
reports of machines/equipments.
5 Assigning of frequency of inspection.
The following Annexure 1,2 and 3 are the formats used in

maintenance inspection.
177
Annexure I
INSPECTION CHECK-LIST
Name of the machine : Location of the machine :
Machine No :
Model No :
Inspect the following items and tick in the appropriate column and list the measures for the defective items.
Item to be checked Good working/Satisfactory/Status Defective Remedial measures
Availability of machine manual

Safety guards
Installation
Level of the machine
Belt and its tension
Bearing sound
Driving clutch and brake
Exposed gears
Working in all the speeds
Working in all the feeds
Lubrication system
Coolant system
Sliding part and its travel
Safety and limit switches
Electrical controls
Proper lighting
Emergency stop
Alarm speciality
Condition of work holding devices
Condition of tool holding devices
Condition of accessories and
attachments
Chip collection and disposal
Conclusion of inspection
Recommendations
Inspected by
Signature
Name :
Date :
Signature of incharge
Annexure II
EQUIPMENT RECORD
History sheet of machinery & Equipment
Description of equipment
Manufacturer’s address
Supplier’s address
Order No. and date
Date on which received
Date on which installed and placed
Date of commissioning
Size: Length x Width x Height
Weight
Cost
Motor particulars Watts/H.P./ r.p.m: Phase: Volts:
Bearings/ spares/ record
Belt specification
Lubrication details
Major repairs and overhauls

carried out with dates
Lubrication survey
• state the benefit of lubrication survey
• prepare the cost estimation.
How does a Lubrication survey work? These places are indicated in the maintenance manuals
with symbols as shown in Fig 1.
Lubrication survey of all equipment that requires lubrication.
• By points of lubrication
• Recommended LE products
• Application methods
• Drain or lube intervals
• Special remarks
The materail is compiled and a report is returned with the

recommended lubricants for all of your equipment included.
What are the benefits of a Lubrication survey?
• A key part of a good preventive maintenance program.

• Product consolidation
- Reduces inventory requirements
- Minimizes product misapplication
The best guarantee for good maintenance is to follow the
• Assists maintenance personnel in seeing that all manufacturer’s directives for the use of lubricants and
lubrication points are lubricated as scheduled. greases. Refer to the Indian Oil Corporation chart for
guidance.
• Reduces downtime and repair parts. Minimizes time
spent with OEM manuals researching proper lubricants. The lubricant containers should be clearly labelled. The
label must indicate the type of oil or grease and the code
• Easily updated by your LE Representative to keep the
number and other details. Oil containers must be kept in
survey effective.
the horizontal position while the grease container should
• Increases equipment life. be in the vertical position.
Cost Estimating Methods
Increase your profitability
Engineering Estimate with this technique, the system
Preventing equipment downtime is directly reflected in being costed is broken down into lower level components
increased productivity. A refocus from the repair maintenane (such as parts or assembles), each of which is costed
philosophy to the preventive approach is needed. separately for direct labour, direct material and other costs.
Engineering estimates for direct labour hours may be
Hints for lubricating machines based on analyses of engineering drawings and contractor
or industry wide standards. Engineering estimates for direct
• Identify the oiling and greasing points material may be based on discrete raw material and
• Select the right lubricants and lubricating devices purchase part requirements. The remaining elements of
cost (such as quality control of various overhead changes)
• Apply the lubricants may be factored from the direct labour and materials costs.
The various discrete cost estimates are aggregated by
The manufacturer’s manual contains all the necessary simple algebraic equations (hence the common name
details for lubrication of parts in machine tools. Lubricants ‘bottoms-up estimate). The use of engineering estimates
are to be applied daily, weekly, monthly or at regular requires extensive knowledge of a system’s (and its
intervals at different points or parts as stipulated in the components) characteristics and lots of detailed data.
manufacturer’s manual.
180
Simple estimation of material
• state the purpose of estimation
• explain the details of formats for estimation sheet
Estimation is the method of calculating the various Standard schedule of rates of the current year.
quantities and the expenditure to be incurred on a particular
job or process. Estimating is the process of preparing an approximation
of quantities which is a value used as input data and it is
In case the funds available are less than the estimated derived from the best information available.
cost the work is done in part or by reducing it or
specifications are altered, An estimate that turns out to be incorrect will be an
overestimate if the estimate exceeded the actual result,
The following essential details are required for preparing and an underestimate if the estimate fell short of the actual
an estimate. result.
Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important A cost estimate contains approximate cost of a product
parts. process or operation. The cost estimate has a single total
value and it is inclusive of identifiable component
Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties values.
of materials, etc.
Hand box and reference table Reference table
A hand book is a type of reference work, or other collection A refereance table may mean a set of references that are
of instruction. That is intended to provide ready reference. author may have cited (or) gained inspiration from whilst
The term originally applied to a small portable book writing an article, similar to a bibliography.
containing information useful for its owner, but the oxford
english disctionary defines as “any book .... givng It can also mean an information table that is used as a
information such as facts on a particular subject, guidence quick and easy reference for things that are difficult to
in some art or occupation, instruction for operating a remember such as comparing imperial with metric
machine etc. A handbook is sometimes referred to as a measurements. This kind of data is known as reference
pocket reference. data.
Hand book may deal with any topic, and arc generally
having compact information in a particular field (or)
technique. They are designed to be easily consulted and
provides quick answer in a certain area.
Example of engineering hand book include parry’s

cheorikal engineers hand book, mark standard hand book
for machine engineer and the CRC hand book of chemistry
and physics.
ESTIMATION SHEET
Part Name: Part No.: 1 Insert Part Drawing
Assembly: Material: Fe310.0
Assembly No.: Stock size: © 80 ISR-70L
Operation Operation Lathe Estimated Rate / Tools

No. description time per hr.
01 Setting and aligning job on lathe - 10 min Rs.100.00
02 Set speed and feed - 2 min -
03 Align cutting tool in position - 2 min -
04 Turn the job - 50 min -
05 Chamfer 45º angle corner - 8 min - vernier bevel

protractor
06 Reverse the job on Lathe - 10 min -
07 Turn the job - 20 min -
08 Chamfer 45º on other side - 20 min -
09 Centre drilling - 10 min -
10 Mount drill chuck and drill Drilling 03 min -

using tail stock
11 Set drill rpm Drilling 02 min -
12 Drill holes Drilling 20 min -
13 Set the boring tool Drilling 15 min -
14 Bore to the required diameter 08 min -
15 Check the bore dia 10 min - Inside

micrometer or
bore dial
gauge
16 Deburr the job and clean the - 10 min -

machine
17 Total hours 200 min
18 Total estimation Rs. 333.00
Causes for assembly failures and remedies

• state the poor assembly
• list out poor service conditions
• state the cost of operation.
Poor assembling Cost of operation
Error in assembly can result due to various reasons such Decide each operation to be performed on flanges like
as ambiguous, insufficient or inappropriate assembly Drilling, machinig and boring. While selecting the process
procedure, misalignment, poor workmanship. Sometimes, do take care of sequence of operation as it matters a lot
failures are also caused by the inadvertent error performed on costing.
by the workers during the assembly. For example, failure
of nut and stud assembly (used for holding the car wheel) You need to allot time required for particular opeation
by fatigue can occur owing to lack of information regarding considering all factors of machine. On their basis of price
sequence of tightening the nuts and torque to be used for of machine, depreciation and cost of electricity consumed
tightening purpose; under such conditions any sort of you need to finalise cost of machine running per hour.
loosening of nut which is subjected to external load will
lead to fatigue failure. Now multiply time required for particular opeation and
machine running cost/hour
Poor service conditions
Tools Cost
Failure of an engineering component can occur due to
abnormal service condition experienced by them for which • Cost of Labour: For each piece calculate total working
they are not designed. These abnormal service conditions time consumed and calculate total cost need to pay to
may appear in the form of exposure of component to labour.
excessively high rate of loading, unfavourable oxidative, • Accidental/Risk/Rejection cost: As manufacturing of
corrosive, erosive environment at high or low temperature flange is a manural process, there may be chances of
conditions for which it has not been designed. The rejection of material, so this cost should be considered.
contribution of any abnormality in Service conditions on
the failure can only be established after thorough The simple method is add 1 piece’s rate if manufacturing
investigation regarding compatibility of the design 100 qty in bulk
manufacturing (such as heat treatment) and material of
the failed components with condition experienced by them • Packaging and handling cost: Generally 2% of basic
during the service. cost
• Profit: Approx 5 to 15% to basic cost
Weight of raw mateiral
• Admin and depreciation cost
Calculate theoretically weight of material, calculate volume
of material and multiply with density of mateiral. It gives
you exact weight of raw material required.
While calculating weight do not consider final dimension

always consider plus size for machining and other
operation.
183
Assembly techniquies
• name the common techniques used for assembling components
• distinguish between the application of dowelling, pinning, staking, brazing and use of adhesives for assembling
components.
In machine shop assembly various methods are used for These are fitted like dowels in reamed holes and held in
securing components together. A few of the common position by a retaining ring.
methods are:
Cotter pins (Fig 3)
- Dowelling
- Pinning
- Staking
- Brazing/Hard soldering
- Using of adhesives
Dowelling (Fig 1)
Taper pins (Fig 4)
This is used for accurate positioning of two or more parts.

This allows the parts to be separated and relocated in
position. Different types of dowels are used depending on
the type of assembly.
The components dowelled are always fixed with retaining

screws in the assembly.
Pinning
Taper pins will position parts accurately. The component
can be dismantled easily and assembled without any
This is also a method of locating and securing components
change in location.
together. Pins are of different types.
The holes for fitting taper pins are finished using taper pin
Parallel pins (Fig 2) reamers.
Spring pins (Fig 5)
184
This eliminates the need for drilling and reaming of the
assembly together. The spring pin adjusts itself in case of
slight misalignment.
Peening (Fig 6)
When parts are to be assembled together this is one

method of assembly. Basically this is smimilar to reveting.
Staking (Figs 7a, b & c)
Adhesives (Fig 9)
The adhesives commonly used are epoxy adhesives. This

adhesive gives a strong bond between materials to be
assembled. This is not affected by moderate moisture or
heat. It is usually supplied in two containers/tubes. One
is resin and the other is the hardener.
This is a method of retaining parts in an assembly in which

a portion or all of a component is forced to flow on the
other component. This increases the efficiency of the fit.
Brazing and hard soldering (Fig 8a & b)
This is a process of joining metals by using layer of non-

ferrous metal between the surface to be joined.
The alloy used for brazing is known as spelter (combination

of copper and zinc)
Threaded jointer
• state the situations in which bolts and nuts are used
• state the advantages of using bolts and nuts
• identify the different types of bolts
• state the applications of the different types of bolts
• state the situations in which studs are used
• state the reason for having different pitches of threads on stud ends.
Bolts and nuts (Fig 1) Body fit bolt (Fig 3)
These are generally used to clamp two parts together.

This type of bolt assembly is used when the relative
When bolts and nuts are used, if the thread is stripped, a movement between the workpieces has to be prevented.
new bolt and nut can be used. But in the case of a screw The diameter of the threaded portion is slightly smaller
directly fitted in the component, when threads are than the shank diameter of the bolt.
damaged, the component may need extensive repair or
replacement. The bolt shank and the hole are accurately machined for
achieving perfect mating.
Depending on the type of application, different types of
bolts are used. Anti-fatigue bolt (Fig 4)
Bolts with clearance hole (Fig 2)
This type of bolt is used when the assembly is subjected

to alternating load conditons continuously. Connecting rod
This is the most common type of fastening arrangement big ends in engine assembly are examples of this
using bolts. The size of the hole is slightly larger than the application.
bolt (clearance hole). The shank diameter is in contact with the hole in a few
places and other portions are relieved to give clearances.
Slight misalignment in the matching hole will not affect
the assembly.
Studs (Fig 5) Example
A hexagon head bolt of size M10, nominal length 60 mm

and property class 4.8 shall be designated as:
Hexagon head bolt M10 x 60 - 4.8 - IS:1363 (Part 1).
Explanation about property class
The part of the specification 4.8 indicates the property

class (mechanical properties). In this case it is made of
steel with minimum tensile strength = 40 kgf/mm2 and
having a ratio of minimum yield stress to minimum tensile
strength = 0.8.
Note: Indian standard bolts and screws are

Studs are used in assemblies which are to be separated made of three product grades - A, B, & C and
frequently. ‘A’ being precision and the others of lesser
grades of accuracy and finish. While there are
When excessively tightened, the variation in the thread many parameters given in the B.I.S
pitch allows the fine thread or nut end to strip. This specification, the designation need not cover
prevents damage to the casting. all the aspects and it acutally depends on the
functional requirement of the bolt or other
Designation of bolts as per B.I.S. specifications threaded fasteners.
Hexagon head bolts shall be designated by name, thread (For more details on the designation system, refer to
size, nominal length, property class and number of the IS:1367, Part XVI 1979.)
Indian Standard.
Cylindrical and taper pins

• state the uses of cylindrical and taper pins
• specify cylindrical pins
• state the features and uses of different types of cylindrical pins
• state the advantages of of taper pins
• state the features and uses of the different types of taper pins
• designate standard taper pins
• distinguish the features and uses of the different types of taper pins
• state the uses of the different types of grooved pins
• state the features and uses of spring pins.
Cylindrical and taper pins

– Locating hole position for assemblies whenever they
are dismantled and assembled (Examples - jigs and
fixtures, cover plates, machine tool assembly etc.)
(Figs 1a and 1b)
– Assembling components. (Examples - wheels, gears,

levers, cranks etc. to shafts) (Figs 2a and 2b)
In tool assemblies the parts will be fixed by screws or
bolts, (Fig 5) and are located by using cylindrical pins.
Cylindrical pins are available with different types of:
- Ends Hardened cylindrical pins are available with dimensional

- Tolerances tolerance m6.
- Surface quality Un-hardened and hardened cylindrical pins are made to fit
in the holes finished by standard reamers.
Cylindrical pins are also available in un-hardened and
hardened conditions. Cylindrical pins are designated by the name, nominal
diameter, tolerance on diameter, nominal length and the
Un-hardened cylindrical pins are of three types. (Fig 3) number of B.I.S. Standard.
Example
A cylindrical pin of nominal diameter 10 mm, tolerance h8

and nominal length 20 mm shall be designated as-
Cylindrical pin 10h8x20 IS:2393.
Note: The I.S. number refers to un-hardened

cylindrical pins. Cylindrical pins are also
referred to as dowel pins.
Taper pins
Taper pins of different types are used in assembly work.
Taper pins allow for frequent dismantling and assembling

of components without disturbing the precise nature of
location. They are used to transmit small torques. (Fig 6)
- Chamfered and rounded end
- Chamfered end
- Square end
They are useful in general assembly work.
Hardened cylindrical pins are made of high grade steel

and are finished by grinding. (Fig 4) These pins can
withstand higher shearing force. These pins are used in
precision assemblies like jigs and fixtures and other tool
making works.
Taper pins are of three types. (Fig 7) Split taper pin
In the case of split taper pins the split end can be slightly
opened to ensure a more positive locking.
Taper pins are designated by name, type (A, B or C) nominal

diameter, nominal length and number of the standard.
Examples
i A taper pin of Type A of nominal diameter 10 mm and

nominal length 50 mm shall be designated as - Taper
pin A10 x 50 IS:6688.
ii A split taper pin of nominal diameter 10 mm and nominal
length of 60 mm shall be designated as - Split taper
pin C10 x 60 IS: 6688.
The nominal diameter in the case of taper pins

is the diameter at the small end of the taper.
Threaded taper pins are available for:
- Locking the pins and preventing loosening due to

vibration (Fig 10)
Type A - Taper pins with a surface finish of N6.
Type B - Taper pins with a surface finish of N7.
Type C - Split taper pins with a surface finish of N7.
All taper pins have a taper of 1:50 and are finished within a
dimensional tolerance of h10.
Taper pin types A & B assembly is shown in Fig 8 and - Assisting in drawing the pins out of the blind holes.
type C is shown in Fig 9. (Fig 11)
Threaded taper pins with internal threads are also available.

(Fig 12)
Grooved pins Grooved pins with head are also used in assembly involving
small components. (Fig 15)
These pins have three slots rolled on the outer surface.
The sides of the grooves/slots bulge out. The holes in
which slotted pins are used are not finished by reaming.
Grooved pins are available as straight pins (Fig 13a), and
tapered pins (Fig 13b). These are used in assemblies
which are not dismantled frequently and where high
accuracy is not required.(Fig 14)
Spring pins (Fig 16)
Spring pins are used for locating assemblies with wide

tolerance in the corresponding holes. These pins are
manufactured from flat steel bands and rolled to form a
cylindrical shape. These springs will stay tight in the fitting
hole because of the spring action.
Seal
• state the purpose of a seal
• name the material used for static seal
• state the types of static seals and their applications
• name the materials used for dynamic seals
• state the types of dynamic seals and their applications.
Purpose Types
A seal is used to prevent leakage. - Static

- Dynamic
It prevents dust, dirt and foreign particles from entering
into the system.
Static seal
Any machining process leaves behind a little imperfection
It is used for sealing the contact areas between the
of the surfaces of the mating components. A seal fills up
surfaces where there is relative movement, eg. Gasket ‘O’
the gap to prevent leakage from the system.
ring, bellows, etc.,
Materials used for gaskets
Static seal
- Compressed cork
- Oil-proof paper
- Graphite-impregnated cloth
- Asbestos with copper covering
- PTFE (Poly-tetrafluroethylene)
- Copper Rubber gaskets (Fig 4)
- Steel
Types of static seals
Compressed cork gasket (Fig 1)
They are the good for sealing flanges of cold water

connections. They are not suitable where oil comes in
contact.
Graphite impregnated cloth (Fig 5)
This is a suitable material for hot water and steam joints.
This is used for sealing between mating surfaces which

are not having good surface finish. Compressed cork can
be obtained in several thicknesses.
Paper (Fig 2)
Metallic gaskets (Fig 6)

This is used between smooth and accurately finished joint Hard metallic seals made of steel, copper or beryllium are
surfaces. It can vary in thickness from thin paper to card used for high pressure joints found commonly in hydraulic
and may be grease-proofed. system.
PTFE cord sealing (Fig 3)
This is suitable for use at very low temperature

applications. The material is chemically inert and can be
made into soft flexible strips and used to make either flat
seals or gland packings.
Table 1 shows the allowable temperature range for different
materials.
Table 1
Material Temp.°C Material Temp.°C
Natural rubber -50 to +80 Flurosilicone -50 to +100
Nitrile -30 to +110 Butyle -40 to +100
Viton -40 to +180 Neoprene -40 to +100
PTFE -85 to +260 Flurocarabon -20 to +140
Types of dynamic seals
Asbestos covered with copper sheet gasket (Fig 7) Dynamic seals are required to work under more exacting
conditions than static seals because movement lakes
place between the surfaces being sealed.
O-ring seal (Figs 9 & 10)
These are suitable for use in high temperature applications.

Varnished paper gasket (Fig 8)
It is suitable for use where liquids would be absorbed into

plain paper. The surface of the varnished paper gasket These are the most common types of dynamic seals in
must not be cracked or damaged in any way. use and have many applications. When required to seal
against high pressures, they are fitted with back-up rings.
Material used for manufacturing dynamic seal There are many similar seals made for special purposes
that do not have a circular cross-section.
- Natural rubber
- Nitrile Radial lip seals
- Viton Radial lip seals are used primarily to retain lubricants in
- PTFE plastics equipment with rotating, reciprocating or oscillating shafts.
The secondary purpose is to exclude foreign matter.
- Flurosilicone
- Butyle Non-spring loaded seals
- Neoprene These are used to retain highly viscous materials like
- Flurocarbon grease at shafts less than 600 m/min.
Spring-loaded seals (Fig 11) Flange seal (Fig 14)
‘V’ type or Chevron seal (Fig 15)
They are used to retain low viscosity lubricants such as

oils at speeds up to 1000 m/min.
Wiper seal (Fig 12)

Cup seal (Fig 16)
‘U’ type seal (Fig 17)
These seals are used in rotary and sliding operating

conditions and are used to prevent dust or grit entering
They are often used to form the seal between piston and
shaft bearings. The contacting surface of the seal wipes
cylinder assemblies in hydraulic equipment.
off the particles from the shaft.
Labyrinth seals (Fig 18)
‘V’ seals (Fig 13)
This is a clearance type of seal and it allows some amount

of leakage. Labyrinth seals are used primarily to seal gases
Fabric reinforced or leather seals are suitable for use in compressors and steam turbines. This seal is commonly
against high pressure. These seals are available in various used in rotary operating conditions. The function of the
forms. seal is to provide radial clearance while preventing dust or
dirt from entering into the system.
Torquing
• state torque in assembling
• state precautions to be observed during assembling & installation.
Torquing - All bolts should be tightened in one-third increments,

according to proper bolting patterns.
While assembling, threaded fasteners are tightened as
per thread manufacturer recommended torque value. If the - Make final check pass at the target torque value moving
torque is more than the recommendation, threads may consecutively from bolt to bolt
damage on both fasteners and housing and tends to break. - Never use liquid or metallic based anti-stick or
lubricating compounds on the gaskets. It creats
Precautions observed during Assembling and Premature failure.
installation
- Tighten the bolts to compress the gasket uniformly.

Follow the sequence from side to side around the joint.
(Fig 19).
- Use well lubricated fasteners and hardened flat wahser.

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FITTER

1st Year (Volume II of II)

SECTOR: Capital Goods & Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Developed & Published by

National Instructional Media Institute

First Edition : November 2018 Copies : 10,000

New Delhi - 110 001

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. M. Sampath _ Training officer (Retd.)

Shri. M. Sangarapandian _ Training officer (Retd.)

Shri. K. Kesavan _ Asst. App. Advisor Junior (Retd)

Shri. C.C. Subramanian _ Training officer (Retd.)

Shri. A. Stephen _ Instructor, St. John’s ITI

Shri. A. Chandraprakash _ Vocational Instructor,

Shri. K.B. Shivaramu _ Junior Training officer

Shri. D.C. Nataraja _ Junior Training officer

Shri. Milind Rasu _ Instructor, Government ITI

Shri. K. Srinivasa Rao _ Joint Director,

Shri. G. Michael Johny _ Assistant Manager,

Module 1 Drilling 150 Hrs

Module 2 Fitting assembly 150 Hrs

Module 3 Turning 125 Hrs

Module 4 Basic Maintenance 75 Hrs

Module 5 In-plant training/Project work 50 Hrs

Total 550 Hrs

The manual is divided into five modules.

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Learning Page No.

Module 2: Fitting assembly

2.2.79 - 80 Necessity of Interchangeability in engineering field 63

2.3.90 Safety to be observed while working on lathes 102

2.3.105 Lathe operation - Knurling 147

Module 4 : Basic Maintenance

2.4.110 Total productive maintenance 168

2.4.116 Assembly techniquies 184

Module 5 : In-plant training/Project work

LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

S.No Learning Outcome Lesson No

1 Produce components by different operations and check

Duration: Six Months

Week Ref. Learning Professional Skills

99 Cut grooves- square, round,V. Chucks and chucking the

In-plant training / Project work

Types of drills and their specific uses

Twist drill : Almost all drilling operation is done using a

Deep hole drills

Deep hole drilling is done by using a type of drill known as

Drills are made of high speed steel.

A slow helix drill is used on materials like brass, gun metal,

Drill (Parts and functions)

Drilling is a process of making holes on workpieces.The

Parts of a Drill (Fig 2)

The various parts of a drill can be identified from figure 2.

Web is the metal column which separates the flutes. It

The land/margin is the narrow strip which extends to the

The type of drill used for general purpose drilling work is

Rake angle (Fig 5)

The point angle of a general purpose (standard) drill is

Helix angle (Figs 2,3 and 4)

Rake angle is the angle of flute (helix angle).