Role of Soil in Waste Management

Agricultural waste management system (AWMS) planning, design, implementation,

and function are dependent on soil physical and chemical properties and landscape
features. Essential soil data include soil maps and the physical and chemical properties
that affect soil suitability and limitations for an AWMS.
Soil phases: It comprises of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. All three phases
influence the supply of plant nutrients to the plant root.
solid phase is the main nutrient reservoir. It holds nutrients in the cations such as K+,
NH4+, Na+, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc and cobalt on negatively
charged clay and organic colloidal particles. Anionic (negatively charge ions)
nutrients, such as No3-, phosphorus, sulphur, boron, and molybdenum largely held by
the organic fraction or mineral complexes. Nitrate is held very loosely to the anion
exchange sites of the soil and move readily with percolating soil water. P is often
fixed to the mineral soil fraction containing Fe, Al and carbonates. It can be attached
to hydrous aluminium, iron oxides, carbonates, and clays, particularly the kaolinitic
type. The amount of plant available nutrients held by a soil depends upon the soil’s
cation-exchange capacity, pH, organic matter content, clay mineralogy and water
holding capacity.
The liquid phase or the soil solution is responsible for the transport of nutrients in the
soil. Oxygen and carbon dioxide can be dissolved in the soil solution and transported
to and from the system. A large percentage of agricultural waste material is composed
of water. Depending on the type, timing, and method of delivery of waste, this water
can be used to supply part of the plant’s moisture as well as nutrient requirements.
The gaseous phase mediates the exchange of gases among the living organisms in the
soil. Nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide are the primary gaseous by-
products of the soil and plant system. Gas exchange affects denitrification,
mineralization of organic material, and soil micro-organism growth rate.
Soil-agricultural waste interaction: Soil-agricultural waste interactions are
dependent on the soil environment, microbial populations, chemical and physical
properties of the soil and waste material. The following discussion describes some of
these relationships.
(a) Filtration: Soils suitable for use as filtering systems have permeability slow
enough to allow adequate time for purification of water percolating through the
soil system. Overloading the filtration system with wastewater that has high amounts
of suspended solids causes clogging of soil pores and a reduction of soil hydraulic
conductivity. The wastewater application rate should not exceed the waste
decomposition rate, which is dependent on soil temperature and moisture content.
Tillage practices that maintain or improve soil tilth and reduce soil compaction and
crusting should be included in the land application part of agricultural waste
management systems. These practices help to maintain soil permeability, infiltration,
and aeration, which enhances the biological decomposition processes.
(b) Biological degradation: Soil factors that affect biological degradation are
temperature, moisture, oxygen supply, pH, available nutrients (N, P, K, and
micronutrients), porosity, permeability, microbial population, and bulk density.
Organic factors are carbon to nitrogen ratio (C: N), lignin content, and BOD. The soil
and organic factors interact and determine the environment for microbial growth and
metabolism. The decomposition rate of organic material is primarily controlled by the
chemical and biological composition of the waste material, soil moisture and
temperature and available oxygen supply. High loading rates or high BOD waste may
consume most of the available oxygen and create an anaerobic environment. Under
anaerobic conditions, the by-products may be toxic and can inhibit seed germination
and retard plant growth, even after aerobic conditions have been restored.
(c) Chemical reactions: Organic waste mineralization by-products consist of macro-
and micro-plant nutrients, soluble salts, gases, and heavy metals. These by-
products dissolve and enter soil water solutions through precipitation or irrigation
water. The dissolved by-products are subjected to ionic exchange, adsorption,
precipitation, or complexation. Ionic exchange and adsorption is the replacement or
interchange of ions. This ionic interchange occurs with little or no alteration to
exchanging ions. Cation exchange capacity is the measure of a soil’s potential to
exchange cations and is related to soil mineralogy, pH, and organic matter content.
Anion exchange is the exchange and replacement of negatively charged ions to
positively charged sites on soil particles. Anion exchange capacity is relatively low in
most soils when compared to cation exchange; however, anion exchange is important
because the anion exchange potential of the soil is related to its ability to retain and
exchange NO3–N, sulfate, chloride, boron, molybdenum, and phosphorus. Adsorption
and precipitation are processes that remove an ion from the soil solution. Sorption
occurs as ions attach to the solid soil surface through weak chemical and molecular
bonds or as strong chemical bonds. Precipitation is the deposition of soluble
compounds in soil voids. It occurs when the amount of the dissolved compounds in
the soil solution exceeds the solubility of those compounds. Complexation is the
interaction of metals with soil organic matter and some oxides and carbonates,
resulting in the formation of large, stable molecules.

Soil characteristics:
(a) Available water capacity: It is a measure of the soil’s capacity to hold water in a
form available to plants. It is a function of soil porosity, texture, structure, organic
matter content, and salinity. Available soil water is estimated as the difference
between soil water content at 1/3 bar tension (field capacity) and 15 bar tension
(permanent wilting point). The available water capacity is generally expressed as the
sum of available water in inches to a specified soil depth. Generally, this depth is 5
feet or the depth to a root restricting layer, whichever is less. Applying agricultural
wastes increases soil organic matter content, helps to stabilize soil structure, and
enhances available water capacity.
Limitations for agricultural waste applications are slight if the available water
capacity is more than 6.0 inches per 5 foot of soil depth, moderate if it is 3.0 to 6.0
inches, and severe if it is less than 3.0 inches. The volume of liquid agricultural waste
application should not exceed the available water capacity of the root zone or the soil
moisture deficit at the time of
application.
(b) Bulk density Bulk density, soil mass per unit volume, is expressed in grams per
cubic centimeter. It affects infiltration, permeability, and available water capacity.
Agricultural wastes can be surface applied to medium to fine textured soils that have
bulk density less than 1.7 g/cm3. Incorporating wastes that have a high solids content
with high levels of organic carbon reduces the soil surface bulk density and improves
soil infiltration and surface permeability.
(c) Cation-exchange capacity: Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is an index of the
soil’s capacity to exchange cations with the soil solution. It affects the ability of the
soil to adsorb and retain cations and heavy metals. Soils that have high CEC and
organic soils can exchange and retain large amounts of cations released by agricultural
waste mineralization processes. Conversely, soils in which the CEC is low have low
potential for exchanging and retaining these agricultural waste materials. The
limitations for solid and liquid waste applications are slight for soils that have a
cation-exchange capacity of more than 15, moderate for those with a capacity of 5 to
15, and severe for those for which it is less than 5.
(d) Depth to bedrock or cemented pan Bedrock or a cemented pan at less than 40
inches, limits plant growth and root penetration and reduces soil agricultural waste
adsorptive capacity. Limitations for application of agricultural wastes are slight if
bedrock or a cemented pan is at a depth of more than 40 inches, moderate if it is at a
depth of 20 to 40 inches, and severe at a depth of less than 20 inches.
Agricultural wastes continually applied to soils that have moderate or severe
limitations because of bedrock or a cemented pan can overload the soil retention
capacity. This allows waste and mineralization by-products to accumulate at the
bedrock or cemented pan soil interface. When this accumulation occurs over fractured
bedrock or a fractured cemented pan, the potential for ground water and aquifer
contamination is high.
(e) Depth of water table A shallow ground water table may not allow for sufficient
filtration or retention of agricultural wastes or agricultural waste mineralization by-
products. Limitations for application of agricultural wastes are slight if the water table
is at a depth of more than 4 feet, moderate at a depth of 2 to 4 feet, and severe if it is at
a depth of less than 2 feet.
(f) Flooding: Flooding transports surface-applied agricultural wastes off the
application site and deposit these materials in streams, rivers, lakes, and other surface
water bodies. Soils that have none or rare flooding potential (5 times or less in 100
years) have slight limitations for the application of agricultural waste. Occasional
flooding (5 to 50 times in 100 years) is a moderate limitation for the application of
agricultural waste, and frequent flooding (50 to 100 times in 100 years) is a severe
limitation. Agricultural wastes should be applied during periods of the year when the
probability of flooding is low.
Rock fragments, stones, and boulders: Limitations for agricultural waste application
are slight if stoniness is class 1 (< 0.1 % of the surface covered with stones and
boulders), moderate if it is class 2 (0.1 to 3.0 % of the surface covered with stones and
boulders), and severe if it is classes 3, 4, 5, or 6 (> 3 percent of the soil surface is
covered with stones and boulders). Rock fragments, stones, and boulders can restrict
application equipment operations and affect the incorporation of agricultural wastes.
(h) Intake rate: The intake rate is the rate at which water enters the soil surface. It is
influenced by soil porosity, bulk density, moisture content, texture, structure, and
permeability of the surface layer. If agricultural wastes that have large quantities of
suspended solids are applied at high rates on soils that have high or moderate intake
potential, soil macro pore space can clog and the soil intake rate is reduced.
Conversely, application and incorporation of agricultural wastes to soils that have
slow water intake potential can increase soil structure and porosity, thus improving the
potential water intake rate. The short term effect may be pore clogging and resulting
runoff if application rates are high on soils that have a slow
intake rate.
(i) Permeability rate: Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) is the quality of soil that
enables water to move downward through the soil profile. Agricultural wastes can be
applied to soils that have only slight limitations because of permeability. Agricultural
wastes applied to soils that have permeability of < 0.2’’/ hour should be incorporated
into the soil to reduce potential surface water contamination from erosion and runoff.
Split rate applications of liquid wastes applied to soils that have permeability of > 2’’/
hour reduce the potential for contamination of shallow aquifers.
(j) Soil pH Soil pH affects plant nutrient availability, agricultural waste
decomposition rates, and adsorption of heavy metals. Soils in which the surface pH is
less than 6.5 have lower potential for plant growth and low heavy metal adsorption.
Limitations for the application of agricultural wastes are slight if the pH in the surface
layer is more than 6.5, moderate if it is 3.5 to 6.5, and severe if it is less than 3.5.
Continuous, high application rates of agricultural wastes reduce soil pH.
(k) Ponding: Ponding is standing water in a closed depression that is removed only by
percolation, transpiration, or evaporation. Agricultural wastes applied to soils that are
ponded have a very high potential for contaminating the ponded surface water.
Application on these soils should be avoided if possible.
(l) Salinity: Salinity is the concentration of dissolved salts in the soil solution and is
related to electric conductivity. Limitations for the application of agricultural wastes
are very slight if salinity is < 4 mmhos/cm, slight if it is 4 to 8 mmhos/cm, moderate if
8 to 16 mmhos/cm, and severe if more than 16 mmhos/cm. Applying agricultural
wastes that are high in salt should be avoided to prevent increasing soil salinity and
further inhibiting plant growth and organic matter decomposition. Application of low
salt, high C:N ratio agricultural wastes to these soils improves intake, permeability,
available water capacity, and structure. It also reduces salt toxicity to plants.
(m) Slope influences runoff velocity, erosion, and the ease with which machinery can
be used. Steep slopes limit application methods and rates and machinery choices.
Limitations for the application of agricultural wastes are slight if the slope is less than
8 percent, moderate if it is 8 to 15 percent, and severe if it is more than 15 percent.
Soil-agricultural waste mineralization relationship
The mineralization of agricultural waste material is governed by the biological,
chemical, and physical properties of soil and organic waste; the soil moisture; and the
soil temperature. Organic waste mineralization is a process where microbes digest
organic waste, reduce the waste material to inorganic constituents, and convert it to
more stable organic materials. Inorganic materials released during this process are the
essential plant nutrient (N, P, K), macronutrients and micronutrients, salts, and heavy
metals.
(a) Microbial activity: Soil-agricultural waste material microbial composition and
microbial activity greatly influence the rate of organic waste mineralization. Soil
moisture, temperature, and aeration regulate soil microbial activity and thus are
factors that influence the rate of waste mineralization.

Soils that are warm, moist, and well aerated have the highest potential microbial
activity and the highest potential rate of organic waste mineralization.
Agricultural wastes applied to cold or frozen soils mineralize very slowly, are
difficult or impossible to incorporate, and are vulnerable to surface runoff and Erosion
and cause agricultural waste contamination of surface water. Soils that are moist
throughout most of the growing season have higher microbial activity and more
capacity to mineralize organic waste. Wet soils or soils that are saturated with water
during the growing season have potentially lower microbial activity than moist soils.
(b) Nitrogen mineralization: Organic nitrogen is converted to inorganic nitrogen and
made available for plant growth during the waste mineralization process. This
conversion process not only releases nitrogen, but also consumes nitrogen. High
microbial activity during initial waste mineralization can cause a reduction of
available nitrogen if the waste mineralization cannot supply sufficient quantities of N
to the plants during periods of rapid growth.
(c) Phosphate mineralization: Organic phosphorus in agricultural wastes is made
available for plant growth through the mineralization process. Phosphorus is removed
from the soil solution by adsorption to the surface of clay particles or complexation
with carbonates, iron, aluminum or more stable organic compounds. It is considered
unavailable for plant growth. Adsorbed phosphorus in surface water may become
available by changes in the soil water pH or redox potential.
(d) Potassium, calcium, and magnesium mineralization Potassium, calcium, and
magnesium upon dissolution, become cations that are attracted to negatively charged
soil particles and soil organic matter. These minerals are made available for plant
growth through the cation exchange process. Potassium is less mobile than N and
more mobile than P. Leaching losses of potassium are not significant and have little
potential to contaminate ground water. Calcium and magnesium can leach into ground
water or aquifers, but they do not constitute a hazard to water quality.
(e) Heavy metal and trace element mineralization: Municipal sludge applied on the
land is often a source of heavy metals. They are strongly adsorbed to clay particles
and chelated with soil organic matter and have very little potential to contaminate
ground water supplies and aquifers. However, application of organic waste containing
high amounts of heavy metals can exceed the adsorptive capability of the soil and
increase the potential for ground water or aquifer contamination. Sandy soils that have
low content of organic matter and low pH have a low potential for retention of heavy
metals.