Nature of science

unit-1
Dr. Muhammad Safdar
 Science?
• The word science has been derived from the
Latin word “scientia”, meaning knowledge.
• Science is a knowledge gain through observation
and experimentation.
• Scientific Knowledge is Based on Empirical
Evidence
• Scientific Knowledge is open to Revision in the
light of New Evidence.
 What is science?
• Science is a way of knowing, a method of learning
about nature.
• Rooted in common sense, its formal, systematic
method is called scientific inquiry.
• In doing scientific inquiry, scientists use a variety
of empirical approaches, techniques, and
procedures to collect data from nature, examine
and analyze that data, and construct knowledge
based on it.
 Contd.
• This knowledge relates to living organisms, non-
living matter, energy, and events that occur
naturally. To analyze data scientists often, but
not always, use mathematics, and they always
apply logical arguments that obey strict
empirical standards and healthy skepticism.
 What is the NOS?
• Science Models, Laws, Mechanisms, and
Theories Explain Natural Phenomena;
Science is a way of Knowing; Scientific
Knowledge assumes an order and
consistency in Natural Systems; Science is
a Human Endeavor; and. Science Addresses
Questions About the Natural and Material
World.
 NOS
• It is an organized system of knowledge that
is based on inquiry born out of natural
curiosity, logical reasoning, and
experimentation.
• The nature of science (NOS) is a
complicated concept. It is difficult for
experts to define. NOS involves a wide
variety of topics related to the history,
philosophy, and sociology of science.
 NOS
Schwartz & Lederman, (2002) focus on seven
aspects of NOS including:
(1) tentativeness of scientific knowledge subject to
change);
(2) nature of observation; (3) scientific methods; (4)
hypotheses, laws, and theories;
(5) Imagination; (6) Validation of scientific knowledge;
and (7) Objectivity and Subjectivity in science.
 Science as product
• The product of scientific inquiry is the body of
scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge takes
four forms:
1. hypotheses,
2. facts,
3. laws, and
4. theories.
 1. Hypotheses
• An intelligence guess; a tentative solution;
• A declarative statement; if-then statement
• Hypotheses are tentative statements about
relationships between variables in nature.
• Long ago the rotation of the earth on its axis
and the orbit of the earth about the sun were
hypotheses. Over time and through scientific
inquiry, hypotheses may become facts.
 2. Scientific facts
• Scientific facts require repeatable experiments
or proven qualities that can be repeated over
and over again. If you do an experiment to verify
a scientific fact, I should be able to do the same
experiment and get the same result.
 2. Scientific facts
• Facts are scientific observations that have been
tested and confirmed repeatedly.
• e.g. The motion of a Foucault pendulum over a
24-hour period documents Earth’s rotation on its
axis. Observations of the shifting shadows of
fixed objects over several weeks and the
changing hours of daylight and darkness over
several months help document Earth’s revolution
around the sun. Earth’s rotation and orbit are
now scientific facts.
 3. Scientific law
• Hypotheses may also become laws. Laws
describe the behaviour of specific aspects of
nature under specific conditions. Boyle’s Law
states that the volume (one property) of an ideal
gas varies inversely (behaviour) with its
pressure (second property) when the
temperature (third property) of the gas is
constant (specific condition).
 4. Scientific theories
• Theories are explanations about broad aspects of nature that
encompass large numbers of hypotheses, facts, laws, and events.
These explanations are well tested and valued for their ability
to predict new scientific knowledge and produce practical
benefits.
• Evolutionary theory explains the extensive diversity across
living organisms as well as the underlying unity. Scientists in
health, agriculture, and industry use evolution to develop new
medicines, hybrid crops, and new molecules that enhance the
performance of systems and benefit individuals and societies.
 Education in science serves three
purposes
• First, it prepares students to study science at higher levels of
education.
• Second, it prepares students to enter the workforce, pursue
occupations, and take up careers.
• Third, it prepares them to become more scientifically literate
citizens. The relative priority and alignment of these three
purposes varies extensively across countries and cultures.
• A sound education in science emphasizes that science is both a
way of knowing and a body of knowledge; it also emphasizes
integrating scientific inquiry with scientific knowledge.
 Nature of Science
• Science is a cumulative and endless series of
empirical observation which result in the
formation of concepts and theories being subject
to modification in the light of further empirical
observation.
• Is scientific knowledge is tentative?
• Scientific Models, Laws, Mechanisms, and
Theories Explain Natural Phenomena
 Nature of science
• “And when Abrahim said (Unto His Lord): My
Lord! Show me how thou givest life to the dead.
Allah (SUT) said: Dost Thou not believe? Abrahim
said: yee, but (I ask) in my order that my heart
may be at ease. Allah (SUT) Said: take four of
the birds and cause them to incline unto thee.
Then place a part of them on each hill, then call
them. They will come to thee in haste. And know
Allah is Mighty, wise. (Al-Baqarah, 260)
 Nature of science
• In Pakistan and many other countries, the nature
of science is just memorization of factual
knowledge.
• Is scientific knowledge is poor than Rational and
Revealed knowledge?
Reception-discovery and meaningful-rote
learning axis
SCIENCE
 Nature of Science (NOS)
• Science produces, demands and relies on
empirical evidence
• Experiments are not the only route to
knowledge
• Science uses both inductive reasoning and
hypothetical-deductive testing
 Nature of Science (NOS)
• Scientists make observations and produce
inferences
• There is no single step-wise scientific method by
which all science is done
• Science has a creative component
• Observations, ideas and conclusions in science
are not entirely objective
 Nature of Science (NOS)
• Historical, cultural and social influences impact
the practice and direction of science
• Scientific knowledge is tentative, durable and
self-correcting

• The nature of science is also the nature of

progress
 Science and its methods
• Science requires rational, analytical processes
but it also needs creative, intuitive processes.
• Science is not only a knowledge gain through
observation and experimentation but a way of
knowing also called scientific method.
• A systematic process / procedure having
sequential steps.
 Scientific method
• The method or process adopted by science in
the explanation of truth is quite unique and
distinct, and has such qualities as soundness
(accuracy) validity, reliability, impartiality,
objectivity etc. it is a principal way of testing
theories under conditions where as many
extraneous variables as possible are controlled
or ruled out.
 There are seven elements of scientific
process namely
1. Purposeful Observation;
2. Analysis – Synthesis;
3. Selective Recall;
4. Hypothesis;
5. Verification by Inference and experimentation;
6. Judgment.
7. Reasoning.
Do you think that Science never prove anything but
always disapprove
Scientific method
 Is change permanent?
• Appreciating the changeability of knowledge is a
factor in science acceptance. Sinatra and
colleagues found that evolution accepters were
more likely to agree with the statement “I believe
that laws and social policies should change to
reflect the needs of a changing world” and less
likely to agree with the statement “Changing your
mind is a sign of weakness” (2003).
• Nothing is permanent in this universe but change.
(Verse of poet Ghalab)
• I think it’s time to critically examine our social
systems and current practices and equip the
next generation with the tools they’ll need build
something better. These tools come with a solid
science education that instills a spirit of inquiry,
but not with rigid truths.
• I have found the missing link between the
higher ape and civilized man; it is we.
~Konrad Lorenz
 Science has three major elements
• (a) Processes (b) products (c) human attitude.
• There are various aspects in the scientific
attitude;
(i) Making pupils open minded (ii) Helping pupils to
make critical observation
(iii) Developing intellectual honesty among students
(iv) Developing curiosity among pupils (v)
Developing unbiased and impartial thinking.
 Science as Process (Scientific inquiry)
• Process includes how scientific knowledge, theories,
laws and principles are formulated or developed.
• The process skills are actually the skills that a
scientist uses to solve problems and find answers to
the research questions. Through the application of
science process skills scientists conduct scientific
inquiry and solve problems. Science process skills are
integral part of science. What we teach in our schools
reflects only the content of science i.e. facts, theories
and principles.
 Science as Process (Scientific inquiry)

• Teaching the process of science means going

beyond the content to help students understand
how we know what we know and giving them the
tools they need to think scientifically.
• Most importantly, it involves making explicit
(clear, open) references to the process of
science.
(Lederman, 2007)
 Process skills
• When scientists conduct scientific inquiry he/she
makes observations, hypotheses, predictions,
interpretations, and communicates the knowledge
resulting from investigation to others. These are
often called the “process skills” of science.
• Process skills are defined as a set of broadly
transferable abilities, appropriate to many science
disciplines and reflective of the behavior of
scientists.
 Basic Process Skills
• Observing ( by the use of 5 senses)
• Formulating hypothesis
• Experimenting
• Identifying and defining variables
• Communicating
• Classifying
• Measuring
• Drawing Inferences
• Predicting, ..........
 Teaching Science Process Skills
1. Factual approach: This approach is focused on
transfer of factual knowledge of science to the
students.
2. Conceptual Approach: This approach is focused on
learning scientific concepts.
3. Process Approach: This approach is focused on
science processes as the main objective of
teaching.
4. Modular approach: this approach is focused on to
teach individual students at their own pace that is
slow, normal and gifted.
 Science as Product

The body of knowledge includes knowledge of:

• Hypotheses
• Scientific facts,
• Scientific theories,
• Principles and laws.
 Attitude
• “Attitudes express our evaluation of something
or someone. They may be based on our
knowledge, our feelings and our behaviour, and
they may influence future behaviour.
• Attitudes are mental preferences / likeness or
dis-likeness towards or away something,
somebody, or some phenomenon.
 Attitude
• Attitude is the degree of positive or negative
effect (or emotional attachment) associated with
some psychological object.
• Attitude is an hypothetical construct which
cannot be measured directly but inferred from
behaviour.
• The purpose of assessing students’ attitudes is to
use information to improve the instructional
programs.
 Attitude
• Attitude should have no effect on students’
grades, and teacher should not be evaluated on
the basis of whether or not their students have
positive attitudes. But components of
instructional program such as teaching
strategies and curriculum materials can be
modified on the basis of the students’ attitudes
they promoted.
 Scientific attitude
• A desire for accurate knowledge, confidence in
procedures for seeking knowledge and the
expectation that the solution of the problem will
come through the use of verified knowledge.
 Scientific attitude
• Scientific attitude may be developed either by
direct teaching in the classroom/laboratory or
by out of school experiences gained by the pupils.
• The ways for developing scientific attitude among
the pupils are:
(i) Making use of planned exercises, (ii) proper use
of practical periods, (iii) atmosphere of the class, (iv)
co-curricular activities in science, (v) personal
example of the teacher.
 Scientific inquiry
• To “inquire” is to ask about something; to search
into it, especially by asking questions, and to
investigate something. The term “inquiry” as we
use it in our everyday life, refers to a process
of finding information or knowledge which was
not known before. The term inquiry is used for a
serious search for information and to propose
explanations or solutions of problems.
 Scientific inquiry
• “Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse
ways in which scientists study the natural
world and propose explanations based on
evidence from their work”.

(National Research Council, 1996, p. 23)

Types of inquiry: Open, Guided, Coupled &
Structured.
1. Open Inquiry
• Build upon prior experiences and inquire about
the overarching concepts
• Display the tools, materials
• Begin with the student’s question
• Continue with student(s) designing and conducting
the investigation or experiment
• Complete the learning cycle by communicating the
results
 2. Guided inquiry
• Teacher selects the over arching question
• Whole Class or groups of students work to
assist in developing the laboratory procedure
and learn specific skills needed for future open-
inquiries.
• Using the data gathered or provided, students
generate explanations
• Findings and claims are communicated
 3. Coupled inquiry
• Teacher chooses the first question to
investigate—specifically targeting a standard or
set of benchmarks
• After the guided inquiry, students engage in an
open or full inquiry
 4. Structured inquiry
• Students follow teacher directions to come up
with a specific end point or product
• The teacher asks the class to discuss the
results when the inquiry is complete
 Characteristics of Inquiry
1. Observation
2. Measurement
3. Experimentation
4. Communication
5. Mental process (several thinking processes are
involved in scientific inquiry; most important are
inductive and deductive.
“Gravity makes things fall. The apple that hit
my head was due to gravity”. (deductive
reasoning)
Ask question?

Allah Hafiz
SCIENCE EDUCATION AT ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY LEVEL

Dr. Muhammad Safdar

• “Children are born ignorant, not stupid.” This is
not the curriculum only but the way how to
present it, and also the assessment system that
makes them stupid.

Dr. Muhammad Safdar

 Science in the school curriculum
• Science is an essential and fundamental subject
in our curriculum.
• Science education provides us an opportunity to
think critically, and unify the concepts of man’s
natural environment and apply these concepts to
the control of the environment for man’s benefit.
 NEED OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
• it is a human enterprise, which requires man’s
best efforts to sustain it at an optimum level of
productivity.
• Science in the school curriculum has been the
subject of much attention in the 20th century
around the modern world and now it is an
emerging trend in the developing countries like
ours.
 NEED OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
• At Elementary level, science education provides
the students with opportunities to think critically,
practice different teaching methods and develop
scientific concepts, which facilitate the
understanding of the physical environment.
• Science also develops attitude, which is useful in
a sense that it gives students a simplified and
practical guide for appropriate behaviour.
 NEED OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
• The main purpose of teaching science in
secondary schools is to enable students to grasp
systematically the basic knowledge of physical
sciences needed for further study of modern
science and technology and to understand its
applications.
• Science develops Positive attitude towards
learning
 NEED OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
• It should help them to acquire experimental skills,
develop the ability to think and to use
mathematics/statistics to solve the every day
life (physical) problems.
• It is the terminal stage ; most of the lot left after
completing this stage and enter into working
force.
• A few students join institutions of higher
education
 What is curriculum?
• As a program of studies;
• As course content;
• Planned learning experiences;
• A structured series of intended learning
outcomes;
• As plan for action (i.e. a plan which guide
instruction)
 Curriculum
• Derived from Latin word “currere” means “ “the
course of a race”. There is no generally agreed
upon definition of curriculum.

• Bandi & Wales (2005) stated that “ for many

students, the school curriculum is a race to be
run, a series of obstacles or hurdles (subjects)
to be passed.”
 Curriculum
• includes all those activities which are utilized by
the school to attain the aims of education.
(Monoroe)
• is a plan for learning. (Taba Hilda)
• What person experience in a setting. (Phenix)
• Kerr defines, "All the learning which is planned
and guided by the school, whether it is carried on
in groups or individually, inside or outside of
school."
 Curriculum
• A master plan for selecting contents and
organizing learning experiences for the purpose
of changing and developing learner’s behaviour
and insight.
 Curriculum
• All that goes in the lives of the children, their
parents and teachers. It is made up of every
things that surrounds the learner in all his
working hours. In fact, curriculum is “ The
Environment in Motion”.
 Curriculum can be ordered into a
procedure (development process)
• Step 1: Diagnosis of needs.
• Step 2: Formulation of objectives.
• Step 3: Selection of content.
• Step 4: Organization of content.
• Step 5: Selection of learning experiences.
• Step 6: Organization of learning experiences.
• Step 7: The ways and means of doing it.
• Step 8: Determination of what to evaluate.
 Elements of Curriculum
1. Objectives
2. Contents selection
3. Organization of learning experience
4. Methodology
5. Teacher and teaching methods
6. learner and learning theories
7. Evaluation
 Curriculum issues
• Teacher centered
• Content centered
• Child /Paedo centered
• Activity centered
• Integrated curriculum
 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
• The importance of science in the school
curriculum due to the following reasons:
(i) Intellectual value (Sharpen intellect and
promote intellectual honesty)
(ii) Vocational Value (essential for much vocational
knowledge)
(iii) Aesthetic value (scientists seek for truth and
truth is beauty)
 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOL
CURRICULUM
(iv) Practical value (applications of scientific laws
and principles)
(v) Moral value (truthfulness)
(vi) Psychological value (learning by doing)
(vii) Cultural value (study about the past scientists
and their discoveries)
(viii) Adjustment in modern life (Scientific
outlook, scientific literacy, scientific attitude)
 Aims
• Educational Aims are broad general statements
reflecting the ultimate ends towards which the
total education system / program is directed.
• They Provide shape & direction to the education
system.
• Aims are the Starting points that suggest some
ideal or inspirational vision for the good.
• Provide guides for the educational process.
 Goals
• Goals are general guidelines that explain what
you want to achieve after completing a
particular level (elementary, secondary, higher) .
• A short statement of a desired outcome to be
accomplished over a long time frame, usually
three to five years. It is a broad statement that
focuses on the desired results and does not
describe the methods used to get the intended
outcome.
 Objectives

• Objectives are specific, actionable targets

that need to be achieved within a smaller
time frame, such as a year or less, to
reach a certain goal.
• Objectives describe the actions or activities
involved in achieving a goal.
 Objectives
• . For example, in order to achieve the goal of
increasing literacy rate, ministry of education
can have an objective such as “appoint 1000
trained graduate teachers and build up 100 3
rooms schools by the end of October next year.”
• General vs specific
• SMART
 AIMS, GOALS, OBJECTIVES
• Aims are the expression of purpose at the
highest level such as the national level
• Goals are expression of purposes specified for
achievement at each level of education. Goals" are
educational purposes directly related to school
• Objectives are directly related to subject /
classroom outcomes.
• Students learning outcomes (SLOs)
 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

• To encourage and enable students to develop

inquiring minds and curiosity about science and
the natural world.
• To acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding
and skills to solve every day life problems.
• To make informed decisions in scientific and
other contexts.
 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

• To develop an appreciation of how science has

contributed to the historical and cultural
development of our society.
• To give practical experience of how scientists
make observations of the natural world, come up
with hypotheses and do experiments to obtain
evidence to support or disprove these
hypotheses.
 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

• To give pupils enough evidence-based knowledge

to be able to make informed personal judgments
in order to lead healthy, safe, comfortable and
environmentally sustainable lives.
• To develop awareness of the conclusions of
important scientific theories in a concrete and
accessible way.
 GOALS OF SC. EDUCATION

• The principal goals of science education has been

to cultivate (Nurture) students' scientific habits
of mind;
• To develop their capability to engage
in scientific inquiry; and
• To teach students how to reason in
a scientific context .
 Goals of Science at elementary level

• To develop critical basic knowledge and basic

skills (4 Rs), interests, and habits of mind that
will lead to productive efforts to learn and
understand the subject more deeply in later
grades.
 TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
• The term ‘Taxonomy’ is borrowed from biology
and its meaning is ‘classification’. In education it
is used for classifying educational objectives and
their inter-relation.
 SOLO Taxonomy
• The Structure of the Observed Learning
Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy offers a way of
describing the growing complexity of a learner’s
activity. It is based on the work of John Biggs.
• It can be used to set learning objectives
appropriate to where a student should be at a
particular stage of their program.
The SOLO taxonomy’s levels of understanding (objectives)
and the verbs associated with each level

• Level of Understanding: Pre-structural

• No understanding demonstrated and approach

involves acquiring disconnected bits of
information. Student misses the point.
 Level of Understanding: Uni-structural

Student shows concrete, reductive (simple)

understanding of the topic. Simple and obvious
connections are made but broader significance is
not understood.
Indicative verbs: identify, memorize, do simple
procedure
Level of Understanding: Multi-structural

• Student can understand several components but

the understanding of each remains discreet.
• A number of connections are made but the
significance of the whole is not determined. Ideas
and concepts around an issue are disorganized
and aren't related together
Indicative verbs: enumerate, classify, describe,
list, combine,
 Level of Understanding: Relational
• Student can indicate connection between facts
and theory, action and purpose.
• Shows understanding of several components
which are integrated conceptually showing
understanding of how the parts contribute to the
whole.
• Students can apply the concept to familiar
problems or work situations.
Indicative verbs: compare/contrast, explain
causes, integrate, analyze, relate, and apply etc.
 Level of Understanding: Extended Abstract

• Student conceptualizes at a level extending

beyond what has been dealt with in the actual
teaching.
• Understanding is transferable and generalizable
to different areas.

• Indicative verbs: theorize, generalize, hypothesize,

reflect, generate
THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM
 Aims of science education
• Encourage and empower students to develop
inquiring minds and curiosity about science and
the natural world.
• To acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding
and skills to solve problems and make informed
decisions in scientific and other contexts.
 Examples of Goals of science education
elementary, secondary and higher level
1. To develop scientific literacy (basic knowledge
of science) among the students
2. To develop curiosity about science and the
natural world.
• To encourage and develop the sense of
reasoning
• To acquire conceptual understanding, and
scientific skills to solve every day life problems
 Goals of HE
• Develop critical thinking and habits of mind that
will lead to productive efforts to learn and
understand the subject (of science) more deeply
• possess sufficient knowledge of science and
technology to engage in public discussions on
related issues
 Objectives at elementary level
1. Emphasize scientific literacy for all students;
2. Promote student centered and inquiry based
learning;
3. Emphasize understanding, not rote learning;
4. Promote interdisciplinary learning;
5. Promote spiritual and moral development of
students;
 Objectives at Secondary
• After completing this curriculum of physics,
chemistry, biology, mathematics,… the students will
be:
1. Knowledgeable about the concepts and theories of
chemistry,……..
2. Able to think scientifically and use chemistry,
physics,….concepts to make decision about real life
problems.
3. able to construct new knowledge through reading,
discussion and research;
 SLOs
at the end of the session / period you will be
able to:
1. Define independent and dependent variables
2. Differentiate between rest and motion
3. Plot graph with the help of given data
4. Is there any absolute rest or motion?
• A conventional teacher teaches
the truth; An effective teacher
teaches how to find it.
• Sow a thought, and you reap an act;
• Sow an act , and you reap a habit;
• Sow a habit, and you reap a character;
• Sow a character, and you reap a destiny
• Confidence (self)
• Character (building)
• Creative (de-novo)
 Confidence
• Either it is given by mother, (Pir o Murshid)….
school or university or by any institution…..
• Based on faith ( Comes from Emaan)
• The purest the faith the higher the confidence
• Preemptive Thinker
• Inventers
• Faith in possibilities (imkanaat per yaqeen ho)
• Every thing is possible in this world
• I can I will
• Honest
• To develop the character we need 2 things;
1. Strong social / political system (social
system…education system….. (e.g. example of hong
kong. Cctv so no need to over speed …doller on the
floor but no one take it due to cctv e.g. from hong
kong Qasim ali sha said)
2. Role model (develop the character). best role
model MUHAMMAD SAW (PBUH)…..Quaid …Allama
Iqbal….. Teachers…political leaders…social
workers…Abdul sattar Edhi
 Effective teacher
• An effective teacher not only teaches the truth
but also “how to find it".
• Command for theoretical knowledge about
learning and human behaviour.
• Display the attitude that foster learning and
genuine human relationship.
• Command of knowledge in the subject to be
taught and how to deliver it effectively.
 Effective teacher
• In this fast moving age of science and technology,
the role of teacher is very challenging and
demanding.
 Ethos – Personal Character of the
Teacher / Speaker
• “Ethos” deals with the character of the speaker.
The intent of the speaker is to appear credible
(trustworthy, reliable). According to Aristotle
there are three prerequisites that are
necessary to appear credible:
• Competence
• Good Intention
• Empathy
 Ethos – Personal Character of the
Teacher / Speaker
• Ethos is portrayed during the performance
(actio). Originally, actio encompassed voice,
gesture, facial expressions, proxemics, body
language and movement. Later this was
separated in actio and pronunciation, whereas
the first is about the bodily eloquence and the
second the actual vocal lecture.
 Pathos – Emotional Influence of the
Teacher on the Students
• Pathos encompasses the emotional influence on
the audience. The goal of each lecture is to
persuade the students, therefore it is necessary
to put the students (audience) in the appropriate
emotional states. Aristotle noted that is of
importance that each speaker knew, which
emotions exists, how and under which
circumstances they can be elicited:
•
 Logos – Content and Argumentation

• Logos is the appeal towards logical reason, thus

the teacher wants to present an argument that
appears to be sound to the students (audience).
It encompasses the content and arguments of
the lecture (speech).
• Like ethos and pathos the aim is to create an
persuasive effect.
 Elementary school teachers need the
following characteristics
• strong interpersonal and communication skills
• a genuine interest in children and respect for
their individuality
• the ability to sense children's individual needs
• the ability to be creative, imaginative, patient,
energetic, organized and resourceful
• the ability to establish rapport with children and
parents
 Contd.
have strong leadership and teamwork skills and a
good sense of humour ( smile is the shortest distance between the teacher and the taught)

• a high level of dedication to work which often

impacts personal lifestyle choices
• a clear, pleasant speaking voice and the ability to
convey confidence
• positive conflict resolution skills and the ability to
handle stress well.
 Thompson, Greer, and Greer says
• “every teacher should possess twelve
characteristics:
1. displaying fairness,
2. having a positive outlook,
3. being prepared,
4. using a personal touch,
 Contd.
5. Possessing a sense of humor,
6. Possessing creativity,
7. Admitting mistakes,
8. Being forgiving,
9. Respecting students,
10. Maintaining high expectations,
11. Showing Compassion,(sympthy,empthy,kindness)
12. Developing a sense of belonging for students”.
15 key characteristics given in an article
from Teaching for Excellence
1. Exhibit enthusiasm
2. Know your content
3. Be organized
4. Teach actively
5. Show a good attitude
6. Pace instruction
7. Establish successful classroom management
 Contd.
8. Maintaining good people skills
9. Good communicative skills
10. Question effectively
11. Differentiate instruction
12. Build success in the class
13. Hold high expectation
14. Create a pleasant atmosphere
15. Be flexible (in time and resources)
 Professional Qualities

• Collaboration
• The teacher works with others to achieve a
common goal.
• Functions as a contributing member of an
instructional team to achieve long-term
curriculum goals, state content standards, and
district standards
 Professional Qualities

• Honesty and Integrity

• The teacher demonstrates truthfulness,
professional behavior, and trustworthiness.
Respect
• The teacher honors, values, and demonstrates
consideration and regard for oneself and
• others.
 Professional Qualities
• Commitment to Learning
• The teacher values learning for self and students.
• Emotional Maturity
• The teacher demonstrates situation appropriate
behavior.
• Leadership and Responsibility
• The teacher acts independently and demonstrates
accountability, reliability, and sound judgment.
LEARNING SCIENCE
UNIT 4
Learning

Learning defined as a change in behavior. (1960s—1970s)

In the view of Kingsley and R. Garry (1957)
“learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changes
through practice and training”.
Kimble (1961) states,
“learning is relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality
that occurs as a result of reinforced practice”.
Factors affecting learning
(1) Motivation
(2) Interests and attitudes
(3) Poor communication
(4) Remembering and forgetting
(5) Difficulty of teaching material
(6) Teaching and learning strategies.
Outcomes of Learning
Bringing desirable changes in behaviour
Attaining of teaching-learning objectives
Attaining of proper growth and development
Attaining balanced development of personality
Attaining proper adjustment
Realizing of the goals of life
 Orientations to Learning Theories
Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social/Situated Cybernetic
Learning
Theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka,Kohler, Rousseau, Bandura, Weiner,
Watson, Wertheimer, Pestaloozzi, Rotter, Shannon,
Guthrie, Lewin, Froebel, Vigotsky, Miller,
Hull, Reigeluth, Neill, Brown, Gibson,
Tolman, Piaget,Ausubel, Rogers and Maslow. Argyris, Landa,
And Skinner. Bruner, Gagne. Lave and Pask.
Wenger,
Brandsford,
Collins &
Duguid.
Views of the Change in behaviour. Defined by Internal A personal Interaction with and Systemic and
learning process mental process Act to fulfill observation of others defined by capacities
(Including insight, potential. in a social context. of memory,
perception, information throughput, and
processing, and feedback loops.
memory. Learner is ‘wired’
into the environment
Locus of Stimuli Internal Affective & Interaction of Feedback
Learning In the Cognitive cognitive needs. person’s behaviour, And self
External Structure. and environment. Regulating
Environment. Systems in a
complex
Environment.
Purpose of Produce Develop capacity Become self- Model new Develop the
instruction Behavioural and skills to learn actualized, Roles and learner as
Change in better. Autonomous behaviour. ‘information
desired processor’.
Direction.
Role of the Design stimuli to Structure content Facilitate Present models of Design
Designer elicit desired of learning activity. development new roles and Systems that
response. Meaningful and Of the whole behaviours. accept student
logical person. inputs and
arrangement of provide
contents. meaningful
feedback.
Reception Learning
In reception learning, the information is provided directly to the learner and it does not involve
discovery.
Reception learning involves provision of direct information in finished form.
It is opposite to the discovery learning in which the students work like a scientists and discover
knowledge rather than receive it.
Reception learning is also distinguished from rote learning.
Much school-based learning in science in Pakistan is Rote-Reception.
Relational Learning
Students, mentors/teachers learn from each other through the sharing of ideas
and together.
Relational learning is a way of being with students from a social constructionist
perspective where those involved in education.
create the learning/teaching world.
Relational learning is practices that invite both students and teachers to enter
into a dialogue about learning.
 The involvement of multiple parties in the task of learning deconstructs the
hierarchy within the traditional teaching relationship and opens space for more
collaborative experiences.
Rote Learning
oRote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization.
oRote memorization is a necessary step in learning some basic concepts. For
example in the subject of chemistry, the students learn the symbols of elements by
rote.
oThe memorization of Alpha-Bets of any language is a first step, and one that
provides a foundation for the deep understanding that follows at a latter stage.
oRote learning is quick and easy method to learn basic skill (learning of the verses
of the Holy Quran, mathematical tables, definition of nouns, verbs, etc.)
oRote Learning is boring and extremely limited. (No one is going to learn the
subtleties of Spenser's use of Allegory with Rote Learning).
oIn Pakistan, rote learning is strongly discouraged in the new curriculum of science
and mathematics.
Meaningful Learning
In meaningful learning prior knowledge is the most important factor. This means
that learning primarily depends on what the learner already knows.
Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the
student’s schemas and the material to be learned.
Meaningful learning (as distinct from rote learning) as; non-arbitrary, substantive,
non-verbatim incorporation of new knowledge into a cognitive structure.
Cognitive structure means the stable organization of concepts in the human mind.
Constructivist Approach to Learning
Constructivism is the development of:
Situated learning
Meta-cognition
Higher order thinking
The social basis of learning
Movement from didactic to teaching
Student-centered learning
Intrinsic motivation
The emphasis on the process of learning rather than on product
Children’s Misconception in Science
Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a conceptual misunderstanding.
These are cases in which something a person knows and believes does not match what is known to be
scientifically correct.
Scientific concepts Associated misconceptions
1. Whether something sinks or floats depends on a  Things float if they are light and sink if they are heavy.
combination of its density, buoyancy, and effect on
surface tension.

1. Clouds contain very small particles of water or ice  Clouds contain water that leaks out as rain.
that are held up in the air by the lifting action of air
currents, wind and convection. These particles can
become bigger through condensation and when they
become too heavy to be held up in the air they fall to
the earth as rain, hail or snow.
 An animal is a land mammal other than a human being.
1. An animal is a multi-cellular organism that is capable Insects, birds and fish are not animals.
of independent movement.
In constructivism theory the knowledge is constructed rather than
received.
Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a
conceptual misunderstanding.
To make the lesson more meaningful, clarify the concepts with the
help of examples and non-examples.
The irritating thing about misconceptions is that people continue to
build knowledge on their current understandings.
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD
STRATEGIES AND METHODS FOR
TEACHING OF SCIENCE
Unit 5
Code: 6414
• STRATEGIES FOR T
Outlines CE SCIEN
EACHING OF
• Psychological Principles of Lecturing
• Student-Centered Strategies
• Individualized Strategies
• Teaching Science by Inquiry
• Hands –On, Minds –On Science Teaching
• Play Way Method
• Five-E Model
• Demonstration Method
• Questioning Techniques
 STRATEGIES
FOR TEACHING OF SCIENCE
• Strategy is the science or art of planning and directing. It is the ways of achieving
goal . Teaching strategy is an overall plan for a lesson
• Two things are very common in any teaching strategy;
• Generalized plan for the presentation of a lesson,
• Desired learning behavior in terms of goals of instruction.
• Autocratic styles involves the following strategies; lecturing, lesson demonstration,
tutorials, and programmed instruction while permissive strategies involves
discussion.
• Strategies provide guidelines for teaching in the classroom and outside
the classroom and help in answering the questions:
• Why to teach? (Teaching Objectives)
• What to teach? (Curriculum)
• When to teach? (Time management)
• How to teach? (Methodology)
• To whom we teach (pupils/ inexperienced persons)?
• To what extent we have achieved (assessment/evaluation)?
i) Teacher Centered (Lectures)
ii) Student-Centered Strategies (Cooperative Learning)
iii) Individualized Strategies
 Lecturing or presentation is a teacher-centered strategy
consisting of four phases:

1) The flow proceeds from the teacher’s initial attempt to clarify the aims
of the lesson and get students ready to learn, through
2) Presentation of an advance organizers
3) Presentation of the new information
4) Interaction aimed at checking student understanding of the new
information and extending and strengthening their thinking skills.
 Psychological Principles of Lecturing:
• The lecturing in its pure form is one way communication.
• The teacher should be aware of the need of the students and the variety of the
techniques.
• The teacher’s concern should be the learning rather than teaching.
• The language used by the teacher should be according to the cognitive level of
the students.
• Teacher must present the summary of the lecture (lesson) on the board.
 Student-Centered Strategies
(Cooperative Learning)
The cooperative learning strategy is characterized by cooperative task,
goal, and reward structures.
The learning outcomes (the three instructional goals) of cooperative
learning are:
• Academic achievement
• Tolerance and acceptance of diversity
• Development of social skills.
 Characterization of Cooperative
Learning Lesson.
Cooperative learning lessons can be characterized by the following
features:
• Students work in teams to master learning goals
• Teams are made up of high, average, and low achieving students
• Whenever possible, teams include a racial, cultural, and gender mix
• Reward systems are oriented to the group as well as to the
individual.
 Effect of Cooperative Learning
• Cooperative learning is equally affected both low and high-achieving
students who work together on academic tasks.
• Wider tolerance and acceptance of people who are different by virtue of
their race, culture, social class, or ability.
• To teach students skills of cooperation and collaboration.
Phases/steps Involved in Cooperative Learning
• The lesson begins with the teacher going over the goals of the lesson and
get students to learn;
• This phase is followed by the presentation of information, often in the
form of text rather than lecture;
• Students are then organized into study teams;
• In this step, students assisted by the teacher, work together to accomplish
inter-dependent tasks;
• This phase includes presentation of the group’s end product or testing on
what students have learned; and
• Recognition of group and individual efforts.
 Techniques of Leading Discussion
• The teacher must relate the discussion with the objective.
• Teacher may also pause during his small lecture and invite questions on
some important topics.
• He may also use questioning technique (what is your opinion about the
issue/problem? What do you think about this reason? )
• Pose questions about the missing links.
• Float the question to the students and inviting their opinion.
 Individualized Strategies
• Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which content,
instructional technology (such as materials) and pace of learning are based
upon the abilities and interests of each individual learner.
• There are three basic techniques for individualization:
• Individualized instruction
• Independent study
• Mastery learning
 Effective Use of Direct Instruction
Direct instruction has the following important features:
• The learning outcomes are clear to students.
• The teacher controls the time for various instructional activities.
• The teacher organizes and controls the sequencing of lesson activities.
• There is an emphasis on academic achievement.
• The teacher carefully monitors students.
• Feedback to students is academically oriented
• Direct instruction is a teacher-centered strategy that has five steps.
i) Establishing Set ii) Explanation and/or Demonstration iii) Guided Practice
iv) Feedback v) Extended practice.
 Phases of Direct Instruction Model
Phases Activities / Teacher behavior
Phase-I: Clarify goals and establish set. Teacher gets students ready to learn by going over goals for the
lesson, giving background information, and explaining why the lesson
is important.
Phase-II: Demonstrate knowledge or skill. Teacher demonstrates the skill correctly or presents step-by-step
information.

Phase-III: Provide guided practice. Teacher structure initial practice.

Phase-IV: Check for understanding and feedback. Teacher checks to see if students are performing correctly and
provides feedback.
Phase-V: Provide extended practice and transfer. Teacher sets conditions for extended practice with attention to
transfer of the skill to more complex situations.
 Teaching Science by Inquiry
• Scientific Inquiry refers to the activities of students in which they develop
knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding
of how scientists study the natural world.
• Inquiry has three objectives. The first is to help students understand the basic
aspects of scientific inquiry.
• The second objective is to provide students with an opportunity to practice
and
refine their critical-thinking skills.
• The third objective is to convey to students the purpose of scientific research.
 Problem Solving Method of Teaching
• Steps in Problem Solving
i) A felt need (felt in difficult). ii) Locating the problem
iii) Data collection iv) Formulation of hypothesis
v) Testing of hypothesis vi) Making a generalization
• The teacher must know the following points in providing instruction for problem
solving:
• The teacher will not tell the students how to solve the problem but guide them towards the solution.
• Assess the previous knowledge of the students.
• Help the students to recall the relevant concepts, principles.
• After trying and solving the problem, the teacher should use the problems of the same kind and verify their learning
and understanding.
 Hands –On, Minds –On Science Teaching

• Hands-On: Students are actually allowed to perform science as they

construct meaning and acquire understanding.
• Minds-On: Activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop
thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers
that enhance their knowledge and thereby acquire an understanding of
the physical universe in which they live.
 Play Way Method
The play-way method is based on the following principles:
• Learning process to be conducted through playful activities because they are soothing, purifying and
interesting;
• Learning should be taken place in an atmosphere of freedom without any restraints (act of controlling)
.
• Method of imparting should be informal and natural to suit the interests and needs of children.
• Teachers’ attitude should be such as to encourage free expression on the part of the pupils.
• Enough opportunities should be provided to children for expression.
• Children should fully enjoy the learning process. They should be active participant in it and responsible
for their own progress and development.
 Five-E Model
Roger Bybee has developed an instructional model for constructivism,
called the "Five Es" :
• Engage: learners become interested, raise questions, and focus attention on
target concepts.
• Explore: learners interact with materials and each other.
• Explain: learners develop explanations that represent their understandings
of target concepts.
• Elaborate: Learners apply understandings to a new situation.
• Evaluate: Learners review and assess what they have learned and how
they have learned it.
 Lesson and Learning Focus Topics Covered and Major Concepts
1: Inquiring Minds Scientists learn about the natural world through scientific inquiry.
Engage: Students become engaged in the process of scientific inquiry. • Scientists ask questions that can be answered through investigations.
• Scientists design and carry out investigations.
• Scientists think logically to make relationships between evidence and explanations.
• Scientists communicate procedures and explanations.

2: Working with Questions Scientists ask questions that can be answered through investigations.
Explore: Students consider what makes questions scientifically testable. Students gain a • Testable questions are not answered by personal opinions or belief in the
common set of experiences upon which to begin building their understanding. supernatural.
• Testable questions are answered by collecting evidence and developing
explanations based on that evidence.

3: Conducting a Scientific Investigation Scientific explanations emphasize evidence.

Explain: The Explain lesson provides opportunities for students to connect their • Scientists think critically about the types of evidence that should be collected.
previous experiences with current learning.

Elaborate: In Elaborate lessons, students apply or extend previously introduced Scientists analyze the results of their investigations to produce scientifically
concepts and experiences to new situations. acceptable explanations.

4: Pulling it all Together Scientific inquiry is a process of discovery.

Evaluate: Students deepen their understanding of scientific inquiry by performing their • It begins with a testable question.
own investigation and evaluating one performed by another student. • Scientific investigations involve collecting evidence.
• Scientists communicate their results to their peers • Explanations are evidence based.
 What the Teacher Does?
That is inconsistent with 5E Instructional
Stage That is consistent with 5E Instructional Model
Model
Engage • stimulates students’ curiosity and generates interest • Introduces vocabulary
• Determines students’ current understanding (prior knowledge) of a concept or idea • Explains concepts
• Invites students to express what they think • Provides definitions and answers
• Invites students to raise their own questions • Discourages students’ ideas and questions
Explore • Encourages student-to-student interaction • Provides answers
• Observes and listens to the students as they interact • Tells the students that they are wrong
• Asks probing questions to help students make sense of their experiences • Gives information and facts that solve the problem
• Provides time for students to puzzle through • Leads the students step-by-step to a solution
Explain • Encourages students to use their common experiences and data from the Engage and • Neglects to solicit students’ explanations
Explore lessons to develop explanations • Ignores data and information students gathered from
• Asks questions that help students express understanding and explanations previous lessons
• Provides time for students to compare their ideas with those of others and perhaps to • Dismisses students’ ideas
revise their thinking • Accepts explanations that are not supported by evidence
• Introduces terminology and alternative explanations after students express their ideas • Introduces unrelated concepts or skills
Elaborate • Focuses students’ attention on conceptual connections between new and former experiences • Neglects to help students connect new and former
• Encourages students to use what they have learned to explain a new event or idea experiences
• Reinforces students’ use of scientific terms and descriptions previously introduced • Provides definitive answers
• Leads students step-by-step to a solution
Evaluate • Observes and records as students demonstrate their understanding of the concepts and • Tests vocabulary words, terms, and isolated facts
performance of skills • Introduces new ideas or concepts
• Provides time for students to compare their ideas with those of others and perhaps to • Creates ambiguity
revise their thinking • Promotes open-ended discussion unrelated to the concept or
• Interviews students as a means of assessing their developing understanding skill
• Encourages students to assess their own progress
 Demonstration Method
In science instruction, demonstration can be very effective teaching strategy. It provides
excellent ways to introduce science units and lessons

• Functions of Demonstrations
• Initiate Thinking
• Illustrate a Concept, Principle, or a Point
• Answering a Question
• Reviewing Ideas
• Introducing And Concluding Units
s
 Questioning Techniques
 The following are the reasons for which teachers ask
questions:
• to assess the previous knowledge of students
• to summarize lesson
• to asses achievement of objectives
• to motivate the students
• to develop the interest of students
• to develop critical thinking skills
• to evaluate students’ preparation
• to have check on homework
 Levels of Questions
• There are two main classifications of questions:
• Convergent & Divergent
• Mental Operation Students (developed the mental operation system )
Questioning Techniques
The research of Rowe has revealed that when teachers learned to increase wait time from 3-5
seconds,
the following were the finding:
The response time of students increased
Failure to respond tend to decreased
Students ask more questions
Unsolicited responses tend to increase
His confidence of students increased
 Some Teaching/Learning Devices

• Concept Mapping
V-Diagram
‘A good teacher is like a candle – it consumes itself to light the way for others.’
(Mustafa Kemal Atatürk)
USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL
AIDS
UNIT 6
USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS: Needs and
Importance
Students can learn better when they are motivated properly
through different teaching aids.
 Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students
see, hear, taste and smell properly.
Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual
thinking.
Conti
The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the
students.
Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the
students.
Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make
learning permanent.
Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.
GUIDE LINES FOR USE OF
INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Clearly establish the lesson objective. Be certain of what is to
be communicated.
Gather the necessary data by researching for support
material.
Organize the material into an outline or a lesson plan. The
plan should include all key points that need to be covered. This
may include important safety considerations.
Conti….
Select the ideas to be supported with instructional Aids.
The aids should be concentrated on the key points. Aids are
often appropriate when long segments of technical description
are necessary, when a point is complex and difficult to put into
words, when instructors find themselves forming visual images,
or when students are puzzled by an explanation or description.
Conti…
Aids should be compatible with the learning outcomes to be
achieved.
Aids should appeal to students and should be based on some
instructional principle.
Aids can be useful if sequencing on the previous knowledge.
The designs of the curriculum determine the use of
instructional aids.
Factors
The choice of the aids depends on these factors:
Availability
Feasibility
Cost effectiveness
Number of students in the class
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Software verses Hardware; the programme recorded on the
CD/ Cassette/ Hard disk, or the words printed on the
books/charts etc. are the software. But the CD itself /
hard disk / book /charts etc., are the hardware.
Audio aids (radio, tape recorder,);
Visual aids (charts, models, chalk board, photographs,
illustrations, Graphs, Maps, globes, posters, museum, realia,
etc.);
Conti…
Audio-Visual (television, computer programs, motion pictures,
videotapes);
Printed material (textbook, reference books, teacher’s notes,
workbooks, newspapers, magazines, research articles,
encyclopedias etc.);
Field trips (Educational tours of factories/institution/museum,
etc.
BASIC GUIDELINES FOR USING
INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Audiovisual aids cannot teach by themselves , they need skilful teaching to make them effective
Selecting the materials
Appropriateness and effectiveness
Regency
Availability
Appeal
Technical quality
Cost.
Try it before using
Preparing the class for the audiovisual experience
Motivation
Spend time discussing the purpose
Suggesting points that will direct attention to key ideas during the activity
In working order
Guiding the pupils through the audiovisual experiences
During the presentation ask questions to the students or explain to them what they are experiencing
Conti….
Following-up the audiovisual experiences after its completion
Helps the students to clarify misunderstanding of certain portions of the experience
Evaluates worth of the material
Basis for improving
TEXTBOOK AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL AID

oTextbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The

material to be covered and the design of each lesson are
carefully spelled out in detail.
oTextbooks provide organized units of work. A textbook gives
you all the plans and lessons you need to cover a topic in some
detail.
oA textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological
presentation of information.
 conti...
oTextbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell
you why to do, what to do, when to do it, how to do it and who is to
do it. There are no surprises—everything is carefully spelled out.
oTextbooks provide administrators and teachers with a complete
program for learning.
oMost of the textbooks are written in series and typically based on
the latest research and teaching strategies.
oGood textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They are a big resource
for both teachers and students.
USING WRITING BOARD EFFECTIVELY
 Keep the chalk or marker board clean.
Erase all irrelevant material.
Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths, rulers, and related items readily
available to avoid interruption of the presentation.
Organize and practice the chalk or marker board presentation in advance.
Write or draw large enough for everyone in the group to see.
Leave a margin around the material and sufficient space between lines of copy so
the board is not overcrowded.
Present material simply and briefly.
Conti…
Make only one point at a time. A complete outline tends to distract students and makes a logical
presentation difficult. If writing has been previously prepared, it should be covered and then revealed
one step at a time.
If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or other devices in making drawings.
Use colored chalk or marker for emphasis or for diagrams specifically in biology.
Underline statements for emphasis.
Use the upper part of the board. In many classrooms, students may not be able to see the lower half.
Stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information.
Use a pointer when appropriate.
Adjust lighting as necessary to remove glare.
SCIENCE LABORATORY
There is a chinese proverb:
I hear and I forget;
I see and I remember;
I do and I understand.
TYPES OF LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
a. Verification activities
These activities are used to verify major concepts.
b. Exploratory Activities.
Exploratory activities help students to develop interest in science.
They are motivated to study the subject in depth.
c. Inductive Activities.
Questions are posed to students and they are guided to discover a relationship or a concept on their
own.
d. Deductive Activities.
These activities are based upon the maxim-from the general to the specific.
e. Psycho-Motor skill development Activities.
The acquisition of these skills is required to conduct experimental work.
f. Problem-Solving Activities.
Students are required to solve scientific problems and formulate answers.
ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK
If teacher following the demonstration method to teach theory, he should remember the most
important principle that practical work should go hand in hand with the theoretical work.
(ii) To arrange the practical work in such a way that each student is able to do his practical
individually. Thus, for practical work individual working be preferred in comparison to working in
groups.
(iii) In case of a large class, it is convenient to divide that class in a suitable number of smaller
groups, for practical work.
(iv) To save time on delivering a lecture about do’s and don’ts in laboratory, card system be used.
This card contains certain amount of guidance printed on it is given to each pupil. Student can
complete his practical work according to instructions given in the card.
(v) The apparatus provided should be good so that students get an accurate result.
(vi) A true faithful record of each and every experiment be kept by pupils.
(vii) Teacher should see that students enter all their observations directly in their practical note–
book.
(viii) While working with large class and with limited apparatus teacher may allow students to work
in groups.
(ix) During a practical, class teacher would observe all children in such a way that his power of
control over the class should be such that students continue their work satisfactorily.
USE OF INDIGENOUS MATERIAL
Indigenous materials are those materials that are naturally occurring and locally
formed in a specific place or area.
How do you know if it is indigenous?
Something is indigenous if you can easily find it within your locality.
It is something you do not need to spend any money or have trouble fetching; in
other words, you do not need to use major and improved transport systems.
 How do you know if it is indigenous?
Something is indigenous if you can easily find it within your locality.
It is something you do not need to spend any money or have trouble fetching; in other words, you do
not need to use major and improved transport systems.
ICTs AS INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
ICTs provide a variety of ways in the presentation of content, and
help the individual in understanding that content.
Tutorials are one of the most common types of computer assisted
instruction.
Inter-net enables teachers, students, and their parents to
communicate and share information on-line.
Inter-net allows students to interact with their teachers, with one
other, and with other resources available either at national or
international levels.
ASSESSMENT OF
STUDENTS’ LEARNING IN
SCIENCE EDUCATION
UNIT 7
PREPARED BY: TAYYABA RAHAT
COORDINATOR: ARSHAD MEHMOOD QAMAR
What is assessment?
Assessment in education is the process of gathering, interpreting, recording, and using information
about pupils’ responses to an educational task. (Harlen, Gipps, Broadfoot, Nuttal,1992)
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT
Forms of Assessment
standardized tests,
class discussions,
independent reports or group projects.
Assessments may be classified as pre-assessment (placement),
formative or summative, each serving a different purpose and
measuring various aspects of student knowledge and learning.
Why Assessment? (Assessment in the school
program)

Following are the main reasons that why we assess the school program.
Preparation of instructional objectives (have a look on SOLO/ Blooms taxonomy of
educational objectives, unit 2);
Selection decision (selection of students in medical colleges, engineering universities
etc.);
Classification decision (classify classes into arts/sciences/humanities etc.);
Pre assess learners’ needs; (either we place a child in science class or not);
Monitor learners’ progress (day to day, weekly, monthly etc.);
Diagnose learning difficulties of the students;
Conti…
Improvement in science teaching;
Improvement in learning process;
Guidance and counseling;
Decision making;
Comparing groups;
Reporting to parents/administration;
Evaluation of curricula;
Purpose of Assessment
The primary purpose of assessment is for the student to receive multiple
attempts to practice and to demonstrate understanding of content and to develop
skills by receiving specific and timely feedback by the teacher in order to improve
achievement.
The primary purpose of assessment is for the teacher to analyze student
progress for the purpose of modifying and refining the teaching/learning cycle to
better meet student needs.
An important role for assessment is to help students understand how they learn
so they may improve their own learning and thinking skills.
Different kind of assessment is used to serve
different purposes

Portfolio assessments may include reflective journals, collections of laboratory

reports or reviews of student investigations. These assessments may help
illustrate student progress during an instructional unit or over a longer period of
time.
Performance-based assessments Whether used as a pre-assessment, formative or
summative assessment, performance-based assessment can measure students’
scientific inquiry skills and content knowledge.
Time series assessments help teachers track the development of student
understanding throughout the duration of a lesson or unit.. This approach also
fosters self-assessment, as students consider changes in their conceptions over
time.
Conti….
Predict-and-explain assessments ask students to apply scientific
principles and evidence. This assessment provides opportunities for
students to practice being scientists by analyzing and solving real-
world problems.

Concept mapping is an illustrated representation of a student’s

cognitive understanding, with labeled nodes indicating concepts and
labeled lines between nodes indicating relationships among concepts.
Concept mapping can be used as a pre-assessment, formative or
summative assessment.
MODES OF ASSESSMENT
1. Oral
2. Written
3. Practical
Oral assessment
Oral assessments are tasks designed to provide students with
opportunities to develop and demonstrate their command of spoken
presentation content (Heywood, 2000 p. 316)
Why oral assessment?
“Effective communication”
Benefits of oral assessment
Allowing students to research, prepare and present findings in a context similar
to that of their future work
 Group-base assessment tasks that reflect ‘real life’ teamwork.
Providing an assessment experience that is more personal, more challenging, and
more engaging than other forms of assessment
Allowing academics to probe understanding through follow-up questions which
encourages deep approaches to learning.
Balancing and developing student strengths.
Countering plagiarism.
Written Assessment

Written tests, either achievement or aptitude, objective or subjective,

norm referenced or criterion referenced, personality or intelligence,
all play very specific role to assess the performance of the individuals.
Therefore, the most frequently used mode of assessment is “written.”
Laboratory is a spacious room where the students in groups carry
out their experimental work. It provides many opportunities for
students to talk and write about science.
Pre-Labs are the activities, which are provided to the students prior to the actual laboratory-work,
highlighting the essential ideas of the work to be done. It may be in the form of a lecture, work
sheets, written assignment, videos, CAL, simulation etc.
Post-Labs are the activities, which are provided to the student at the end of the actual laboratory
work. It may be in the form of written report, viva voce, quiz, post-lab interviews, discussion, or a
practical activity.
Practical

Main objectives of laboratory work are:

Create interest in science;
Verify facts taught in theory classes;
Develop the habit of doing independent work among students;
Prepare students for higher studies and science careers;
Develop skills in handling specific science apparatus and equipment's.
Improve observation and critical thinking;
Conti….
Develop the habit of reasoning;
Have a clear understanding of science concepts;
Develop the habit of doing systematic work: and
Create interest for research.
DEVELOPING, SCORING AND USING TESTS
Developing a good test requires a lot of expertise. Developing valid, reliable and useful tests is greatly
enhanced if a series of steps is followed:
1. Determining the purposes of testing
2. Developing the test specifications
3. Selecting the appropriate item types
4. Preparing relevant test items
5. Assembling the test
6. Administering the test
7. Appraising the test
8. Using the test scores
Phases of teacher made test
(1) Planning Phase
(2) Preparation Phase
(3) Try-out Phase,
(4) Administration/evaluation Phase. (PPTA)
Planning Phase
The tests, in this phase, are planned keeping in view the concepts of validity, reliability and usability
by answering the questions:
What objectives are to be measured?
What and how much content area (theoretical and practical) is covered?
How much weightage in the test is given to each objective of the Blooms
Taxonomy?
How many types of test-items/problems/questions are to be included?
How long my test will be?
Preparation Phase

At this stage, write the objectives at the top of the two-way chart
(table of specification) while the contents on the left column of the
two way chart. Keeping in view the weightage given in the
specification table, develop the test-items/problems/questions
(objective & subjective)
After the preparation of each test item, discussed with the experts in
the field of science education to know their opinion about the validity
of the test, format, language and their distracters. On the basis of
their opinion and suggestions, improve the test items.
Try-out Phase

After the discussion with the experts, the tests should be pilot
tested on the very small group. After getting feedback, the
tests should be improved through the selection, substitution and
revision of test items/problems and by using the item analysis
procedure.
Administration phase

After the improvement of the test, now it is ready for administration.

After the completion of administration, the test is ready for evaluation
as per criteria mentioned in marking scheme. After the completion of
marking (of answer sheets), the marks achieved by the students
should be kept in the record file of each student for reporting/
further (statistical) procedures.
MARKING/SCORING AND REPORTING/
USING TEST SCORES
(1) Reports to pupils and parents,
The report should:
Clarify the school program’s objectives,
Indicate the pupil’s strengths and weaknesses in learning,
Promote greater understanding of the pupil’s personal-social development, and
Contribute to the pupil’s motivation.
(2) Use of test reports by the teachers
and students’ counselor
The increased information supplied by progress reports is
especially useful for teachers when they are planning
instruction, diagnosing learning difficulties, and coping with
special problems of personal-social development.
Use of tests results/reports by
administrators

Marks and progress reports serve a number of administrative

functions. They are used for promotion, awarding honours,
reporting to other schools and prospective employers. For
most administrative purpose a single letter grade is preferable
because such marks are compact and can be easily recorded.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST
Objectivity
Objective Basedness
 Comprehensiveness
 Validity
 Reliability
Practicability
Comparability
Utility
 Simplicity
Scorability
PLANNING FOR SCIENCE
TEACHING
UNIT 8
PREPARED BY: TAYYABA RAHAT
COORDINATOR: ARSHAD MEHMOOD QAMAR
Planning Ahead: Importance
Planning is a process of organizing, creating and designing in advance. It is based
on psychological process of thinking to achieve the desire goals in a given time. It
requires skills of pre-planning and planning which leads:
To define objectives
To deal with future situations in a successful way.
To design a strategy of implementation of designed task
To accomplish the tasks in fixed time period.
To draw conclusions.
Basic Components of Planning of Science
Teaching
Overall planning of the course
Organization of course
Implementation of the course tasks
Evaluation of the course tasks
Overall Planning of the Course
The main areas are:
Government policy
Evaluation of science academic record
The available school resources in terms of number of science teachers, annual budget for
science and time required for each curricular or extra-curricular activities
Extra science classes in summer vacations
Allot time for students presentations
Design some activities related to daily life applications and
Provide them some information to work with low and no cost material.
Organization of course

After setting a target and objectives for new academic year, you will
narrow down objectives into varied tasks to from a work plan.
The tasks should be integrated and linked with each other and you will
make blue print and a road map having pre-defined destiny of each
task according to the time period i.e. work plan for a week, month or
a year.
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Remarks

240 Working days to complete the course

and other activities.
Summer Course
Planning
First term Complete 1/3rd course

Summer Vacations Select some new Topics for advance

preparation

Second Term Complete 1/3rd Course

Examinations After each term

Third Term Complete 1/3rd Course

Examinations Summative assessment

Sports/non curricular activities Once/ twice in a year

Meetings After each term

Result preparations After each exams

Meetings with Parents After each term tests

Science Labs weakly

Implementation of the Course Tasks
For planning of implementation phase, the three areas should
be focused:
Academic competency of the teacher
Technical skill
Relation with other colleague’s teachers, students and staff.
Activity
Checklist of responsibilities for a class for the Month of March

Teacher/s Proposed Assigned Time Responsibility

1 March 1-10, 2017 To make timetable for classes, having meeting with colleagues and finalization

2 March 5-15, 2017 Making arrangements for registers

3 March 5-15, 2017 Planning for syllabus breakdown for Science courses on weekly basis.

4 March 5-15, 2017 Arrange materials for science work

5 March 10-20, 2017 Plan for arrangements for new admissions and materials.
Evaluation of the Course Tasks
After implementation the course, the teacher has another task to judge critically
the internal and external impact of each objective with reference to each task. This
judgment reveals the realistic view of your expectation that help you to draw
recommendations for future plan with the help of your colleagues, in order to
decide whether to:
Accept the plan and continuously work for next year or;
Modify some objectives or add new objectives or;
Reject the plan because it is not applicable in your situation.
Science teaching in schools
Teaching science concepts

By
Dr. Muhammad Safdar
 Science Teaching
• Science is more than merely a body of knowledge. It is
also ways of investigating. If we do not teach our
students about science inquiry, then we must not
create a classroom environment that encourages and
guides them to use scientific processes every day.
 Involve students in science-based process
activities.
• such as observing, measuring, experimenting,
communicating, inducting, deducting, forming
hypotheses, analyzing and synthesizing, evaluating,
estimating, speculating, extrapolating, creating…
Students must engage in scientists’ work at their own
maturation level.
Teacher must acquire knowledge of science and the ways
science and society are interdependent.

• To assist students in understanding how people

impact upon each other and their environment,
and help them to understand the attitude and
values of society, so they can make informed
decisions.
Engage students in activities involving seeking answers to
problems in our scientific and technological society

• Students must learn by doing and then reflecting.

• Actively involve students in scientific activities so they
investigate and discover scientific concepts, theories,
and processes; help them learn how to think what
they have done.
 Utilize as many different approaches to science
teaching/learning as teacher can.
• Expose the students to science through telling,
showing, guiding, listening, reading, drawing, handling,
and visiting.
• Actively involve your students in inquiry or guided
discovery approach to teaching or learning.
 Teacher should follow these steps when teaching
physical sciences
1. Preparation
• A teacher should begin with experiences that
pupils already have had. This will help to prepare
students to receive new information. This step
involves:
• Reviewing previous knowledge of students;
• Providing enough opportunity to motivate
students; and
• Introducing the new information.
 Contd.
• 2.Presentation
• A teacher should announce the topic to be dealt
with before dealing with the related contents.
Teaching methods, which can be used, are lecturing
with examples, demonstrations, discussions and
teacher’s explanations in relation to facts, concepts
and principles. A teacher should try to involve
students as regards their participation. A
questioning technique should be employed for this
purpose. Teaching aids must be used for developing
conceptual understanding.
 Contd.
• 3. Comparison and Abstraction
• This step comprises finding out the similarities
and differences among the old and the new ideas
and then welding them together.
• 4. Generalization
• This step deals with the identification of some
common elements of the two sets of facts as a
principle or generalization.
 Contd.
• 5.Application
• This step deals with the use of the newly acquired
principle to explain further facts.
• 6.Recapitulation
• An understanding of contents is tested through
questions. Test items of different types are used
for the purpose.
 Factors influence teaching- learning
process
(1) Motivation
(2) Interests and attitudes
(3) Poor communication
(4) Remembering and forgetting
(5) Difficulty of teaching material
(6) Teaching and learning strategies.
 Information Processing Theory of Learning

• According to this model the learner is seen to

view new events, observation and instructions
through perception filter, which is influenced by
what is already stored in the long-term memory.
In this way, the learner selects and interprets
new information in terms of what he/she
already knows. This model has been found to be
very useful in teaching and learning science in
the classroom and laboratory.
 USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

Principle Example
• Gain the students’ Use cues to signal when you are ready to
attention. begin. Move around the room and use voice
inflections.

• Bring to mind relevant Review previous day’s lesson.

prior learning. Have a discussion about previously covered
content.
• Point out important Provide handouts.
organized manner. Write on the board or use transparencies, ….
(AV Aids)

• Present information in an Show a logical sequence to concepts and

organized manner. skills.
Go from simple to complex when presenting
• Show students how to Present information in categories.
categorize related information. Teaching inductive reasoning.
• Provide opportunities for Connect new information to something already
students to elaborate on new known.
information. Look for similarities and differences among
concepts.
• Show students how to use Make up silly sentence with first letter of
coding when memorizing lists. each word in the list.
Use mental imagery techniques such as the
keyword method.
• Provide for repetition of State important principles several times in
learning. different ways during presentation of
information (STM).
Have items on each day’s lesson from
previous lesson (LTM).
Schedule periodic reviews of previously
learned concepts and skills (LTM).

• Provide opportunities for over Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
learning of fundamental Play form of trivial pursuit with content
concepts and skills. related to class.
 The Geneva School
(Jean Piaget)
• Piaget is fundamentally a genetic epistemologist and
therefore engaged himself in studying how human
mind develops ideas about the environment.
Specifically, he studied changes in knowledge and
interpreted them from the psychological point of view
by studying children. He believes that children are
eager to learn and are active in their own
development. This development takes place in four
stages.
 Piaget said that cognitive development depends
upon four factors
• (1) Maturation (2) Experience (practice, physical,
logical, and mathematical) (3) Social environment
(4) Equilibrium. Each will be now discussed below.
• Maturation is an important concept, which is not
independent of learning. It simply places
restriction on what kinds of behaviour are
possible at various ages. It indicates a sequence
of growth; infancy, childhood, adolescence and
adulthood.
 Equilibrium
• Equilibrium is the most important factor, which
describes the gradual evolution of thought in
logical terms from stage, which is hierarchically
determined. It means that the succeeding stage
controls all the stages preceding it.
• The content of the earlier stage becomes the
form of the succeeding stage and vice versa.
 Equilibrium
• There is disequilibrium when equilibrium at any
point is disturbed. The system must obtain
equilibrium at higher level. The ensuring
contradictions or inner conflicts are then set
right or resolved. Thus, this cycle continues to
spiral where concepts get repeatedly reviewed
but each at a higher level. The process is
therefore self-adjusting, providing a dynamic
meaning to our understanding of the world.
 Piaget’s (1964) aims of education
i. To create men who are capable of doing new things,
not simply repeating what other generation have
done. Education should create men who are creators,
inventors and discoverers.
ii. To develop minds which can be critical, can verify
and do not accept everything they are offered
(negate rote learning).
Piaget’s four stages of mental development
 Piaget’s Types of Knowledge
(physical, social, logical) )mathematical)
 Piaget stages of cognitive development
The stage of sensory motor intelligence (sensory motor stage:
0-2 years)

i. Mainly directed by stimuli outside the mind. (Stimulus-bound

and unable to initiate thought)
ii. Pre-verbal (no language). iii. Thought proceeds from action.
iv. Learns to perceive and identify objects.
v. By the end of the period child distinguishes parents, animals, and
knows names.
vi. basic sense of direction and purpose appears late in stage.
vii. Time (present-and limited to the duration of their actions.)
viii. Space (immediate – and is limited to the area in which children
act.)
 The stage of pre-operational thought (pre-operational
stage: 2-7 years)

i. Performs operations-combining, separating, grouping, ordering,

seriating, multiplying, dividing, substituting, and reversible
thinking.
ii. Analyses. iii.Aware of variables.
iv. Classifies. (The child develops classification ability). v.Limited
hypotheses are possible.
vi. Understanding of space and time are greatly expanded. vii.
Measures.
viii. The child develops conservation ability.
ix.The child develops the ability to apply logical thought to
concrete problem.
The stage of concrete operations (concrete operational
stage: 7-11 years)

i. Performs operations - combining, separating,

grouping, ordering, seriating, multiplying, dividing,
substituting, and reversible thinking.
ii.Analysis iii. Aware of variables.
iv. Classifies. v.Limited hypotheses are
possible.
vi. Understanding of space and time are greatly
expanded. vii. Measures.
viii. The child develops conservation ability.
ix. The child develops the ability to apply logical
thought to concrete problem.
The stage of formal operation (formal operational stage:
11-15)

i. Performs hypothetical and prepositional thought.

ii..The child develops abstract and reflective thinking (evaluates
his thinking process).
iii.Synthesizes.
iv. The child controls variables.
v. Understand probability.
vi. Does ratios, proportions and combinational logic. vii. Imagines.
The child’s cognitive structures reach their greatest level of
development and the child becomes able to apply logical reasoning
to all classes of problem
 Science teaching (Ch-2:260)
• “Tell me and I will surely forget. (Ilm-ul Yaqeen)
• Show me and I might remember.
(AV Aids; Realia…) Aan-ul-Yaqeen)
• Make me do it, and I will certainly understand.”(Haq-ul-
Yaqeen)
(learning by doing, experimentation)
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner

• Bruner influenced educational practice in four

ways:
1. through his emphasis on the process of learning;
2. his notion on the formation of learning
structure;
3. the importance he places on intuition, and
4. his emphasis intrinsic motivation.
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner
• According to Bruner (1996), what is important is not
the memorization of facts, but the process of
acquiring knowledge.
• Learning is a matter of rearranging or transforming
evidence. It is a type of thinking in which the student
goes beyond the information given to gain new
insights and generalizations.
• The teacher does not tell students the principle or
rule they are supposed to learn; rather, he or she
involves students in a process of induction to discover
it.
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner
• Similar to inquiry, the discovery approach is
inductive but differs with respect to the outcome
of the instruction and to the procedure followed.
• In inquiry, the outcome is known to both the
teacher and the learner;
• whereas, in the discovery learning the teacher
guides learners towards discovering a desired
outcome.
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner

• Bruner (1967) states that it is not necessary

that students are to discover every bit of
information by themselves but they are to
discover the inter-relatedness between their
post-knowledge and pre-knowledge. It is the duty
of the teacher to encourage the students and
develop self-confidence, and the ability to learn
“how to learn”.
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner
• Bruner (1966) suggested that “learning is an
active process in which learner construct new
ideas and concepts based on their current and
past knowledge.
• The learner selects and transforms information,
constructs hypotheses and makes decisions,
relying on their cognitive structures.
• Cognitive structure (schema, mental modals)
provides meaning and organization to experiences
and allows the individual to go beyond the
information given.”
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner

• Bruner was very much impressed by Piaget’s

work.
• Both believe that the students can construct
knowledge if they are presented with
appropriate opportunities to learn. CONTEND
 Learning by Discovery: Jerome Bruner
• Bruner says that at early primary school stages, the
students should learn the structure of a body of
knowledge instead of items of information which
require much memorization.” He also asserts that
“students should be taught and encouraged to discover
information by themselves.
• He says that instead of being “told” the content by the
teacher, it is expected that the student will have to
explore examples and “discover” the rule, principle or
concepts which are to be learned.
 Four advantages of emphasizing
structure in teaching
(1). we understand material better if it is logically
organized. (2) A cognitive structure permits the
students to narrow the gap between elementary and
advanced knowledge-if given the appropriate learning
experiences, even very young children can understand
some of the basic concepts in a subject area. (3) we can
actually remember more material and are better able to
retrieve material from our memory when it is logically
organized. (4) An understanding of fundamental principles
and ideas facilitates adequate transfer.
• Bruner assumes that a student’s interaction
with the world always involves categorization or
conceptualization.
• By categorizing, the student reduces the
complexity of the environment and by
conceptualizing; he or she organizes the concepts
into coding system. (A coding system is a
structure of concepts that ranges from the
very specific to the generic.).
• Bruner (1960), stresses the importance of
intuition in learning: He says that memorization
of verbal or mathematical information is not an
appropriate goal for education. Educational goal
should emphasize intuitive understanding of an
area, which allows the student to use the ideas
in ways that reveal a deep grasp of the area.
• An intrinsic motive is one whose reward lies in
the activity itself or in the successful
termination of the activity. Bruner (1960), states
that there are four major intrinsic motives. The
teacher can encourage: (1) the will to learn, (2)
the inherent drive to cooperate with others, (3)
curiosity and the search for clarity, and (4) the
drive for competence.
 Bruner (1967)
• “any domain of knowledge (Physics, Chemistry,
Biology) or any problem or concept within that
domain (atomic structure, law of gravitation,
viscosity) can be represented in three ways: (1)
by a set of actions, (2) by a set of images or
graphics that stand for the concept, and (3) by a
set of symbolic or logical statements.”
• Bruner says “any idea or problem or body of
knowledge can be presented in a form simple
enough so that any particular learner can
understand it in a recognizable form.”
• Bruner ran his own experimental school for
investigating the cognitive growth of children. He
believes that even abstract concepts can be taught
to young children. That is each and every concept
can be taught at each and every level but it is fault
of the teacher that he/she cannot simplify the
concept at that particular level.
Three stages of mental growth
Bruner’s Modes of Representation
• Bruner believes that discovery learning allows
students to move through these three stages as
they encounter new information:
1. The enactive (knowing what action to perform);
2. The iconic (knowing how to represent through
internal visual imagery);
3. The symbolic.(knowing how to represent by
means of a symbol system as in mathematics and
language.,
• To implement this strategy (i.e. discovery
learning) the teacher uses a cooperative goal
structure, utilizes conflict for a focal point,
skillfully questions students, gives students the
freedom to inquire, observes, provides a
responsive environment for learning, and extends
students’ thinking and level of analysis.
Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning

• “Meaningful learning takes place if the learning

task is related in a non-arbitrary and non-
verbatim fashion to the learner’s existing
cognitive structure”.
 Principles of Ausuble’s (expository)
teaching
(1) the concepts are meaningful only when the student can
visualize (i.e. elicits an image in the content of one’s
consciousness) them and subsume them in the cognitive
structure.
(2)When teaching a concept, proceed from the most generic
concepts to the most specific ones (i.e. the most general
ideas of the subject should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifics).
(3) Students’ readiness (which includes current knowledge,
stage of cognitive development, and predominant mode of
intellectual functioning) and integration of guest and host
ideas through comparisons and cross-referencing of new
and old ideas.
 Contd.
• Ausubel (1968), indicates that “his theory applies
only o reception (expository) learning in school
setting. He distinguishes reception learning from
rote learning and discovery learning; the former
because it does not involve subsumption (i.e.
meaningful material) and the latter because the
learner must discover information through
problem solving.”
 CONTD.
• Direct instructional methods are much more than lecture.
It can involve worksheets, textbooks, web cites as well as
teaching with questioning. The key thing is that the
instruction is directed by the teacher. This theory can
help teachers as;
• We need to remember that inputs to learning are
important.
• Learning materials should be well organized.
• New ideas and concepts must be potentially meaningful to
the learner.
• Anchoring new concepts into the learner’s already existing
cognitive structure will make the new concepts recallable.
 Contd.
• Ausubel believes that “learning should progress
deductively – from the general to the specific,
and not inductively, as Bruner recommended
(from specific to general).He supports the use of
direct instructional methods (lecture), and
argues that large bodies of knowledge are best
obtained through this type of learning.”
 Phase One: Phase Two: Phase three:
Advance Organizer Presentation of Learning Task or Strengthening Cognitive
Material Organization

Clarify aim of the lesson Make the Organization of the new Relate new information to advance
material explicit. organizer
Concept mapping
Make logical order of learning Promote active reception learning.
Present the organizer material explicit.
Present material and engage
Relate organizer to students’ students in meaningful learning
knowledge activities.
 Phase One Phase Two Phase Three
Advance Organizer Presentation of Learning Strengthening Cognitive
Task or Material Organization
 Define matter.  Pressure  Keeping in view of concept
 Name and recall some  P= F/A of pressure justify how
properties of matter;  Pressure depends upon horse is faster than camel.
weight, volume, force, area Force and Area  Why athletes use spikes?
etc.  How you
 Unit of Pressure (N/m or

2

Air and all other material differentiate between

Pascal)
things exert pressure, and stress and pressure? Are
Examples (Blunt nail vs. sharp
have weight. these scalars or vector
nail, Flat Shoes / Sandal with
 What is force? quantities?
heel.
 Weight is a force.
 Difference between stress
 Unit of force.
and pressure.
 Area and its units.
 Which Triangle has greater
 Volume
pressure A or B?
A
B
 Lesson planing
• It is important that science lessons have a
narrative. ...
• The lesson needs a story or context so the
rationale for learning is meaningful and clear.
• If a lesson becomes a series of DO NOWs,
worksheets and plenaries, students will be unable
to see the bigger picture.