2012

world development report

Gender Equality
and Development
 2012
world development report

Gender Equality
and Development
© 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
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Softcover
ISSN: 0163-5085
ISBN: 978-0-8213-8810-5
eISBN: 978-0-8213-8812-9
DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5
Hardcover
ISSN: 0163-5085
ISBN: 978-0-8213-8825-9
DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8825-9
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Contents

Foreword xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Abbreviations and data notes xvii
Main messages xx

Overview 2
Why does gender equality matter for development? 2
What does this Report do? 6
Where has there been the most progress in gender equality? 8
Where have gender inequalities persisted and why? 13
What is to be done? 22
The political economy of reforms for gender equality 35
A global agenda for greater gender equality 36
Notes 38
References 40

Introduction: A guide to the Report 46

Gender equality and development: Why do the links matter? 46
What does this Report do? 48
Navigating this Report: A roadmap 50
Notes 51
References 51

Part I Taking stock of gender equality 54

1 A wave of progress 56
Times are changing? 56
Rising global consensus for women’s rights 57
Better outcomes for women in many domains 59
Change begets change 66
Notes 69
References 69

v
vi CONTENTS

2 The persistence of gender inequality 72

Severely disadvantaged populations 73
“Sticky” domains, despite economic progress 76
Reversals 85
“Sticky” gets “stickier” 87
Notes 88
References 89
Spread 1 Women’s pathways to empowerment: Do all roads lead to Rome? 94
Notes 97
References 97

Part II What has driven progress? What

impedes it? 98
Explaining the framework 99
Applying the framework 101
Notes 102
References 102

3 Education and health: Where do gender differences

really matter? 104
Endowments matter 105
Education 106
Health 117
Technical Annex 3.1 Computing the flow of missing girls at birth and excess
female mortality after birth 139
Chapter summary: In reducing gender gaps in education and health,
tremendous progress has been made where lifting a single barrier—in
households, markets, or institutions—is sufficient to improve outcomes.
Progress has been slower either where multiple barriers need to be lifted
at the same time or where a single point of entry produces bottlenecks 141
Notes 142
References 143

4 Promoting women’s agency 150

Women’s agency matters 151
Economic growth can promote women’s agency but has limited impact 152
Rights and their effective implementation shape women’s choices and
voices 157
Social norms prevent—or promote—gains in women’s agency 168
Women’s collective agency can shape institutions, markets, and social
norms 176
Chapter summary: Women continue to have less capacity than men to
exercise agency 181
 Contents vii

Notes 182
References 184
Spread 2 The decline of the breadwinner: Men in the 21st century 194
Note 196

5 Gender differences in employment and

why they matter 198
Understanding gender differences in productivity and earnings 201
What explains employment segregation by gender? A first look 210
Gender, time use, and employment segregation 215
Gender differences in access to productive inputs and
employment segregation 224
Gender impacts of “aggregate” market and institutional failures 230
Breaking out of the productivity trap: How and why to do it 236
Chapter summary: Persistent employment segregation by gender traps women
in low-productivity, low-paying jobs 239
Notes 240
References 242

6 Globalization’s impact on gender equality:

What’s happened and what’s needed 254
The world is becoming more integrated—Recent trends and facts 255
Trade openness and ICTs have increased women’s access to economic
opportunities 255
Adapt or miss the boat 264
Globalization could also promote more egalitarian gender roles and norms 267
Old problems, emerging risks 269
Is the glass half full or half empty? The need for public action 271
Chapter summary: Globalization has the potential to contribute to greater
gender equality 271
Notes 272
References 273
Spread 3 Changing ages, changing bodies, changing times—Adolescent boys
and girls 280
Note 283

Part III The role of and potential for public action 284
Choosing the right policies 285
Enabling policy implementation 285
The global agenda for action 286

7 Public action for gender equality 288

Policies to reduce gaps in health and education 289
Policies to improve economic opportunities 296
viii CONTENTS

Policies to improve women’s agency 305

Avoiding the reproduction of gender inequalities across generations for
adolescents and young adults 314
Making gender-smart policies: Focusing “gender mainstreaming” 317
Wanted: Better evidence 320
Notes 321
References 323

8 The political economy of gender reform 330

Informal institutions—Social networks as agents of change 332
Inclusive markets 340
Bringing gender into formal institutions and policies 345
Seizing windows of opportunities 348
Pathways to change 350
Notes 354
References 355

9 A global agenda for greater gender equality 360

Rationale for and focus of a global agenda 360
What to do and how to do it 362
Notes 370
References 371

Bibliographical Note 373

Background Papers and Notes 377
Selected Indicators 381
Selected World Development Indicators 389
Index 411

Boxes
1 What do we mean by gender equality? 4 7 Intervening early to overcome future labor market failures—
2 The Millennium Development Goals recognize the intrinsic The Adolescent Girls Initiative 34
and instrumental value of gender equality 4
0.1 Problems with estimating the effect of gender equality on
3 How women and men define gender in the 21st growth 49
century 7
4 What do we mean by markets, formal institutions, and 1.1 Gender and the Millennium Development Goals 58
informal social institutions? 8
2.1 The many faces of climate change 86
5 Reducing maternal mortality—What works? Look at
Malaysia and Sri Lanka 25 3.1 Adult mortality risks: Who are the outliers? 119
6 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 29 3.2 Four Africas 135
 Contents ix

4.1 Pensions—Coverage, amounts, and survivor benefits are 6.3 Occupational tasks and skill requirements—Getting the
important for women’s autonomy 156 terms right 259
4.2 Property in marriage (and divorce) 162 6.4 Leveraging mobile and ICT technology to improve access to
4.3 Widows risk losing their assets but might gain some services 264
freedom 163 6.5 Globalization and working conditions—Some progress, but
4.4 Legal pluralism and its prevalence 165 more needs to be done 267
4.5 What does it mean to be a “good wife” and a “good 7.1 Improving water supply: Dakar and Phnom Penh 291
husband”? 172
7.2 Reducing maternal mortality: What Malaysia and Sri Lanka
4.6 Masculinity and its impact on roles, preferences, and have done 295
behaviors 173
7.3 Protecting men and women and boys and girls from income
4.7 Why do social norms persist? 174 shocks 296
4.8 How stereotypes influence performance 175 7.4 Catalyzing female employment in Jordan 301
5.1 Closing the access gap—Recent advances in female labor 7.5 Innovative approaches to expanding access to finance for
force participation 199 women and entrepreneurs 303
5.2 Women in the boardroom 204 7.6 Including women’s voice in peace and postconflict
reconstruction processes 308
5.3 Gender discrimination in hiring? Evidence from employment
audit studies 205 8.1 Georgia—Evolving gender roles in a new society 332
5.4 What do we mean by employment segregation by 8.2 Feminism in perspective 334
gender? 206
8.3 Competing interests—Caste, ethnic, and religious politics
5.5 Good jobs and bad jobs: What are they and who does and gender 335
them? 211
8.4 More women in public office—The Namibian Women’s
5.6 The seeds of segregation are planted early—How gender Manifesto Network 335
differences in education trajectories shape employment
segregation 216 8.5 Differences among women about their right to vote—
The case of Switzerland 336
5.7 Overview of data used in analyzing gender differences in time
use patterns 218 8.6 Domestic workers in Brazil 337

5.8 What did you do all day? Perceptions on time use patterns of 8.7 How popular culture can change social attitudes 339
the opposite sex 221 8.8 Four good practices for greater gender diversity 342
5.9 Gender of the household head versus household 8.9 Land titling in Peru—Using a gender lens for a gender-
composition: What matters most for policy? 225 neutral program 346
5.10 Family formation and public sector employment in 8.10 Gender machineries in practice 347
Egypt 232 8.11 Courts and constitutional challenges in Uganda’s divorce
5.11 The business case for gender equality 238 law 348
8.12 Fiji: International norms as a driver of gender equality in
6.1 A job today or a better job tomorrow—The impact of
family law 349
increased access to economic opportunities on women’s
human capital 258 8.13 Changing social norms from the bottom up 352
6.2 The impact of globalization on men (and women) in 8.14 Tunisia—Women’s voice and women’s rights 353
developed countries 259 8.15 Sweden—Encouraging an involved fatherhood 353

Figures
1 Gender outcomes result from interactions between 5 Female labor force participation has increased over time at
households, markets, and institutions 9 all income levels 12
2 Across the world, women are having fewer children 9 6 Low-income countries lag behind in realizing progress in
3 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been female school enrollment 13
achieved in much of the world, but tertiary enrollments are 7 Female disadvantage within countries is more marked at
very low and favor women 10 low incomes 14
4 Using the framework to explain progress in 8 Women and men work in different sectors 16
education 11 9 Explaining persistent segregation and earnings gaps 18
x CONTENTS

10 Across the world, women spend more hours per day on care 3.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been
and housework than men 19 achieved in much of the world, but tertiary enrollments are
11 Gender differences in agricultural productivity disappear very low and favor women 107
when access to and use of productive inputs are taken into 3.2 In most countries with moderate or high total inequality in
account 20 educational outcomes, less than one-fifth of inequality stems
from gender 108
B0.1 GDP per capita and gender equality are positively
3.3 What explains progress in school enrollments? 109
correlated 49
3.4 Free primary education reduced gender gaps in
1.1 Gender parity in enrollments at lower levels has been enrollments 110
achieved in much of the world, and tertiary enrollments 3.5 Cross-country differences in mean scores on the 2009 PISA
now favor women 61 dwarf gender differences within countries 114
1.2 Gender explains little of the inequality in education 3.6 Adult and child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa 118
participation for children 12–15 years old 63
3.7 Adult mortality: Over time and by sex 119
1.3 Women are living longer than men 64
3.8 Income growth did not reduce excess female mortality during
1.4 What took the United States 100 years took India 40 and 1990–2008 in low- and middle-income countries 123
the Islamic Republic of Iran 10 64 3.9 Why are so many girls missing at birth? 124
1.5 Gender explains little of the inequality in use of preventive 3.10 There is little or no gender disadvantage in vaccination rates,
health services 65 nutrition outcomes, or use of health services when a child
1.6 The gender gap in labor force participation narrowed falls sick 126
between 1980 and 2008 66 Small differences do not explain the variation in the fraction
1.7 Across countries, at every income level, female labor force of excess deaths across countries 126
participation increased between 1980 and 2008 66 3.11 Men and women, boys and girls, are treated the same when
1.8 Who agrees that a university education is more important for they visit health facilities 127
a boy than for a girl? 68 3.12 Levels of excess female childhood mortality in high-income
1.9 Who agrees that when jobs are scarce, men should have more countries in the early 1900s were similar to those of low- and
right to a job than women? 68 middle-income countries today . . . 128
. . . and the excess female mortality declined with reduction in
2.1 Female enrollments remain strikingly low in some
overall childhood mortality 128
countries 73
3.13 Maternal mortality ratios declined steeply in selected
2.2 In some countries, female disadvantage augments at lower
countries during 1930–60 129
incomes . . . 74
3.14 High income countries today had excess female mortality
2.3 . . . yet in others, at low levels of wealth girls stay longer in
at the reproductive ages during the first half of the
school than boys 75
20th century . . . 130
2.4 At low incomes, fertility rates remain high—And the poorer
. . . and the excess mortality at all income levels declines with
the country, the larger the gap between rich and poor 76
reductions in maternal mortality 130
2.5 Maternal mortality in many developing countries is similar to
3.15 What explains excess mortality among girls and women in
that in Sweden before 1900 78 the reproductive ages? 131
2.6 Women are more likely than men to work in the informal 3.16 Excess female mortality by age in four countries with high
sector 79 HIV prevalence 132
2.7 Women and men work in different sectors (and different 3.17 In some countries, there is excess male mortality 133
occupations) 80
3A.1 Sex ratio and age-specific mortality, 2008 139
2.8 Across the world, women spend more hours each day on
housework and care than men . . . and men spend more time 3A.2 Excess female mortality globally at each age in 2008 using
various reference groups 140
in market activities 81
2.9 Who controls women’s own income? 82 4.1 Witnessing violence as a child is associated with perpetrating
2.10 Perceptions in many nations are that wife-beating is violence as an adult 152
justifiable 83 4.2 Limited progress in women’s agency is explained by mutually
2.11 There is great heterogeneity in rates of domestic violence reinforcing constraints in markets, formal institutions, and
reported across nations 84 informal institutions 153
2.12 Men are perceived as better political leaders than 4.3 Richer women marry later 154
women 85 4.4 Women’s control is greater in wealthier households 155
 Contents xi

4.5 Form of acquisition of land by gender in six Latin American 5.9 Women bear the brunt of housework and care while men are
countries 155 mostly responsible for market work 219
4.6 Working outside the home broadens men’s and women’s 5.10 Convergence in gender time use patterns is stronger for
networks (almost) equally 157 market work than for housework and care work 220
4.7 In most countries, access to contraceptives is a less significant 5.11 In Mexico and Thailand, married women are more likely to
constraint than lack of knowledge and opposition to move between inactivity and informal self-employment than
contraception 158 men and single women 222
4.8 Progress on inheritance is faster for daughters than for 5.12 Female-headed households are less likely to own and operate
widows 160 land than male-headed households 226
4.9 Few women seek services in case of domestic violence 168 5.13 Female-headed households in rural areas are less likely
4.10 Education dampens normative constraints more than than male-headed households to have received credit in the
income 169 last 12 months 227
4.11 Despite differences in the age of marriage, many girls still 5.14 Access to productive inputs and markets is lower among
marry before the age of 18 170 female-headed households than among male-headed
4.12 Reasons why victims of violence do not seek help 171 households 228

4.13 Even in 2010, women ministers were twice as likely to hold a 5.15 Mutually reinforcing market and institutional constraints are
social portfolio than an economic one 177 the main reason why women appear to be in a productivity
trap 237
4.14 Women’s voice in society is limited by social norms
on women’s roles and abilities and by formal B5.1.1 Participation rates—Converging 200
institutions 178 B5.8.1 Understanding the amounts of time the opposite sex spends
4.15 Perceptions on leadership skills are still very prevalent, and on nontraditional male/female activities and leisure 221
less educated cohorts are more biased 179
6.1 Global trade has grown rapidly since 1990 255
4.16 Women are much less likely to belong to a political party
6.2 Cell phone and Internet access has increased significantly in
than men 179
both developed and developing countries 256
B4.1.1 Sources of income for China’s elderly, 2005 156
6.3 Economic opportunities have changed 257
B4.3.1 Elderly women are more likely to live alone and elderly men
6.3a Female (and male) employment in the manufacturing and
with their spouses 163
service sectors has grown faster in developing countries,
B4.3.2 Husband’s family receives the majority of his assets in most reflecting the broader changes in the global distribution of
countries 163 production and labor 257
5.1 There are systematic gender differences in earnings 202 6.3b . . . and increases in female employment levels (but not male)
between 1995 and 2005 were correlated with increases in
5.2 Women are overrepresented among wage and unpaid family
international trade 257
workers 207
6.4 The United States experienced a dramatic increase in brain
5.3 Gender differences in agricultural productivity diminish
requirements and a decline in brawn requirements between
considerably when access to and use of productive inputs are
1950 and 2005 260
taken into account 208
6.5 Men and especially women in Brazil, India, Mexico, and
5.4 Differences in productivity between female and male
Thailand have experienced an increase in brain requirements
entrepreneurs are dwarfed by differences in productivity
and a decline in brawn requirements over the past 15
between formal and informal entrepreneurs 208
years 261
5.5 Economic development is positively correlated with the
share of female workers in wage employment and negatively 6.6 In Africa, women are less likely than men to own or use a
correlated with the share of women in unpaid work, self- cell phone 262
employment, and entrepreneurship 212 6.7 Differences in Internet access and use between developed
5.6 Tanzania and Brazil illustrate how employment patterns by and developing countries are still very large, and gender
gender change with economic growth 213 gaps are significant in some developed and developing
countries 263
5.7 Industry and occupational segregation patterns are common
across countries with very different levels of economic 6.8 Telework has grown rapidly in recent years, particularly
development and aggregate sectoral distributions of among female workers 265
employment 214 6.9 The share of female employment varies significantly across
5.8 Access to economic opportunities and the resulting industries 266
segregation in employment are the product of households, 6.10 The number of countries that have ratified CEDAW has risen
markets, and institutions, and their interactions 217 in all regions to reach 187, of 193, in 2011 266
xii CONTENTS

7.1 Reducing gaps in endowments 290 8.6 Progress toward increasing women’s rights is
7.2 Improving economic opportunities 296 clustered around major international human rights
conferences 350
7.3 Improving women’s agency 306
S1.1 Main factors in moving up the ladder 94
8.1 Social actors and their interactions shape the role of markets,
formal and informal institutions in advancing gender S1.2 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Bukoba,
equality 331 Tanzania (urban) 96

8.2 Social networks can engage public opinion, mobilize support, S1.3 Ladder shares now and 10 years ago in Dhamar, Republic of
and inspire change 333 Yemen (rural) 96

8.3 Men around the world support women’s rights and S2.1 Factors that explain gains in power 195
policies 338
S2.2 Factors that explain losses of power 196
8.4 Economic and political economy considerations
have prodded firms to promote gender equality S3.1 Characteristics of good girls/boys and bad girls/boys 281
policies 341 S3.2 Adolescents opinions on women’s roles 283
8.5 State action is central for the design and adoption of
gender-progressive policies 345 P2.1 Gender outcomes result from interactions between
households, markets, and institutions 101

Maps
1 Earnings gaps between women and men 17 B4.2.1 Women in different parts of the world have different
control over assets—Which matters in case of divorce or
0.1 Economies where qualitative assessments were the husband’s death 162
conducted 50
5.1 Gender differences in occupation and industry of
3.1 In China and India, the number of girls missing at birth employment account for a large fraction of the gender gap
remains high, and parts of Africa experienced large increases after accounting for individual characteristics 209
in excess female mortality during 1990–2008 122
B5.1.1 Female labor force participation—Some high rates and
4.1 In Sub-Saharan Africa, customary laws are formally some low 199
recognized in most countries, and at times are
discriminatory 166

Tables
1 Almost 4 million missing women each year 15 3.2 Skewed sex ratios at birth and excess female mortality
2 The agenda for global action at a glance 38 persist across the world, leading to females missing at birth
and excess female mortality during childhood and the
2.1 Missing girls at birth increased between 1990 and 2008 in reproductive years 121
India and China, as did excess female mortality in adulthood
in Sub-Saharan Africa 77 5.1 Female farmers have lower average productivity than male
farmers 202
3.1 Gender segregation in field of study: In most countries,
women dominate health and education studies and men 9.1 The agenda for global action at a glance 361
dominate engineering and sciences 115
Foreword

The lives of girls and women have changed dramatically over the past quarter century. Today,
more girls and women are literate than ever before, and in a third of developing countries,
there are more girls in school than boys. Women now make up over 40 percent of the global
labor force. Moreover, women live longer than men in all regions of the world. The pace of
change has been astonishing—indeed, in many developing countries, they have been faster
than the equivalent changes in developed countries: What took the United States 40 years to
achieve in increasing girls’ school enrollment has taken Morocco just a decade.
In some areas, however, progress toward gender equality has been limited—even in devel-
oped countries. Girls and women who are poor, live in remote areas, are disabled, or belong
to minority groups continue to lag behind. Too many girls and women are still dying in child-
hood and in the reproductive ages. Women still fall behind in earnings and productivity, and
in the strength of their voices in society. In some areas, such as education, there is now a gen-
der gap to the disadvantage of men and boys.
The main message of this year’s World Development Report: Gender Equality and Develop-
ment is that these patterns of progress and persistence in gender equality matter, both for
development outcomes and policy making. They matter because gender equality is a core
development objective in its own right. But greater gender equality is also smart economics,
enhancing productivity and improving other development outcomes, including prospects for
the next generation and for the quality of societal policies and institutions. Economic develop-
ment is not enough to shrink all gender disparities—corrective policies that focus on persist-
ing gender gaps are essential.
This Report points to four priority areas for policy going forward. First, reducing gender
gaps in human capital—specifically those that address female mortality and education. Sec-
ond, closing gender gaps in access to economic opportunities, earnings, and productivity.
Third, shrinking gender differences in voice and agency within society. Fourth, limiting the
reproduction of gender inequality across generations. These are all areas where higher incomes
by themselves do little to reduce gender gaps, but focused policies can have a real impact.
Public actions need to address the underlying determinants of gender gaps in each pri-
ority area—in some cases, improving service delivery (especially for clean water, sanitation,
and maternal care), for others, tackling constraints that originate in the workings of mar-
kets and institutions to limit progress (for example, in reducing gender gaps in earnings and
productivity).
Development partners can complement public action. In each of the four priority areas,
efforts need more funding (particularly to support the poorest countries as they address
female mortality and gender gaps in education); better gender-disaggregated data; more
experimentation and systematic evaluation; and broader partnerships that include the private
sector, development agencies, and civil society organizations.

xiii
xiv F O R E WO R D

Gender equality is at the heart of development. It’s the right development objective, and
it’s smart economic policy. The World Development Report 2012 can help both countries and
international partners think through and integrate a focus on gender equality into develop-
ment policy making and programming.

Robert B. Zoellick
President
The World Bank Group
Acknowledgments

This Report has been prepared by a core team led by Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty, and
comprising Luis Benveniste, Aline Coudouel, Jishnu Das, Markus Goldstein, Ana María
Muñoz Boudet, and Carolina Sánchez-Páramo. Research assistance was provided by
Rabia Ali, María Inés Berniell, Rita Costa, Nina Rosas, and Lucía Solbes Castro. The multi-
country qualitative assessment was coordinated by Patti L. Petesch and Carolyn Turk. Extensive
and valuable contributions were made by Andre Croppenstedt, Malcolm Ehrenpreis, Rebekka
Grun, Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Tazeen Hasan, Karla Hoff, Ghazala Mansuri, Claudio E.
Montenegro, and Bob Rijkers.
The World Development Report 2012 is co-sponsored by the Development Econom-
ics Vice-Presidency (DEC) and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Vice-
Presidency (PREM). The work was conducted under the joint guidance of Justin Yifu Lin in
DEC and Otaviano Canuto dos Santos Filho in PREM. Ann E. Harrison and the DEC team
and Mayra Buvinic and the PREM Gender (PRMGE) team provided valuable guidance and
contributions at various stages of the production of this report.
A panel of advisers comprising Bina Agarwal, Ragui Assad, Anne Case, Alison Evans, Raquel
Fernández, Naila Kabeer, Ravi Kanbur, Santiago Levy, and Germano Mwabu provided excel-
lent advice. Valuable comments and contributions were provided by Kathleen Beegle, Laura
Chioda, Louise Cord, Maria Correia, Monica Das Gupta, Shantayanan Devarajan, Marianne
Fay, Francisco H. G. Ferreira, Ariel Fiszbein, Indermit Gill, Alejandro Hoyos, Emmanuel Jime-
nez, Elizabeth King, Andrew Mason, William Maloney, Ambar Narayan, Pierella Paci, Tara
Vishwanath, and Michael Walton. Many others inside and outside the World Bank contrib-
uted with valuable comments and input (their names are listed in the Bibliographical Note).
World Bank President Robert B. Zoellick and Managing Directors Sri Mulyani Indrawati,
Mahmoud Mohieldin, and Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala provided invaluable guidance and advice.
The team benefited greatly from many consultations, meetings, and regional workshops
held locally and in-country. These discussions included policy makers, civil society represen-
tatives, academics, and development partners from Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, the
Caribbean nations, the Central African Republic, Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Repub-
lic, Georgia, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mali, Mexico,
Morocco, Panama, Paraguay, Rwanda, Senegal, the Slovak Republic, South Africa, Sudan,
Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Turkey, Uganda, Uruguay, Vietnam, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Consultations were also held at different stages of report preparation with representatives
from multilateral and bilateral partners, including the Australian Agency for International
Development (AUSAID), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the
Inter-American Commission of Women-Organization of American States (CIM-OAS), the
Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), the U.K. Department for International
Development (DFID), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland, MCC, NORAD, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
xv
xvi AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S

and Development-Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC) Gendernet, the Swiss

Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (SIDA), UN Women, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 55th Commission on the Status of Women.
The team would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Government of Nor-
way through its Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, SDC, AUSAID, CIDA, the Government of
Sweden through its Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the multi-donor Knowledge for Change
Program (KCP), the Nike Foundation, the World Bank Nordic Trust Fund, and Fast Track
Initiative Education Program Development Fund; as well as the in-kind support from JICA,
DFID, and OECD.
The team wishes to acknowledge the excellent support of the WDR production team com-
prising Rebecca Sugui, Cecile Wodon, and Mihaela Stangu, and of the resource management
team of Sonia Joseph and Evangeline Santo Domingo. We thank also Ivar Cederholm, Vivian
Hon, Jimmy Olazo, and Irina Sergeyeva for their constant support. Other valuable assistance
was provided by Gytis Kanchas and Nacer Mohamed Megherbi. Vamsee Krishna Kanchi,
Swati P. Mishra, Merrell Tuck-Primdahl, and Roula Yazigi assisted the team with the website
and communications.
Bruce Ross-Larson was the principal editor. The Development Data Group contributed
to the data appendix and was responsible for the Selected World Development Indicators.
Design Symphony contributed to the design. The Office of the Publisher and GSDTR pro-
vided excellent publishing, translation, and dissemination services, with special thanks to
Mary Fisk, Stephen McGroarty, Nancy Lammers, Santiago Pombo-Bejarano, Denise Bergeron,
Rick Ludwick, Cecile Jannotin, Hector Hernaez, and Bouchra Belfqih for their contributions.
Abbreviations and data notes

ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ALMPs active labor market policies
ANC African National Congress
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
ART antiretroviral therapy
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ATM automated teller machine
AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development
BPO business process outsourcing
CARICOM Caribbean Community
CCT conditional cash transfer
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women
CGAP Consultative Group to Assist the Poor
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CIM-OAS Inter-American Commission of Women (Organization of
American States)
CWDI Corporate Women Directors International
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DFCU Development Finance Company of Uganda
DFID United Kingdom Department for International Development
EAP East Asia and Pacific Region
ECA Europe and Central Asia Region
ECD early child development
ECOSOC Economic and social council (United Nations)
EdAttain Education Attainment and Enrollment around the World
database
EFM excess female mortality
EU European Union
EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI foreign direct investment
FENATRAD Federação Nacional dos Trabalhadores Domésticos (National
Federation of Domestic Workers)
FGC female genital cutting
FHHH female-headed households
FINCA Foundation for International Community Assistance
FLFPR female labor force participation rate
FPE free primary education
xvii
xviii A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D DATA N O T E S

GBA Global Banking Alliance for Women

GDP gross domestic product
GEME Gender Equity Model Egypt
HDI Human Development Index
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
I2D2 International Income Distribution Database
ICRW International Center for the Research on Women
ICT information and communications technology
IFC International Finance Corporation
ILO International Labor Organization
ITES information technology enabled service
ITU International Telecommunications Union
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KCP Knowledge for Change Program
LABORSTA International Labour Organization Bureau of Statistics database
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Region
LFPRs labor force participation rates
MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MNA Middle East and North Africa Region
MHHH male-headed households
MMR maternal mortality rate
MTUS Multinational Time Use Study
NAALC North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NGO nongovernmental organization
NHO Næringslivets Hovedorganisasjon (Confederation of Norwegian
Enterprises)
NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation
NSS national statistical systems
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD-DAC Gendernet Development Assistance Committee’s Network on Gender
Equality of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
PEKKA Pemberdayaan Perempuan Kepala Keluarga (Female-Headed
Households Empowerment Program)
PETT Proyecto Especial de Titulación de Tierras (Special Land Titling
Project)
PISA Program for International Student Assessment
PROBECAT Programa de Becas de Capacitación para Trabajadores (Labor
Retraining Scholarship Program)
REFLEX Research into Employment and Professional Flexibility database
RIGA Rural Income Generating Activities database
ROSCAs rotating savings and credit associations
SADC Southern African Development Community
SAR South Asia Region
SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
SERNAM Servicio Nacional de la Mujer (National Women’s Service)
SEWA Self-employed Women’s Association
SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
SMEs small and medium enterprises
 Abbreviations and data notes xix

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa Region

UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Program
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
UN WOMEN United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WHO World Health Organization
WINGOs women’s international nongovernmental organizations

DATA NOTES
The countries included in regional and income groupings in this Report are listed in the
Classification of Economies table at the end of the Selected World Development Indicators.
Income classifications are based on GNP per capita; thresholds for income classifications in
this edition may be found in the Introduction to Selected World Development Indicators.
Group averages reported in the figures and tables are unweighted averages of the countries in
the group, unless noted to the contrary.
The use of the word countries to refer to economies implies no judgment by the World
Bank about the legal or other status of a territory. The term developing countries includes low-
and middle-income economies and thus may include economies in transition from central
planning, as a matter of convenience. The term advanced countries may be used as a matter of
convenience to denote high-income economies.

Note: Dollar figures are current U.S. dollars, unless otherwise specified. Billion means 1,000
million; trillion means 1,000 billion.
Main Messages of the
World Development Report 2012

GENDER EQUALITY MATTERS Empowering women as economic, political,

FOR DEVELOPMENT and social actors can change policy choices
and make institutions more representative of
Gender equality is a core development objec- a range of voices. In India, giving power to
tive in its own right. It is also smart economics. women at the local level led to increases in
Greater gender equality can enhance produc- the provision of public goods, such as water
tivity, improve development outcomes for the and sanitation, which mattered more to
next generation, and make institutions more women.
representative.
• Productivity gains. Women now represent
DEVELOPMENT HAS CLOSED SOME
40 percent of the global labor force, 43 per-
cent of the world’s agricultural labor force, GENDER GAPS . . .
and more than half the world’s university
The disadvantages faced by women and girls
students. Productivity will be raised if their
that have shrunk most rapidly over the past
skills and talents are used more fully. For ex-
quarter century include:
ample, if women farmers were to have the
same access as men to fertilizers and other • Educational enrollment. Gender gaps in pri-
inputs, maize yields would increase by almost mary education have closed in almost all
one-sixth in Malawi and Ghana. And elimi- countries. In secondary education, these gaps
nating barriers that discriminate against are closing rapidly and have reversed in many
women working in certain sectors or occupa- countries, especially in Latin America, the
tions could increase labor productivity by as Caribbean, and East Asia—but it is now
much as 25 percent in some countries. boys and young men who are disadvantaged.
Among developing countries, girls now out-
• Improved outcomes for the next generation.
number boys in secondary schools in 45
Greater control over household resources by
countries and there are more young women
women can enhance countries’ growth pros-
than men in universities in 60 countries.
pects by changing spending patterns in ways
that benefit children. And improvements in • Life expectancy. Since 1980, women are liv-
women’s education and health have been ing longer than men in all parts of the world.
linked to better outcomes for their children And, in low-income countries, women now
in countries as varied as Brazil, Nepal, Paki- live 20 years longer on average than they did
stan, and Senegal. in 1960.
• More representative decision making. Gen- • Labor force participation. Over half a billion
der equality matters for society more broadly. women have joined the world’s labor force
 Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxi

over the last 30 years as women’s partici- UNDERSTANDING PROGRESS

pation in paid work has risen in most of AND PERSISTENCE
the developing world. An important rea-
son has been the unprecedented reduc- Income growth by itself does not deliver
tion in fertility in developing countries greater gender equality on all fronts. Indeed,
as diverse as Bangladesh, Colombia, and where gender gaps have closed quickly, it is
the Islamic Republic of Iran. because of how markets and institutions—
formal and informal—have functioned and
evolved, how growth has played out, and
. . . BUT OTHER GAPS PERSIST how all these factors have interacted through
household decisions. For example, in educa-
Gender disparities still remain in many areas, tion, income growth (by loosening bud-
and even in rich countries. The most persis- get constraints), markets (by opening new
tent and egregious gaps include: employment opportunities for women), and
formal institutions (by expanding schools
• Excess deaths of girls and women. Fe-
and lowering costs) have all come together
males are more likely to die, relative to
to influence household decisions in favor of
males, in many low- and middle-income
educating girls and young women across a
countries than their counterparts in rich
broad range of countries.
countries. These deaths are estimated at
about 3.9 million women and girls under
Gender gaps persist where girls and women
the age of 60 each year. About two-fifths
face other disadvantages. For poor women in
of them are never born, one-sixth die in
poor places, sizable gender gaps remain. And
early childhood, and over one-third die in
these disparities are even larger when pov-
their reproductive years. And this number
erty combines with other forms of exclusion,
is growing in Sub-Saharan Africa, espe-
such as remoteness, ethnicity, and disability.
cially in childhood and the reproductive
For ethnic minority women in Vietnam, for
years and in the countries hardest hit by
instance, more than 60 percent of childbirths
the HIV/AIDS epidemic.
occur without prenatal care—twice as many
• Disparities in girls’ schooling. Despite as for the majority Kinh women.
the overall progress, primary and second-
ary school enrollments for girls remain Markets, institutions, and households can
much lower than for boys for disadvan- also combine to limit progress. Gender gaps
taged populations in many Sub-Saharan in productivity and earnings, for exam-
countries and some parts of South Asia. ple, are pervasive. And they are driven by
deep-seated gender differences in time use
• Unequal access to economic opportuni-
(reflecting social norms about house and
ties. Women are more likely than men to
care work), in rights of ownership and con-
work as unpaid family laborers or in the
trol over land and assets, and in the workings
informal sector. Women farmers tend to
of markets and formal institutions, which
farm smaller plots and less profitable
work in ways that disadvantage women.
crops than men. Women entrepreneurs
operate in smaller firms and less profit-
Globalization can help. In today’s globalized
able sectors. As a result, women every-
world, forces such as trade openness and the
where tend to earn less than men.
spread of cheaper information and com-
• Differences in voice in households and munication technologies have the potential
in society. In many countries, women— to reduce gender disparities by connecting
especially poor women—have less say women to markets and economic opportu-
over decisions and less control over re- nities, reshaping attitudes and norms among
sources in their households. And in most women and men about gender relations,
countries, women participate less in for- and encouraging countries to promote gen-
mal politics than men and are under- der equality. But their impact will be muted
represented in its upper echelons. without effective domestic public action.
xxii WO R L D D E V E LO P M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 1 2

PRIORITIES FOR DOMESTIC and young women when poverty, ethnic-

POLICY ACTION ity, or geography excludes them, and to
reach boys where gender disadvantages
Policy makers in developing countries will have reversed. Cash transfers conditioned
need to focus on those gender gaps where on school attendance are often effective in
the payoffs for development are potentially reaching these groups. Pakistan has used
the largest, higher incomes by themselves do such transfers to get girls from poor fami-
little to reduce these gaps, and a reorienta- lies to school, while Jamaica has relied on
tion of policies would yield the greatest ben- them to keep at-risk boys in school.
efit. These priorities are: • To narrow disparities between women
• Addressing excess deaths of girls and and men in earnings and productivity,
women and eliminating gender disadvan- a combination of policies is needed to
tage in education where these remain address the various constraints that dis-
entrenched. proportionately affect women’s access to
economic opportunities. Depending on
• Closing differences in access to economic context, these include measures to:
opportunities and the ensuing earnings
 Lift women’s time constraints, by pro-
and productivity gaps between women
viding child care as with Colombia’s
and men.
subsidized day-care programs for work-
• Shrinking gender differences in voice ing mothers, and improving infrastruc-
within households and societies. ture as with South Africa’s rural electri-
fication program.
• Limiting the reproduction of gender in-
equality across generations.  Improve women’s access to productive
resources, especially to land as was done
Focused and sustained domestic pub- in Ethiopia by granting joint land titles
lic action is essential to bring about gender to wives and husbands, and to credit as
equality. And to be effective, these policies will in Bangladesh.
need to target the root causes of gender gaps.
 Tackle information problems and in-
In some areas, as with maternal mortality,
stitutional biases that work against
governments will need to address the single
women. These include the use of quo-
binding constraint to progress (weak service
tas or job placement programs as is be-
delivery institutions). In others, as with dif-
ing done in Jordan, or reforming gen-
ferential access to economic opportunities,
der biases in service delivery institutions
policies will be needed that tackle the multi- as was done for agricultural extension
ple constraints that come from the workings through women’s self-help groups in
of markets and institutions to limit progress. the Indian state of Orissa.
In these cases, policy makers will need to pri-
oritize these constraints and address them • To diminish gender differences in house-
simultaneously or sequentially. hold and societal voice, policies need to
address the combined influence of social
• To reduce excess deaths of girls and norms and beliefs, women’s access to eco-
women in infancy, early childhood, and nomic opportunities, the legal framework,
the reproductive years, policy action to and women’s education and skills:
improve the delivery of services (especially
 To equalize voice within households,
of clean water, sanitation, and maternal
measures that increase women’s control
care) is of primary importance. Vietnam
over household resources and laws that
has been able to reduce excess mortality
enhance the ability of women to accu-
among young girls by expanding access to
mulate assets, especially by strengthen-
clean water and sanitation. And Turkey
ing their property rights, are of particu-
has reduced maternal mortality through
lar importance. Recent reforms of
improved health care delivery and a focus
family law in Morocco that equalized
on expectant mothers.
the ownership rights of husbands and
• To shrink persisting educational gaps, wives over property acquired during
policies need to improve access for girls marriage are an example.
 Main Messages of the World Development Report 2012 xxiii

 To increase women’s voice in society, complementing these efforts in each of these

policies include quotas on political rep- four priority areas and, more generally, in
resentation, as has been done by many supporting evidence-based public action
countries across the world, and mea- through better data, impact evaluation, and
sures to foster and train future women learning.
leaders and involve women more in • In some areas, as with educational gender
groups such as trade unions and pro- gaps, this will require adjusting current
fessional associations. support, such as ensuring that the Educa-
• To limit the reproduction of gender in- tion for All Fast Track Initiative reaches
equality across generations, it is impor- disadvantaged girls and boys, or sustain-
tant to reach adolescents and young adults ing existing efforts, as with partnerships
because this is the age when they make de- focused on adolescent girls.
cisions that determine their acquisition of • In other areas, it will demand new or
skills, future health, economic prospects, additional action on multiple fronts—
and aspirations. Interventions, therefore, some combination of more funding, co-
need to focus on: ordinated efforts to foster innovation and
 Building human and social capital learning, and more effective partnerships.
as cash transfer programs have done  The funding should be directed partic-
in Malawi, and improving informa- ularly to supporting the poorest coun-
tion about returns to education and tries in reducing excess deaths of girls
health education programs, which has and women (through investments in
kept boys in school in the Dominican clean water and sanitation and mater-
Republic; nal health services) and removing per-
 Facilitating the transition from school sistent gender gaps in education.
to work with job and life skills training  More support is needed especially to
programs as in Uganda; and improve the availability of gender-
 Shifting aspirations as with exposure to disaggregated data and to foster more
role models such as woman political experimentation and systematic evalu-
leaders in India who challenge prevail- ation of mechanisms to improve wom-
ing social norms. en’s access to markets, services, and
justice.
 The partnerships should extend be-
THE ROLE OF THE yond governments and development
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY agencies to include the private sector,
civil society organizations, and aca-
While domestic policy action is crucial, the demic institutions in developing and
international community can play a role in rich countries.