Department of Economics

Course Name M.A. /B.A. IV

Semester II/ IV
Paper /Subject name Monetary Economics/
Money & Banking (Unit I)
Teacher Name Dr. Vinod Sen
PDF File Yes
 Unit I

Introduction: Definition, classification,

Gresham’s Law, Monetary Standards,
Metallic and Paper Standard, High
Powered money and Money Multiplier
 Reference Material
• Suraj B Gupta
• D K Mithani
• M.L. Jhingan
 What is money?
• Acceptable as a means of payment in the settlement of all
transaction including dept.
• Medium of exchange or means of transferring purchasing
power.
• It does not require to be converted into something else
before it can be spent or used for the settlement of debt.
• Money is the set of assets in an economy that people
regularly use to buy goods and services from other people.
• Various things have served as a money at different times
and place, goat, cows, rice, silver, gold pieces and coin
paper currency and demand deposits of banks.
• When people talk about money, they usually refer to
currency
 Contd…
• Money is not the same as:
– Wealth: the total collection of property that
serves as a store of value
– Income: a flow of earnings per unit of time
(money is a stock)
 Unusual Forms of Money
• Beads (wampum) used by American Indians
• Tobacco and whisky used by early American
colonists
• Big stone wheels used by residents on the
island of Yap
• Cigarettes used by prisoners of war in a POW
camp during World War II
 Classification of Money
• Money can be classified on the basis of relationship
between value of money and value of money as a
commodity.
• The value of money means the face value of money.
• i.e. the face value of five rupees coin is five rupees.
• The value of money as a commodity mean the value of
commodity of which money is made off.
• i.e. the commodity value of money of a five rupee coin the cost of
material (Metal) used of which the coin is mad.
• If the face value & commodity value of the coin are the
same, than it is called Standard Coin.
• If face value is greater than the commodity value of
coin it is called token coin, these days; coins are the
token coins.
 Money Vs. Barter
• Making exchanges takes longer in a barter
system: not only do you have to find something
you want, but you have to have something the
seller wants as well. This is called a double
coincidence of wants.
• Some goods are more willingly accepted than
other goods.
• Historically, goods that have evolved into money
are: gold, silver, copper, cattle, rocks, and shells.
 What Gives Money its Value?
• Our money has value because of its general
acceptability.
• We accept paper Rupees because we know
that other people will accept Rupees later
when we try to spend them.
• Money has value to people because it is
widely accepted in exchange for other goods
that are valuable.
 Categories of Money
• Commodity (Full-bodies) Money
• Money is that whose face value is equal to its commodities value.
• This type of money was in existence when gold standard was
prevalent. & Cigarattes in Moscow
• The face value of the coin was equal to its instrinsic (commodity)
value. Not fund in world now.
• The term intrinsic value means that the item would have value
even if it is not used as money.
• Representative (full-bodies) Money
• Though in spirit it is like the commodity (full-bodies) money but in
form it is different.
• This kind of money is usually made of paper but equal to the face
value of the money gold is kept in reserve.
• This money saves the users from the inconvenience of caring
money in heavy weight case large quantity because paper money
can be conveniently carried.
 Contd..
• Credit Money
• Value of money (face value) is greater than the commodity money (instrinsic
value) of money.
• Token coin & promissory note are part of credit money.
• Various form of credit money
– Token Coins
• The token coins are those whose face value is more than their instrinsic value
in India i.e. Rs, 20,10,05,02
– Representative token Money
• This is usually of the form of paper, which is in effect a circulating ware house
receipt for token coins or an equalent amount of bullion (pricing Metal) thus is
backing it.
– Promissory Note Issued by Central Bank
• It includes currency notes of all denominations' issued by RBI (excluding 1
rupee Note).
• The system governing Note-issue in India is the Minimum Reserve System.
– Bank Deposit
• Demand deposit (current & saving deposit) are the bank deposit Which can be
withdrawn on demand. They deposit are credit money.
 Prices of money

• Interest rate
• Exchange rate
• Price level
 Function of Money
• Money has three primary functions:
– Medium of exchange
– Unit of account- measure the value, NI, comparison,
– Store of value – store wealth for future
• Secondary
– Transfer the value
– store of value -
– standard of deferred payment – future payment, inflation, debt
• Contingent function
– Basis of credit
– distribution of social income
– general form of capital
– maximum benefit
 Gresham’s Law
• Good Money and Bad Money
• Gresham’s Law implied that it would be the least valuable
metal that would tend to circulate.
• Bad money drives good money out of circulation.
• Bad (abundant) money drives good (scarce) money out of
circulation.
• In truth, bad money drives out good money if both moneys
have the same face value, have different intrinsic values,
and are fixed at an exchange rate of one to one.
• The dearer Coin will be extracted from circulation for
melting down.
• The law is named after Sir Thomas Gresham (1519-79), a
leading Elizabetham businessman and financial adviser to
Queen Elizabeth I.
 Contd…
• The money functions in ways other than as a domestic
medium of exchange:
• It also may be used for foreign exchange, as a commodity or
as a store of value if a particular kind of money is worth more
in one of these other function, it will be used in foreign
exchange or will be hoarded rather than used for domestic
transactions.
• For example during the period from 1792 to 1834 the united
states maintained an exchange ration between silver and gold
of 15:1, while ratios in Europe ranged from 15.5:1 to 15.06:1 .
• This made profitable for owners of gold to sell their gold in
European market and take their silver to the united state
mint.
• The effect was that gold was withdrawn from domestic
American circulation; the ‘inferior’ money had driven it out.
 Contd…
• Gresham’s law operates when paper currency
notes circulate along with gold or silver coins.
• This actually happened during the revolution
war in the united states of America when the
bad paper money drove all gold and silver
coins out of circulation between1775-79.
 Limitation of the law
• If the total money in circulation, including both good &
bad money exceeds the actual monetary demand of
the public.
• If the public is prepared to accept the circulate bad
money.
• If the good money is full bodies legal tend whose face
value equals it intrinsic value.
• If the total supply of bad money is sufficient to meet
the total monetary demand of the public.
• Limited validity in modern time, the tendency among
people to pass on worn out notes and debased coins
first. But this is not gresham’s law proper because
neither fresh notes nor god coins go out of circulation
but their use is suspended for while.
 Definition and elements of monetary system
• Monetary system is the set of laws regarding to the nation’s currency, and to
the mechanisms and institutions by which a government provides money in a
country’s economy.
• It usually consists of a Mint, Central Bank (CB), and commercial banks:
– most monetary systems are managed by a CB which is given the
authority to print money and control the money supply in the economy.
• Monetary system can be any formal structure adapted by a government
that issues a currency which is accepted as the medium of exchange by its
citizens and by other governments.
• There are some important elements that characterizes monetary system:
– monetary standard
– monetary unit
– types of money
– money convertibility
 Monetary Standard
• Monetary standard is the material representation or the value behind the
money in a monetary system, used for the definition of monetary unit.

• Depending on the monetary standard adopted, there existed different types

of monetary systems:
 Metallic standard system (monetary systems based on monetary metal):
 Monometallic standard system (single standard )
 Silver standard system
 Gold standard system
 Bimetallic standard system (double standard: silver and gold)
 Mixed system – gold exchange standard (reserve currency standard +
gold standard)
 Paper currency standard system (managed currency standard)
 Silver Standard
• It functioned between the late 15th century and the late 18th century, when
was replaced by bimetallism system.
• The silver standard is a monetary system in which the basic unit of
currency (monetary unit) is defined as a fixed weight of silver:
 For example, 1 monetary unit would contain x grams of silver.
• Silver was adopted as the standard money and was made legal tender for all
payments.
• Features of silver standard system:
 gold coins weren’t considered standard money, but simple commercial
coins, and their prices were expressed in comparison with the silver
coin;
 convertibility of other money into silver was unrestricted;
 import and export of the silver for the settlement of international
obligations were free;
 divisionary coins were made of common metal, and there was a fixed
exchange rate between them and the silver coin.
 Bimetallic standard
• Many19th century systems were bimetallic systems.
• Two metals were adopted as standard money: gold and silver.
• A legal ratio was established between the value of the two metal coins.
• Gold and silver circulated as legal tender money and there was a legally fixed
ratio of exchange between them:
– the ratio between the two metal coins was expressed in terms of weight:
• e.g. 15 ounce of silver equals 1 ounce of gold a ratio of 15 to
1.
• Monetary unit was defined by law in terms of fixed quantities of gold and
silver.
• People could bring gold or silver bars (bullions) to the Mint (the agency
responsible with for coining money) and they would get gold or silver coins in
exchange.
• This system was very unstable:
• there was a great difficulty in maintaining the mint ratio (legal ratio) between
the two metals because market ratio often fluctuated:
• the change in the circulation of the two coins.
 Contd…
• Gresham’s Law that says “Bad money drives out good money” have operated:
– if coins containing metal of different value have the same value as legal
tender, the coins composed of the cheaper metal (silver) will be used for
payment, while those made of more expensive metal (gold) will be melt or
stored
gold coins tend to disappear from circulation.
• Example:
– if the legal gold price of silver (how many tons of silver you need to buy
one ton of gold) was 15:1
– and the market gold price of silver was 16:1
people preferred to pay their debt in the cheapest coin (silver) and melt or
store the other (gold), although they could pay either in gold or in silver at
the legal ratio.
• Whenever the market gold price of silver is sufficiently far from the legal ratio,
economy switches to a monometallic standard, using the relatively cheapest
metal as money and removing the other from circulation.
• As a result bimetallic standard became in effect a silver standard.
 Gold Standard
 It replaced the bimetallic standard in the late of 19th century.
 It is a monetary system in which the basic unit of currency is defined as a
fixed weight of gold.
 The gold standard was an international standard:
 it allowed the determining of the value of a country’s currency in terms
of other countries’ currencies by comparing the content in gold of two
currencies.
this represents the metal parity between the two currencies.
 Because exchange rates were fixed, the gold standard caused the price
levels around the world to move together.
 The types of gold standard were:
 Gold coin standard
 Gold bullion standard
 Gold exchange standard
 Gold Coin Standard
• Before World War I, the world economy operated under the gold coin
standard, meaning that the currency of most countries was convertible
directly into gold.
• It was the classical form of gold standard.
• Gold was recognized as a means of settling domestic and international
payments.
• There were no restrictions on the use of gold and it could be melted down
or be sent to a Mint for conversion to coins.
• Import and export of gold were freely allowed.
• It allowed the full convertibility of banknotes into gold on demand (at a
fixed price) at the issuing bank.
• The exchange rate between currencies was fixed by comparing their gold
content.
• Tying currencies to gold resulted in an international financial system with
fixed exchange rates between currencies.
• The fixed exchange rates under the gold standard had the important
advantage of encouraging world trade by eliminating the uncertainty that
occurs when exchange rates fluctuate.
 Gold Bullion Standard
• It was adopted by some countries after the World War I, as increased
expenditures to fund the war effort exposed the weaknesses of the gold coin
standard.
• Paper money was the main form of exchange and it could be however
exchanged for gold at any time:
 but the convertibility of banknotes into gold was limited as an
equivalent amount to one bullion of gold.
• As it was unlikely that there would be a great demand for converting
banknotes to gold at any given time:
 the banks could issue banknotes in excess of the value of the gold they
were holding.
• This monetary system could not last long as many major currencies were
highly over and under valued, leading to a distortion in the balance of
payment position.
• England withdrew from the gold standard in 1931, USA in 1933, and Italy,
France, Belgium, Switzerland and Holland kept it until 1936.
 Gold Exchange standard
• During the World War II, international trade was affected by high inflation
and devaluation of currencies:
 the need for a new monetary system that would be stable and favour
international trade.
• This was set up at the conference in Bretton Woods in 1944 and aimed to:
 bring about convertibility of all currencies;
 eliminate exchange controls;
 and establish an international monetary system with stable exchange
rates.
• The system was a mixed system consisting of a cross between a reserve
currency standard and a gold standard.
• US dollar remained the single currency convertible in gold:
 American authorities agreed to exchange gold for its own currency with
other CBs, upon demand, at the fixed price of $35/ounce.
• The Bretton Woods system ended in 1971, when USA ended trading of
gold at the fixed price of $35/ounce.
 Contd…
• It included the following rules:
 A reserve currency was chosen:
 All non-reserve countries agreed to fix their exchange rates to the
reserve currency at some announced rate (a fix parity).
 To maintain the fixity, these non-reserve countries would hold a
stock of reserve currency assets.
 The reserve currency country agreed to fix its currency value to a
weight in gold.
 The reserve country agreed to exchange gold for its own currency with
other CBs within the system, upon demand.
• One key difference between this system and the gold standard was that the
reserve country did not agree to exchange gold for currency with the
general public, only with other CBs.
• If the non-reserve countries accumulated the reserve currency, they could
demand exchange for gold from the reserve country’s CB.
• Thus, gold reserve flowed away from the reserve currency country.
 Paper Currency Standard System
• In the 20th century, both silver and gold lost their former importance within
monetary systems, and monometallic system was abandoned by all nations.
• It was set up in 1976 at the Conference in Kingston (Jamaica), when the
gold lost its role of monetary standard:
 Under this system, the currency of the country is made of paper.
• Generally, the currency system is managed by the CB of the country.
• Today, almost all countries in the world have managed currency standard
systems.
• The paper currency standard system is a fiat system:
 does not allow free convertibility of the currency into a metallic
standard;
 money is given value by government fiat (is intrinsically useless)
• The value of the money is set by the supply and demand for money and by
the supply and demand for other goods and services in the country.
• The value of the money depends on its purchasing power.
 Advantage of Paper Currency System
• Paper money is economical.
• Its cost of production is negligible.
• It is convenient to handle and it is easily portable.
• It is homogeneous.
• Its supply can be made elastic.
• Its value can be kept stable by proper management.
• Paper currency can function very effectively as money,
provided, there is proper control of it by the managing
authority.
• It is ideal for internal trade.
• But for international trade and payments, gold is still found
necessary.
 Disadvantages of Paper Currency System
• First important disadvantage:
 There is the danger of over-issue of paper money by the
managing authorities:
 Over-issue of currency will result in a rise in prices,
adverse foreign exchange rates and many other evils.
 The over-issue of paper money has ruined many
countries in the past.
• Second important disadvantage:
 It will not have universal acceptance:
 It is recognized as money only in the country where it is
issued.
 For others, paper money is just bits of paper.
 Gold, on the other hand, has universal acceptance.
 Money Multiplier
• An increase in national income divided by the increase in expenditure
generating that increase in income.

Change in Money Supply

• Money Multiplier =
• The money multiplier refers to how an initial
Changedeposit can lead
in Monetary Baseto a bigger
(Reserve)
final increase in the total money supply.
• In simple models, the size of the multiplier depends on the marginal
propensity to consume (MPC).
• For example if the govt. increase it investment expenditure by ` 100, this
sum would be paid out in wages, salaries & profit of the suppliers.
• The households & firms receiving these incomes and profits will in turn,
save a proportion and spend the remainder.
• These expenditures will in turn again generate further incomes and profits
and so on.
• At each round, therefore, a proportion of receipts will be paid and a
proportion spent.
 Contd.
• The money Multiplier is a key element of the
fractional banking system.
• A simple model of multiple deposit creation.
• The bank creates deposits by lending.
• Initial `100 increase in reserves will result in `1000 in
deposit. The increase is tenfold, the reciprocal of
reserve ratio 10%. 1
D=  R
1 r
The simple deposit multiplier:
r 1
D =  R
r
32
 Contd…
• Central Bank control over checkable deposits
is affected by two factors: holdings of
currency; holdings of excess reserves.
• a more advanced model: the money supply
model
• monetary base  money multiplier  money
supply
 The money supply model
• Define money as currency plus checkable
deposits: M = C + D
• M1 definition of money
• The Central Bank can control the monetary
base better than it can control reserves
• Link the money supply (M) to the monetary
base (MB) and let m be the money multiplier

M  m  MB
34
 Deriving the money multiplier

Assume the desired level of currency C and excess reserves ER

grows proportionally with checkable deposits D.
Then, define:
c = {C / D} = currency ratio
e = {ER / D} = excess reserves ratio
c is determined by depositors,
e is determined by banks.
We want to know how do c and e affect m .

35
 Deriving the money multiplier II
The total amount of reserves (R ) equals the sum of
required reserves (RR ) and excess reserves (ER).
R = RR + ER
The total amount of required reserves equals the required
reserve ratio times the amount of checkable deposits
RR = r  D
Subsituting for RR in the first equation
R = (r  D )  ER
The Fed sets the required reserve ratio r to less than 1,
so that $1 of reserve can support more than $1 of deposit.

36
 Deriving the money multiplier III
The monetary base MB equals currency (C ) plus reserves ( R)
MB = R + C = (r  D) + ER + C
The amount of the monetary base need to support:
(1) the existing amounts of checkable deposits; (2) currency;
and (3) excess reserves.

 An increase in the monetary base that goes into currency is

NOT multiplied, whereas an increase that goes into
supporting deposits is multiplied.
 Also, an additional dollar of monetary base that goes into
excess reserve does not support any additional deposits or
currency.
37
Deriving the money multiplier IV
c = {C / D}  C = c  D and e = { ER / D}  ER = e  D
Substituting in MB = (r  D) + ER + C 
MB  ( r  D)  (e  D)  (c  D)  ( r  e  c)  D
Divide both sides by (r  e  c ) 
1
D  MB ()
r ec
use M  D  C and C  c  D  M  (1  c )  D (**)
1 c
Substituting () into (**), get: M   MB
r ec
1 c
So, the money multiplier is: m 
r ec
38
 Example

• If the required reserve ratio is 10 percent, currency in

circulation is $400 billion, checkable deposits are $800 billion,
and excess reserves total $0.8 billion,
• What’s the money supply, monetary base and money
multiplier?
• c = C/D = 400/800 = 0.5; e = E/D = 0.8/800 = 0.001; r = 0.1;
• m =(1+c)/(r+e+c) = 1.5/0.601 = 2.49584
• M = C + D = 400+800 = $1200 billion
• Can check: M = m * MB = m * (C+R) =
2.49584*(400+0.8+0.1*800) = $1200 billion

39
 Intuition

money multiplier:
1 c
m
r ec

1
This is less than the simple deposit multiplier: .
r
Although there is multiple expansion of deposits,
there is no such expansion for currency (currency leakage).

40
Factors that determine 1 c
the money multiplier m
r ec
• Required reserve ratio r:
– the money multiplier and the money supply are negatively
related to r
– Money multiplier represents the maximum extent to which the
money supply is affected by any change in the amount of deposit
it equals ratio of increase or decrease in money supply to the
corresponding increase and decrease in deposit.
• Currency ratio c:
– the money multiplier and the money supply are negatively
related to c.
• Excess reserves ratio e:
– the money multiplier and the money supply are negatively
related to the excess reserves ratio e.

41
 Factors that determine
the money multiplier – cont’d

• The excess reserves ratio e is negatively related to

the market interest rate
– Opportunity cost of holding excess reserves
– Relative expected return on excess reserves relative to
loans and securities
• The excess reserves ratio e is positively related to
expected deposit outflows
– Excess reserves provide insurance against losses due to
deposit outflows.
42
 Recap
M  m  MB
• Money multiplier
1 c C ER RR
m , c= , e = ,r =
r ec D D D
• Currency and excessive reserves are NOT multiplied.
• changes in c, e, r are negatively related to changes in m.
• e is negatively related to market interest rate but positively
related to expected deposit outflow.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93_Va7I7Lgg

43
High Power Money
• High powered money (HPM) or powerful money refers to that currency
that has been issued by the Government and Reserve Bank of India. Some
portion of this currency is kept along with the public while rest is kept as
funds in Reserve Bank.
• The HPM is the total liability of Monetary authority of country +Govt.
money.
• The term liability basically means that when people/govt/commercial
banks produce the currency/claims....the RBI has to pay value equal to
currency/claim.
• the currency issue by the RBI on behalf of Govt. accounts for only seven
to eight percent of the total HPM.
• The RBI uses this H.P.M. for regulation of money supply in the economy .
By controlling the money supply RBI regulates (i.e tries to regulate) the
inflation in economy.
• RBI uses the H.P.M for process of money creation . Money creation will
increase the supply of money in economy.
 Contd…
• The Measure of High power Money supply
H= C + R + OD
C= currency held by the public
R= cash reserves of the commercial banks with
RBI, Vault cash
OD= other deposits (1% HPM)
H= C+ R
• Where H = High Powered Money
• C = Currency with the public (Paper money +
coins)
• R = Government and bank deposits with RBI
 Contd…
• Reserve Fund is of two types:
• (i) Statutory Reserve Funds of banks which is with the
central bank (RR), and
• (ii) Extra Reserve Fund(ER).
• Thus H = C + RR + ER
• High powered money is also known as secured money
(RM) because banks keep with them Reserve Fund(R)
and on the bases of this Demand deposits (DD) are
created. Since the bases of creation of credit is Reserve
Fund (R) and R is obtained as a part of high powered
money (H) Security fund so high powered money is
termed as Base money.
 Components of High Powered Money:
 Currency with the public
 Other Deposits with RBI
 Cash with Banks
 Banker’s Deposits with RBI.
Importance of High Powered Money:
• Base Money:
• Deposit of Public in a bank and expansion of credit is the base of supply of money.
That is why some economists considered it as base money.
• Source of Changes:
• The direction in which change in the high power money takes place is powered to
the direction of change in the supply of money. Thus from this point of view High
Powered Money is also important.
• Money Multiplier:
• What will be money multiplier (M) is declared in economy on the bases of High
Powered Money because supply of money is far more than high power money.
• Monetary Control:
• A Special attention is paid by the central bank of any country on High Powered
Money at the time of monetary control. Because, it is a big part of total supply of
money in a country.
 Department of Economics
Course Name M.A. /B.A. IV
Semester II/ IV
Paper /Subject name Monetary Economics/
Money & Banking (Unit II)
Teacher Name Dr. Vinod Sen
PDF File Yes
Unit II- Value of Money
 Value of Money
• The purchasing power of money over goods &
services in a country.
• The relation between the value of money &
price level is an inverse one.
• The value of money is of two type
• Internal value of money- in domestic economy
• External value of money – in foreign market
Fisher’s Quantity
theory of money
• The quantity of money is the main
determinate of the price level or
value of money.
• Fisher Lived from 1867 to 1947
• Most famous for Fisher “equation of exchange” put
forth in his book The Purchasing Power of
Money(1911).
• According to Fisher “Other things remaining
unchanged, as the quantity of money in circulation
increases, the price level also increases in direct
proportion and the value of money decreases and vice
versa”.
 Contd…
• If the quantity of money is doubled, the price
level will also double and the value of money
will be one half.
• On the other hand, if the quantity of money is
reduced by on half, the price level will also be
reduced by one half and the value of money
will be twice.
 Fisher’s equation of Exchange
PT=MV+M’ V’
• Where P= price level or 1/P = the value of money
• M=the total quantity of legal tender money
• V = the velocity of circulation M;
• M’ = the total quantity of credit money
• V’ = the velocity of circulation M’
• T = the total amount of goods and services
• This equation equates the demand for money
(PT) to supply of Money (MV=M’V’).
 Contd…
• The demand for money
– Total volume of transactions multiplied by the
price level (P*T)
– The total value of purchases (PT) in a year is
measured by MV+M’V’ .
– Thus the equation of exchange is PT=MV+M’V’.
– In order to find out the effect of the quantity of
money on the price level or the value of money
• P = MV+M’V’
T
 Effect of change in the quantity of money
on the price level
• M is money, P is price level
• P=f(M) for the origin at 45°
• Figure B- inverse relation
Between quantity of money &
Value of money
 Assumption of the theory
• The money is used only for the transaction.
• P is passive factor in the equation of exchange which is
affected by the other factors.
• The proportion M’ to M remains constant.
• V and V’ are assumed to be constant and are independent
to changes in M and M’
• T also remains constant and is independent of other factor
such as M, M’, V and V’.
• It is assumed that the demand for money is proportional to
the value of transactions.
• The supply of money is assumed as an exogenously
determined constant.
• The theory is applicable in the long run.
• Full employment in the economy.
 Criticisms of the theory
• Others things are not remain unchanged
• Fail to measure Value of Money
• Weak theory-
• Neglects interest rate
• Unrealistic assumptions
• V is not constant
• Neglects store of value function
• Neglects real balance effect
 The Cambridge equation: the Cash Balances
Approach
• As an alternative to Fisher’s quantity theory of money,
Cambridge Economists Marshall, Pigou, Robertson and
Keynes formulated the cash balance approach.
• The determination of value of money is in terms of
demand and supply of it.
• The concept of Velocity of circulation is discarded
• The cash balance approach considers the demand for
money not as a medium of exchange but as a store of
value.
• Given the supply of money at a point of time, the value
of money is determined by the demand for cash
balance.
 Contd…
• This is a theory of money demand.
• Marshall & Pigou argues that agents choose to
allocate resources to a portfolio of assets, based
upon convenience and security.
• Value of a commodity is determined by demand for
and supply of it and likewise, according to them, the
value of money (i.e., its purchasing power) is
determined by the demand for and supply of money.
• As studied in cash-balance approach to demand for
money Cambridge economists laid stress on the
store of value function of money in sharp contrast to
the medium of exchange function of money
emphasized by in Fisher’s transactions approach to
demand for money.
 Contd…
• According to cash balance approach, the
public likes to hold a proportion of nominal
income in the form of money (i.e., cash
balances). Let us call this proportion of
nominal income that people want to hold in
money as k.
• There is a discussion regarding the provision
of security against unexpected demands due
to sudden need or rise in prices.
 Contd…
• The Cambridge Cash Balances Equation:
Md= k.P.T

• formula resolved the problems concerning Velocity:

• Y = real national income (i.e., aggregate output)
• P = the price level PY = nominal national income
• k = the proportion of nominal income that people want
to hold in money
• Md = the amount of money which public want to hold
• tells us the necessary amount of M that is required for
that level of P * T (= total spending): ‘k’ is reciprocal of
V
 Contd…
• Now, for the achievement of money-market
equilibrium, demand for money must equal
worth the supply of money which we denote by
M. It is important to note that the supply of
money M is exogenously given and is determined
by the monetary policies of the central bank of a
country. Thus, for equilibrium in the money
market.
• M = Md
• As Md =kPY
• Therefore, in equilibrium M = kPY …(2)
 Contd…
• Pigou Equation:
• P= KR
M
Where R= Real Income, M= quantity of money

• Roberson’s Equation:
• M=P*K*Y
• Keynesian Equation:
• n=PK
• n=total consumer in circulation
• K= number of consumption unit
 Contd…
• cash balance approach has made some improvements
over Fisher’s transactions approach in explaining the
relation between money and prices. However it is
essentially the same as the Fisher’s transactions
approach. Like Fisher’s approach if considers
substitution between money and commodities.
• Like Fisher’s approach, cash balance approach also
assumes that full- employment of resources will prevail
due to the wage-price flexibility. Hence, it also believes
the aggregate supply curve as perfectly inelastic at full-
employment level of output.
 Inflation: Introduction
• Background:
– Post world war II- 5 % & In the past 60 years,
– In 1970s prices rose by 7 % per year
– During 1990s prices rose at on average by 7% PA
– Develop & LDE
• What is Inflation
• Inflation means a considerable and persistent
raise in the general prices over a long period of
time.
• “Inflation exits when money income is
expanding more than in proportion to increase
in earning activity”. (Pigou)
 Contd…
• “Too much money chasing too few goods”.
(Coulborn)
• “ a state in which the value of money is falling,
that is, prices are rising.” (Crowther)
• Inflation is situation in which there is a
‘persistent ‘ and ‘appreciable’ increase in the
general level of prices.
• A sustained raise in prices (Harry G. Johnson)
 Contd…
 Inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the
price level or a fall in the value of money.
 When the level of currency of a country exceeds
the level of production, inflation occurs.
 Value of money depreciates with the occurrence
of inflation.
 Statistically speaking, inflation is measured in
terms of a percentage rise in the price index (i.e.
percentage rate per unit time) usually for an
annum (a year) or for 30-31 days (a month).
 Contd…
• Nominal wages-
• Wages expressed in current price
• Real Wage
• The wages paid to employees adjusted for changes in the
price level.
• Money illusion
• Confusion of real and nominal magnitudes
• What matters to people is the value of money or income. Its
purchasing power not the face value of money or income.
• Inflationary shock
• Any event that tends to drive the price level upward is called
an inflationary shock
 Terms Related to Inflation
• The important terms related to inflation are as follows:-
• Deflation : Deflation is a condition of falling prices. It is just the
opposite of inflation. In deflation, the value of money goes up and
prices fall down. Deflation brings a depression phase of business in
the economy.
• Disinflation : Disinflation refers to lowering of prices through anti-
inflationary measures without causing unemployment and
reduction in output.
• Reflation : Reflation is a situation of rising prices intentionally
adopted to ease the depression phase of the economy. In reflation,
along with rising prices, the employment, output and income also
increase until the economy reaches the stage of full employment.
 Contd…
•Stagflation
–Paul Samuelson describes Stagflation as the paradox of
rising prices with increasing rate of unemployment.
•Stagnation
–Stagnation in the rate of economic growth which may be a
slow or no economic growth at all.
•Statflation
–The term 'Statflation' was coined by Dr. P.R.
Brahmananda to describe the inflationary situation of India.
According to Brahmananda, Rising prices in the middle of a
recession is known as Statflation.
 Features of Inflation
• The characteristics or features of inflation are as follows:-
• Inflation involves a process of the persistent rise in prices. It
involves rising trend in price level.
• Inflation is a state of disequilibrium.
• Inflation is scarcity oriented.
• Inflation is dynamic in nature.
• Inflationary price rise is persistent and irreversible.
• Inflation is caused by excess demand in relation to supply of
all types of goods and services.
• Inflation is a purely monetary phenomenon.
• Inflation is a post full employment phenomenon.
• Inflation is a long-term process.
 What is considerable rate of inflation?
• A moderate rate of inflation is considered to be desirable
acceptable.
• i. keeps the economic outlook optimistic, promotes economic activity
and prevents economic stagnation
• ii. It is helpful in mobilization of resources
• Iii. Inevitable in dynamic and progressive economy.
• The inflation absorbing capacity of country depends on
• Saving, investment, growth of output, BOP position and employment.
• A price rise of 2-3 per cent per annum in the developed and
4-5 per cent per annum in the developing economies may
be considered as desirable rate of inflation.
• Chakravarty Committee (1985): 4 Percent inflation in India
is socially desirable
Every price rise in excess of moderate rate is not inflation

• price rise due to change in the

composition of GDP in which high price
industrial goods replace the low price
farm products.
• price rise due to qualitative change in
the products across of board
• price rise due to change in price
indexing system
• recovery in price after recession.
 Every rise in money wage is not inflationary.

• When proportion of unionized wage is small.

• Money wage rise under competitive condition.
• Productivity linked wage rise.
• The case of wage push inflation in less developed
economies , labour union and their bargaining power in
LDC.
• Large scale open & disguised employment which prevents
trade unions to force wage hike.
• Huge unorganized sector in compare to organized sector
• Division of labour unions in political groups resulting in in-
flight and weakening the union.
• Week financial position of trade unions, and their members
• Poverty, illiteracy, and ignorance of workers causing low
membership of union.
 Measures of inflation
• There are two common measures of inflation
– (i) percentage change in Price Index (PIN)
– (ii) Change in GNP Deflator
 Measuring inflation through PIN
– Rate of Inflation = PINt – PINt-1/ PINt – 1 * 100
– Where PINt and PINt-1 are the price Index No. in selected for
measuring inflation and the preceding year respectively
• The two widely used PINs are WPI or PPI and
CPI
• WPI is used to measure the general rate of
inflation
• CPI is used to measure in the cost of living
• If WPI (2004-05 = 100) for all the commodities
increase from 182.7 in 2008-09 to 207.8 in
2009-10. calculate the rate of inflation. (13.74)
 Contd…
• The annual Average rate of inflation
• The annual average rate of inflation over a period of time (say,
5,10, or 20 years) is computed by taking average of the annual rate
on inflation.
• The annual average rate of inflation in India 2010-11 to 2014-15
• Sum of inflation rate/ no of years
Year Inflation rate (%)
2010-11 10.3
2011-12 13.7
2012-13 10.1
2013-14 8.4
2014-15 10.8
Annual average 10.6
 Measuring inflation by GNP Deflator
• The GNP deflator is the ratio of nominal GNP
to the real GNP to the same year.
• GNP deflator = Nominal GNP/ Real GNP
– Where Nominal GNP is GNP at current prices and Real GNP is
GNP at Constant prices.
– Suppose India's nominal GNP (i.e. GNP at current prices) in
2010-11 was 47,0269 cores and Real GNP (i.e. constant price
of 2004-05) was Rs. 20,8481 crores.
– GNP deflator (2010-11) = 47,0269 / 20,8481
» = 2.2557
In terms of percentage, GNP deflator equals 2.2557 * 100 =
225.57 per cent.
 Type of Inflation
• Inflation generally classified on the basis of its rate and causes
• (i) Moderate Inflation or creeping- single digit
• When the general level of prices rise at a moderate rate over a long period of
time, it is called moderate inflation or creeping inflation. A single digit rate of
inflation annual inflation is called Moderate inflation.
• It is predictable during the period of Moderate inflation the people continue to
have faith in monetary system & confidence in money as a store of value.
• Money continue as a medium of exchange.
• (ii) Galloping Inflation- double & triple digit
• According to Samuelson & Nordhaus “Inflation in the double or triple digit
range of 20, 100, or 200 per cent a year is labeled galloping inflation. A country
with 900 per cent annual inflation will have devastating effects whereas 20-30
per cent inflation can be manage without pressing the alarm bell.
• However the post-War I inflation in Germany is often cited as an example of
Galloping inflation through some would called it higher inflation.
• WPI in Germany 1921- 140 %, 1922- 4100 % 500 % Per Month
• WPI in Argentina 1990-91-416.9 % Barazil- 327.6 %
• Maxico- 66.5 % Peru- 287.3% Yugoslavia- 123%
 Contd…
– (iii) Hyper inflation- more than three digit
– During the period of hyper inflation, paper currency become
worthless & demand for money decreases drastically
– Germany suffered from hyper inflation in 1922 & 1923 when
WPI shot up by 100 million % between December 1922 &
– November 1923. November 1923 was the worst period of
hyper inflation in Germany – January 1922 to November 1923,
the price index rose from 1 to 10, 000, 000,000.
– Hungarian Inflation of 1945-46 is the worst case of hyper
inflation over recorded: rate of inflation averaged about
20,000 % per month for a year & in the last month prices
Skyrocketed 42 quadrillion % (24 Zero place after 1)
 Contd…
• German hyper inflation would reveal what
happens during the period of hyper inflation –
– People carried basket-load of money to the market and
brought goods in pocket.
– It was cheaper to burn currency note to make tea rather than
buy it in the tea-shop
– At the time of entering the café, the price of a cup of coffee
was 4,000 marks, which rose to 8000 marks before one could
finish his coffee.
– Price of a house in pre-inflation period was just sufficient to
pay a day’s rent in Post-inflation period.
 Open and suppressed inflation
• When there is no control on the rising prices &
prices are free to find their own level the inflation
under this condition called open Inflation.
• In post war II period control & regulation of
prices.
• price control by price ceiling, rationing of
consumer scare goods, PDS, Subsidy, in spite of
these control measures, prices do rise and
inflation does take place but at the rate lower
than the poetical rate in the open system is called
suppressed inflation.
• Inflation in India:
 The Economic Effects of Inflation
• Inflation effects all those who depend on the
market for their income and supplies. The
effect of inflation may be low or high
depending on the rate of inflation. Beside
galloping and hyper inflation have social and
political implication
• Distribution of income – price received & price
paid, HH vs Firm, Wage income Vs profit, wage
increase Vs price rise, same population-when
profit rise faster than wage income.
 Distribution of Wealth
• Assets can be classified as;
– 1. price variable assets 2. fixed claim assets
– Price variable assets are those whose prices increase or price
variable assets can be further classified
– A) Physical assets- land, building, automobiles, gold,
jewelry ,
– B) Financial Assets- share and bond
– Fixed claim assets: bonds, term deposits with bank and
companies loan and advances etc.
– Liabilities: are mostly fixed claim nature like
house loan, car loan, and mortgage of property .
– The effect of inflation on the distribution of wealth depends on
how much inflation affects the net worth (=assets-Liability) of
the different classes of wealth holders.
– The effect of inflation on net worth depends on how inflation
affects the money value of the price variable asset.
 Contd…
• Output and economic growth
– the effect of inflation on economic growth can be examine at both
theoretically & empirical levels.
– Theoretically the rate of growth depends on the rate of capital formation,
which depend on rate of saving & investment. Therefore, whether inflation
affect economic growth positively or negatively depend on whether it affect
saving and investment positively or negatively.
– There is positive relationship between economic growth and inflation.
– During the period of inflation there is time leg (wage-leg) between the rise in
output price and rise in input price particularly wage rate.
– Inflation tends to redistributed income in favour of higher income group
whose incomes consist mostly profit and non wage income.
– Different kind of relations between inflation & growth have been observed
during post war II period.
• 1. low rate of inflation & high rate of growth (West Germany)
• 2. high rate of inflation and high rate of growth (Japan)
• 3. high rate of inflation & low rate of growth (U.K.)
• 4. low rate of inflation and low rate of growth (India)
• Short run inflation positively affect economic growth.
– In long run inflation does not play a significance role in economic growth,
there are other factors which affects economic growth.
– The moderate rate of inflation is good for the economy. It provide best climate
for health economic growth.
 Contd…
• Effect of inflation on Employment of Labour
– Economic growth & employment go hand in hand.
– If inflation affect growth variable- saving, investment
& profit favorable than it affects employment
favorable too. More investment –more employment.
– A trade off between inflation and unemployment.
– A high rate of inflation increase employment, it affects
growth adversely. Besides, inflation as a means to
growth and employment involves sever economic &
social cost in terms of distortion in relative prices, mall
allocation of resource & social & political unrest,
therefore it can be allowed to go uncontrolled.
– If it is controlled, it will limit the employment and
cause unemployment. . (situation of dilemma)
Effect of inflation on different section of society
• Wage earners
• Organized sector workers
• Unorganized sector workers- unionization
• Condition of market – open employment, unemployment,
disguised unemployment
• Labour in unorganized sector is net looser during the period of
inflation.
• Producers
• Producers gain or loss depends on the rate of increase in prices
they receive (the sale price) and the price they pay (input price)
• In general product price rise first and faster than the cost of
production therefore, profit margin increase and producers gain.
• There is a time leg between increase commodity price and wage
other input prices increase at a lower rate therefore producer are
the net gainers.
 Contd…
• Fixed income class
• Is a net losers, constant income, increase in the prices
of good and service, their purchasing power eroded.
• Fixed income= 100000/- per annum, rate of inflation 10
% real income will be 90000, 81000/- and 72900/-.
• Borrowers and lenders
• Borrowers gain & lenders loss
• i.e. a borrowers borrow rs. 2 Lakh at 12 % rate of
interest for period of 5 years to buy a house. Suppose
that escalation in property prices in such that property
price double every 5 years. Borrower pay 8 lakh after 5
years where as price of house rise to Rs. 10 lakh.
 Contd…
• The government
• Net gainer, govt. as a taxing & spending unit and as a net
borrower.
• Inflation increase tax yields from personal income tax in at
least two ways, one Inflation redistribute income generally in
favour of higher income group. This kind of income transfers
enlarge the tax base for the personal income tax.
• two, inflation increase the normal income at the rate of
inflation real income remaining the same. As a consequence,
an income which was non-taxable prior to inflation become
tax able after inflation.
• Corporate tax, output price increase fast then the input
prices therefore total profit increase, if output and input
prices increase at same rate the volume of nominal profit
increase. This increase tax revenue.
 Measures to control inflation

• Mix of fiscal and monetary policies.

• Monetary measures
• Fiscal measures
• Price and wage control
 Monetary measures
• Traditional monetary measures
• Bank rate/central bank rediscount rate
– A rate at which central bank buy or rediscount the eligible bill
of exchange & other approved commercial papers.
– A lender of the last resort
– Rise in bank rate
• Variable Reserve Ratio – CRR
• Open Market Operation
– Sale & purchase of the govt. securities & debt by CB from
public.
 Contd…
• Non- traditional measure
– Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) 25%
– Selective credit control
• Regulate the distribution of credit
– Moral Suasion – pressure, persuasion
– Credit Authorization Scheme – 1965 by RBI
• Fiscal Measures
– Govt. expenditure & taxation
• Price control & wage control
 Objective of Monetary Policy
• Keep inflation & inflation expectation low &
stable
• Help stabilize economy including avoiding &
responding to financial crisis.
• Growth
• Stability in exchange rate
• Financial stability
– How do the CB deal with these under inflation
target.
Why are price and economic stability important

• High & variable information creates

uncertainty, reduces investment & reduces
economy’s supply potential.
• Inflation adversely affect income distribution
– Inflation is a tax on poor – assets owner
– Iron low of Indian economy inflation more than 5
per cent counter productive
 Targeting multiple objective is
problematic
• RBI previously followed a multiple objective
regime, that how inflation control was lost
• Tinbergen rules: for every objective you need
an instrument.
• Central bank only have one main instrument –
interest rate.
• Which mean they can really aim at only one
objective.
 Divine Coincidence
• Equilibrium equation: aggregate demand (Planned
Expenditure PE) = aggregate supply (Y).
• If PE< Y, that means output is likely to slump and
inflation will be “too low”
• → cut rates, cure both
• If PE>Y, the economy is overheating &
inflation will be too high
• → raise rates, cure both
• Miracle: aiming for inflation target means
stabilizing economic growth.
 Inflationary Gap
• Where AD and AS meet is considered to be
Equilibrium GDP. There are 3 possible
Macroeconomic Equilibriums:
• Below Full Employment Equilibrium: when
potential GDP exceeds equilibrium real GDP.
• Full Employment Equilibrium: When potential
GDP equals equilibrium Real GDP
• Above Full Employment Equilibrium: when
equilibrium real GDP exceeds potential GDP.
• Real GDP exceeds potential GDP — there is
an inflationary gap —and the price level
rises.
 Inflation & Keynes

• In the Keynesian model, inflation is only

implicit, the aggregate price level does not
appear explicitly in any of the models we have
been looking at
• There CAN be
– an "inflationary gap", or
– a "deflationary gap"
• These are defined vis a vis the "full
employment level of output"
 Full Employment Output
• The definition of "full employment output" is
vague
• Most people think about this in technical
terms about what "can be" produced with the
given capital stock & labor
• But clearly this is flexible. Capacity can be
squeezed, but this puts upward pressure on
prices as business has to pay more for factors
of production
 Gaps
• Suppose Yfe is the full employment equilibrium level of output

C, I, G aggregate
demand
deflationary
gap
inflationary
gap

B Y A Y
 Inflationary Gap
• The notion is that if planned aggregate demand exceeds
full employment output there will be upward pressure on
prices (demand pull inflation)

aggregate
C, I, G demand

deflationary
gap
inflationary
gap

B Y A Y
 Deflationary Gap
• If aggregate demand is less than the full employment
output there will be downward pressure on prices (prices
reduced to sell)

C, I, G aggregate
demand

deflationary
gap
inflationary
gap

B Y A Y
 Gaps & Policy
• Clearly, the presence of an inflationary gap or
a deflationary gap suggests policy responses:
• Inflationary Gap: use monetary & fiscal policy
to reduce aggregate demand
• Deflationary Gap: use monetary & fiscal policy
to increase aggregate demand (as in the Great
Depression)
 Phillips Curve
• A. W. Phillips (1958), “The Relation Between
Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money
Wage Rates in the United Kingdom, 1861-1957”,
• Wage inflation vs. Unemployment
• In the long run, inflation & unemployment are
unrelated:
– The inflation rate depends mainly on growth in the
money supply.
– Unemployment (the “natural rate”) depends on the
minimum wage, the market power of unions,
efficiency wages, and the process of job search
 Contd..
• In the short run,
society faces a trade-off between inflation and
unemployment.
• 1958: A.W. Phillips showed that nominal wage
growth was negatively correlated with
unemployment in the U.K.
• 1960: Paul Samuelson & Robert Solow found
a negative correlation between U.S. inflation
& unemployment, named it “the Phillips Curve.”
 Deriving the Phillips Curve

• Suppose P = 100 this year.

• The following graphs show two possible
outcomes for next year:
A. Agg demand low,
small increase in P (i.e., low inflation),
low output, high unemployment.
B. Agg demand high,
big increase in P (i.e., high inflation),
high output, low unemployment.
 Deriving the Phillips Curve
A. Low agg demand, low inflation, high u-rate
P inflation

SRAS
B B
5%
105
A
103 3% A
AD2
PC
AD1

Y1 Y2 Y 4% 6% u-rate

B. High agg demand, high inflation, low u-rate

 The Phillips Curve: A Policy Menu?

• Since fiscal and mon policy affect agg demand, the PC

appeared to offer policymakers a menu
of choices:
– low unemployment with high inflation
– low inflation with high unemployment
– anything in between
• 1960s: U.S. data supported the Phillips curve.
Many believed the PC was stable and reliable.
 Evidence for the Phillips Curve?
During the 1960s,
U.S. policymakers
opted for reducing
unemployment
at the expense of
higher inflation

CHAPTER 35 THE SHORT-RUN

TRADE-OFF
 The Vertical Long-Run Phillips Curve

• 1968: Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps argued

that the tradeoff was temporary.
• Natural-rate hypothesis: the claim that
unemployment eventually returns to its normal or
“natural” rate, regardless of the inflation rate
• Based on the classical dichotomy and the
vertical LRAS curve.
 The Vertical Long-Run Phillips Curve
In the long run, faster money growth only causes faster
inflation.
P inflation
LRAS LRPC

high
P2 infla-
tion
P1 AD2 low
infla-
AD1 tion
Y u-rate
natural rate natural rate of
of output unemployment
 Reconciling Theory and Evidence
• Evidence (from ’60s):
PC slopes downward.
• Theory (Friedman and Phelps’ work):
PC is vertical in the long run.
• To bridge the gap between theory and
evidence, Friedman and Phelps introduced a
new variable: expected inflation – a measure
of how much people expect the price level to
change.
 The Phillips Curve Equation
Natural
Unemp. Actual Expected
= rate of – a –
rate inflation inflation
unemp.

Short run
Fed can reduce u-rate below the natural u-rate
by making inflation greater than expected.
Long run
Expectations catch up to reality,
u-rate goes back to natural u-rate whether inflation is
high or low.
 How Expected Inflation Shifts the PC
Initially, expected &
actual inflation = 3%,
inflation
unemployment = LRPC
natural rate (6%).
Fed makes inflation
2% higher than expected, B C
5%
u-rate falls to 4%.
3% A
In the long run,
expected inflation increases PC2
to 5%, PC1
PC shifts upward,
4% 6% u-rate
unemployment returns to
its natural rate.
ACTIVE LEARNING 1:
Exercise
Natural rate of unemployment = 5%
Expected inflation = 2%
Coefficient a in PC equation = 0.5
A. Plot the long-run Phillips curve.
B. Find the u-rate for each of these values of actual
inflation: 0%, 6%. Sketch the short-run PC.
C. Suppose expected inflation rises to 4%.
Repeat part B.
D. Instead, suppose the natural rate falls to 4%. Draw the
new long-run Phillips curve,
then repeat part B.
68
ACTIVE LEARNING 1:
LRPCD
Answers
PCB LRPCA
7
An increase
in expected 6
inflation
5
shifts PC to
inflation rate
the right. 4
PCD
3
PCC
A fall in the 2
natural rate
1
shifts both
curves 0
to the left. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
unemployment rate
69
 The Breakdown of the Phillips Curve

Early 1970s:
unemployment increased,
despite higher inflation.
Friedman & Phelps’
explanation:
expectations were
catching up with
reality.

CHAPTER 35 THE SHORT-RUN

TRADE-OFF
Another PC Shifter: Supply Shocks
• Supply shock:
an event that directly alters firms’ costs and
prices, shifting the AS and PC curves
• Example: large increase in oil prices
 How an Adverse Supply Shock Shifts the PC
SRAS shifts left, prices rise, output & employment fall.
P inflation
SRAS2

SRAS1
B B
P2

P1 A A
PC2

AD PC1
Y2 Y1 Y u-rate

Inflation & u-rate both increase as the PC shifts upward.

 The 1970s Oil Price Shocks

Oil price per barrel The Fed chose to accommodate

1/1973 $ 3.56 the
first shock in 1973
1/1974 10.11 with faster money growth.
1/1979 14.85 Result:
1/1980 32.50 Higher expected inflation, which
1/1981 38.00 further shifted PC.
1979:
Oil prices surged again,
worsening the Fed’s tradeoff.
 The 1970s Oil Price Shocks

Supply shocks & rising expected

inflation worsened the PC tradeoff.

CHAPTER 35 THE SHORT-RUN

TRADE-OFF
 The Cost of Reducing Inflation
• Disinflation: a reduction in the inflation rate
• To reduce inflation,
Fed must slow the rate of money growth,
which reduces agg demand.
• Short run: output falls and unemployment
rises.
• Long run: output & unemployment return to
their natural rates.
 Disinflationary Monetary Policy
Contractionary monetary
policy moves economy from
inflation
A to B. LRPC
Over time,
expected inflation falls, A
PC shifts downward.
B
In the long run, C
point C:
the natural rate PC1
of unemployment, PC2
and lower inflation.
u-rate
natural rate of
unemployment
 The Cost of Reducing Inflation
• Disinflation requires enduring a period of
high unemployment and low output.
• Sacrifice ratio: the number of percentage points of
annual output lost in the process of reducing inflation
by 1 percentage point
• Typical estimate of the sacrifice ratio: 5
– Reducing inflation rate 1% requires a sacrifice of
5% of a year’s output.
• This cost can be spread over time. Example:
To reduce inflation by 6%, can either
– sacrifice 30% of GDP for one year
– sacrifice 10% of GDP for three years
CHAPTER 35 THE SHORT-RUN
TRADE-OFF
 Department of Economics
Course Name M.A. /B.A. IV
Semester II/ IV
Paper /Subject name Monetary
Economics/Money &
Banking (Unit III)
Teacher Name Dr. Vinod Sen
PDF File Yes
 Unit III

Commercial Bank
Meaning and Function of Commercial Bank,
the Process of Credit Creation, Purpose and
Limitation, Commercial Banks and Economic
Development, Cooperative Banks.
 Commercial Banks: Meaning
• A bank is a commercial or state institution that provides
financial services , including issuing money in various forms,
receiving deposits of money, lending money and processing
transactions and the creating of credit.
• A commercial bank accepts deposits from customers and in
turn makes loans, even in excess of the deposits; a process
known as fractional-reserve banking. Some banks (called
Banks of issue) issue banknotes as legal tender.
• A commercial bank is usually defined as an institution that
both accepts deposits and makes loans; there are also
financial institutions that provide selected banking services
without meeting the legal definition of a bank.
• Many banks offer additional financial services to make
additional profit; for example, most banks also rent safe
deposit boxes in their branches.
 Purpose of a bank
• Banks have influenced economies & politics for
centuries. Historically, the primary purpose of a
bank was to provide loans to trading companies.
Banks provided funds to allow businesses to
purchase inventory, and collected those funds back
with interest when the goods were sold.
• A bank’s loan are considered assets they are owed
back to the bank. Deposits are considered liabilities,
at the time of demand they must be return by the
bank to the depositor.
 Type of commercial banks
• Scheduled commercial bank
• Private bank
• Public bank
• Foreign bank
• Non scheduled bank
 The objectives of a commercial bank
• To establish as an institution for maximizing profits and to conduct overall
economic activities.
• To collect savings or idle money from the public at a lower rate of interests and
lend these public money at a higher rate of interests.
• To create propensity of savings amongst the people.
• To motivate people for investing money with a view to bringing solvency in them .
• To create money against money as an alternative for enhancing supply of money.
• To build up capital through savings.
• To expedite investments.
• To extend services to the customers.
• To maintain economic stability by means of controlling money market.
• To extend co-operation and advices to the Govt. on economic issues.
• To assist the Govt. for trade& business and socio-economic development
 The functions of commercial bank
• A: General Functions
• Receiving Deposits
– The first and foremost function of commercial bank is to receive or collect deposits from the public in
different forms of accounts e.g. current, savings, term deposits. No interest is charged in the current
account, lower rate of interest is charged in the savings account and comparatively higher interest rates
charged in fixed deposits. Thus, commercial bank builds up customer network.

• Accommodation of loans and advances

– Commercial Bank attaches much importance to providing loans and advances at a higher rates than the
deposit rates and thus earns profits on it. Working capital is accommodated to the borrower for
expansion and smooth running of business. In the similar manner, commercial bank extends financial
accommodation for the development of agriculture 6 and industry. Credit accommodation is provided
to the entrepreneurs for reviving sick and old industries as per Govt. directives. Thus, commercial bank
also extends welfare services to the people at large.

• Creation of Loan Deposits

– Commercial Bank not only receives deposits from public and accommodates loans to public but also
creates loan deposits. For example: while disbursing loans as per sanction stipulation, the amount of
loan is credited to the borrower‟s account. The borrower may not withdraw the full amount at a time.
The residual amount i.e. balance left in the account creates loan deposits.
 The functions of commercial bank-A: General Functions

• Creation of medium of exchange

– Central Bank has got exclusive right to issue notes. On the other hand,
Commercial Bank creates medium of exchange by issuing cheques. Like notes,
cheque is transferrable being popularly used in the banking transactions.
• Contribution in foreign trade
– Commercial Bank plays a vital role in expediting foreign exchange and foreign
trade business e.g. import, export etc. It contributes greatly in the economy
through import finance and export finance and thus, earn foreign exchange
for the country.

• Formation of capital
– Commercial Bank extends financial assistance for the formation of capital in
the trade, commerce and industry in the country which expedites its
economic development.

• Creation of Investment Environment

– Commercial Bank plays a significant role in creating investment environments
in the country.
 The functions of commercial bank-B:Public Utility Functions

• Remittance of Money
• Remittance of money to the public from one place to another is one of the functions of
commercial bank. Remittance is effected in the form of demand draft ,telegraphic transfer etc.
through different branches and correspondents home and abroad.
• Help in trade and commerce
• Commercial Bank helps expand trade and commerce. In inland and foreign trade customers are
allowed credit accommodation in the form of letter of credit , bill purchased and discounted
etc.
• Safe custody of valuables
• Commercial Bank introduces „locker‟ services to the customers for safe custody of valuables
e.g. documents, shares, securities etc.
• Help in Foreign Exchange business
• While opening letter of credit , commercial bank obtains credit report of the suppliers and thus
help expedite import and export business.
• Act as a Referee
• Commercial Bank acts as a referee for and on behalf of the customers.
• Act as an Adviser
• Commercial Bank provides valuable advice to the customers on different products, business growth and
development, feasibility of business and industry.
 The functions of commercial bank-B:Public
Utility Functions
• Collect utility service bills
• As a social commitment, Commercial Bank collects utility service bills e.g.
water, electricity, gas, telephone etc. from the public.
• Purchase and sale of prize bonds, sanchaya patra, shares etc.
• Commercial Bank undertakes to purchase and sale of prize bonds,
sanchaya patra, shares etc. as a part of social commitment.
• Help people travel abroad
• Commercial Bank helps customers in traveling abroad through issuance of
travelers cheques, drafts, cash etc. in favour of the customers.
• Collection of statics
 The functions of Commercial bank-C. Agency Functions:

• Collection and payment

• Commercial Bank is engaged in collection and payment of cheque, bill of exchange,
promissory notes, pension, dividends, subscription, insurance premium, interest
etc. on behalf of the clients.
• Transfer of fund
• Purchase and sale of shares and securities
• Commercial Bank is entrusted with the responsibility of purchase and sale of shares
and securities on behalf of the customers.
• Maintenance of secrecy
• Maintenance of secrecy is one of the most important functions of commercial
bank.
• Act as a trustee
• Commercial Bank acts as a trustee on behalf of the customer.
• Economic Development and Welfare activities
• Commercial Bank contributes much for the welfare and economic development of
the country.
 Credit creation
• Credit creation means that on the basis of primary deposits
commercial banks make loans and expand the money
supply. It results in multiple expansion of banks demand
deposits.
• It is an open secret that banks advance a major portion of
their deposits to the borrowers and keep smaller part of
them for the payment to the customers on demand.
• Even then the customers of the banks have full confidence
that their deposits lying in the banks are quit safe and can
be withdrawn on demand.
• The banks exploit this trust of the customers and expand
loans several times than the amount of demand deposits
possessed by them.
 Contd…
• “This tendency on the part of the commercial
banks to make loans several times of the
excess cash reserves kept by the bank is called
creation of credit”.
 Process of Credit creation
• The existence of a number of banks, A, B, C
etc., each with different sets of depositors.
• Every bank has to keep 20% of cash reserves,
according to law, and,
• Suppose, a person deposits Rs. 1,00 cash in
Bank A. As a result, the deposits of bank A
increase by Rs. 1,00 and cash also increases by
Rs. 1,00.
 Contd…
• Under the double entry system, the amount of
• Rs. 1,00 is shown on both sides. The deposit of Rs. 1,00 is a
liability for the bank and it is also an asset to the bank. Bank
A has to keep only 20% cash reserve, i.e., Rs. 20 against its
new deposit and it has a surplus of Rs. 80 which it can
profitably employ in the assets like loans. Suppose bank A
gives a loan to X, who uses the amount to pay off his
creditors. After the loan has been made and the amount so
withdrawn by B to pay off his creditors,
• Suppose B purchase goods of the value of Rs. 80 from C and
pay cash. C deposits the amount with Bank B. The deposits
of Bank AA now increase by Rs. 80 and its cash also
increases by Rs. 80. After keeping a cash reserve of Rs.16,
Bank AA is free to lend the balance of Rs. 64 to any one.
Suppose bank AA lends Rs. 64 to d, who uses the amount to
pay off his creditors.
Bank Acquired reserve &
Deposit Multiple Required Excess Reserve
deposit expansion
Reserve
New Money
Created
A 100 20 80 80
B 80 16 64 64
C 64 12.80 51.20 51.20
D 51.20 10.24 40.96 40.96
E 40.96 8.19 32.77 32.77
F 32.77 6.55 26.22 26.22
G 26.22 5.24 20.98 20.98
H 20.98 4.20 16.78 16.78
I 16.78 3.36 13.42 13.42
J 13.42 2.68 10.74 10.74
K 10.74 2.15 8.59 8.59
L 8.59 1.72 6.87 6.87
M 6.87 1.37 5.50 5.50
N 5.50 1.10 4.40 4.40
Others 21.97 4.40 17.57 17.57
banks
Total amount of money created in the banking system 400.00
The table shows the following points
• (i) If the cash reserve ratio is 20%and
• (ii) the initial deposit is Rs 100
• The banks creates newly created money of
Rs 400.
• The total demand deposits are Rs 500
(initial deposit Rs 100 + credit creation Rs 400
= Rs 500).
“The credit multiplier is the reciprocal of the
required reserve ratio”.
• Credit multiplier = 1/required reserve ratio
• If reserve ratio is 20%
• Then credit multiplier = 1/0.20 = 5
 Limitation on Credit Creation
• The commercial banks do not have unlimited
power of credit creation. Their power to create
credit is limited by the following factors:
• 1. Amount of Cash
• 2. Cash Reserve Ratio
• 3. Banking Habits of the People
• 4. Nature of Business Conditions in the Economy
• 5. Leakages in Credit-Creation- currency drain
• 6. Sound Securities
• 7. Liquidity Preference
• 8. Monetary Policy of the Central Bank
 Role of CBs in Economic Development
• Mobilising saving for capital formation
• Financing Industry-
• Financing Trade- internal & external, exim Bank
• Financing Agriculture
• Financing Employment Generating
Activities –
• Help in Monetary Policy
 Cooperative Bank
• Cooperative banking institution takes deposits
and lend money in most part of the world.
• It provides financial assistance to the people with
small means to protect them form the debt trap
of the money lenders.
• It is financial entity which belongs to its
members, who are at the same time the owners
and the same members of the banks. It is often
created by person belonging to the same local or
personal community or sharing common interest.
• Wide range of banking and financial service
(loans, deposits and banking accounts etc)
 Contd…
• The organizational set up of the cooperative
banking system in India is based on the credit
needs of agriculture.
• It consists of three tiers for the short-term &
Medium term credit
• 1. Primary Agricultural Cooperative Credit Society
at the village level.
• 2. Central Cooperative Banks at district level.
• 3. State Cooperative Banks at the state level.
• Land development banks for long term credit
 Objectives of Cooperative banks:
• Engage in rural financing and micro-financing
• To remove the dominance of the common man
by the middleman and money lenders
• Ensure credit services to farmers at the low rate
of interest providing the socioeconomic condition
to the people
• Provide financial support for the needy people
and farmers in the rural areas
• Provides personal financial services for those
engaged in small-scale industries and self-
employment driven activities for people in both
rural and urban areas
 Functions of Cooperative Banks in India
• They function with the rule of “one member, one vote” and
function on “no profit, no loss” basis
• It performs all the main banking functions of deposit
mobilization, the supply of credit and provision of remittance
facilities
• It provides financial assistance to the people with small means
to protect them from the debt trap of the moneylenders
• It is engaged in tasks of production, processing, marketing,
distribution, servicing and banking in India
• It supervises and guides affiliated societies
• Mobilization of funds from their members
• Advance loans to the members
• Rural financing for farming, cattle, milk, hatchery, personal
finance, etc.
• Urban financing for Self – employment, Industries Small scale
units, Home finance, Consumer finance, Personal finance
 Advantages of Cooperative Banks
• Easy to form
• No obstruction for membership
• Limited liability
• Service motive
• Democratic management
• Stability and Continuity
• Economic operations
• State patronage
 Weakness of Cooperative Banks
• They are too small to be economical and viable;
besides too many of them are dormant, existing only
on paper
• Co-operative banks are not doing well in all the states;
only a few accounts for a major part of their business
• These banks still rely very heavily on refinancing
facilities from the government, the RBI, and NABARD
• They suffer from dangerously low or weak quality of
loan assets, and from the highly unsatisfactory
recovery of loans.
• They do not look like banks and do not inspire
confidence in the potential members, depositors, and
borrowers.
 Contd…
• Most of the Co-operative banks are suffering from a lack of
professional management.
• Except for some Co-operative banks, technological
development in Information Technology or computerized
data management is conspicuously absent.
• As there is no formal system of corporate governance in co-
operative banks, many banks have become the hotbed of
political patronage, unscrupulous financial practice, and
gross mismanagement.
• Another problem arises out of the duality of control over
them i.e. these banks are organized under the dual control
of RBI and as well as respective state government.
• They unduly depend on government capital rather than
member capital.
What is a commercial bank? Discuss the various functions performed by a
bank.
Explain the role of commercial bank in promoting economic development.
Explain the process of credit creation by commercial banks.
What is a bank? What are main objectives of the commercial bank?
How do banks create credit? What are the limitations on the power of banks
to create credit?
What do you mean by cooperative banks.
Discuss the functions of Cooperative Banks in India.
What are the advantages and weakness of cooperative banks.
Examine the Role of played by CBs in Economic Development of a nation.
 Department of Economics
Course Name M.A. /B.A. IV
Semester II/ IV
Paper /Subject name Monetary Economics/
Money & Banking (Unit IV)
Teacher Name Dr. Vinod Sen
PDF File Yes
 Unit IV
Functions, Objective and Methods of Credit
Control: Quantitative and Qualitative
Methods, Role and Function of Reserve Bank
of India, Objective and Limitation of
Monetary Policy, Monetary Policy of RBI.
Reserve Bank Of India
 Introduction
• The RBI ,as the central bank of the country ,is
the centre of the Indian financial and monetary
system.
• It started functioning from April 1 ,1935 on the
terms of the Reserve Bank of India Act ,1934.
• The bank is managed by a Central Board of
Directors ,four local Boards of Directors, and a
committee of the Central Board of Directors.
 Main Functions of RBI
1. To maintain monetary stability
2. To maintain financial stability.
3. To maintain stable payments system.
4. To promote the development of financial
infrastructure of markets and systems.
5. To ensure that credit allocation by the financial
system broadly reflects the national economic
priorities and societal concerns.
6. To regulate the overall volume of money and credit
in the economy.
 Role of RBI
1. Note issuing authority:- The RBI has the sole
right or authority or monopoly of issuing
currency notes other than one rupee notes and
coins ,and coins of smaller denominations.
2. Government Banker :- The RBI is the banker
to the Central and state governments. As a
banker to the Govt. , the bank can make “ ways
and means advances” to both the Central and
State Govt. and also provides overdraft facilities
.
3. Banker’s bank:-The RBI can be called a banker‟s bank
because it has a very special relationship with
commercial and co-operative banks, and the major part
of its business is with these banks.
4. Supervising Authority:- The RBI has the power to
supervise and control commercial and co-operative
banks i.e to issue licenses for starting branches , to
inspect the working of banks in India.
5. Exchange Control Authority :- RBI also performs
the role of maintaining the stability of external value of
rupee. It pursues this objective through its domestic
policies and regulation of foreign exchange market.
6. Promoter of Financial System :- RBI has been
rendering „development‟ or „promotional services‟
which have strengthened the country‟s banking
and financial structure.
7. Banking Ombudsman Scheme :- RBI
introduced the Banking Ombudsman Scheme in
1995. Under this scheme , the complainants can
file their complaints in any form , including
online and can also appeal to the RBI against the
awards and the other decisions of the Banking
Ombudsman.
8. Monetary Policy implementation :- RBI
implements the monetary policy through its
various instruments.
9. Banking Codes and Standards Board of India
:- To measure the performance of banks against
Codes and standards based on established global
practices ,the RBI set up the Banking Codes and
Standards Board of India(BCSBI).
10. Customer Service Department in RBI :- RBI
set up a new department called Customer Service
Department to carry out a variety of activities
relating customer services and grievance redressal
in the RBI.
11. Fair Practices Codes For Lenders:- RBI
formulated the Fair Practices Code for Lenders
which was communicated to banks to safeguard
the rightful interest of the borrowers .
12. Transparency and reasonableness of bank
charges:- there should be transparency and
reasonableness of bank charges.
 Meaning
 Main Function of the central bank is to manage
and control the monetary system.
Necessary to achieve and maintain
growth rate.
The policy of credit expansion
or contraction.
• “Credit Control refers to the
regulation of credit by the
Central Bank for achieving the
objective of economic growth
and development.”
Objectives of Credit Control
Exchange Rate
Stability

Stabilization of
Price Stability
Money Market

Objectives

Control over Economic

Trade Cycles Stability

High level of
Employment
 Techniques of Credit
Control
• Central bank – Main body to control credit.
• Control credit through its MONETARY POLICY.
• Methods are:-
I. Quantitative or General Methods
II. Qualitative or Selective Methods
Selectiv
General
e Credit
Method
Method Control
s
s
 A) Quantitative Or General
Techniques
• Determine the total money supply of the
country.
• Objective is to control the total volume of
bank credit and interest rate.
 General Techniques

Change in
Change in SLR
Open CRR
Market
Bank Operations
Rate
 Bank Rate
• Rate of interest charged on loans & advances given by
RBI to commercial banks.
• “Bank rate is the standard rate at which it is prepared
to buy or discounts bills of exchange or other
commercial papers eligible for purchase under this
Act”.
-- Sec 49 of The RBI, Act1934
 Bank Rate and Rate of Interest
• Rate of interest:- Rate at which commercial banks
advance loans to public.
• Bank rate:- Rate at which central bank advance loans
to other banks.
• Direct link between both
Bank Rate ----- Rate of Interest
Bank Rate ----- Rate of Interest
 Bank Rate Policy
• Policy by which central bank controls the credit creation.
• Manipulation of bank rate to influence the credit situation.

Contraction Expansion
of Credit of Credit
Open Market Operations
• The purchases and sales of
government securities by the
central bank in the open market.
• Directly influence the cash
reserves with the banking
system.
 Open Market Operation Policy
• Policy by which the central bank contracts or expands the credit by
sale or purchase of securities in open market.
Contraction
of Credit

Expansion
of Credit
 Change In CRR
• “ Variation in cash reserve ratio implies changes in the
minimum percentage of the deposits to be kept as
reserve funds by the banks with the central bank.”
-- R.A. Young
• First used by Federal Reserve System in 1933.
• Lowering or raising of CRR improves or restricts the power
of commercial bank to create credit.
 Policy of Varying CRR
• Policy by which central bank contracts or expands the credit
by increasing or reducing in the CRR.
Contraction
of Credit

Expansion
of Credit
 Change In SLR
• Developed during Second World War.
• According to Statutory Liquidity Ratio the commercial banks
have to keep a certain percentage of their assets in liquid form
compulsorily.
Policy Of Changing SLR
Expansion of Contraction
Credit of Credit
 B) Qualitative Or Selective
Techniques
• Meant to give the central bank as ability to
affect particular segments of the economy on
selective basis.
• Direct the flow of credit into desired channels
for a particular segments of the economy.
 Selective Techniques

Regulation Change in
of Marginal Rationing Moral Direct
Publicity
Consumer’s Requirement of Credit Persuasion Action
Credit of loan
 Varying Margin
Requirement Method
• Initially used in America in 1929.
• Credit given for specific purpose is controlled.
Marginal requirement = Value of Security - Amount
advanced
• Banks keep margin while lending
• Do not advance to the full value of security pledge
For Example:-
• Ms Anita pledges goods worth
Rs.1000 with a bank and gets loan of
Rs.800 , then the difference between the
asset pledged and loan ,i.e., Rs.200 is the marginal requirement.
• If marginal requirement is increased to 40%, then the loan will
be Rs.600 only
• If marginal requirement is reduced to 10%, then the loan will be
Rs.900.
 Regulation Of Consumer’s
Credit
• Invented by the Federal Reserve
System of the US.
• Regulated by the control of:-
Hire purchase finance Cash Down
Payments Maximum Maturities
Installment purchase Period
Sale of durable goods
• Can control the credit by varying :-
 Rationing Of Credit
• Central bank fix a limit for the
credit facilities available to
commercial bank.
• Limited accommodation by way
of rediscounting facilities. Fix Scale down
the amount of
• Ways of rationing of limits of loans loans

credit:-
Decline to Fix quota of
give loans credit
 Direct Action
• Restrictions imposed by the Central bank on
commercial banks concerning lending & lending.
• Direct dealings with bank which adopt policies
against the policies of RBI.
• No financial accommodation to the defaulting
bank.
 Moral Persuasion
• Not a statutory obligation.
• Merely a request to commercial banks not to apply fund
for speculative activities.
• Central bank persuades & seeks the co-operation.
• Check & restrict non-essential activities.
• Success depends on the prestige enjoyed by the Central
Bank.
 Publicity And Propaganda
• Excessively used to implement credit control.
• Wide publicity of credit policy through Media Publicity.
• Purpose is to bring the banking community under the
pressure of public opinion.
• In the interest of the economy.
• Takes the form of
Periodicals
Journals
Advantages Of Selective Credit
Controls
Directive and
Effective
Strength to
Flexible
Monetary Policy

Precise Control Wide Effect

Removal Of Sectorial Balanced Growth

Imbalances
Disadvantages Of Selective Credit
Controls

Applicable only
Leakage of
to Commercial
credit
Banks
Not useful in
Reduced
Unorganized
Effectiveness
Sector

Purpose of Purpose of
lending loan taking loan
Difficulties In Credit Control

Problem in Lack of Banking

controlling all Traditions
types of credit

Uncontrolled
Banking sector

Unorganized Lack of Co-

Banking System operation
 Introduction
Monetary Policy refers to the credit control measures
adopted by the central bank of a country.
One of the important functions of RBI is to formulate
and administer monetary policy of the country.
It controls:
The supply of money
The availability of money
Cost of money ,i.e rate of interest
Objectives/Goals of monetary policy
1. Controlled expansion of money supply
 expansion of money supply was needed to
meet the increased demand of funds
 RBI reorganised the need for expansion of
credit
 Needed to finance development process
 Essential for growth and stability
Cont…
2. Sectoral allocation of funds
Allocate funds to predetermined sectors
RBI has also determined the rates at
which these are made available
Allocation is made according to priorities
 Instruments of Monetary policy
• Bank Rate Policy
• Open Market Operation
• Change in Reserve Ratios
• Selective Credit control

• The success of monetary policy is nil in

depression
• It is successful against inflation
 Role of Monetary Policy in a
Developing Economy
• To control inflationary Pressures
• To achieve price stability
• To bridge BOP deficit
• To create banking and Financial institutions
 Limitation of Monetary Policy in LDCs

• Large Non-monetized sector

• Under developed money and Capital Market
• Large no of NBFIs
• High Liquidity
• Foreign Banks
• Small bank money
• Money not deposited with bank
Monetary policy in 1990s

Basic goal was to neutralise the impact of fiscal deficit

Decrease in incremental CRR and SLR

Tarapore committee: CRR reduced to 3 %

Abolition of ad-hoc treasury bills from April 1997

Replaced by Ways and Means advances(WMA)

Method of managing mis matches in receipts and payments

Monetary policy of 2000-2001
Liquidity management through
open market operations

Reduction in bank rate, CRR and

repo rates

Reduction of cost of funds

Liberalisation of the cost of funds

Aggressively reduce NPAs

Setting up of credit information bureau

Universal banking

Technology upgrading

Entry of banks into insurance business

Monetary and credit policy of
2001-2002
Changes in prime lending rates

Flexibility of holding CRR

Restriction on urban co-operative banks

deposit schemes for senior citizens

Review of liquidity adjustment facility

Interest rate foe export credit

 Monetary policy 2012-2013
• RBI governor , Dr D Subbarao announced
this policy on april 17 2012.
• Challenge to control inflation
• Policy intended to:
• Adjust policy rates to level consistent with
the current growth moderation
• Guard against risks of demand led
inflationary pressures re-emerging
• Provide greater liquidity cushion to financial
system
 Monetary policy 2013-2014
• Dr D Subbarao announced this policy on
may 3, 2013
• Its aim was:
To continue address
accentuated risks to growth

Guard against risks of

inflationary pressures

Manage liquidity to ensure

adequate credit flow
 Monetary policy 2015-2016
• Monetary and liquidity measures:
• Reduction in repo rate
• Cash reserve ratio unchanged at 4%
• Overnight repos
• Reverse repo rate
• Bank rate
Recommendations of CHAKRAVARTY COMMITTEE (1985)
TO REVIEW THE WORKING OF MONETARY PLICY

Coordination between monetary and fiscal policies

Price stability

Matching between authority and responsibility

Strengthen credit delivery system to priority system

Need for monetary budget and credit budget

Monetary targeting

improve yield on treasury bills

Discourage use of treasury bills for long term finance

Improve yield on dated govt securities

Not more than 2 lending rated for monetary sector

Facilitate use of bill finance

Minimise use of cash credit

 Achievements of RBI

Flexible monetary policy

Stable structure of interest rates

Sound banking and credit structure

Cheap remittance facilities

Successful management of public debt

Foreign exchange stability

Increase in public confidence

Control over money market

Development of bill market

Rational allocation of credit

Monetary stability

Contribution to economic development

 Department of Economics

Course Name B.A. IV

Semester IV
Paper /Subject name Monetary Economics
Money & Banking (Unit V)
Teacher Name Dr. Vinod Sen
PDF File Yes
 Unit V
Definition and Types: Money Market-
Constituents and Features; Features of
Money and Capital Market in India; Concept
of Derivatives Market.
 WHAT IS MARKET ?
In common parlance, by market is meant a place where
commodities are bought and sold at retail or wholesale prices.

In Economics however, the term “Market” does not refer to a

particular place as such but it refers to a market for a
commodity or commodities. It refers to an arrangement
whereby buyers and sellers come in close contact with each
other directly or indirectly to sell and buy goods.
It refers to the whole area of operation of demand and supply.
Further, it refers to the conditions and commercial relationships
facilitating transactions between buyers and sellers. Therefore, a
market signifies any arrangement in which the sale and purchase
of goods take place
 MONEY MARKET
The money market is where financial instruments with
high liquidity and very short maturities are traded. It is
used by participants as a means for borrowing and lending
in the short term, with maturities that usually range from
overnight to just under a year.
Examples of money market are –certificates of deposit
(CDs) ,Treasury bills ,commercial papers and short
term securities loans.
 FEATURES OF MONEY MARKET
1. It is market purely for short-term funds or financial assets called
near money.
2. It deals with financial assets having a maturity period up to one
year only.
3. It deals with only those assets which can be converted into cash
readily without loss and with minimum transaction cost
4. Transactions have to be conducted without the help of
brokers.
5.The components of a money market are the Central Bank,
Commercial Banks, Non-banking financial companies, discount
houses and acceptance house. Commercial banks generally play
a dominant in this market.
 INSTRUMENTS OF MONEY MARKET?
Treasury Bills (T-Bills)
Issued by the Central Government, Treasury Bills are known to be one of the
safest money market instruments available. However, treasury bills carry zero
risk. I.e. are zero risk instruments. Therefore, the returns one gets on them
are not attractive. Treasury bills come with different maturity periods like 3-
month, 6-month and 1 year and are circulated by primary and secondary
markets. Treasury bills are issued by the Central government at a lesser price
than their face value.
• Certificate of Deposits (CDs)
• A Certificate of Deposit or CD, functions as a deposit receipt for money which is
deposited with a financial organization or bank. However, a Certificate of Deposit is
different from a Fixed Deposit Receipt in two aspects
Commercial Papers (CPs)
Commercial Papers are can be compared to an unsecured short-term promissory
note which is issued by highly rated companies with the purpose of raising capital to
meet requirements directly from the market. CPs usually feature a fixed maturity
period which can range anywhere from 1 day up to 270 days.
 CAPITAL MARKET
A capital market is a financial market in which long-
term debt (over a year) or equity-backed securities are
bought and sold.

"Capital Markets" refers to activities that gather funds

from some entities and make them available to other
entities needing funds.

Examples of highly organized capital markets are

the New York Stock Exchange, American Stock
Exchange, London Stock Exchange, and NASDAQ.
 FEATURES OF CAPITAL MARKET?
1.Capital market are big markets and hence companies which require funds
in huge amounts will only go for raising capital through capital markets.

2.In capital markets funds are raised for long period and not for short
term

3.Another feature of capital market is that they are highly regulated

because these markets form the backbone of economy and also
these markets help in capital formation and therefore any problem in
these markets can lead to major problem for economic and financial
condition of the country.

4.Another feature of capital market is liquidity; these markets are

very liquid because of presence of many parties like banks, mutual
funds, retail investors, hedge funds and so on.
INSTRUMENTS OF CAPITAL MARKET?
Shares: Share is the share in the share capital of the company.Share is one of the
units into which the capital of company is divided. A person having the shares of
the company is called as shareholder of that company, He is regarded as the part
of owner of the company.
There are 2 types of shares:
Equity shares
Preference shares

Debentures : Debentures are long term borrowed funds of the company. They
have fixed maturity period as well as fixed interest rate. These are the certificates
issued under common seal of the company.
Bonds: Bonds are the long term borrowed funds of the government and also
companies. Like debentures have fixed maturity and fixed interest rate even
bonds have. Here interest charged on bonds termed as coupon rate.
 HOW MONEY MARKET IS DIFFERENT
FROM CAPITAL MARKET?
MONEY MARKET CAPITAL MARKET

1.Money market is part of 1.Capital market is part of

financial market where financial market where
lending and borrowing takes lending and borrowing takes
place for short-term upto place for medium –term
one year. long term.
2.Instruments are promissory 2.Instruments are equity
notes,bills of shares,debuntures,bonds,pr
exchange,commercial eference shares,etc.
papers ,T-bills,etc.
3.Money market are informal. 3.Capital market are formal.
4.Money markets are liquid. 4.Capital markets are
comparitively less liquid.
5.The maturity of instruments 5.The maturity is longer and
is generally upto 1 year. they do not have stipulated
time frame.
6.The risk involved is very low. 6.The risk involved is very high.
7.Fulfills short-term credit 7.Fulfills long-term credit
needs of business. needs of business.
8.The return in this market is 8.The returns from this market
very low. are high because of higher
duration.
 DERIVATIVE MARKET
What is a Derivative?

A derivative is a contract between two or more parties whose value is based on

an -agreed-upon underlying financial asset (like a security) or set of assets (like an
index). Common underlying instruments include bonds, commodities, currencies,
interest rates, market indexes and stocks. A derivative is an instrument whose
value depends on the values of other more basic underlying variables.
The underlying vari-ables could be:
1. Stock prices
2. Exchange rates/index
3. Interest rates.
These underlying variables are called cash market variables.
What is a Derivative market?

The derivatives market is the financial market for derivatives, financial

instruments like futures contracts or options, which are derived from
other forms of assets.

Participants in a Derivative Market:-

Participants in a derivative market can be segregated into four sets
based on their trading motives.

1. Hedgers 2. Speculators 3. Margin Traders 4. Arbitrageurs

1. Hedge (finance)

Hedging is a mechanism by which an investor seeks to protect his

asset from erosion in value due to adverse market price
move-ments. A Hedger is usually interested in streamlining his
future cash flows. He is most concerned when the market prices
are very volatile. A hedge can be constructed from many types of
financial instruments, including stocks, exchange-traded funds.

2. Speculation

Speculation is the purchase of an asset (a commodity, goods,

or real estate) with the hope that it will become more valuable in
the near future. In finance, speculation is also the practice of
engaging in risky financial transactions in an attempt to profit
from short term fluctuations in the market value of a
tradable financial instrument.
Margin (finance)

In finance, margin is collateral that the holder of a financial

instrument has to deposit
with a counterparty (most often their broker or an exchange) to
cover some or all
of the credit risk the holder poses for the counterparty. This risk
can arise if the holder has done any of the following:

1. Borrowed cash from the counterparty to buy financial

instruments,
2. Borrowed financial instruments to sell them short,
3. Entered into a derivative contract.
Arbitrage
In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking
advantage of a price difference between two or
more markets: striking a combination of matching deals
that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the
difference between the market prices.

For example, if a company’s shares were trading at Rs. 3500

in Mumbai market and Rs.3498 in Delhi market, an
arbitrageur will buy it in Delhi and sell it in Mumbai to
make a riskless profit of Rs. 2 (transaction cost is ignored
for the purpose of this example).
Characteristics of Derivatives:

1. Derivatives have the characteristic of Leverage or Gearing. With

a small initial outlay of funds (a small percentage of the entire
contract value) one can deal big volumes.

2. Pricing and trading in derivatives are complex and a thor-ough

understanding of the price behaviour and product structure of the
underlying is an essential pre-requisite before one can venture
into dealing in these products.

3. Derivatives, by themselves, have no independent value. Their

value is derived out of the underlying instruments.
Functions of Derivatives:

1. Derivatives shift the risk from the buyer of the

derivative product to the seller and as such are
very effective risk management tools.

2. Derivatives improve the liquidity of the

underlying instru-ment. Derivatives perform an
important economic function viz. price discovery.
They provide better avenues for raising money.
They contribute substantially to increasing the
depth of the markets.
 Salient Points of Derivatives:

1. Derivatives have the characteristics of high leverage

and of being complex in their pricing and trading
mechanism.

2. Derivatives enable price discovery, improve the

liquidity of the underlying asset, serve as effective
hedge instruments and offer better ways of raising
money.
 Types of Derivatives
1. Forwards and futures
They are financial contracts that obligate the contracts’ buyers to
purchase an asset at a pre-agreed price on a specified future date.
Both forwards and futures are essentially the same in their
nature. However, forwards are more flexible contracts because
the parties can customize the underlying commodity as well as
the quantity of the commodity and the date of the transaction.
On the other hand, futures are standardized contracts that are
traded on the exchanges.

2. Options
They provide the buyer of the contracts the right but not the
obligation to purchase or sell the underlying asset at a
predetermined price. There is call option and a put option.
Advantages of Derivatives
Unsurprisingly, derivatives exert a significant impact on modern finance,
because they provide numerous advantages to the financial markets:

1. Hedging risk exposure

Since the value of the derivatives is linked to the value of the underlying
asset, the contracts are primarily used for hedging risks. For example, an
investor may purchase a derivative contract whose value moves in the
opposite direction to the value of the asset. In addition, it can be utilized to
reallocate risk from risk-averse players to risk-seeking players.

2. Underlying asset price determination

Derivates are frequently used to determine the price of the underlying asset.
For example, the spot prices of the futures can serve as an approximation of a
commodity price.
3. Market efficiency
It is considered that derivatives increase the efficiency of financial
markets. By using derivative contracts, one can replicate the payoff of
the assets. Therefore, the prices of the underlying asset and the
associated derivative tend to be in equilibrium to
avoid arbitrage opportunities.

4. Access to unavailable assets or markets

Derivatives can help organizations get access to unavailable assets or
markets. By employing interest rate swaps, a company may obtain a
more favorable interest rate relative to interest rates available from
direct borrowing.
Disadvantages of Derivatives

Despite the benefits that derivatives bring to the financial markets,

the financial instruments come with some significant drawbacks. The
drawbacks resulted in disastrous consequences during the financial
crisis of 2007-2008. The rapid devaluation of mortgage-backed
securities and credit-default swaps lead to the collapse of financial
institutions and stock markets around the world.

1. High risk
While the high volatility of the derivatives exposes them to
potentially huge losses, the sophisticated design of the contracts
makes the valuation extremely complicated or even impossible. Thus,
they bear the high inherent risk.