THE TEACHER

AND THE
SCHOOL
CURRICULUM

A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING THE CURRICULUM

This chapter explores significant pieces of literature and theories that will help
curriculum workers, teachers and students to understand basic curriculum, types of curriculum ,
curriculum foundations, and curriculum conceptions. In this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define curriculum;
2. analyze the different types of curriculum; and
3. discuss different foundations; and
4. discuss different curriculum conceptions.

Definitions of Curriculum
A clear understanding of what curriculum is, helps scholars and students in understanding
the curriculum as a dynamic field in education. Reid (2006) opined that people talk about, write
about, legislate for, teach courses on, and take credits in curriculum; hence, it is important to
have a concrete explanation of what curriculum is.

Many books on curriculum present various images, characterizations, and definitions

would be a massive endeavor since there are more than eleven hundred books written about
curriculum (Schubert, 1980). Presented in this book are just few definitions provided by Saylor
(1981), Beauchamp (1982), Schubert (1986), Eisner (1985), Pinar (1995), Posner (1995), Marsch
(2004), Oliva (2005), Glatthorn (2006) and Reid (2006), among others.

 Curriculum as a lists of subjects. This definitions suggests that curriculum is the

“permanent” or the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as
Mathematics, Language, Science, Music, Arts and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students’ curricular and co-
curricular activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the
school. This definition includes the hidden curriculum or those things learned by the
 students as a result of their experiences in the school with their peers, schoolmates,
teachers, school staff, or the values they learned from a school program. In short, it
includes the school culture.
 Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definitions includes a list of learning
competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying
contents, objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in
specific discipline.
 Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has its won principles, theories, and
practices.
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a series of
topics under each subject area.

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what

curriculum is. Their personal definition of curriculum defines that curriculum product
that they will produce. Many curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches
appear vague because of an unclear understanding of the field of curriculum. Besides
this, only few people are experts in curriculum studies, especially in the Philippines, who
may be consulted regarding these projects and researches.

Different Types of Curriculum

Several curriculum scholars (see Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006; Print, 2003;
Tanner and Tanner, 2007) cited nine types of curriculum in their books depending on
how curriculum is used in various institutions.

 Ideal or Recommended Curriculum. This refers to what scholars propose as the mise
appropriate curriculum for the learners. For example, different universities may propose
curriculum innovatons or alternative curriculum content as a result of their researchers.

Ideal or recommended curriculum may also develop and alternative response to various
curricular problems and issues. Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) noted several
influences that seem to play the key roles in shaping the recommended curriculum. These
influences are the professional associations, individuals, and societal trends.

Curriculum standards recommende by professional organizations are examples of ideal or

recommended curriculum. Many of these various curriculum standards are recommended by
professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the curriculum. Standards
are products of their latest researches on the nature of the different disciplines and the
development in various academic fields.
 Intended, Official, Or Written Curriculum. This refers to the official curriculum embodied
in approved state curriculum guides ( Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006), It is
the curriculum prescribed by the government. In the Philippine context, these are the
prescribed courses from different government agencies: the Department of Education
(DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA). Examples of this type curriculum are:

-The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards

- The K-12 Curriculum
- CHED Curriculum for General Education ( Memorandum Order No.20 Series of 2013)
-TESDA Modules and Competencies

 Implemented Curriculum. This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of

the curriculum of what teachers in the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and
improve their curriculum based on the needs of the students or whenever there are new
ideas in various disciplines that are important to teach to the students. Academic
freedom among faculty members in college may also influence how professors plan and
implement their courses.
 Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum. This refers to the result of the curriculum or
what students actually learned in school ( Print, 1993). The achieved curriculum reveals
whether the students learned and whether the schools are successful in attaining their
curriculum goals and objectives.

 Tested Curriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher- made classroom
tests, curriculum-referenced tests, and in standardized tests. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and
Whitehead, 2006)

 Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people or the general society believed the
learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good
members of the society.

 Supported Curriculum. This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on the shaped by
the resources allocated to support or deliver the official curriculum. (Glatthorn, Boschee
and Whitehead, 2006).
  Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that
must be taught to the students. ( Tanner and Tanner, 2007).

 Hidden Curriculum. This refers to varius skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students
learn in school as a result of their interaction with other students learn in school as a
result of their interaction with other students, staff and faculty members. Although the
hidden curriculum is not actually taught in formal classroom learning. It is also true that
the hidden curriculum can be a product of the students’ schooling. The hidden
curriculum is very powerful in developing the school culture (Print,1993).

Curriculum Foundations

Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor,
Alexander, and Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and Tanner (2007)
generally identified three categories of sources for curriculum foundations: (1) studies of life
(sociology and anthropology); and (3) studies of the nature and value of knowledge
(philosophy). These curriculum sources or foundations influenced curriculum developers in
framing different curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.

Pyschology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence, it is important in

curriculum development. According to Print (1993), psychology can provide information in five
important areas:

1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Learning processes
4. Teaching methods
5. Evaluation procedures

Meanwhile studies about the society and culture- sociology and anthropology, respectively-
affect all the curriculum processes. Sowell (1996) pointed out the knowledge about the society
and its culture is important in selecting the content of the curriculum. It provides a clear
understanding of the context in which the curriculum is developed. Studies about the society
and culture help curriculum understanding several social and educational issues thaht affect
curriculum processes and education in general.
On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation help curriculum workers in understanding the
nature of knowledge and what subjects or topics are worthwhile. This is very important in
making decisions about the contents of the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) mentioned
that philosophy provides curriculum workers with a framework or base for organizing schools
and classrooms. It also provides educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as
determining the goals of educations, the content and its organization, and the teaching and
learning processes.

Curriculum Conceptions

Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum
development processes. They have different points of view about curriculum concerns, goals of
what a curriculum should accomplish, and how the curriculum orientations or conceptions.
Mcneil (2006), Eisner (1985) and Print (1993) identified six curriculum conceptions.

1. Academic Rationalist Conception- considered as the oldst among the curriculum

conceptions. It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as
disciplines or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
2. Cognitive Processes Conception- seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are
applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matter are instruments
or tools for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives of individuals.
3. Humanistic Conception- stresses the idea of curriculum or education is an instrument for
developing the full potential of individuals. It seeks to help individuals discover and
develop their unique identities. It stresses that curriculum should focus on the needs
and interest of individuals.
4. Social Reconstructionist Conception-views the school or schooling as an agency for
social change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different needs,
issues, problems, and demands of the society.

5. Technological Conception-is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve

curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be
analyzed into its constituent components.

6. Eclectic Conception- is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas
with two or more curriculum conceptions.

Elements of a Curriculum
 In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present
in all curriculum documents or before a document can be called curriculum. These four
elements are curriculum intent, content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Curriculum Intent

Content

Learning Experiences

Evaluation

1. Curriculum Intent- is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum
developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It includes the
aims, goals, and objectives found in any curriculum documents.
 Aims- are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. Aims
include what is hoped to be achieved by the entire curriculum.
 Goals- are statements more specific than aims. Goals are general statements of
what concepts, skills, and values should be learned in the curriculum.
 Objectives- are specific learning outcmes. Objectives include what specific
concepts, skills and values should be learned by the students . Usually, objectives
are used in making decisions or planning about instruction.
These topics are based on the curriculum intents. Contents may include values, concepts or
skills that are important for the learners to learn.

2. Learning Experiences- include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. They appear in the form of activities , strategies,
methods or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum or in teaching
the content.

3. Evaluation- includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not the
curriculum intents were realized. Evaluation tools are also used to evaluate the
performance of the learners after they have undergone the curriculum.

Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what design they have, are composed
of certain elements.

A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives.

It indicates some selection and organization of content.

It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching whether because the
objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them.

It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes. Understanding the different elements of

curriculum will help curriculum workers especially the teachers in designing curriculum and in
analyzing the different currriculum materials that are offered to schools and students.
IN A NUTSHELL

Reflections on Understanding Curriculum

The first chapter introduced different concepts that every professional curriculum worker
should know about curriculum. Understanding these concepts is useful in appreciating
curriculum studies as an area in the field of education.

 Curriculum can be defined as:

一 Set of contents
一 Set of learning experiences
一 Planned content
一 Set of learning outcomes

 There are different types of curriculum:

一 Intended curriculum
一 Implemented
一 Achieved curriculum Hidden curriculum
一 Ideal or recommended curriculum
一 Tested curriculum
一 Entitlement curriculum
一 Null or censored curriculum
一 Supported curriculum

 Curriculum development is influenced by various academic fields that serve as

foundations of curriculum such as:

一 Psychology (studies about the learners and learning theories)

一 Philosophy (studies on the nature and value of knowledge)

一 Sociology (studies on culture, society, and human activities)

 There are different types of curriculum conception

一 Academic rationalist

一 Cognitive processes
一 Social reconstructionist

一 Humanistic

一 Technological

一 Eclectic

一 There are four elements of curriculum

一 Intent Content

一 Learning experiences

一 Evaluation
CHAPTER 2

CURRICULUM PLANNING
This chapter provides information on the process of curriculum of curriculum
development. In this planning as an important phase chapter, you should be able to:

1.discuss different curriculum sources and influences;

2.analyze different levels of curriculum planning; and

3.identify different roles of teachers and school administrators in curriculum planning.

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, Tyler (1949) identified
three major society, and learners. Accordingly ,these curriculum sources need to be considered
and examined to identify the four elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences,
and evaluation. It is important to understand the nature of the subject matter in order to
provide knowledge and skills that are essential to the nature of the discipline.
This also helps in selecting and designing curriculum contents.

Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in developing a

curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and problems of
the society, and the available resources that can be utilized in the development and
implementation of the curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society, as one of the curriculum
sources, provides information about the context in which the curriculum will be used. This is
important to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive.

Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development.

Understanding the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, 'and interests, learning styles,
and thinking styles. It also includes knowing the various issues and problems about them. The
learners are the direct subjects of the school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of
the curriculum sources is important in selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum
(Tyler,1949).
 Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural, socio-
economic, and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important in
developing a relevant and responsive curriculum (Tyler, 1949; Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978). It is
useful in selecting curriculum goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba,
1962; Stark & Lattuca, 1997;Oliva, 2005).

There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the curriculum. Science
and technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new
technology, and new information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world
of economy also has its own issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new
forms of knowledge should be developed in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class
workforce.

In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural

understanding and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity.
Other pressing social issues like climate change, security problems, diseases, poverty, and many
others also affect the everyday life of people.

Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs and
demands of the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or create
the kind of society that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to put a balance between
pursuing the utopian goals of education and its practical or economic goals.

Learners as Source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the
curriculum content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), or the Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), educators
and curriculum developers have tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the
students. This process is done when faculty members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans,
and lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended curriculum.

As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures , languages, learning
styles, needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in terms of
socio-economic status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the students,
as one major source of curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and are well-
represented in their curriculum development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker,
1972; Skilbeck, 1976Nicholls, 1978; Print, 1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005).
Discipline or Subject Matter as Source of Curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the main sources
of curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content. There are specific
skills and contents that should be emphasized in each of the disciplines. In some cases, there
are similarities in skills, concepts, and strands indifferent subjects that may be possible points
for integration.

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely
analyze the contents prescribed by the Department of Education especially the K-12
Curriculum. The curriculum framework, curriculum goals, descriptions, standards, and
competencies in different subjects will help educators understand what should be taught and
how to teach the different subjects.

The Commission on Higher Education also prescribes guidelines in different courses. Several
curricular innovations and changes set by the government were considered and strictly
followed in designing the official curriculum of a particular school, college, or university. The
curricular requirements that include course title, course credit, and course descriptions are
based on the CHED Memorandum Orders(CMOs) which CHED issued for different courses. For
example CMO No. 20 Series of 2013 included the general education program for all
undergraduate courses or programs in the Philippines.

Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes different contents of
the modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or technical courses. The skills
that should be learned including the materials needed and the time that is required for training
are clearly specified in each module.
Curriculum Influences

Aside from the three major factors that influence curriculum development: external,
organizational influences
(see Figure 2). Stark and Lattuca used the term in curriculum influences to refer to these three
factors that are very influential these curriculum influences affect the whole academic plan that
incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, development. According to
them, activities, and ways of measuring success.

External Influences

Society/Government

Discipline Associations;

Marketplace/Alumni

Organizational Influences

Program Relationships

Resources
ACTION PLAN
Governance

Internal Influences

Faculty, Students, Discipline,

and Program Mission

Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning ( Stark and Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different factors that
are needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of data and
information for developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful in making
the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the educational system of the Philippines.
A research on curriculum influences conducted by Pawilen (2011) shows the results on the
focus Group Discussions (FGD) with the faculty members and administrators who identified
several curriculum influences that they always consider whenever they plan, design, develop,
revise, and evaluate the curriculum. These identified curriculum influences are shown in Table 1.
They affect curriculum processes in the school level.
Table 1. Curriculum Influences

 Students/Learners
 College Philosophy, Vision and Mission
 K-12 Basic Education Curriculum
 Admission and Retention Policies, and School Rules
 Faculty Members
 School Administrators
 Requirements from Government Agencies
 Licensure Examinations (for Higher Educations)
 Accreditation Standards
 Market Demands
 Alumni and Funding Sources
 Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
 Church and Church- related Agencies (for religious school)
 School Facilities and Other Resources
 Other Disciplines or Courses and Programs offered by the School
 Student Services

Students
The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum
influences especially in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different
interests, needs, talents, abilities, learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are
important in course planning. Teachers believe that the students could learn more if their
interest and learning styles are considered when planning their courses. Many students want a
variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical application of their lessons in real-
life situations.

They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs,
language, and socio economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these
in mind. They recognize that their previous experiences with the students, including the
students’ capabilities. Many teachers observe during their classes that students’ backgrounds,
especially their demographic characteristics, influence their attitude and performance toward
learning. Thus, students bring with them their culture in the school.

For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum

planning. As students took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their
provinces, their academic skills and learning habits differ from those of the city. For instance,
some students have poor communication skills because of poor background in English
education in their basic education.

School’s Vision, Mission and Core Values

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in
developing the curriculum. They are the fundamental bases in developing the four evaluation.
These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or course syllabi to ensure that the core
values of the institution are included in the syllabi.
The vision, mission and core values of the school are also reflected in the planned,
implemented, and hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect
this type of education in their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The vision, mission
and core values of the school are reflections of what the institution can contribute to the
society and to the development of individuals. Students and alumni are expected to possess the
core values of their schools.

Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential factor is the admission and retention policies. These policies
set the standard of what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to do
as students of the institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the intended and
implemented curriculum. School rules are set to give order snd provide smooth implementation
of the curriculum. Rules also develop the hidden curriculum of the school.
 Faculty Members
The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members
bring with them their educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal,
professional, and political views on the institution. They also have different interests, teaching
styles, and philosophies, which influence the way they plan, develop and implement the
curriculum.
In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent to their students,. Many
students believe what they say and teach. They are not only seen as models of high ethical life-
students and other people also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas.

In the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields. They are expected to
know more about their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by faculty members also
allows them to modify and plan their syllabi bases on their expertise and researches. The
behaviors of the faculty member also influence the hidden curriculum in college. Sometimes
their students take their professional and personal views on certain issues seriously as a
principle.

Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Lattuca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum
development. They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum
and instruction highly depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricular and
instructional innovations in their own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the
content of the subjects they teach. They should also be experts in pedagogy.

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes were
recognized by several curriculum scholars likes Wiles and Bonde (2006), and Stark and Latucca
(1997), among others. School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an important
role in providing curriculum leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from setting
and approving rules for the school, they administer the planning, implementation, and
evaluation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as curriculum and instructional leaders.
They provide administrative and leadership support for the implementation of the curriculum.
Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and managers are essential in curriculum
development, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles and Bondi, 2006). Oliva (2005) considered
them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution. The academic
preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to influence the
development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies

Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education. Like the
DepEd and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum,
instruction, faculty, and facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed.
Accrediting agencies determine the quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As
such, many schools especially private schools try their best to improve the governance and
implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular programs.

Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian School, Colleges
and Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine Accrediting
Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU) and the Accrediting Agency for
Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACUP. These accrediting bodies are in
charge of evaluating the quality of education for each member institution based on criteria set
by the accrediting agency.

Government Policies and Agencies

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in curriculum
planning and development. In basic education, the Department of Education issues Department
Orders (DOs) and memoranda that serve as guide for all public and private schools in the
country. The Department of Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic education
and issues the guidelines for operations for private schools.

For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes the
minimum general education and professional courses, course credits, and course descriptions
to be taken by the students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications, facilities, and
other requirements for the implementation and administration of the courses.

Market Demands (General)

Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and developing
curriculum. It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills
to meet the needs and demands of different institutions in the society. For example, graduates
are expected to develop or possess 21st century skills. They are expected to be technologically
literate. They are also expected to develop graduate that can be assess and good citizens of the
society.

Alumni

The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum development.
The alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support students’ activities. Besides
financial help, their comments or their evaluation feedback based on their previous
experiences as students are very useful information for improving the implemented curriculum
of the school. The alumni are the living testimony of the curriculum or the quality of education
offered by a particular school.

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)

Media and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are two of the external
curriculum influences. The presence of
technology, especially the internet, enables students and teachers to access almost all the
information they need for teaching and learning. This allows students and faculty members to
access online journals, papers, and other information from the Internet to be used forteaching
and learning. Technology connects the school to the global community.

In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the courses
are planned and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put
together. Although it is expensive to have full ICT integration schools school administrators try
their best to achieve this goal. Computers, projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms of
technology are made available instructional purposes in the school.

The Church and Church-related Agencies

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important
role in school. Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or mission programs of
the churches and religious orders that established them. The schools also offer institutional
requirements such as Bible subjects, theology, and Christian Living subjects. These subjects are
required to all students. Religious schools also offer retreats, chapel services, and other
religious activities to their students.
School Facilities and Other Resources

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of the
curriculum. The respondents explained that school facilities like classrooms, libraries,
laboratories, ICT equipment, dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen, chapel for
secretarian schools, and laboratories are very useful in providing quality education, especially in
implementing the curriculum.

Student Services

The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student support
system institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:

 Campus Ministry- helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in secretarian

schools

 Guidance and Counseling Services- provides professional help to students with various
personal and psychological concerns

 Health Services- responds to various health-related concerns of the students through a

clinic with a full time- health workers

 Financial Assistance and Scholarships- provides financial assistance to deserving

students

 Student Affairs Office- guides the students in organizing activities and provides all forms
of support for academic and personal development of the students in the school.

These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum development.
Responding to these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum workers and
developers in planning, developing, and implementing a relevant and responsive
curriculum for different learners and school. They help everyone involved and affected
by a curriculum understand the context in which one is developed. Moreover, when
evaluating a curriculum, these curriculum sources and influences are the ones that are
looked into and reviewed.
Reflections on Curriculum Planning

Curriculum Planning is an essential part of curriculum development. It sets the tone for
curriculum development activities. In curriculum planning, we are taught to examine the needs
and demands of the society, understand the nature of the discipline and structure of
knowledge, and analyze the nature and needs of the learners.
- Knowledge about the learners- help us to understand that curriculum must respond to
the nature, needs, interest, learning styles, and thinking preferences of every learner. It
makes us realize that the purpose of the curriculum is not just to develop knowledge and
skills but for the holistic development of every learner.
- Knowledge about the society- helps us to realize that a curriculum must be made relevant
and responsive to the needs and demands of the society.
- Knowledge about the discipline of subject matter- help us to understand the different
disciplines, subjects, and academic fields. It enables every curriculum worker to
understand essential contents that should be covered in a particular discipline.

There are also different curriculum influences: organizational, internal, and external
influences. Understanding these curriculum influences help us developed and
implemented.
 Chapter 3

CURRICULUM DESIGN

This chapter presents different curriculum designs identified by several practitioners and
scholars in curriculum studies. The different curriculum designs provide an insight on
how subjects and disciplines are organized into learning areas. In this chapter, you
should be able to:

1. define what curriculum design is;

2. identify different examples of curriculum designs;
3. discuss the things to consider in designing curriculum; and
4. identify the features of a good curriculum design.

Definition of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum. These four
elements are intent (aims, goals, and objectives); subject matter or content; learning
experiences; and evaluation. In many books, curriculum design is used interchangeably with
curriculum organization, Posner (1997) provided an enlightening idea on how to differentiate
these two related terms in curriculum as he classified the activity of arranging curriculum
elements or contents into two. According to him, there is a macro and micro level of organizing
curriculum contents.

The macro level deals with arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the philosophy
down to the contents of different subjects. The micro level on the other hand, deals with
organizing the content of a specific subject or discipline. The macro level of arranging the
elements and contents of the curriculum can be referred to as function of curriculum design
while the micro level is a function of curriculum organization. However, it is important to note
that curriculum organization is based on the curriculum design. Curriculum design provides a
philosophical way of organizing the contents and elements for the curriculum.
Different Curriculum Designs
Print (1988) classified the different curriculum designs in four groups. According to him,
all curriculum designs can be classified as subject-centered, learner-centered, problem-
centered, or core learning designs:

1. Subject-centered Designs. Majority of the curricula used in schools are arranged or

organized in terms of subjects. Thus, the subject-centered design is the most popular
among the four types of curriculum designs. The subject- centered design is classified
into three specific designs.

a. Subject Design. The curriculum is organized in terms of subjects like Mathematics,

Science, Filipino, English and other subjects. Most of these subjects are offered in
elementary level. The subjects are organized in a fragmented manner. Connections
between and among these subjects are not emphasized in the subject design. Instead,
the nature of the subject is highlighted in this design to provide students with general
knowledge of each subject.

MATH SCIENCE FILIPINO ENGLISH

b. Academic Disciplines Design. Like the subject design, this type of design organizes the
curriculum in terms of disciplines like Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Economics,
Philippine History and other disciplines. This type of design is mostly used in high school
or in college. The contents are highly specialized particularly in the college level.

Biology Economics
Algebra Earth Science

c. Integrated Design. This curriculum design is based on the principle that learners learn in
an integrated manner. Thus, this type of curriculum design tries to merge two or more
related subjects. Basically, there are three types of integration:
 c.1. Interdisciplinary- includes the merging of two related disciplines or subjects. An
example is the integration of Science and Health Educators believe these two are
naturally integrated. One needs science knowledge in order to understand health
concepts.

Science
c.2. Multidisciplinary Health
or broad fields- includes the integration of three or more
related disciplines. An example is the social studies curriculum. This subject integrates
civics, history, and economics.

Geography

Civics
and History
culture
Economi
cs

c.3 Core- requires that all subjects or disciplines in the school curriculum be put together
using a single theme. Usually, this type of integrated curriculum design is used in preschool
where subjects are combined using curriculum themes.

Community

Family

Self
2. Learner-centered Design- Learner- centered design focus on the needs, nature, and
interest of the learners in the curriculum. The aim of these designs is to develop the
abilities of the learners and making the curriculum relevant and responsive to them.

a. Activity/Experience Design. This concentrates on activities that are meaningful and

interesting to the learners. In doing these activities, learners will develop various
skills like process skills, communication skills problem solving, critical thinking, and
creativity that are important for the learners.

b. Humanistic Design. The curriculum is composed of topics and experiences that focus
on the holistic development of an individual. It also addresses the needs and nature
of the learners. The goal of this development of a well- rounded individual.

3. Problem- centered Designs. These curriculum designs focus on understanding and

finding solutions to individual and social issues and problems. They require students to
use their skills and knowledge of different subjects and disciplines as they engage
themselves in meaningful learning of various social and individual problems like poverty,
climate change =, peace and order or terrorism, diseases, traffic, and economic
recession, among others.

a. Thematic Design. This design suggests the thematic approach to integration. Almost
all models advocate this approach. The only thing is different is the main focus of the
theme.

b. Problem Design. The learners are exposed to different lessons in problem solving
real-life problems. By doing problem-solving activities, the learners are exposed to
some practical situations or issues that are important to them and to their
community.

4. Core Learning Designs. These curriculum designs focus on learning a set of common
subjects, disciplines, courses, skills or knowledge that is necessary for students to
master. It aims to provide a uniform type of education based on a certain philosophy or
educational theory. The core curriculum began in the early part of the 20 th century in the
United States as an experiment on liberal higher education and it remains vibrant until
now. The central theme of this curriculum is not just provide common learning to
students. It also aims to provide an education that is transformative and relevant to all
types of aims to provide an education that is transformative and relevant to all types of
 education. Furthermore, it aims to develop a habit of mind or cultivate the critical and
creative thinking of students that they can employ in their everyday life.

a. Core Design. This design is a set of common subjects, disciplines, or courses that are
required for students to study before they graduate or move to a different level.

b. National Core Curriculum Design. This is set of subjects or courses that are required to
be taught to all students across the country. The national core curriculum is prescribed
by the state through Department of Education or the Commission on Higher Education.
Examples of core curriculum designs are General Education Curriculum for
undergraduate courses and the K-12 Curriculum for basic education.

Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum

There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum. These are the horizontal
and vertical organizations.

a. Horizontal Organization- is often referred to as the scope and horizontal integration that
is concerned with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time
(Print, 1993). For example, it asks about the relationship between Geography, History,
Economics, and Civics in Elementary Social Studies Curriculum. It focuses on establishing
relationships and integration among subject areas in elementary or secondary
curriculum.

b. Vertical Organization- focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents. For

example, what skills, concepts, and values should be taught in Science from Grade 1 to
Grade VI. It focuses on the contribution of curriculum contents from Kindergarten to
Grade 12 (K-12). Looking at the spiral progression of curriculum content enables
teachers to focus on developing students’ mastery of the content by examining pre-
requisite knowledge and skills in learning different subjects. Tomlinson et al. (2002).
Identified these important features for a good curriculum design. Accordingly, a good
curriculum design must be mentally and affectively engaging, allows meaningful
collaboration, develops in-depth understanding, connects with students’ lives and
worlds, focuses on product, deals with profound ideas, and must be real, purposeful and
useful to students.
Sequencing Curriculum Content
Sequencing curriculum content is essential in curriculum design. Sequence is defined as
the order in which contents are presented to the learners (Print, 1993). Traditionally, contents
are sequenced based on the nature of the subjects and disciplines they belong. They are also
organized according to a specific curriculum design principle or philosophy.

Print (1993) identified the following design principles that are most commonly used to
sequence the curriculum contents:
a. Simple to Complex- this is traditionally applied to disciplines like Math, Language,
Science, or Music. The topics are arranged in progressive-spiral sequence.

b. Prerequisite Learning- this principle is followed in subjects and courses that largely
consist of laws and principles like Geometry, Algebra, and Physics. To understand the
laws and principles, students should learn the basic prerequisite knowledge and
concepts.

c. Chronology- this design principle suggests sequencing of content according to

chronology of events. History is an example.

d. Whole-to- Part- Learning- this is a deductive approach to designing contents. One must
see the big picture of ideas to understand the specific concepts and skills.

e. Increasing Abstraction- content can be sequenced according to the idea or principle that
a student can learn most effectively if the concept or skill in related or relevant to own
personal experiences.
In a Nutshell

Reflections on Curriculum Design

 Curriculum Design is the systematic arrangement of all the elements of curriculum: (1)
Intent, (2) Content, (3) Learning Experiences, and (4) Evaluation.
 Theresigns and each design is organized based on a certain curriculum philosophy or
theory.

- Subject- centered
Subject Designs
Academic Disciplines Design

- Learner- centered
Activity and experience design
Humanistic design

- Problem- based
Thematic
Problem Design

- Core Learning
Core Design
 National core curriculum design

 There are two forces that influences curriculum design:

-Vertical organization (sequence)
- Horizontal organization (scope and integration)

Chapter 4

Curriculum Development

This chapter discusses the processes for developing curriculum as presented by

different scholars in curriculum development through their models. These curriculum
development models have been tried and tested by different curriculum developers
across the globe in developing curricula from preschool education to graduate programs.
The models in this chapter are presented according to three categories: linear, cyclical,
and dynamic. In this chapter, you should be able to:

1. analyze different curriculum models;

2. examine the strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum; and

3. discuss how these curriculum development models can be applied in Philippine context.

Different Curriculum Development Models

Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent understanding of various
scholars of the nature of curriculum as a discipline and as a field of study. Different models are
described based on the different views and processes of curriculum development they offer. In
this context, well-known models that are found in major curriculum books are analyzed. These
models have been recognized and accepted by curriculum scholars as effective and appropriate
for developing curriculum in any level. In this chapter, the analysis points out various strengths
and weaknesses of different models. A brief background and description of the processes
involved in each model is presented. The models are treated as inimitable since each represents
various ideas or theories on how to develop curriculum.

Linear Models of Curriculum Development

The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure for
curriculum development starting with objectives.

A. Tyler’s Rational Linear Model

Ralph Tyler at the University of Chicago developed the first model of curriculum
development. This model was presented in his book Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction published in 1949. Tyler argued that curriculum development should be
logical and systematic.

His model, as shown in Figure 3. presents a process of curriculum development that

follows a sequential pattern starting from objectives to content, learning experiences,
and evaluation.

Society Students Subject Matter

Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Objectives

Selecting Learning Experiences

 Organizing Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Figure 3. Tyler’s Rational Model

Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum workers should respond to four basic
questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?

3. How can these educational experiences be organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society,
students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources
carefully in order to develop a curriculum. Tyler also pointed out the importance of philosophy
of education and psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the
curriculum.

B. Taba Grassroots Rational Model

A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her model
in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a
modified version of Tyler Model. Taba argued that curriculum development should
follow a sequential and logical process, and she suggested for more information input in
all phases of curriculum development. Taba also claimed that all curricula are composed
of fundamental elements. In her model, Taba outlined seven steps that should be
followed when developing a curriculum:

1. Diagonal of needs
2. Formulation of needs
3. Selection of learning experiences
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning experiences
7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it.

Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made successful if there
was a diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum workers in understanding the
needs of the learners. It would also help in the selection of the goals and objectives
and in the selection of contents. Taba pointed out that the nature of the objectives
determines what learning is to follow.

C. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

Allan Glatthorn developed the standards-based curriculum development model. The

model was intended for developing curriculum standards for any discipline from basic
education to higher education. As shown in Table 2, Glatthorn identified three phases to
be followed in developing a standards-based curriculum. This model is an example of a
linear model. It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum development activities to
develop standards.

Table 2. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

Phase 1. Develop standards

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards, using multiple sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4. Use data to develop final draft of standards, divided into Essential Standards and
Enrichment Standards.

Phase 2. Develop Benchmark

1. Review decisions about content emphases
2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will not be
 benchmarked)
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified- by taskforce or by teachers.
4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided, and secure
teacher review; revise benchmarks if needed.

Phase 3. Develop Final Products

1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce scope and sequence chart.
2. Decide on curriculum guide content.
3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.

Glatthorn model is an example of a linear and rationale curriculum development model.

The model is rational and descriptive, stressing the development of standards as the first
activity in curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using
multiple sources in developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes
teachers inputs in the development of standards, which are often neglected in
curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the top-down approach to curriculum
development and implementation.

The use of benchmarks to improve, to refine, and to validate curriculum standards is

equally a good practice in curriculum development. The model extends itself up to the
development of scope and sequence, which is important for planning instruction, and
for deciding on specific contents and objectives. Another important feature of Glatthorn
model is its relevance and applicability in any educational institution in developing
curriculum standards for various courses. This model can be very useful in the
development of curriculum standards that is one of the major purposes of this book. The
linear nature of Glatthorn model is also one of its weaknesses.

Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domains of human
activity, one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his idea that as a
field of inquiry, curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new insights to
flourish to make the curriculum field more vibrant and dynamic.

In this model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the overall
curriculum development process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should
recognize that developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum
development process. This model does not include situational analysis nor needs
analysis. Unlike in other curriculum development models (see Taba, 1962; Wheeler,
1967; Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976; Print, 1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005),
situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included as an important process. While the
 model specified the development of standards using multiple sources, it cannot replace
the important function of situational analysis in the curriculum development process.
Situational analysis is helpful in understanding the context in which the curriculum is
developed. Analyzing the different curriculum sources and influences will lead to the
development of curriculum standards that are not just focused on a specific discipline,
but also consider the important role of the learners and the society in curriculum
development.

D. Understanding by Design Model (UBD)

The Understanding by Design model was developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2002). It
has become a byword in the Philippine educational system because it was used to design
the basic education curriculum in school year 2010-2011 before the K-12 Education
Curriculum was implemented.

The model is also called as the Backward Design for putting emphasis on starting with
the goals and objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing
curriculum to engage students in exploring and deepening their understanding of
important ideas and the design of assessments ( Wiggins and Mctighe, 2002). Figure 4.
Shows the three stages in backward design process.

Stage 1. Identify
desired results Stage 2.
Determine
acceptable Stage 3. Plan the
evidence learning
experiences and
instruction.

Figure 4. Stages in Backward Design Process

Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks the
questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are
desired for the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum goals and established
curriculum standards, and reviewing curriculum expectations. Stage 2 calls for designing
assessment evidence for documenting or validating whether the desired learning has been
achieved. This model encourages the use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating
students learning. Stage 3 includes planning learning experiences that are useful in
implementing the curriculum. In this stage, teachers decide on the type of activities that the
students will do and the materials that will be needed for the planned activities.

The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as the starting
point of curriculum development process. The model is currently popular in the Philippines
because of its advocacy in focusing on enduring understanding or central ideas (Wiggins and
McTighe, 2002) as the central goal of the curriculum.

The model stresses the six facets of understanding as a framework for identifying the results or
goals of learning. If this model is used in the Philippines, it can help the Commission on Higher
Education, particularly various teacher education institutions, to revise their existing curricula to
focus on higher understanding rather than just prescribing subjects and course descriptions. The
UbD calls for development of higher and more relevant curriculum standards in the country.
UbD advocacy of planning for authentic assessment before planning learning experiences is
essential in connecting the assessment with the goals and learning experiences of the
curriculum. Analyzing what the learners should know and understand is an important feature of
the model. This principle will make the content of the teacher education curriculum more
learner-centered. Like Glatthorn model, it which is a good practice in curriculum development.
also recognizes the important role of teachers in curriculum development.

While the UbD model puts emphasis on analyzing what the learners need to know and
understand in formulating curriculum goals, the school authority or the government already
fixes the standards. The model is fixed at accepting what standards are prescribed by the
government agency on education. Consequently, the goals are. most likely to follow the prescribed
content standards set by the government.

E. Systematic Design Model

Robert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in the early 1960s.
Since then, it has undergone major revisions but its structure is unchanged (Diamond,
1998). The model, as shown in Figure 5, has two basic phases: (1) project selection and
design and (2) production, implementation, and evaluation. Like some of the previous
models, it follows a linear process of curriculum development. Diamond (1998)
explained that ideally, some actions must precede others, and certain decisions should
not be made until all relevant facts are known. It is imperative that all data must be
complete before proceeding to the next step.
Figure 5. Systematic Design Model
The systematic Design Model is prescriptive and rational. It presents a systematic and linear
view of curriculum development. The use of diagrams is an excellent way of helping curriculum
workers to visualize the entire curriculum influences and sources are also acknowledge in the
process of curriculum development process. As known in its first phase, some curriculum
influences and sources are also acknowledge in the process of curriculum development. These
curriculum sources and influences are used to determine the objectives of the curriculum.

The model relies heavily on data; therefore, it is important to gather necessary information
before proceeding to each of the processes. This curriculum practice allows research to
influence curriculum processes and encourages a team approach to curriculum development.

The second phase of the model allows curriculum workers to design for the production and
implementation of the curriculum and on the importance of the evaluation of instructional
materials to ensure the smooth implementation of the curriculum. The model involves a series
of tasks, which, if carefully followed, may result in a relevant and effective curriculum.

Similar to the weaknesses of linear models presented earlier, the model of Diamond ends in
Phase II. It assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final and good as planned.
There is no provision where curriculum workers can review their actions and decisions in
 relation to the factors identified in the first phase. Probably, the data gathered were assumed to
support the curriculum and are sufficient to ensure that the curriculum is relevant and effective.
Evaluation and revision are only done in Phase II. But this is in the level of instruction or the
implemented curriculum.

The model, if applied in the Philippines, will probably be difficult because of the lack of research
culture in our education institutions. Having a research culture among faculty members can
improve the way higher education curricula are planned. The results of these researches can
serve as basis for developing curricula and in proposing necessary changes in the curriculum.
Print (1993) and Doll (1992) considered curriculum development as a decision-making process,
emphasizing for faculty members to conduct researches as a basis for making curricular
decisions.

F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Murray Print published his model in his book Curriculum Development and Design in
1988. His model, as shown in Figure 6, prescribes a sequential and logical approach to
curriculum development to provide a useful and easy-to-understand process in
developing curriculum.

Aims, Goals, Objectives Content Implementation and

Modification
Situational
Analysis Learning Activities

Curriculum
Instructional
Presage Monitoring and
Evaluation
Feedback,
Curriculum
Evaluation
Phase 1. Organization Phase 2. Development Phase 3. Application

Figure 6. Print’s Curriculum Development

The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of the curriculum workers involved the
development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is important to pose the following
questions that may influence curriculum development:

1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything, do they
represent?
2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?
3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’ thinking?

The answer to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of curriculum that
will be developed.

The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The procedure
is cyclical , which begins with a situational analysis, and continues with the aims, goals,
and objectives, content, learning activities and instructional evaluation, and then conti
uuing situational analysis again.

The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates three major activities:
(1) implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring of, and feedback from curriculum ,
and (3) the provision of feedback data to the presage group.

Print’s model is also prescriptive and rational. The model starts with identifying the aims, goals,
and objectives of the curriculum. It also embraces the principles of their actions, as they go
through the process of curriculum development. Print’s idea of curriculum presage recognizes
the important role and influence of various curriculum workers involved in different curriculum
activities. It also recognizes the myriad of curriculum conceptions and ideas that various
curriculum workers bring to the curriculum development process which may influence them in
making important curricular decisions.

The inclusion of instructional evaluation in the development process make this model unique.
Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation of the curriculum. The result
of the evaluation is valuable in examining whether the curriculum is applicable to the students
or whether the goals of the curriculum have been achieved. The inclusion of a monitoring and
feedback system in the curriculum development is also useful when there is a need to do some
revisions. Lastly, this model can be used in any level of curriculum development-local, college-
wide, or national. Hence, it is very practical to apply this model in the Philippines.

The model describes the process of curriculum development on a macro level; however, it is
not clear where the philosophy of the institution and philosophy of the curriculum will come
into play. Philosophy is very influential in curriculum processes. The philosophy of the school
and of the curriculum embodies or reflects the kind of curriculum offered in a particular institution.
Philosophy should precede selection of objectives.

Print’s model should establish a stronger link between the curriculum presage and the
situational analysis. The model gives an impression that curriculum presage has no direct effect
or relationship with situational analysis. Curriculum presage is part of situational analysis since
the various curriculum workers are also part of the context or environment of the curriculum.

Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of curriculum development.
Cyclical models usually start with situational analysis that serves as the basis for all the
succeeding process.

A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development

An example of a cyclical model for curriculum development was developed by Nicholls

and Nicholls (1978). The model emphasizes the cyclical nature of curriculum
development. According to the proponents of this model, curriculum development is a
continuous process.

As shown in Figure 7, the model prescribes five logical and interdependent stages that are in a
continuous curriculum development process. The model starts with a situational analysis in
which curricular decisions are made, followed by the selection of objectives and the other
succeeding phases.

Situational Analysis
 Selection of
Evaluation
Objectives

Selection and
Selection and Organization
Organization of
of Methods
Content

Figure 7. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model

The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational analysis as
part of the model is valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the
curriculum workers to understand better the context in which the curriculum is
developed. By starting with situational analysis, curriculum workers will be able to
collect data and the needed information from various curriculum sources and influences
that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and objectives. Thus, if applied in
college settings, faculty members need to conduct situational analysis before planning
their syllabi and curriculum plans. This will make it possible for the curriculum to be
more relevant and responsive to the needs of the students and the school.

The model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing disciplines such
as philosophy, psychology, and sociology in developing the curriculum. These disciplines
are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and objectives, contents, learning
experiences, and evaluation. The importance of these three disciplines in developing
curriculum is also recognized in the model of Tyler (1949).

The model has the potential to be used in any educational setting, either school-based
or on a national level. The cyclical nature of the model also enables curriculum workers
in making the necessary changes and adjustments in the total curriculum. This attribute
of the model is helpful for teachers, administrators, and education boards to address
curricular issues and propose innovations and changes whenever needed. The model of
Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) advocates a curriculum development activity that involves
continuous improvement.
 There is little weakness found in this model. The possible problem that may. occur is that
many curriculum workers are used to develop curricula following a linear model. In the
Philippines, for example, curriculum development follows a top-down approach where
many curricular decisions are made in the national level. The goals and contents of the
curriculum are set by the state. In the context of higher education, there is a tendency
for teachers not to follow this model because of the tedious job of conducting
situational analysis before developing any syllabus or curriculum plan.

B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

In his influential book, Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical process
in which each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent (see Figure 8.
Although this model is also rational in nature, each phase is a logical development of the
preceding one. One cannot proceed to the next phase unless the preceding phase is
done. Wheeler also emphasized the importance of starting from the development of
1. Aims,
aims, goals, Goals, and
and objectives. 2. Selection of Learning
Objectives Experiences

5. Evaluation
3. Selection of Content

4. Organization and Integration of

Learning Experiences and Content

Figure 8. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning was developed by Stark, Lowther,
Bentley, Ryan, Martens, Genthon, Wren, and Shaw in 1990 as part of their study
conducted at the University of Michigan National Center for Research to Improve
Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. This model appeared in the book Shaping the
College Curriculum written by Stark and Latucca and published in 1997.

Content influences encompass faculty members’ background and associated disciplinary

and educational beliefs. Contextual influences refer to the influences outside of the
instructor’s immediate control that cause adjustments in the course plans such as
 student characteristics or instructional resources. Form includes the processes that are
followed when designing courses (Stark & Latucca, 1997).

The Contextual Filters model presents a cyclical view of curriculum development. After
making course decisions, the planners can check with the content considerations and
contextual filters. It describes the reality of how college faculty members design their
courses. Hence, it is very much applicable for designing higher education courses.

Content and Background Considerations (Content)

Influence of Purposes of
Faculty Faculty Views of
Education
Background and Their Academic
Espoused by
Characteristics Fields
Faculty
Members

Contextual Filters (Context)

Goals

Students

Schedules

Campus Services

Course Decisions (Form)

Feedback
Select Content Adjustment

Arrange Content

Choose Process
 Figure 9. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The model is based on a research conducted by the proponents on how

faculty members in several higher education institutions in the United
States plan their curriculum (see Stark & Latucca, 1997). Several
curriculum influences such as faculty background and educational beliefs
are recognized in the model. The influence and the special role of faculty
members in curriculum planning and development are recognized as a
main factor in curriculum development in higher education.<br /> This
model is very teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic
freedom, faculty members may plan the curriculum based on their own
convenience. The model can be improved by putting students as part of
the content influences. In many curriculum models (Tyler, 1949; Taba,
1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1971; Skilbeck, 1976; Print, 1993; Oliva,
2005), students are viewed as a significant source of curriculum.
Considering the fact that most college faculty members do not have
pedagogical training, the model failed to elaborate how contents and
process are arranged. This could have been very useful for faculty
members, especially for neophyte instructors, who do not have
background knowledge on education.

Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

The dynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop curricula in various educational
contexts. The dynamic curriculum development models are usually used in school-based
settings.

A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development

Decker Walker developed a model for curriculum development and first published it in
1971. Walker contended that curriculum developers do not follow the prescriptive
 approach of the rationale-linear sequence of curriculum elements when they develop
curricula (Walker, 1971; Marsh &amp; Willis, 2007; Print, 1993). In his model, Walker was
particularly interested on how curriculum workers actually do their task in curriculum
development. As shown in Figure 10, Walker was able to identify three phases, which he
termed platform, deliberation, and design.

(Beliefs, Theories, Conceptions, Point of View, Aims, Objectives)

Platform

Deliberation

Curriculum Design

Figure 10.
Walker’s Naturalistic Model
In Platform phase. Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them their individual
beliefs, knowledge, and values. They have their own ideas about how to do their task and they
are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first is similar to the idea of Print (1993) of a
curriculum presage. Deliberation phase, on the other hand, involves identifying which facts are
needed for means and ends, generating alternatives and considering the consequences of these
alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing alternative costs and consequences, and
choosing the best alternative for the curriculum task they are about to do. The third phase,
which is the design, involves planning, decision- making, and the actual development of the
curriculum.

Walker’s model is a dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It reflects the
realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It recognizes the role and
influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum development.

In addition,it avoids the obsession of starting with objectives. This practice is also observed in
the model of Print (1993). Since the model is dynamic, the curriculum workers may commence
at any point in the curriculum development. Curriculum workers may review their previous
decisions and actions to correct some mistakes. According to Walker (1971), this model can be
used for a school-based curriculum development.
The model, being dynamic, can be confusing to other curriculum workers who are not aware of
the necessary processes of curriculum development. If this model is applied in the Philippines,
where most teachers are implementers of curriculum developed by other educators, this model
may not have to them.

Another weakness of Walker’s model is a strong tendency of the curriculum development to be

stuck in phase 2. According to Print (1993), too much discussion may lead to analysis- paralysis
syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum development. Probably, the
model can be elaborated more on design processes involved in Phase 3 to help teachers and
neophyte curriculum workers do their task.

B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

In 1976, Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum in

Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When using this
model, curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown in Figure 11, each
phase is interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck’s model includes a
situational analysis that involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners.
The results of the situational analysis provide strong base making curricular decisions for all
succeeding of curriculum development.

Situational Analysis

Goal Information

Program Building

Interpretation and
Implementation

Monitoring, Feedback,
Assessment, Reconstruction
 Figure 11. Skillbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published the book The
Educational Imagination where he presented his idea on how curriculum development should
be done, Eisner (1979) believed that there is a need to develop a new theory that recognizes
the artistry of teaching that is usefulvin helping teachers develop those arts. In his books, Eisner
outlined how this artistic approach can also be used in curriculum development.

Table 3. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development

1. Goals and their priorities

 The need to consider less, well-defined objectives as well as explicit ones
 The need for deliberation in talking through priorities

2. Content of curriculum
 Options to consider in selecting curriculum
 Caveats about the null curriculum

3. Types of learning opportunities

 Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events that will be
significance to students
 4. Organization of learning Opportunities
 Emphasis on a nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse students outcomes.

5. Organization of content areas

 Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content

6. Mode of presentation and mode of response

 Use of number of modes of communication to widen educational opportunities for
students

7. Types of evaluation procedure

 Use of a comprehensive range of proceduresat different stages of the process of
curriculum development

In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressful an artful process
of arriving at a concensus about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging the
participants is similar to Walker’s (1979) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971) idea of
deliberation. In selecting the content of the curriculum, Eisner (2002) considered the three
sources of curriculum: individual, society, and subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949). On
selecting opportunities. Accordingly, educational imagination must transforms goals and
contents into high-quality experiences for students (Eisner,2002).

Eisner also emphasized providing a variety of learning opportunities to differenttypes of

students using varied resources and activities. He contented that curriculum content should be
organized and integrated in different ways. Eisner suggested using different strategies and
methods to engage the students in meaningful learning. Lastly, for Eisner, evaluation is not the
final step of curriculum development, but rather it is something that pervades the entire
curriculum development process (Eisner,1985).

The model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development or in national

curriculum projects. Eisner’s model is an open-ended process or a form of a dynamic model. It
is descriptive in offering a general approach that can be followed by curriculum workers, yet the
 model is also prescriptive in offering suggestions about what should happen when developing a
curriculum.
The Eisner’s model recognizes the influence of various curriculum workers in developing a
curriculum. The model emphasizes the importance of having well- defined goals and objectives
in curriculum. It recognizes the varied activities that teachers do in the school to attain the
goals of the curriculum.
The model may be effective in the context of developing and designing courses for higher
education. The influence of academic freedom and the changing nature of the disciplines in
higher education require a curriculum model that is less prescriptive, but logical enough to
embrace the artistic or creative ways in which faculty members develop their courses.
Since the processes are not procedural, curriculum workers can always modify and improve
their curricula to address certain problems and needs. The model alls for more relevant and
responsive ways of selecting and organizing contents d learning experiences in order to respond
to the diverse needs of students.

D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

The author developed this model (see Figure 12) as one of the major outputs of his doctoral
dissertation in the University of the Philippines, Diliman. It is intended to help curriculum
workers develop curriculum that is relevant and appropriate to the Philippine context
(Pawilen, 2011).

1. Situational Analysis
Curriculum Sources

 Learners 2. Selection of Goals and

 Society Objectives
 Disciplin
e 3. Development of Curriculum
Standards

a. Developing a comprehensive set of

standards

b. Aligning standards with several

criteria

c. Securing teacher’s input

d. Validating of standards by experts

Curriculum
e. Developing final curriculum standards
Influences

 External
 Internal 4. Selection of Contents or
 Organization Subject Area
al
 Figure 12. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum development and
decision-making in the macro level. Posner (1995) suggested two levels of curriculum
development: macro level, which includes the general or overall process of curriculum
development, and the micro level, which focuses on specific phase or phases or on specific
context like school-based curriculum development.

Society is also considered as a source of curriculum. Knowledge about the society provides
better understanding of the context in which the curriculum will be implemented. Cultural
values, beliefs, attitudes, political and economic systems, and the physical environment
directly or indirectly affect curriculum development because the learners are an integral
part of the society. Understanding the nature of discipline is also essential in curriculum
development. It can provide data for making decisions as to what contents should be
included in the curriculum and how to organize the contents of the curriculum.

As shown in the model in Figure 12, the curriculum sources are considered vital in
conducting situational analysis. Curriculum sources provide necessary data in determining
the goals and objectives of the curriculum. These curriculum sources are also valuable in
making decisions on the development of curriculum standards. In the revised model (see
Figure 12), an arrow connects the curriculum sources to Phase III.
 Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the curriculum
and decision-making in the micro level. The idea of curriculum influences was adopted from
the model of Stark and Lattuca (1997). Accordingly, these curriculum influences can be
grouped into three: external, internal, and organizational.

External influences are social factors that directly influence curriculum decision- making.
These factors are society, market demand, government, disciplinary associations, and
alumni. Internal factors are those that are related to the school like faculty members,
students, disciplines, and program mission. Organizational influences are school factors but
they are more concerned with the governance of the program and support system like
school resources, leadership, governance, and program relationship (Stark &amp; Lattuca,
1997). These curriculum influences provide important data for conducting situational
analysis.

In the revised model, the various curriculum influences are integral, as shown by an arrow
connecting the curriculum influences and the development of curriculum standards. In all
phases of curriculum development, these curriculum influences are always considered. For
example, new government policies, in most cases, need to be implemented immediately.
Change in school leadership and programs also need immediate action. Consequently, at
any point, the curriculum influences may have direct or indirect effect to curriculum
development. The broken arrows connecting the curriculum influences with the different
phases of the curriculum development show this. This influence makes the model dynamic.
It always considers the changing nature, needs, and demands of its context.

By nature, curriculum sources and influences serve as bases for selecting and making
decisions about the various elements of curriculum: intent, content, learning experiences,
and evaluation.

Processes for Developing Curriculum Under Pawilen’s Model

1. Situational Analysis - the first phase; starts with analyzing the context in which the
curriculum is developed. The situational analysis includes a study of the different
curriculum sources (students, society, and disciplines or subject matter), and careful
examination of the different curriculum influences (internal, external, and
organizational) that affect curriculum development.

2. Selection of Goals and Objectives - results from situational analysis. In some cases, if the
government or the university prescribes the curriculum goals and objectives, such features will
be considered as part of the internal or external influences that will be studied in the situational
analysis.
 3. Development of Curriculum Standards - takes place after the situational analysis and selection
of goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn’s model (1998) was modified to simplify the
task for developing curriculum standards: (BD (1) develop a comprehensive set of content
standards by examining various -bad curriculum sources and influences; (2) align the standards
to several criteria; (3) secure teacher input to revise and improve the standards; (4) ask experts
to validate the standards; and (5) develop the final draft of standards, divided into content
standards, skills standards, and values standards.

4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas - phase where the developed curriculum standards are
used to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum.

5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences - includes selecting learning activities,

organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to be used in implementing
the curriculum.

6. Implementation - involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by faculty members. It is

where the actual teaching and learning take place.

7. Evaluation - the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the curriculum, including
the design and selection of all the curriculum elements, are evaluated. After the result of
evaluation, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis to
reexamine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and
influences.

Analysis of Different Curriculum Development Models

Figure 13 provides a summary of the results of the analysis of the different curriculum
development models in relation to the two dimensions suggested by Print (1993). All the
curriculum development models are based on curriculum researches and are based on certain
theories of curriculum. Each model is unique depending on the curriculum theory advocated by
the proponents. It is the role of the curriculum developers to select a model based on their
context (Print, 1993).

PRESCRIPTIVE
 Tyler’s Model Contextual Filter Model
Taba’s Grassroots Model Nichols and Nichols Model
Understanding by Design Model Pawilen’s Model
Systematic Design Model
Print’s Model Dynamic/ Interaction
Rational/ Objectives
Standardard- based Model
Wheeler’s Model Walker’s Model
Einer’s Model

Descriptive

Figure 13. Summary of the Analysis of Curriculum Models

The linear models (Standards-based Curriculum Development Model, Understanding by Design,

Systematic Design Model, and Print’s Curriculum Development Model) provide a direct and
time-efficient approach to curriculum development. These models simplify the process of
curriculum development such that curriculum workers will find it easy to follow. The linear
models are highly prescriptive and rational. They state precisely where to start in the curriculum
development process. Usually, they start with a situational analysis or selecting objectives.

The cyclical model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) and the Contextual Filters Model of Course
Planning Model present an interrelated procedure for developing curriculum. These models are
prescriptive by starting with situational analysis; yet, they are also dynamic. These models are
applicable to school-based curriculum development.
The dynamic models of Eisner (1979), Walker (1971), and Pawilen’ s model (2011) are less rigid
in application and they can be used in school-based curriculum development. These two models
reflect the reality of how institutions and teachers develop curricula. Eisner’s(1979) model is
prescriptive; yet, it is also descriptive, while Walker’s (1971) model is highly dynamic and
descriptive.

Each model of curriculum development is based on a curriculum theory developed by various

proponents. The models presented are reflections of what various authors and scholars believe about
the nature of curriculum and the process of curriculum development. Each has its own rightful claim.

We can always learn some principles from these models:

1. When developing a model for curriculum development, there is always the need for a clear and
logical process.

2. Curriculum sources and other variables that are influential in developing a curriculum should be
specified.

3. Models should reflect how educators plan and develop curriculum in any levels.

4. Models should be based on a curriculum theory.

5. Each process in a model should specify areas where curriculum decisions are made.

6. Each model should reflect the major phases of curriculum development (planning, design,
implementation, and evaluation).

It is also important that each model should be applicable in various contexts.

IN A NUTSHELL

Reflections on Curriculum Development

Curriculum development, as seen in the curriculum development models, follows a scientific and
logical process.

 Each curriculum development model represents different areas of emphasis. Essential elements
of curriculum development are:

-Situational analysis
- Selection of objectives
- Selection of content
-Selection of learning experiences
-Evaluation
  Curriculum development models could be clustered into three:

- Linear Models - follows a logical and sequential approach to curriculum development starting
with curriculum objectives.

-Cyclical Models - they are essentially logical and sequential in terms of process, however in
cyclical models, curriculum development is viewed as a continuous process.

-Dynamic Models - curriculum development may begin with any curriculum element or process.
It highlights the importance of involving teachers in curriculum development process.

-Curriculum development in the Philippines needs to involve different stakeholders and teachers.

-There is a need to develop a model that is relevant and responsive to the academic needs and
contexts of the Philippines.

Chapter 5

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

This chapter discusses the processes in implementing curriculum as presented by different

scholars in curriculum studies especially in the field of curriculum leadership and supervision.
This chapter is specially designed for educators and pre-service teacher education students to
understand how a curriculum is implemented in the Philippine context. In this chapter you will
be able to:
 1. identify different curriculum workers;

2. analyze different levels of curriculum implementation in the Philippine context;

3. discuss the factors to consider in implementing a curriculum.

Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation, from the term itself, focuses on the actual implementation of the
curriculum from the national level to the local school context. It describes the dynamics of how
various curriculum workers strive to do their functions in order to attain educational goals,
programs, and policies set by the country, region, division, district, and down to the local school
level. Each of these levels has specific functions to do.

Ideally, the implementation of the curriculum is influenced by the educational goals set by the
government or schools. However, the process of curriculum implementation is also guided by an
educational or curriculum philosophy.

In practice, curriculum implementation is highly influenced by different curriculum workers: people

influence the process. Consequently, not all curricula are perfectly implemented as planned. In the
process of curriculum implementation, there are always problems encountered.

Curriculum Workers

The success or failure of any curriculum depends on the people working for its implementation.
Oliva (2005) identified these people as curriculum workers. At any level of curriculum
implementation, curriculum workers, through their expertise, creativity, and dedication, make
sure that the curriculum is implemented as planned.

 Teachers - the most visible among the curriculum workers. Their roles as implementers
of the curriculum are very crucial. It is through their expertise, creativity, and
commitment that any curriculum success is attributed. Teachers develop lesson plans,
 unit plans, yearly plans, and syllabi for each subject they teach. They prepare
instructional materials, select methods and strategies, and assess students&#039;
progress. Every day, teachers are given teaching loads to teach different subjects. Their
educational background, educational philosophy, teaching styles, and personality affect
the implementation of the curriculum.

 Principals - the chief academic and administrative officer of the school. They provide
curricular and instructional leadership and supervision to the teachers and other school
personnel in the local school context. It is they who lead teachers in planning different
school activities and make sure that all educational goals set by the Department of
Education are met. Principals check the lesson plans developed by each teacher, prepare
the school calendar, supervise instruction, and prepare school report. Principals also
work with parents and community leaders and win their support to any school activities
and projects.

 Curriculum Consultants individuals with a rich experience on doing curriculum projects

related to curriculum planning, curriculum development, and curriculum evaluation.

 District Supervisors-responsible for supervising the implementation of the curriculum in

the district level. They help public school principals in ensuring that the programs of the
Department of Education are implemented in their respective schools. They also
implement policies and programs of the Department of Education in private schools.

 Education Supervisors - assigned to specific subject areas in basic education. They help
the district office of the Department of Education in supervising the implementation of
projects and programs specific for each subject area. Division Superintendents - the
chief academic officer of each division. They supervise the implementation of the DepEd
curriculum, programs, and projects in the division level for both public and private
schools. Usually, each province or a city is considered a division for DepEd.

 Regional Directors - manage the programs and projects of the Department of Education
in the regional level.

 Education Program Specialists - work at the national level or at the central offices of the
Commission on Higher Education and the Department of Education. They assist the two
government agencies in the development of curriculum policies that will help teacher
and other curriculum leaders in the implementation of the curriculum.
  Technical Panels and Technical Committees - professors and individual experts from different
disciplines and fields that assist the Commission on Higher Education in developing curriculum,
formulating curriculum policies, and evaluating the compliance of higher education institutions
to CHED program standards.

Posner (1995) pointed out that in analyzing a curriculum, a careful examination of the
background, philosophy, expertise, and the level of involvement of different curriculum workers
are important. Walker (1971) made observations that in the process of curriculum
development, various curriculum workers bring with them their philosophies, beliefs, expertise,
and other concerns when they plan and develop curriculum. Consequently, these are also
influential in the implementation of the curriculum.
Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) emphasized that curriculum workers are curriculum
leaders, too. As they implement the curriculum at any level, these curriculum workers take the
role of curriculum leaders providing directions, guidance, and supervision. They manage people
and programs at any level of education and in any school.

The problem, however, is that many individuals and groups establish schools for business
purposes. With limited or no background at all in education, they establish schools and employ
teachers and other experts to manage the implementation of the curriculum. The problem in
this situation comes when these schools compete with each other to increase the rate of
enrolment. They implement curricular innovations usually adopted from abroad and duplicate
good programs of other schools. At times, the competition is not healthy at all as there are
schools that do not give emphasis on quality.

Levels of Curriculum Implementation

To ensure the smooth implementation of the curriculum, each department or ministry of
education in any country has established a system that will take charge of the whole work of
planning, development, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. Integrated in this
system are the curriculum workers mentioned earlier in this chapter who work in different
levels of the bureaucracy.
As shown in Figure 14, the Philippines follows a centralized system of curriculum development
and implementation that starts from the national level down to the local school level. Although
the regional, division, district, and school levels are empowered to plan, monitor, and evaluate
programs, projects, and plans, the central office of the Department of Education still does most
of the policies and curriculum development work.
 National Level

Regional Level

Division Level

District Level

Local School Level

Figure 14. Levels of Curriculum Implementation at Basic Education Level

Republic Act 9155, also known as the Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001, Chapter 1,
Section 7 defines the function of each level as follows:

A. National Level

Through the leadership of the Secretary of Education, the Undersecretaries, Assistant

Secretaries, and different Bureau Officers are responsible for the following:

 formulating national educational policies;

 formulating a national basic education plan;
 promulgating national educational standards;
 monitoring and assessing national learning outcomes
 undertaking national educational research and studies;
  enhancing the employment status, professional competence, welfare, and working
conditions of all personnel of the Department; and
 enhancing the total development of learners through local and national programs
and/or projects.

B. Regional Level

Consistent with the national educational policies, plans, and standards, the regional office
under the Regional Director shall be responsible for the following:

 defining a regional educational policy framework which reflects the values, needs,
and expectations of the communities they serve; developing a regional basic
education plan;
 developing regional educational standards with a view toward bench- marking for
international competitiveness;
 monitoring, evaluating, and assessing regional learning outcomes;
 undertaking research projects and developing and managing region-wide projects
which may be funded through official development assistance and/or or other
funding agencies;
 ensuring strict compliance with prescribed national criteria for the recruitment,
selection, and training of all staff in the region and divisions; formulating, in
coordination with the regional development council, the budget to support the
regional educational plan which shall take into account the educational plans of the
divisions and districts;
 determining the organization component of the divisions and districts and
approving the proposed staffing pattern of all employees in the divisions and
districts;
 hiring, placing, and evaluating all employees in the regional office, except for the
position of assistant director;
 evaluating all school division superintendents and assistant division
superintendents in the region;
 planning and managing the effective and efficient use of all personnel, physical and
fiscal resources of the regional office, including professional staff development;
 region; and
 managing the database and management information system of the region; and
 approving the establishment of public and private elementary and high schools and
learning centers.

C. Division Level
 A division consists of a province or a city. Consistent with the national educational policies,
plans, and standards, the division level through the leadership of the Division
Superintendent shall be responsible for the following:

 developing and implementing division education development plans;

 planning and managing the effective and efficient use of all personnel, physical, and
fiscal resources of the division, including professional staff development;
 hiring, placing, and evaluating all division supervisors and school district supervisors
as well as all employees in the division, both teaching and non-teaching personnel,
including school heads, except for the assistant division superintendent;
 monitoring the utilization of funds provided by the national government and the
local government units to the schools and learning centers;
 ensuring compliance of quality standards for basic education programs and for this
purpose strengthening the role of division supervisors as subject area specialists;
 promoting awareness of and adherence by all schools and learning centers to
accreditation standards prescribed by the Secretary of Education; and supervising
the operations of all public and private elementary, secondary, and integrated
schools, and learning centers.

D. School District Level

A schools district through the leadership of the District Supervisor is responsible for the
following:

 providing professional and instructional advice and support to the school heads and
teachers/facilitators of schools and learning centers in the district or cluster
thereof; and
 curricula supervision.
E. School Level

Consistent with the national educational policies, plans, and standards, the school level
through the leadership of school heads is responsible for the following:

 setting the mission, vision, goals, and objectives of the school;

 creating an environment within the school that is conducive to teaching and
learning;
 implementing the school curriculum and being accountable for higher learning
outcomes;
  developing the school education program and school improvement plan;
 offering educational programs, projects, and services which provide equitable
opportunities for all learners in the community;
 introducing new and innovative modes of instruction to achieve higher learning
outcomes;
 administering and managing all personnel, physical, and fiscal resources of the
school;
 recommending the staffing complement of the school based on its needs;
encouraging staff development;
 establishing school and community networks and encouraging the active
participation of teachers organizations, non-academic personnel of public schools,
and parents-teachers-community associations; and
 accepting donations, gifts, bequests, and grants for the purpose of upgrading
teachers’ learning facilitators’ competencies, improving and expanding school
facilities, and providing instructional materials and equipment.

Currently, the different offices of the Department of Education are doing their best in ensuring a
smooth and efficient implementation of the K-12 Education Program of the Philippines. Under
the Republic Act 10533 or the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, Kindergarten and Senior
High School were added to the Philippine basic education system. This ensures that our
education system for basic education is at par with the international standards and to prepare
Filipino students to meet the needs and demands of a knowledge-based society.

For higher education institutions (HEIS) in the country, the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) was established under Republic Act No. 7722, otherwise known as the Higher Education
Act of 1994. Contrary to DepED, the CHED has two levels: the Central Office (national level) and
the Regional Offices. The CHED Central Office focuses on the development of policies and sets
the national direction for higher education in the country.
The CHED Office for Program Standards (OPS) is responsible for curricular matters. The CHED
issues a memorandum order (CMO) per program to serve as a guide to HEls on the courses that
should be offered per program, admission and retention policies, administrative requirements,
faculty requirements, library and laboratory requirements, and others. Experts in different
academic fields and disciplines are invited to become members of different Technical Panels and
Technical Committees to help the Commission in the development of these CMOs per program.
All curricular changes and application for new curricular offerings from en banc. HEls are
reviewed and recommended for approval by the OPS to the Commission en banc.
 The Regional Offices of CHED is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of the
policies and guidelines developed by the Central Office. The monitoring work is done with the
help of regional experts on different fields known as Regional Quality Assurance Team (RQUAT).
It is their duty to ensure that all HEls in their regions comply with CHED requirements and
policies.

State colleges and universities must seek the approval of their academic councils and their
corresponding board of regents for any curriculum changes and curriculum proposals before
these curriculum proposals are sent to CHED for approval. Exempted in this process is the
University of the Philippines System. The UP System does not follow the CHED prescribed
curriculum. For UP, any curriculum proposal must be approved by its university council and the
UP Board of Regents.

Private HEls may also add more subjects as institutional requirements per program based on the
mission, vision, and philosophy of the HEI concerned. For state universities and colleges, their
individual charters guide their program offerings. This process is shown in Figure 15. The
regional offices of CHED check the compliance of these HEls to the CMO issued by the
Commission.

Commission on Higher
Education

( National Level)

CHED Regional Offices

Higher Education
Institutions (Colleges,
Professional, Institutes,
Universities)
Figure 15. Levels of Curriculum Implementation at the Higher Education Level
The academic freedom of individual HEI and faculty members also highly influences curriculum
development in higher education. Curricular revisions are presented and approved by the
university council in the case of state universities and colleges. For private HEls, the curriculum
committee and the council of deans presided by the Vice President for Academic Affairs approve
any curriculum proposal made in any department or college. Each faculty member, whether in
public or private HEI, develops a syllabus for his or her subject guided by the faculty expertise
and their academic freedom.

For vocational and technical courses, the Technical Education Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) is the government agency that prescribes the curriculum and other requirements for
the implementation of the program. Each course is implemented through modules, designed
and implemented based on specific competencies prescribed. All the specific requirements and
facilities, including the required training and certification for each faculty who will teach each
course are prescribed by TESDA.

Things to Consider in Implementing the Curriculum

Curriculum implementation must be systematically planned. At any level, it requires careful

consideration of several factors and variables:
1. Government Requirements include memoranda, policies, guidelines, and requirements
from the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, and the Technical
Education Skills Development Authority. The competencies required by the board exams
are also considered.

2. School Philosophy, Vision and Mission, and Core Values at the school level especially
when selecting the specific contents and learning experiences for all students enrolled in
each program.

3. Learning Environment includes the various school facilities required for the
implementation of each program. These facilities include laboratories, classrooms,
libraries, sports facilities, instructional technologies, and other facilities prescribed by
the government for each program. In some schools, colleges or universities, housing
facilities for faculty and students are also provided.

4. Needs and Demands of the Society - are the needs and demands of the society that the
curriculum must respond to. Curriculum can address these needs and demands in the
macro level by adding subjects or contents, or in the local school level by integrating
specific competencies in the various syllabi for each course.
5. Needs of the Students - including interests, are considered when the school develops
academic policies and in the preparation of course syllabi. At the least, the school,
college or university should have an idea of the general profile of students including
their needs and interests when planning and implementing the program.

6. Faculty Expertise - the faculty is considered as the most important assets of each school,
college or university. They also play an important role in the implementation of the
curriculum.

7. The Changing Nature of Knowledge-includes the theories and research from different
areas and professional organizations in the academe that are also influential in the
implementation of the curriculum. It could result to the integration of important topics
or subjects, and additional facilities.

These factors were emphasized by different curriculum experts (Tyler, 1949; Sowell,
1996; Ornstein &amp; Hunkins 1993; Marsh, 2004; Tanner &amp; Tanner, 2007) as
influential in planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating a curriculum. In the
context of curriculum implementation, curriculum leaders and curriculum workers
consider these factors in making curricular and instructional decisions.

At any level of the educational bureaucracy, the success of curriculum implementation

can be attributed to how curriculum leaders and workers plan, design, and develop the
implementation of the curriculum. School resources and the implementers at the school
level are also contributory to the success of curriculum implementation.

In a Nutshell

Reflection on Curriculum Implementation

 Curriculum implementation is important to ensure the success of a particular

curriculum
 The implementation of a curriculum involves various people known as curriculum
workers. Each curriculum worker has special task to do to ensure the success of
the curriculum.
- Teachers
- Principals
- Curriculum Consultant
- District Supervisors
- Education Supervisors
- Division Superintendents
- Regional Directors
- Education Program Specialists
- Technical Panels and Technical Committees

 There are different levels of curriculum implementation in the Philippine

context Each level has its own function to fulfill:
National Regional level
- Division level
- District level
- Local School level

 There are important things to consider in implementing the curriculum:

- Government Requirements
- School Philosophy, Vision, and Mission, and Core values
- Learning Environment
- Needs and Demands of the Society
- Needs of the Students
- Faculty Expertise
- The Changing Nature of Knowledge