PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

The information processing model is a theoretical framework used to

explain how we acquire, store, and retrieve information from memory. It
consists of three main stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Forgetting,
on the other hand, refers to the inability to retrieve or recall previously
stored information. Let's discuss each component in more detail:
1. Encoding: Encoding is the process of converting sensory information
into a form that can be stored and processed by the brain. It involves
transforming information from the environment into meaningful
mental representations. Different types of encoding include visual
encoding (processing visual information), acoustic encoding
(processing auditory information), and semantic encoding
(processing the meaning of information). The effectiveness of
encoding can be influenced by factors such as attention, motivation,
and rehearsal.
2. Storage: Once information is encoded, it is stored in various memory
systems. The information processing model suggests that there are
three main memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory.

 Sensory Memory: Sensory memory holds sensory information

from the environment for a brief period. It has separate
components for different sensory modalities, such as iconic
memory (visual sensory memory) and echoic memory (auditory
sensory memory). Sensory memory allows us to retain a
snapshot of sensory information momentarily, but it has a
limited duration and capacity.
 Short-Term Memory (STM): Short-term memory, also known as
working memory, is responsible for holding and manipulating
information temporarily. It has a limited capacity and can hold
information for a short duration, typically around 15-30
seconds. Maintenance rehearsal, which involves repeating or
reviewing information, can help sustain information in STM.
 Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory is the system
responsible for storing information over an extended period. It
has a vast capacity and can hold information for a potentially
unlimited duration. Long-term memory is further divided into
explicit (declarative) memory and implicit (non-declarative)
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

memory. Explicit memory involves conscious recall of facts and

events, while implicit memory refers to unconscious influences
of past experiences.
3. Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of accessing and recalling stored
information from memory. It involves locating and activating the
memory traces associated with the information we want to retrieve.
Different retrieval cues, such as context, emotions, or associations,
can facilitate the retrieval process. However, retrieval is not always
perfect, and forgetting can occur.
Forgetting refers to the failure to retrieve or recall information from
memory. There are several theories and factors that explain forgetting:
 Decay Theory: According to this theory, forgetting occurs due to the
natural decay or fading of memory traces over time when they are
not used or reinforced.
 Interference Theory: Interference theory suggests that forgetting
happens when new or old memories interfere with the retrieval of the
target information. Proactive interference occurs when previously
learned information disrupts the recall of newly learned information,
while retroactive interference happens when newly learned
information impairs the retrieval of previously learned information.
 Retrieval Failure: Sometimes, forgetting occurs due to difficulties in
retrieving information from memory. This can happen due to a lack of
appropriate retrieval cues or context that match the encoding
conditions.
 Encoding Failure: Forgetting can also occur if the information was not
adequately encoded or processed during the initial encoding stage. If
the information did not make a meaningful connection or was not
attended to, it may not be effectively stored in long-term memory.
It's important to note that forgetting is a normal and adaptive process. Not
all information needs to be remembered indefinitely, and our memory
system selectively retains and discards information based on its relevance
and importance.

some additional details about the information processing model and

forgetting:
4. Levels of Processing: The levels of processing theory, proposed by
Craik and Lockhart, suggests that the depth of processing during
encoding affects the strength and durability of the resulting memory.
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

According to this theory, shallow processing (such as focusing on

physical features) leads to weaker memory traces, while deeper
processing (such as focusing on meaning and making connections)
results in stronger memory traces.
5. Working Memory: Working memory, also known as short-term
memory, plays a crucial role in the information processing model. It is
responsible for actively maintaining and manipulating information
required for ongoing cognitive tasks. Working memory has limited
capacity and is involved in processes such as attention, reasoning,
and problem-solving.
6. Chunking: Chunking is a strategy used to enhance the capacity of
working memory. It involves grouping or organizing information into
meaningful units, or "chunks." By chunking information, we can
effectively increase the amount of information that can be held and
processed in working memory. For example, instead of trying to
remember individual letters or numbers, we can chunk them into
meaningful patterns or sequences.
7. Retrieval Cues: Retrieval cues are stimuli or pieces of information that
assist in the retrieval of stored memories. They can be external (such
as environmental cues) or internal (such as emotions or associations).
The effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on the encoding
specificity principle, which suggests that retrieval is more successful
when the retrieval cues match the cues present during encoding.
8. Types of Forgetting:

 Decay: Decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the

natural decay or weakening of memory traces over time. If
information is not used or reinforced, the connections
associated with it may gradually fade, leading to difficulty in
retrieval.
 Interference: Interference occurs when other information, either
previously learned (proactive interference) or newly learned
(retroactive interference), interferes with the retrieval of the
target information. Interference can disrupt the accessibility
and retrieval of memories, especially when the memories are
similar or compete for the same cognitive resources.
 Retrieval Failure: Sometimes, forgetting is not due to the loss of
information but rather the inability to retrieve it. The absence of
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

appropriate retrieval cues or a mismatch between the retrieval

cues and encoding conditions can lead to retrieval failure.
 Motivated Forgetting: Motivated forgetting refers to the
intentional suppression or repression of memories due to their
emotional or psychological significance. In some cases,
individuals may actively try to forget or block out memories
that are distressing, traumatic, or unpleasant.
9. Memory Improvement Strategies: Various strategies can enhance
memory and reduce forgetting:

 Elaborative Encoding: Engaging in deep and meaningful

processing, such as relating new information to existing
knowledge or creating associations, can enhance encoding and
retrieval.
 Mnemonic Devices: Mnemonic techniques, such as acronyms,
visualization, or creating mental associations, can aid memory
retention and retrieval.
 Spaced Repetition: Distributing learning and practice sessions
over time, with intervals of spaced repetition, can improve
long-term retention compared to massed or cramming
practice.
 Contextual and Environmental Cues: Placing yourself in the
same or similar context during encoding and retrieval can
facilitate memory retrieval by providing retrieval cues that
match the original encoding conditions.
 Retrieval Practice: Actively retrieving information from memory
through practice quizzes or tests strengthens memory traces
and improves retrieval.
Remember that memory and forgetting are complex processes influenced
by various factors, and individual experiences may vary. The information
processing model provides a framework for understanding how information
is processed, stored, and retrieved, and the factors that contribute to
forgetting.

additional details about the information processing model and forgetting:

10.Serial Position Effect: The serial position effect refers to the tendency
to better remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end
(recency effect) of a list or sequence. The primacy effect is attributed
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

to the successful transfer of information from short-term memory to

long-term memory during the early part of the list. The recency effect
is due to the items being still present in short-term memory at the
end of the list. However, when there is a delay between the
presentation of the items and recall, the recency effect diminishes.
11.Memory Consolidation: Memory consolidation is the process by
which memories are stabilized and strengthened over time. It involves
the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term
memory. Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation, as it
supports the reactivation and reorganization of memories during
specific sleep stages.
12.Retrieval Cues and Context: The context in which information is
encoded and retrieved can have a significant impact on memory. The
encoding specificity principle suggests that memory retrieval is most
effective when the retrieval cues match the cues present during
encoding. Context-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon
where retrieval is more successful when the context at the time of
recall matches the context at the time of encoding. This can include
environmental cues, emotional states, or even the presence of
specific Odors or sounds.
13.False Memories: False memories are memories that are not based on
real events or experiences but are mistakenly believed to be true.
They can occur due to various factors, including suggestion,
misinformation, imagination, and source monitoring errors. False
memories can be influenced by leading questions, suggestive
interviewing techniques, social influences, or exposure to misleading
information.
14.Amnesia: Amnesia is a condition characterized by severe memory
impairment. There are two main types of amnesia:

 Retrograde Amnesia: Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of

memory for events or information that occurred before the
onset of amnesia. It can vary in severity, with some individuals
experiencing a temporary loss of memory for recent events
(anterograde amnesia) and others losing memories for a more
extended period, including memories from the distant past.
 Anterograde Amnesia: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to
form new memories after the onset of amnesia. Individuals with
anterograde amnesia have difficulty encoding and
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

consolidating new information into long-term memory, while

their memory for events that occurred before the onset of
amnesia remains intact.
15.Factors Affecting Forgetting: Forgetting can be influenced by a
variety of factors:

 Interference: Interference occurs when memories compete with

or disrupt each other. Proactive interference happens when
previously learned information interferes with the recall of new
information, while retroactive interference occurs when newly
learned information interferes with the recall of previously
learned information.
 Emotional Factors: Emotionally significant events or experiences
tend to be remembered more vividly. However, extreme
emotional arousal during encoding or retrieval can impair
memory accuracy.
 Retrieval Failure: Sometimes, forgetting occurs due to
difficulties in retrieving information from memory. The absence
of proper retrieval cues or a mismatch between the retrieval
cues and encoding conditions can lead to retrieval failure.
 Decay: Decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to the
natural fading or weakening of memory traces over time when
they are not used or reinforced.
These are some additional aspects of the information processing model
and forgetting. Memory is a complex and fascinating cognitive process, and
researchers continue to explore its intricacies to gain a deeper
understanding of how we acquire, store, and retrieve information.