MANAGEMENT OF FOOD WASTE

UNIT 1- Classification and characteristic of food industry waste

Waste:

The food-processing industry produces large volumes of wastes, both solids and
liquids, generated from the production, preparation, and consumption of
food. These wastes pose increasing disposal and potentially severe pollution
problems and represent a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients.

Waste management:

Food processing industry around the world is making serious efforts to minimize
by-products, compost organic waste, recycle processing and packaging materials,
and save energy and water. The three R’s of waste management – Reduce, Reuse
and Recycle – can help food manufacturers in reducing the amount of waste sent
to landfill and reusing waste.

Classification of food waste:

 Types of food by-product and wastes

Five system boundaries have been distinguished in the food supply chains
(FSC) which are mainly responsible for generation of wastages.

i) Agricultural production: Wastage of agricultural resources due to

environmental conditions, losses due to mechanical damage and/or spillage
during harvest operation (e.g. threshing or fruit picking), curing/ pre-treatments,
on-farm temporary storage and sorting of crops etc.

ii) Postharvest handling and storage: including losses due to spillage and
degradation during handling, storage and transportation between farm and
distribution.

iii) Processing: including losses due to spillage and degradation during

industrial or domestic processing, e.g. juice production, canning and bread
baking. Losses may occur when crops are sorted out if not suitable to process or
during washing, peeling, slicing and boiling or during process interruptions and
accidental spillage.

iv) Distribution: including losses and waste in the market system, at e.g.
wholesale markets, supermarkets, retailers and wet markets.

v) Consumption: including losses and waste during consumption at the

household level.

Characteristic of food waste:

The waste from the food industry is characteristic into different type they are:

1. Physical
Temperature, odour, colour and solids
2. Chemical
Organic and inorganic . mainly they are characterised by
carbohydrates, fat , oil and grease.
3. Biological
BOD( biological oxygen demand) , COD ( chemical oxygen demand)
along with some microorganisms and pathogens.
Need for treating waste:

Poor management of food waste causes the loss of natural resources, human
health issues, pollution of rivers and seas, the generation of methane emissions
from dumps and landfills, and a missed opportunity to recover valuable energy,
organic matter, nutrients and water contained in food waste.

Solid waste:

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid material generated from combined
residue , industry and commercial activity in a given area.

Solid waste management:

Management of solid waste may be defined as that discipline associated with

the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing,
and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord withthe best principles
of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other
environmental considerations. In its scope, solid waste management includes all
administrative, financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions involved in
the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the
community by its inhabitants.
Waste generation: those activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.

On-site handling, storage, and processing: activities associated with the

handling, storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the point of
generation.

Collection: those activities association with the gathering of solid wastes and
the hauling of wastes to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.

Transfer and transport: Those activities association with (1) the transfer of
wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and
(2) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distance, to the
disposal site.

Processing and recovery: Those techniques equipment and facilities used both
to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to recover
useable materials, conversion products, or energy from solid wastes.

Disposal: Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes

Methods of non hazardous and biodegradable solid waste:

1. Open dump method

An open dumping is defined as a land disposal site at which solid wastes are
disposed of in a manner that does not protect the environment, are susceptible to
open burning, and are exposed to the elements, vectors, and scavengers.

Open dumping can include solid waste disposal facilities or practices that pose a
reasonable probability of adverse effects on health or the environment.

2. Land fills
 3. Composting

 Similar to sanitary landfilling

 Yields a stable end product – good soil conditioner and may be used as a
base for fertilizers
 Popular in developing countries
 Decomposable organic matter is separated and composted
Methods
1. Open window composting
2. Mechanical composting
Open window composting
 Refuse is placed in piles, about 1.5m high and 2.5m wide at about 60%
moisture content
 Heat build up in the refuse piles due to biological activity – temperature
rises to about 70 degree C
 Pile is turned up for cooling and aeration to avoid anaerobic conditions
  Moisture content is adjusted to about 60%
 Piled again – temperature rises to about 70 degree C
 The above operations are repeated
After a few days (~ 7 to 10 weeks) temperature drops to atmospheric
temperature – indication of stabilization of compost
Mechanical composting
 Process of stabilization is expedited by mechanical devices of turning the
compost
 Compost is stabilized in about 1 to 2 weeks
 To enrich compost – night soil, cow dung etc. are added to the refuse
 Usually done in compost pits
 Arrangements for draining of excess moisture are provided at the base of
the pit
 At the bottom of the pit, a layer of ash, ground limestone, or loamy soil is
placed – to neutralize acidity in the compost material and providing an
alkaline medium for microorganisms
 The pit is filled by alternate layers of refuse (laid in layers of depth 30 –
40 cm) and night soil or cow dung (laid over it in a thin layer)
 Material is turned every 5 days or so
 After ~ 30 days – it is ready for use
Methods used in India Indore method – aerobic – brick pits 3 x 3 x 1 m
– up to 8-12 weeks materials are turned regularly in the pits and then kept
on ground for about 4-6 weeks – 6 to 8 turnings in total Bangalore
method – anaerobic – earthen trenches 10 x 1.5 x 1.5 m – left for
decomposition – takes 4 to 5 months

4.Vermicomposting

 Ideal for biodegradable wastes from kitchens, hotels etc.

 At household level, a vessel or tray more than 45 cm deep, and 1 x 0.60m
may be sufficient
 A hole shall be provided at one end in the bottom for draining the
leachate out into a tray or vessel
 Lay a 1” thick layer of baby metal or gravel at the bottom of the tray
 Above that lay an old gunny bag or a piece of thick cloth, a layer of
coconut husk upside down over it and above that a 2” thick layer of dry
leaves and dry cow dung (powdered)
 Lay the biodegradable waste over it
 Introduce good quality earthworms into it (~ 10 g for 0.6 x 0.45 x 0.45 m
box)
 If the waste is dry, sprinkle water over it daily
 Rainwater should not fall into the tray or vessel or box
 Keep it closed
 If the box is kept under bright sun earthworms will go down and compost
can be taken from the top
 Compost can be dried and stored
 Continue putting waste into the box
 Add little cow dung at intervals
 Do not use vermiwash directly. Dilute in the ratio 1:10 before use

5.Anarobic digestion

Anaerobic Digestion is a process by which organic matter, such as animal

waste or wasted food, is broken down by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
This is usually done in a container called a digester. The process creates
fertilizer that can be used for farming and biogas composed mostly of
methane. The biogas can be combusted to generate electricity and heat, or it
can be processed into renewable natural gas and transportation fuels.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), some types of
organic matter break down more easily than others. The materials that break
down easier generally produce more biogas.
 Anaerobic Digestion offers a valuable and innovative way to divert waste
from the landfill.

Methods of non degradable solid waste

1. Incineration:

 A method suited for combustible refuse

 Refuse is burnt
 Suited in crowded cities where sites for land filling are not available
 High construction and operation costs
 Sometimes used to reduce the volume of solid wastes for land filling
 Primary chamber – designed to facilitate rapid desiccation of moist refuse
and complete combustion of refuse and volatile gases
 A ledge or drying hearth is provided for this purpose
 Secondary chamber – between the primary chamber and the stack –
temperatures above 700 degree C
 All unburnt and semi burnt material are completely burnt here
Waste to Energy Combustors
 Incinerators – Refuse was burned without recovering energy – exhaust
gas is very hot – exceeds the acceptable inlet temperature for electrostatic
precipitators used for particulate emission control
Modern combustors – combine solid waste combustion with energy
recovery
Combustors for Solid Waste
 Storage pit – for storing and sorting incoming refuse
 Crane – for charging the combustion box
 Combustion chamber consisting of bottom grates on which combustion
occurs
 Grates on which refuse moves
 Heat recovery system of pipes in which water is turned to steam
 Ash handling systems
 Air pollution control systems
 Grates – Provide turbulence so that the MSW can be thoroughly burned,
moves the refuse down, provides under fire air to the refuse through
openings in it (to assist in combustion as well as to cool the grates)
 Operating temperature of combustors ~ 980 to 1090 degree C
2.sanitary landfills:

 Simple, cheap, and effective

 A deep trench (3 to 5 m) is excavated
 Refuse is laid in layers
 Layers are compacted with some mechanical equipment and covered with
earth, leveled, and compacted
 With time, the fill would settle
 Microorganisms act on the organic matter and degrade them
 Decomposition is similar to that in composting
 Facultative bacteria hydrolyze complex organic matter into simpler water
soluble organics
 These diffuse through the soil where fungi and other bacteria convert
them to carbon dioxide and water under aerobic conditions
 Aerobic methanogenic bacteria utilize the methane generated and the rest
diffuses into the atmosphere
 Too much refuse shall not be buried – fire hazard
 Moisture content – not less than 60% for good biodegradation
 Refuse depth more than 3m – danger of combustion due to compression
of bottom layers – hence should be avoided
 Refuse depth is generally limited to 2m
  Temperature in the initial stages of decomposition – as high as 70 degree
C – then drops
Engineered Landfills of Solid Wastes
 Bottom of the trench is lined with impervious material to prevent the
leachate from contaminating groundwater
 A well designed and laid out leachate collection mechanism is to be
provided
 Leachate so collected is treated and then disposed off

Figure: A Typical Sanitary Landfill for Solid Waste

Table: Typical Constituents of municipal solid waste landfill gas

Component % by volume (dry)

Methane 45 to 60

Carbon dioxide 40 to 60

Nitrogen 2 to 5

Oxygen 0.1 to 1

Ammonia 0.1 to 1

Hydrogen 0 to 0.2
Liquid waste:

Liquid waste can be defined as such Liquids as wastewater, fats, oils or grease
(FOG), used oil, liquids, solids, gases, or sludges and hazardous household
liquids. These liquids that are hazardous or potentially harmful to human health
or the environment.

Treatment methods

Treatment methods are grouped into three general categories: ƒ

Primary treatment: Screening, grit removal, and sedimentation (settling) ƒ

Secondary or biological treatment: biological processes and additional settling.

ƒ

Tertiary or advanced treatment: not all sewage treatment plant requires tertiary
(advanced) treatment.

Primary treatment

Primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out
by gravity. It includes the physical processes of screening, comminution, grit
removal, and sedimentation. Screens are made of long, closely spaced,
narrow metal bars. They block floating debris such as wood, rags, and other
bulky objects that could clog pipes or pumps. In modern plants the screens are
cleaned mechanically, and the material is promptly disposed of by burial on the
plant grounds. A comminutor may be used to grind and shred debris that passes
through the screens. The shredded material is removed later by sedimentation or
flotation processes.
Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are designed to slow down the flow so
that solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of
the water. Grit causes excessive wear and tear on pumps and other plant
equipment. Its removal is particularly important in cities with
combined sewer systems, which carry a good deal of silt, sand, and gravel that
wash off streets or land during a storm.
Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are removed from
the sewage in sedimentation tanks. These tanks, also called primary clarifiers,
provide about two hours of detention time for gravity settling to take place. As
the sewage flows through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom.
The settled solids—known as raw or primary sludge—are moved along the tank
bottom by mechanical scrapers. Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is
pumped out for removal. Mechanical surface-skimming devices remove grease
and other floating materials.

Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary
treatment. It also removes more of the suspended solids. Removal is usually
accomplished by biological processes in which microbes consume the organic
impurities as food, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and energy for
their own growth and reproduction. The sewage treatment plant provides a
suitable environment, albeit of steel and concrete, for this natural biological
process. Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps to
protect the dissolved oxygen balance of a receiving stream, river, or lake.
There are three basic biological treatment methods: the trickling filter, the
activated sludge process, and the oxidation pond. A fourth, less common
method is the rotating biological contacter.

Trickling filter

A trickling filter is simply a tank filled with a deep bed of stones. Settled
sewage is sprayed continuously over the top of the stones and trickles to the
bottom, where it is collected for further treatment. As the wastewater trickles
down, bacteria gather and multiply on the stones. The steady flow of sewage
over these growths allows the microbes to absorb the dissolved organics, thus
lowering the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the sewage. Air circulating
upward through the spaces among the stones provides sufficient oxygen for the
metabolic processes.
Settling tanks, called secondary clarifiers, follow the trickling filters. These
clarifiers remove microbes that are washed off the rocks by the flow of
wastewater. Two or more trickling filters may be connected in series, and
sewage can be recirculated in order to increase treatment efficiencies.

Activated sludge

The activated sludge treatment system consists of an aeration tank followed by a

secondary clarifier. Settled sewage, mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated
from the secondary clarifier, is introduced into the aeration tank.
Compressed air is then injected into the mixture through porous diffusers
located at the bottom of the tank. As it bubbles to the surface, the diffused air
provides oxygen and a rapid mixing action. Air can also be added by the
churning action of mechanical propeller-like mixers located at the tank surface.
Under such oxygenated conditions, microorganisms thrive, forming an active,
healthy suspension of biological solids—mostly bacteria—called activated
sludge. About six hours of detention is provided in the aeration tank. This gives
the microbes enough time to absorb dissolved organics from the sewage,
reducing the BOD. The mixture then flows from the aeration tank into the
secondary clarifier, where activated sludge settles out by gravity. Clear water is
skimmed from the surface of the clarifier, disinfected, and discharged as
secondary effluent. The sludge is pumped out from a hopper at the bottom of
the tank. About 30 percent of the sludge is recirculated back into the aeration
tank, where it is mixed with the primary effluent. This recirculation is a key
feature of the activated sludge process. The recycled microbes are
well acclimated to the sewage environment and readily metabolize the organic
materials in the primary effluent. The remaining 70 percent of the secondary
sludge must be treated and disposed of in an acceptable manner (see Sludge
treatment and disposal).
Variations of the activated sludge process include extended aeration, contact
stabilization, and high-purity oxygen aeration. Extended aeration and contact
stabilization systems omit the primary settling step. They are efficient for
treating small sewage flows from motels, schools, and other relatively isolated
wastewater sources. Both of these treatments are usually provided in
prefabricated steel tanks called package plants. Oxygen aeration systems mix
pure oxygen with activated sludge. A richer concentration of oxygen allows the
aeration time to be shortened from six to two hours, reducing the required tank
volume.

Tertiary treatment

When the intended receiving water is very vulnerable to the effects of pollution,
secondary effluent may be treated further by several tertiary processes.
For the removal of additional suspended solids and BOD from secondary
effluent, effluent polishing is an effective treatment. It is most often
accomplished using granular media filters, much like the filters used to purify
drinking water. Polishing filters are usually built as prefabricated units, with
tanks placed directly above the filters for storing backwash water. Effluent
polishing of wastewater may also be achieved using microstrainers of the type
used in treating municipal water supplies.

When treatment standards require the removal of plant nutrients from the
sewage, it is often done as a tertiary step. Phosphorus in wastewater is usually
present in the form of organic compounds and phosphates that can easily be
removed by chemical precipitation. This process, however, increases the
volume and weight of sludge. Nitrogen, another important plant nutrient, is
present in sewage in the form of ammonia and nitrates. Ammonia is toxic
to fish, and it also exerts an oxygen demand in receiving waters as it is
converted to nitrates. Nitrates, like phosphates, promote the growth of algae and
the eutrophication of lakes. A method called nitrification-denitrification can be
used to remove the nitrates. It is a two-step biological process in which
ammonia nitrogen is first converted into nitrates by microorganisms. The
nitrates are further metabolized by another species of bacteria, forming
nitrogen gas that escapes into the air. This process requires the construction of
more aeration and settling tanks and significantly increases the cost of
treatment.
Gaseous waste

Gaseous wastes are oxides of carbon, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen,

hydrocarbons, aerosols, carbon monoxide, methane, Green house gases
like chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) etc. Due to the increase of factories, industrial
areas and the number of vehicles, a large amount of gaseous wastes are coming
to the atmosphere.

The following methods are used for the management of gas wastes:
1. Settling chambers:
This method is used to collect dust particles of sizes greater than loom in a place
called settling chamber. The size, shape of the particles along with density and
viscosity of the gas decides the design of settling chambers.

2. Filters:
Filters built by fabrics are the simplest method to separate particles from the
gas. About 99 percent of matters are filtered out when their sizes are of the
order of 0.01 micrometer. (1 mm = 106 m). In this method the waste gas is
allowed to pass through a filter bag and the particles are collected on the inside
are repeatedly removed. Fabric filters are very good for both high and low
concentration of small particles but these method is only suitable for dry and
free flowing particles.
3. Electrostatic method:
In this method, electrostatic forces are used to move the particles to the
collection surface. This is done by passing the waste gas between high voltage
discharge electrodes. The majority of the panicles in the gas becomes charged
and collected on electrodes. The electrodes are time to time cleaned. This
electrostatic method is most efficient to remove all sizes of particles present in
the gas waste.

4. Absorption:
This method is used for mainly gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide etc. In
this method a mass of waste gases is transferred into the liquid. The most
important in this, method is the selection of suitable liquid.

5. Adsorption:
This is different from absorption. In adsorption, gases, vapours or liquids gather
on a solid surface due to surface chemical force. The amount of adsorbed
 substances depends directly on the internal surface area of solid. The most
important adsorbent used in industries are bauxite, silica gel, aluminum etc..

UNIT 2- WASTE FROM MEAT, DAIRY AND VEGETABLE

PROCESSING INDUSTRY

Classification of waste from meat industry

Utilization of blood

Animal blood has a high level of protein and heme iron, and is an important
edible by-product. In Europe, animal blood has long been used to make blood
sausages, blood pudding, biscuits and bread. In Asia, it is used in blood curd,
blood cake and blood pudding . It is also used for non-food items such as
fertilizer, feedstuffs and binders. According to the Meat Inspection Act of the
United States, blood is approved for food use when it has been removed by
bleeding an animal that has been inspected and passed for use in meat food
products.
Blood is usually sterile in a healthy animal. It has high protein content (17.0),
with a reasonably good balance of amino acids. Blood is a significant part of the
animal’s body mass (2.4–8.0% of the animal’s live weight). The average
percentage of blood that can be recovered from pigs, cattle and lambs are 3.0–
4.0, 3.0–4.0 and 3.5–4.0%, respectively. However, the use of blood in meat
processing may mean that the final product is dark in color, and not very
palatable. Plasma is the portion of blood that is of greatest interest, because of
its functional properties and lack of color.

Utilization of hides and skins

Animal hides have been used for shelters, clothing and as containers by human
beings since prehistoric times. The hides represent a remarkable portion of the
weight of the live animal, from 4% to as much as 11% (e.g. cattle: 5.1–8.5%,
average: 7.0%; sheep: 11.0–11.7%; swine: 3.0–8.0%). Hides and skins are
generally one of the most valuable by-products from animals. Examples of
finished products from the hides of cattle and pigs, and from sheep pelts, are
leather shoes and bags, rawhide, athletic equipment, reformed sausage casing
and cosmetic products, sausage skins, edible gelatine and glue

Stacking of hides and skins

After the hide is removed from the animal, it should be cured quickly to avoid
decomposition by bacteria and enzymes. There are four basic treatments. One is
air-drying, the second is curing with salt, and the third and fourth are curing by
mixer and raceway respectively. Salt curing is often used for the raw hides. The
quality of cured hides and skins is usually based on their moisture and salt
content. The moisture level of hides should be in the range 40–48%, if they are
to remain in good condition during storage or shipping.

Gelatin from hides and skins

Gelatin is produced by the controlled hydrolysis of a water-insoluble collagen
derived from protein. It is made from fresh raw materials (hides or bone) that
are in an edible condition. Both hides and bones contain large quantities of
collagen. The processing of gelatin from hide consists of three major steps. The
first step is the elimination of non-collagenous material from the raw material.
This is followed by controlled hydrolysis of collagen to gelatin. The final step is
recovery and drying of the final product.

Utilization of bone
Eleven percent of pork carcasses, 15% of beef carcasses and 16% of lamb
carcasses are bone. These values are higher if they include the meat clinging to
the bone. The marrow inside some of the bones can also be used as food. The
marrow may be 4.0–6.0% of the carcass weight (West and Shaw 1975). For
centuries, bones have been used to make soup and gelatine. In recent years, the
meat industry has been trying to get more meat from bones, and new techniques
have been used for this purpose. The beef, pork or lamb produced by
mechanical deboning produces tissue that is called “mechanically separated”,
“mechanically deboned” or “mechanically removed”. Such meat is now
approved for use in meat products (mixed or used alone) in many countries
(Field 1981). In 1978, mechanically separated red meat was approved for use as
red meat in the United States.
Normally, if a high percentage of mechanically separated red meat is
incorporated into products, the flavor and quality are reduced. The color
becomes darker, and the meat is softer with higher water content. For this
reason, the level of mechanically separated meat is usually limited. It should be
noted that mechanically recovered meat has a bad consumer perception in some
countries connected with health concerns with Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) contamination (Arvanitoyannis and Ladas 2008). A
level of 5.0–20.0% in hamburger and ground beef, and 10.0–40.0% in sausages,
has been suggested by the meat industry.

Utilization of glands and organs

Glands and organs as food

Animal organs and glands offer a wide variety of flavors and textures, and often
have a high nutritional value. They are highly prized as food in many parts of
the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Those used as human foods include the
brain, heart, kidneys, liver, lungs and spleen. They also include the tongue, the
bovine pancreas and udder, the stomach and uterus of pigs, the rumen,
reticulum, omasum and absomasum of sheep and cattle, and the testes and
thymus of sheep and pigs
Utilization of edible tallow and lard
Animal fats are an important by-product of the meat packing industry. The
major edible animal fats are lard and tallow. Lard is the fat rendered from the
clean tissues of healthy pigs. Tallow is hard fat rendered from the fatty tissues
of cattle or sheep. Lard and edible tallow are obtained by dry or wet rendering.
In the wet rendering process, the fatty tissues are heated in the presence of
water, generally at a low temperature. The quality of the lard or tallow from this
process is better than that of products from dry rendering. Low-quality lard, and
almost all of the inedible tallow and greases, are produced by dry rendering.
Rendered lard can be used as an edible fat without any further processing.
However, because of consumer demand, lard and tallow are now often bleached
and given a deodorizing treatment before being used in food.
Traditionally, tallow and lard were used for deep frying (Weiss 1983).
However, this use is declining in the fast-food industry, due to consumer health
concerns. An alternative liquid tallow product has been developed for the
preparation of French fries and other fast foods, since less fat is absorbed.
Tallow and lard are also used for margarine and shortening (Ghotra et al. 2002).
Some edible lards are used in sausages or emulsified products.

Utilization of dairy waste.

SourcesofDairyWastes

The liquid waste from a large dairy originates from the following sections or
plants: receiving stations, bottling plant, cheese plant, casein plant, condensed
milk plant, dried milk plant, and ice cream plant. The main sources of dairy
effluents are those arising from the following:

 Spills and leaks of products or by-products

 Residual milk or milk products in piping and equipment before cleaning
 Wash solutions from equipment and floors
 Condensate from evaporation processes
 Pressings and brines from cheese manufacture

Dairy plant operators may choose from a wide variety of methods for treating
dairy wastes from their plants. This may range from land application for small
plants to operation of biological waste-water treatment systems for larger plants.
Some dairy plants may pre-treat the effluents and discharge them to a municipal
waste-water treatment plant.

In addition to the wastes from all the above milk processing units, some amount
of uncontaminated cooling water comes as waste; these are very often re-
circulated.

1. Skim milk and its by-products

Skim milk is a by-product obtained during the manufacture of cream. It is
rich in solids-notfat content and has high nutritional value. In dairy plants, it is
mostly utilized either in standardization for the manufacture of main dairy
products or preserved by removing moisture in spray dried form. The skim milk
when utilized in either of these two forms or consumed as liquid is not
considered a by-product. It is regarded as a by-product only when it is either not
economically utilized or utilized for derived by-products like casein and related
products, coprecipitates, protein hydrolysates etc.
2.Butter milk
Buttermilk is the by-product obtained during the manufacture of butter.
Sweet cream buttermilk resembles skim milk in gross chemical composition
 and is usually admixed with bulk of skim milk for further spray drying or
even product manufacture in dairy plants. Desi buttermilk, on the other hand,
has long been an important domestic beverage in India. It has high nutritive
and therapeutic value. It also finds its way in the preparation of a host of
items such as kadhi, dhokla and idli. Also a number of federations and
private plants sell salted and spiced buttermilk in 200 ml pouches.
3. Whey and its by-products

Whey is a dilute, highly perishable greenish yellow fluid and the largest by-
product of the dairy world produced during the manufacture of cheese, casein,
chhana, paneer, chakka and coprecipitates Its composition and acidity varies
widely (Table 2). It contains about half of the total solids of milk, and is a source
of precious nutrients like lactose, whey proteins, minerals and vitamins. Whey
proteins, though present in small quantity, have high protein efficiency ratio
(3.6), biological value (104) and net protein utilisation (95) and are next only to
egg protein in terms of nutritive value. Further, being a rich source of lactose,
whey is a good fermentation media for a number of fermented products. In many
applications, lactose in whole or deproteinised whey is hydrolysed to glucose and
galactose, thereby increasing its sweetness. Such lactose hydrolysed syrups,
generally after condensing, are mostly utilised in sweet confectionery products
and in ice cream.

4.Ghee residue
Ghee residue is a by-product of ghee industry and is produced in large
quantity in India. This nutritious by-product has been studied for its
physico-chemical characteristics and for its utilization in a number of
food products like chocolate burfi, samosa filling, chapatis etc. However,
most dairy plants in India have not been utilizing ghee residue profitably
except for fat extraction. Most of the ghee residue goes to waste. A
sincere R & D work and a strong willingness on the part of manufacturer
is required to develop food uses of ghee residue and put it in the market
place.

Treatment of water from fruit and vegetable processing industry:

Fruit and vegetable processing plants generate large volumes of high

strength wastewater that cannot be discharged without pretreatment.
Fruit and vegetable process plant wastewater typically contains discarded fruits
and vegetables, soil particles, fruit and veg pulp and fibers, cleaning agents,
blanching agents, salt and residues of pesticide. In addition to that, processing
onions and ready made meals produces foul smelling wastewater. This unique
and complex effluent requires specific and effective treatment. In this article we
discuss some of the processes and technologies a wastewater treatment plant
uses in order to produce cleaner fruit and vegetable process effluent.

Good practice in waste management reduces volumes of wastewater in a fruit

and vegetable process plant by up to 95%. Such pollution control measures
include dry cleaning and peeling of raw materials and recirculation of process
wastewaters. This can significantly reduce the cost of wastewater treatment for
a fruit and vegetable process plant and benefit the environment too.
Selecting the most suitable treatment for fruit and vegetable process wastewater
depends on three main factors:

 the characteristics of the effluent

 the site conditions
 the economic viability of the proposed treatment plant
Therefore the configuration of a wastewater treatment plant will be specific to
the unique requirements of the fruit and vegetable process plant.

It is important that the relevant analyses and surveys are carried out on the
effluent in order to design the most suitable treatment plant. These tests will
often include BOD, pH, temperature, suspended solids, volatile solids, settleable
solids, and FOG. Often, the wastewater treatment specialists in charge of the job
will design and implement a pilot scale plant to determine the best course of
treatment for the fruit and vegetable process effluent. Adjustments can be made
until the pilot scale plant is meeting the target effluent standards, at which point
the full scale treatment plant is ready to commission and install.
Generally speaking, the most common treatment processes for food process
effluent involve screening, pH adjustment and biological treatment. Production
in a fruit and vegetable processing plant is often seasonal and it is for this
reason that the wastewater treatment system needs to be robust and flexible. The
basic pattern for treating wastewater of the seasonal kind is regulation, aeration,
and settling.
Pretreatment of Fruit and Vegetable Process Effluent

Pretreatment is a term that covers a wide range of different processes in

wastewater treatment. Some common forms of pretreatment of fruit and
vegetable process effluent include flow equalization, screening, gravity
separation of floatables and solids, dissolved air flotation (DAF), chemical
treatment to supplement gravity separation or DAF, and biological treatment.
Flow equalization and neutralization reduce hydraulic loading and correct pH.
The equipment includes buffer tanks, pumping equipment and air blowers
which serve to mix the effluent, balance fluctuations in the waste stream
and adjust the pH levels. Buffer tanks uniformly feed the flow to the treatment
facilities or store the effluent for recycling/reuse elsewhere in the fruit and
vegetable processing plant.

Screening removes larger solids and particles from the effluent by filtration
through a mesh. In terms of fruit and vegetable process effluent, vibrating and
rotary screens are most effective. Screening lowers suspended solids, settleable
solids and reduces BOD discharge. It prevents clogging of municipal sewers
and prevents damage to onsite treatment equipment. Screening also makes the
downstream treatment processes more efficient. Currently, the most popular
screens for fruit and vegetable process wastewater are vibrating/oscillating
screens and rotary drum screens. Screening is the most inexpensive form of
pretreatment.
Another common method of pretreatment of fruit and vegetable process effluent
is separation of the floatables and settleable solids. This is usually by gravity or
by air flotation. Certain waste streams may require the addition of chemical
additives such as Al2(SO4)3, FeSO4 and FeCl3 to enhance the separation during
DAF. This can reduce the BOD concentrations in the wastewater significantly
enough to finally discharge to a municipal plant.
Biological Treatment of Fruit and Vegetable Process Wastewater

The use of biological secondary treatment is often necessary in order to meet

local wastewater effluent standards. For fruit and vegetable process
effluent, there are several different systems that can provide secondary
treatment and the choice is largely dependent on the characteristics of the waste
stream. Often, a combination of techniques will provide the best result. Some of
these secondary processes include anaerobic lagoons, aerobic lagoons,
faculative ponds, aerated lagoons, trickling filters, activated sludge and rotating
biological contactors. As already mentioned, the choice will depend entirely
on the characteristics of the effluent, the site conditions and the economic
viability of the proposed treatment plant and associated technologies.
UNIT 3- TREATMENT METHODS OF WASTE FROM FOOD
INDUSTRY

Design of activated sludge process:

Activated sludge may be define as the sludge which settled down after the
sewage has been agitated freely in the presence of abundant atmospheric
oxygen. Activated sludge contains a large number of aerobic bacteria and other
organism and acts as a fertilizing constituent (agent) when it is mixed with raw
sewage containing sufficient O2 , the bacteria perform two functions.

1. It oxidizes organic solids.

2. Promotes coagulation and flocculation and converts colloidal and
dissolved solids into settleable solids.
The flow diagram of activated sludge process is shown in the figure below:

Explanation
The settled sewage from P.S.T is mixed with required amount of activated
sludge coming from S.S.T. The resultant mixture is called “Mixed Liquor
Suspended Solid (MLSS)”.

MLSS is passed through aeration tank where it is mixed with air for 4-8 hours.

The sewage is oxidized by bacteria in the presence of O 2 due to which BOD of

sewage is reduced. The aerated MLSS is then sent to S.S.T where is allowed to
settle.

The effluent is discharged off and some of the settled sludge is recirculated as
activated sludge and the rest is disposed of after treatment.
The effluent of S.S.T is sparkling clear water and contain very small amount of
organic matters and can be disposed of without any further treatment except
chlorination which is employed occasionally.

Design Criteria of Activated Sludge

Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS) It represents the strength of mixed
liquor suspended solid in term of conc of micro organism in aeration tank. Its
value in A.T varies from 1500-3000 mg/l and the permissible limit being 2100-
2500 mg/l. MLSS above (75000-10000) mg/l is too much.
F/M Ratio. It represents the food to micro organism ratio and is given by
F/M = BOD/MLSS*(V/Q) = BOD/MLSS*td (day-1)
V = Volume of AT (m3)
Q = flow rate (m3/day)
Td = detention time (day)
BOD (mg/l) and MLSS (mg/l)

Its allowable value is (0.2 – 0.5) day-1

A great value means more food which is wasted and less value means less food
and death of bacteria.

Sludge Volume Index (S.V.I)

It is the volume in ml occupied by 1gm of settled suspended solid. It is used to
indicate the degree of concentration of sludge reflecting the physical state of
sludge and also shows the settleability of sewage. It is found with the help of
Imhoff. One liter of sample collected at the outlet of A.T is placed at rest for
about 30 minutes in Imhoff tank. The volume of settled sludge (V s) is found and
Sludge Volume Index (SVI) is calculated from S.V.I = (V s x 1000)/MLSS
(ml/g)
The value of SVI ranges from 50-150 ml/g means good settleability.

Sludge Recirculation Ratio (r). It is the ratio of return sludge to sewage flow.
It is also called return sludge ratio.
Return sludge ratio = Qr/Q = Vs/ (1000-Vs)
Where

Vs = volume of settled sludge in Imhoff cone. Its value varies from 0.25 to .5
ml/l.
Detention time = td = 4 – 8 hrs (in A.T)

Air supply = 10 m3/m3 of sewage treated / day

L:B=5:1

Depth of A.T = 3.5 m

Dissolved oxygen level (D.O) < 2mg/l

Minimum number of A.T = 2

Aeration and Methods of Aeration in Activated Sludge Process

The process of absorbing oxygen from air is known as aeration. High amount of
O2 is provided in the aeration tank because of high BOD in sewage. This cannot
be provided naturally therefore aerators are used to provide O 2 artificially.
When the dissolved oxygen level (D.O) falls below 2mg/l anaerobic activities
starts.
There are three methods for aeration in activated sludge process.

1. Diffused air aeration

2. Mechanical aeration
3. Combine aerator
Advantages and Disadvantages of Activated Sludge Process
Advantages of Activated Sludge Process
1. Low installation cost
2. Good quality effluent
3. Low land requirement
4. Loss of head is small
5. Freedom from fly and odor nuisance high degree of treatment
Disadvantages of Activated Sludge Process
1. Not very flexible method (If there is sudden increase in the volume of
sewage or if there is sudden change in the character of sewage, there are
adverse effects on the working of the process and consequently the
effluent of bad quality is obtained).
2. Operation cost is high
3. Sludge disposal is required on large scale
4. This process is sensitive to certain industrial wastes
 5. Skilled supervision is required to check that the returned sludge remains
active

Bioremediation:

Bioremediation is a biotechnical process, which abates or cleans up

contamination. It is a type of waste management technique which involves the
use of organisms to remove or utilize the pollutants from a polluted area.

There are several remedies where contaminated water or solid is purified by

chemical treatment, incineration, and burial in a landfill. There are other types
of waste management technique which include solid waste management,
nuclear waste management, etc. Bioremediation is different as it uses no toxic
chemicals.
Microorganisms like Bacteria and Fungi are the main role player when it comes
to executing the process of Bioremediation. Bacteria are the most crucial
microbes in this process as they break down the waste into nutrients and organic
matter. Even though this is an efficient process of waste management but
bioremediation cannot destroy 100% contaminants. Bacteria can easily digest
contaminants like chlorinated pesticides or clean oil spills but microorganisms
fail to destroy heavy metals like lead and cadmium.

Types of Bioremediation
Bioremediation is of three types –

1) Biostimulation
As the name suggests, the bacteria is stimulated to initiate the process. The
contaminated soil is first mixed with special nutrients substances including
other vital components either in the form of liquid or gas. It stimulates the
growth of microbes thus resulting in efficient and quick removal of
contaminants by microbes and other bacterias.

2) Bioaugmentation
At times, there are certain sites where microorganisms are required to extract
the contaminants. For example – municipal wastewater. In these special cases,
the process of bioaugmentation is used. There’s only one major drawback in
this process. It almost becomes impossible to control the growth of
microorganisms in the process of removing the particular contaminant.

3) Intrinsic Bioremediation
The process of intrinsic bioremediation is most effective in the soil and water
because of these two biomes which always have a high probability of being full
of contaminants and toxins. The process of intrinsic bioremediation is mostly
used in underground places like underground petroleum tanks. In such place, it
is difficult to detect a leakage and contaminants and toxins can find their way to
enter through these leaks and contaminate the petrol. Thus, only
microorganisms can remove the toxins and clean the tanks.
The major benefits of bioremediation are:

Completely natural process with almost no harmful side effects

Carried out in situ for most applications with no dangerous transport
Quick turnaround time to make soil and water useful
Minimal equipment needed except for specialized pieces
Positive public acceptance due to organic process and little disturbance
Cost effective to maintain and economical to input
Lowers liability, as contaminants are less likely escape
Little energy consumed compared to incineration and landfilling
High acceptance from regulatory authorities
Limitations of bioremediation:
Limited up to biodegradable compounds:
Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable compounds.
This method is prone to rapid and complete degradation.
Products of biodegradation may be more lasting or toxic than the
parent compound.
Specificity:
Biological processes are largely specific.
The presence of metabolically capable microbial populations, suitable
environmental growth conditions, and adequate levels of nutrients and
 contaminants are the important sites factors required for successful
bioremediation.
Scale up limitation:
It is tough to scale up from bench and pilot scale studies to full scale
field operations.
Technological advancement :
Research is required to develop and advance bioremediation
technologies that are appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of
contaminants that are not evenly distributed in the environment i.e. it
may be present as solids, liquids, and gases.
Tedious process:
Bioremediation consumes much time compared to other treatment
options, such as excavation and removal of soil from contaminated
site.
Regulatory uncertainty:
We are not sure to say that remediation is 100% completed, as there is
no known definition of clean.
Due to that performance evaluation of bioremediation is complex, and
there is no fixed endpoint for bioremediation treatments.

Trickling filter process:

Trickling filters are used to remove organic matter from wastewater. The
trickling filter is an aerobic treatment system that utilizes microorganisms
attached to a medium to remove organic matter from wastewater. This type of
system is common to a number of technologies such as rotating biological
contactors and packed bed reactors (bio-towers). These systems are known as
attached-growth processes. In contrast, systems in which microorganisms are
sustained in a liquid are known as suspended-growth processes.

Applicability
Trickling filters enable organic material in the wastewater to be adsorbed by a
population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative bacteria;
fungi; algae; and protozoa) attached to the medium as a biological film or slime
layer (approximately 0.1 to 0.2 mm thick). As the wastewater flows over the
medium, microorganisms already in the water gradually attach themselves to
the rock, slag, or plastic surface and form a film. The organic material is then
degraded by the aerobic microorganisms in the outer part of the slime layer.
As the layer thickens through microbial growth, oxygen cannot penetrate the
medium face, and anaerobic organisms develop. As the biological film
continues to grow, the microorganisms near the surface lose their ability to cling
to the medium, and a portion of the slime layer falls off the filter. This process
is known as sloughing. The sloughed solids are picked up by the underdrain
system and transported to a clarifier for removal from the wastewater.

The trickling filter consists of several major components including distribution

system, media, underdrains, effluent channel, secondary settling tank, and
recirculation pumps and piping. Each of these components has one or more
purposes.
In operation, wastewater is distributed evenly over the surface of the trickling
filter media. As the wastewater flows over the surface of the media the
organisms in the slime remove the organic matter from the flow.
The organisms aerobically decompose the solids producing more organisms and
stable wastes, which either become part of the zoogleal slime or are discharged
back into the wastewater flowing over the media.
The wastewater continues through the filter to the underdrain system where it is
collected and carried out of the filter. At the same time air flows through the
filter (bottom to the top or top to bommtom depending on temperature).
Oxygen is transferred from the air to the wastewater and slime to maintain the
aerobic conditions. Periodically the slime on the media becomes too heavy and
portions will be released.
This material known as sloughings is carried out of the filter with the
wastewater flow and is removed in the settling tank following the filter.
Trickling filters are very efficient at removing BOD and ammonia from
wastewater, and they use a minimal amount of power. The cost to remove BOD
is only a few dollars per ton.

The liquid portion of the BOD and ammonia from the separator, as well as the
supernatant from the anaerobic digester, are pumped to the trickling filter. Both
the BOD and the ammonia are required to produce the right growth of
microorganisms on the media to provide good treatment.
The liquid influent is piped to the spray heads at the top of the trickling filter.
The force of the water causes the spray heads to rotate above the media, acting
like a sprinkler and evenly distributing water across the media.
The influent trickles down through the media. The media is covered with a
slime of both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. These microorganisms
remove the organic matter from the water. As we have mentioned previously,
the microorganisms in a trickling filter are especially efficient at removing
ammonia from the water.
An important consideration in the operation of a trickling filter is that the
microbes can't move. They just hang onto the media waiting for the food to go
by. To give the microbes another opportunity to eat food they missed, operators
recycle clarified effluent. This is called recirculation.

Advantages
 Simple, reliable, biological process.
  Suitable in areas where large tracts of land are not available for land
intensive treatment systems.

 May qualify for equivalent secondary discharge standards.

 Effective in treating high concentrations of organics depending on the

type of medium used.

 Appropriate for small- to medium-sized communities.

 Rapidly reduce soluble BOD5 in applied wastewater.

 Efficient nitrification units.

 Durable process elements.

 Low power requirements.

 Moderate level of skill and technical expertise needed to manage and

operate the system.
Disadvantages
 Additional treatment may be needed to meet more stringent discharge
standards.

 Possible accumulation of excess biomass that cannot retain an aerobic

condition and can impair Trickling Filter performance (maximum
biomass thickness is controlled by hydraulic dosage rate, type of media,
type of organic matter, temperature and nature of the biological growth).

 Requires regular operator attention.

 Incidence of clogging is relatively high.

 Requires low loadings depending on the medium.

 Flexibility and control are limited in comparison with activated-sludge

processes.

 Vector and odor problems.

 Snail problems.
Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic Digestion is a process by which organic matter, such as animal
waste or wasted food, is broken down by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.
This is usually done in a container called a digester. The process creates
fertilizer that can be used for farming and biogas composed mostly of
methane. The biogas can be combusted to generate electricity and heat, or it
can be processed into renewable natural gas and transportation fuels.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), some types of
organic matter break down more easily than others. The materials that break
down easier generally produce more biogas.

Anaerobic Digestion offers a valuable and innovative way to divert waste

from the landfill.
Dryers used for solid waste:

The classification of dryers and the selection of the appropriate method for the
drying of
solid wastes vary considerably due to the great diversity of wastes to be dried
and to the typical difficulty in working with non-uniform systems. In general,
dryers can be classified according to the method of heat transfer to the moist
solid and with regard to the physical characteristics of the material to be dried,
as it is traditionally indicated in the literature.

The most important measures to be taken for the optimization of energy use in a
drying
process are the appropriate project of the dryer and the use of heat exchangers
or heat pumps for the recovery of thermal energy.

Fixed bed drying

The fixed bed dryer has one of the simplest configurations being composed by a
rectangular or cylindrical chamber where the material to be dried is
accommodated.

The fixed bed dryer encompasses the tray and thin layer dryers. It is a semi-
continuous dryer which is generally used in small scale operations .

No studies where this dryer is used in large scale in the drying of solid wastes
have been found yet, but it is an important item of equipment when it comes to
obtaining information on the transfer mechanisms present in the drying process.

In these dryers, the solid material remains static throughout the drying process
while hot air percolates the bed, parallel or perpendicularly. The gas-solid
contact provides heat and mass transfer between the phases, removing the
moisture content of the solid waste.

The advantage of this dryer lies in its low building and maintenance cost, and in
the fact that it is of easy operation . When trays are used to accommodate the
material, two heat transfer means are known, the direct one, when the
equipment operates with air flow parallel or perpendicular to the bed of solids,
and the indirect one, when the material is directly accommodated on metal trays
and these transfer energy to the solid through conduction.

Rotary drying
A rotary dryer is used when it is necessary to remove the moisture content of
solid wastes of
high heterogeneity and to perform the drying operation in continuous mode.

This dryer has the advantages of allowing the drying of materials of different
shapes, sizes and surface areas providing homogenous drying due to high
particles mixing degree , enabling the obtaining of products of uniform
characteristics and of being of easy scalability regarding the geometry of the
system

Such characteristics favor the drying of heterogeneous materials, which makes

the rotary dryer an item of equipment very attractive to the drying of solid
wastes. Despite having a relatively simple design, the study of drying in rotary
dryers is quite complex.

Different mechanisms, besides the momentum, heat and mass transfer

phenomena, may control the drying process in such equipment.

On average, there are twelve independent variables of interest: feed rate and
initial moisture content of solids, flow rate, air and temperature of the drying
air, diameter, length, rotation speed and slope angle of the drum, type and
quantity of flights and residence time of solids inside the drying bed.

Tunel drying

Tunnel dryers are commonly composed of a long rectangular chamber through

which
circulates the material to be dried. Generally, the material is moved along the
drying chamber by perforated conveyor belts.

In such equipment, for the cases in which the system of perforated conveyor
belts are used, hot air is supplied from the bottom of the equipment in order to
percolate the bed of solid wastes by heating it and removing its moisture
content.

The air, in a unit of direct heating, can be heated directly or indirectly by

combustion or at temperatures below 400°F. Under the conditions in which
containers are used for the transport of waste, air flow can be in countercurrent,
current or transverse mode in relation to the particulate system while the latter
mode implies that the material moves along the drying chamber.

Spouted bed drying

Spouted bed is considered to be a promising alternative for the drying of

different materials
due to certain characteristics, such as provision of high heat and mass transfer
rates, uniformity of temperature in the bed and the possibility of drying heat-
sensitive materials, which makes it applicable to various industrial processes,
such as the coating of particles, granulation and the drying of pastes and
suspensions

Pneumatic drying

Pneumatic dryers are equipments used in the drying of solid and paste-like
materials. They
are also known as flash dryers whose principle is to transport the material to be
dried through a vertical or horizontal tube through the insertion of a continuous
flow of hot air.

Pneumatic dryers are frequently used to dry materials which have surface
moisture, a common characteristic of some cellulosic wastes, such as orange
bagasse, sugar cane bagasse and coffee grounds.
 The solid phase is separated from the gas phase normally by a cyclone, usually
located at the outlet of the dryer. Then excellent fluid-particle contact promoted
by this system favors high values of convective heat and mass transfer
coefficients, which are enough to favor higher drying rates, allowing a wide
variety of applications in the industrial field.

Fluidzed bed drying

The fluidized bed is commonly used in drying operations due to its wide
operation limit,
which allow work with an extensive variety of materials with different
characteristics.

The advantages of this system are promotion of a good mixture of particles,

uniformity of the final product, high heat and mass transfer rates, and easiness
of material transport . Typical fluidized bed dryers are basically configurations
where a cylindrical bed is filled with particles (solid phase) in contact with an
ascending fluid (gas phase) at a pre-determined velocity. Initial studies on fluid
dynamics are necessary for the drying of solid wastes in a fluidized bed in order
to promote the satisfactory performance of this kind of dryer .

The use of fluidized bed in the drying of solid wastes can present, in some
cases, features that deserve emphasis within the concept of fluidization.

Incineration:

 A method suited for combustible refuse

 Refuse is burnt
 Suited in crowded cities where sites for land filling are not available
 High construction and operation costs
 Sometimes used to reduce the volume of solid wastes for land filling
 Primary chamber – designed to facilitate rapid desiccation of moist refuse
and complete combustion of refuse and volatile gases
 A ledge or drying hearth is provided for this purpose
 Secondary chamber – between the primary chamber and the stack –
temperatures above 700 degree C
  All unburnt and semi burnt material are completely burnt here
Waste to Energy Combustors
 Incinerators – Refuse was burned without recovering energy – exhaust
gas is very hot – exceeds the acceptable inlet temperature for electrostatic
precipitators used for particulate emission control
Modern combustors – combine solid waste combustion with energy
recovery
Combustors for Solid Waste
 Storage pit – for storing and sorting incoming refuse

 Crane – for charging the combustion box

 Combustion chamber consisting of bottom grates on which combustion
occurs
 Grates on which refuse moves
 Heat recovery system of pipes in which water is turned to steam
 Ash handling systems
 Air pollution control systems
 Grates – Provide turbulence so that the MSW can be thoroughly burned,
moves the refuse down, provides under fire air to the refuse through
openings in it (to assist in combustion as well as to cool the grates)
 Operating temperature of combustors ~ 980 to 1090 degree C

Design of solid waste management:

A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements
associated with the management of solid wastes. The system, when put in
place, facilitates the collection and disposal of solid wastes in the community at
minimal costs, while preserving public health and ensuring little or minimal
adverse impact on the environment. The functional elements that constitute the
system are:

(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and
thereafter, at every stage as raw materials are converted into goods for
consumption. For example, wastes are generated from households, commercial
areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and other municipal services. The
most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the identification of
waste.

(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of

wastes never takes place at the source or at the time of their generation. The
heterogeneous wastes generated in residential areas must be removed within 8
days due to shortage of storage space and presence of biodegradable material.
Onsite storage is of primary importance due to aesthetic consideration, public
health and economics involved. Some of the options for storage are plastic
containers, conventional dustbins (of households), used oil drums, large storage
bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots), etc.

(i) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling

them to the location, where the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a
transfer station (i.e., intermediate station where wastes from smaller vehicles
are transferred to larger ones and also segregated), a processing plant or a
disposal site. Collection depends on the number of containers, frequency of
collection, types of collection services and routes. Typically, collection is
provided under various management arrangements, ranging from municipal
services to franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.
(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves:

The transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary to

overcome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at transfer
stations.

The subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal
sites.

(ii) The factors that contribute to the designing of a transfer station

include the type of transfer operation, capacity, equipment, accessories
and environmental requirements.
(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical
characteristics of wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The
important processing techniques include compaction, thermal volume
reduction, manual separation of waste components, incineration and
composting.

(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment

and facilities used to improve both the efficiency of disposal system and
recovery of usable material and energy. Recovery involves the separation of
valuable resources from the mixed solid wastes, delivered at transfer stations or
processing plants. It also involves size reduction and density separation by air
classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens for glass. The selection of any
recovery process is a function of economics, i.e., costs of separation versus the
recovered-material products. Certain recovered materials like glass, plastics,
paper, etc., can be recycled as they have economic value.

(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they

residential wastes, semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment

plants, incinerator residues, composts or other substances that have no further
use to the society. Thus, land use planning becomes a primary determinant in
the selection, design and operation of landfill operations. A modern sanitary
landfill is a method of disposing solid waste without creating a nuisance and
hazard to public health. Generally, engineering principles are followed to
confine the wastes to the smallest possible area, reduce them to the lowest
particle volume by compaction at the site and cover them after each day's
operation to reduce exposure to vermin. One of the most important functional
elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final use of the reclaimed land.

Typical SWM System: Functional Elements

UNIT 4- RECYCLING AND UTILIZATION OF WASTE PRODUCT
FROM FOOD INDUSTRY

BOD

Biological (or biochemical) oxygen demand (BOD) is an important parameter in

water resource management. BOD is a parameter used to measure the quality of
water and treatment results in wastewater.

In addition, BOD analysis potential is used in the planning and design

wastewater treatment facilities. In routine use BOD determination is used to
check the wastewater in the inflow and discharge of wastewater treatment
plants.

The BOD determination is an empirical test in which standardized laboratory

procedures are used to determine the relative oxygen requirements of Waste
waters, effluents, and polluted waters.

The test has its widest application in measuring waste loadings to treatment
plants and in evaluating the BOD-removal efficiency of such treatment systems.

The test measures the molecular oxygen utilized during a specified incubation
period for the biochemical degradation of organic material (carbonaceous
demand) and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic material such as sulfides and
ferrous iron.

It also may measure the amount of oxygen used to oxidize reduced forms of
nitrogen (nitrogenous demand) unless their oxidation is prevented by an
inhibitor. The seeding and dilution procedures provide an estimate of the BOD
at pH 6.5 to 7.5.

The method (5-day BOD) consists of filling with sample, to overflowing, an

airtight bottle of the specified size and incubating it at the specified temperature
for 5 days.

Dissolved oxygen is measured initially and after incubation, and the BOD is
computed from the difference between initial and final DO.
Because the initial DO is determined shortly after the dilution is made, all
oxygen uptake occurring after this measurement is included in the BOD
measurement.

COD:

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of water and wastewater

quality. The COD test is often used to monitor water treatment plant efficiency.

This test is based on the fact that a strong oxidizing agent, under acidic
conditions, can fully oxidize almost any organic compound to carbon dioxide.
The COD is the amount of oxygen consumed to chemically oxidize organic
water contaminants to inorganic end products.

The COD is often measured using a strong oxidant (e.g. potassium dichromate,
potassium iodate, potassium permanganate) under acidic conditions.

A known excess amount of the oxidant is added to the sample. Once oxidation
is complete, the concentration of organics in the sample is calculated by
measuring the amount of oxidant remaining in the solution.

This is usually done by titration, using an indicator solution. COD is expressed

in mg/L, which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.

The COD test only requires 2-3 hours, while the Biochemical (or Biological)
Oxygen Demand (BOD) test requires 5 days. It measures all organic
contaminants, including those that are not biodegradable.

There is a relationship between BOD and COD for each specific sample, but it
must be established empirically. COD test results can then be used to estimate
the BOD of a given sample.

Unlike for the BOD test, toxic compounds (such as heavy metals and cyanides)
in the samples to be analyzed do not have an effect on the oxidants used in the
COD test. Therefore, the COD test can be used to measure the strength of
wastes that are too toxic for the BOD test.

Some organic molecules (e.g., benzene, pyridine) are relatively resistant to

dichromate oxidation and may give a falsely low COD.
 RO:

Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water purification methodology that removes ions,

molecules and other larger particles from drinking water using a semipermeable
membrane. The process of removing salt from seawater or desalination is done
by reverse osmosis.

HISTORY OF REVERSE OSMOSIS:

The process of Reverse Osmosis by using semipermeable membrane was
observed first in 1748 by a French clergyman and physicist Jean Antoine Nollet.
The University of California at Los Angeles was the first to investigate in
1950, desalination of seawater using semipermeable membranes. In the 1950s,
researchers from both the University of California and the University of Florida
successfully produced fresh water from seawater.
Cape Coral, Florida in 1977 became the first municipality in the US to use the
reverse osmosis process on a large scale.
By the end of 2001, around 15,200 desalination plants came into operation
worldwide, out of which 20% of them were in the U.S.

HOW DOES REVERSE OSMOSIS WORK?

Formally, RO is the process of forcing a solvent to a region of low soluble
concentration from high solute concentration region through a semipermeable
membrane by applying pressure.
The typical single pass seawater RO system consists of:

1. Intake: To set up RO system you need an intake pump at the source of the
water to be purified.
2. Pre-treatment: This step includes removal of solids, sediments, carbonic acid
from the water so as to protect the membrane. This step also includes dosing of
oxidizing biocides like chlorine to kill bacteria.
3. High-pressure pump: The high-pressure pump is required to let the water pass
through the membrane. Pressure for brackish water typically ranges from 225 to
376 psi and in the case of seawater it ranges from 800-1180 psi.
4. Membrane: In membrane assembly there is a pressure vessel with a membrane,
allowing feed water to be pressed against the membrane. RO system membranes
are made in a range of configurations, but the two most common configurations
are spiral-wound and hollow-fiber.
5. Energy recovery: Energy recovery is used to reduce the energy consumption.
Much amount of energy input of the high-pressure pump can be recovered by
the concentrate flow and efficient energy recovery device.
6. Remineralisation and pH adjustment: Stabilization of desalinated water is
done to protect downstream pipelines and storage, generally by adding lime
or caustic soda to prevent corrosion. Liming material is used to maintain pH
between 6.8 to 8.1 so that meets the potable water specifications.
7. Disinfection: Reverse osmosis is an effective blockade of pathogens, but post-
treatment assures secondary protection against downstream and membranes
problems. To sterilize pathogen which has bypassed the RO process,
disinfection by means of UV lamps can be employed.

WHERE IS RO USED?
1. Drinking water purification: Around the world, drinking water systems in
households include RO step, are generally being used for purifying water for
drinking and cooking purpose. The reverse osmosis water purification unit
(ROWPU) is designed for military use, which is a self-contained water
treatment unit providing potable water from almost any source of water.
2. Water and wastewater purification: Reverse osmosis water processors are
used to purify rainwater collected from storm drains, which is then used for
irrigation and industrial cooling and other such purposes as a solution to water
shortage problem. In industries, RO removes minerals from boiler water at
power plants. Reverse osmosis is also used to purify brackish groundwater and
effluent.
3. Food industry: Reverse osmosis is an economical operation of concentrating
food liquids such as fruit juices. RO is largely used for the production of whey
 protein powders and for concentrating milk to reduce shipping costs, in the
dairy industry. This process is also used in the wine industry.
4. Maple syrup and hydrogen production: A maple syrup producer uses this
process to remove water from the sap before boiling it down into syrup. The use
of reverse osmosis process lets 75-90% of the water to be removed from the
sap, resulting in reduced energy consumption. Sometimes reverse osmosis is
used in small-scale hydrogen production to prevent the formation of minerals on
the electrodes surface.

Recovery of protein from potato:

potato starch wastewater contains high-concentration potato proteins which

have great potential in the fields of food and health care.

Most researches on potato protein recovery by membrane separation technique

are focused on flat sheet or tubular ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis
(RO) membranes and lack the further protein purification and the in-depth
discussions on the fouling behavior.

In laboratory-scale study, potato proteins were recovered and purified from the
simulated potato starch wastewater by the self-made hollow fiber (HF) UF and
nanofiltration (NF) separation membrane integrated process.

85.62% potato proteins with high molecular weight in the potato starch
wastewater could be retained by UF membrane and 92.1% potato proteins with
low molecular weight were rejected by NF membrane.

The concentrated solution after UF and NF filtration was desalinated and

purified by diluting the solution eight times and filtering the diluted solution
with UF membrane.

Both types of HF membranes, UF and NF, suffered the inevitable membrane

fouling. After the traditional physical washing and chemical cleaning, water
flux of UF and NF membranes can be effectively recovered.

The corresponding recovery rates of UF and NF membranes can reach 93.5%

and 84.7%, respectively.
The hollow fiber UF-NF separation membrane integrated process was proved to
be a promising technique of high-purity potato protein recovery from potato
starch wastewater.

Utilization of molasses:
Utilization of waste from meat , fish and poultry:

Waste from meat:

Utilization of blood
Animal blood has a high level of protein and heme iron, and is an important
edible by-product. In Europe, animal blood has long been used to make blood
sausages, blood pudding, biscuits and bread. In Asia, it is used in blood curd,
blood cake and blood pudding . It is also used for non-food items such as
fertilizer, feedstuffs and binders. According to the Meat Inspection Act of the
United States, blood is approved for food use when it has been removed by
bleeding an animal that has been inspected and passed for use in meat food
products.
Blood is usually sterile in a healthy animal. It has high protein content (17.0),
with a reasonably good balance of amino acids. Blood is a significant part of the
animal’s body mass (2.4–8.0% of the animal’s live weight). The average
percentage of blood that can be recovered from pigs, cattle and lambs are 3.0–
4.0, 3.0–4.0 and 3.5–4.0%, respectively. However, the use of blood in meat
processing may mean that the final product is dark in color, and not very
palatable. Plasma is the portion of blood that is of greatest interest, because of
its functional properties and lack of color.
Utilization of hides and skins
Animal hides have been used for shelters, clothing and as containers by human
beings since prehistoric times. The hides represent a remarkable portion of the
weight of the live animal, from 4% to as much as 11% (e.g. cattle: 5.1–8.5%,
average: 7.0%; sheep: 11.0–11.7%; swine: 3.0–8.0%). Hides and skins are
generally one of the most valuable by-products from animals. Examples of
finished products from the hides of cattle and pigs, and from sheep pelts, are
leather shoes and bags, rawhide, athletic equipment, reformed sausage casing
and cosmetic products, sausage skins, edible gelatine and glue

Stacking of hides and skins

After the hide is removed from the animal, it should be cured quickly to avoid
decomposition by bacteria and enzymes. There are four basic treatments. One is
air-drying, the second is curing with salt, and the third and fourth are curing by
mixer and raceway respectively. Salt curing is often used for the raw hides. The
quality of cured hides and skins is usually based on their moisture and salt
content. The moisture level of hides should be in the range 40–48%, if they are
to remain in good condition during storage or shipping.

Gelatin from hides and skins

Gelatin is produced by the controlled hydrolysis of a water-insoluble collagen
derived from protein. It is made from fresh raw materials (hides or bone) that
are in an edible condition. Both hides and bones contain large quantities of
collagen. The processing of gelatin from hide consists of three major steps. The
first step is the elimination of non-collagenous material from the raw material.
This is followed by controlled hydrolysis of collagen to gelatin. The final step is
recovery and drying of the final product.

Utilization of bone
Eleven percent of pork carcasses, 15% of beef carcasses and 16% of lamb
carcasses are bone. These values are higher if they include the meat clinging to
the bone. The marrow inside some of the bones can also be used as food. The
marrow may be 4.0–6.0% of the carcass weight (West and Shaw 1975). For
centuries, bones have been used to make soup and gelatine. In recent years, the
meat industry has been trying to get more meat from bones, and new techniques
have been used for this purpose. The beef, pork or lamb produced by
mechanical deboning produces tissue that is called “mechanically separated”,
“mechanically deboned” or “mechanically removed”. Such meat is now
approved for use in meat products (mixed or used alone) in many countries
(Field 1981). In 1978, mechanically separated red meat was approved for use as
red meat in the United States.
Normally, if a high percentage of mechanically separated red meat is
incorporated into products, the flavor and quality are reduced. The color
becomes darker, and the meat is softer with higher water content. For this
reason, the level of mechanically separated meat is usually limited. It should be
noted that mechanically recovered meat has a bad consumer perception in some
countries connected with health concerns with Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) contamination (Arvanitoyannis and Ladas 2008). A
level of 5.0–20.0% in hamburger and ground beef, and 10.0–40.0% in sausages,
has been suggested by the meat industry.

Utilization of glands and organs

Glands and organs as food

Animal organs and glands offer a wide variety of flavors and textures, and often
have a high nutritional value. They are highly prized as food in many parts of
the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Those used as human foods include the
brain, heart, kidneys, liver, lungs and spleen. They also include the tongue, the
bovine pancreas and udder, the stomach and uterus of pigs, the rumen,
reticulum, omasum and absomasum of sheep and cattle, and the testes and
thymus of sheep and pigs

Utilization of edible tallow and lard

Animal fats are an important by-product of the meat packing industry. The
major edible animal fats are lard and tallow. Lard is the fat rendered from the
clean tissues of healthy pigs. Tallow is hard fat rendered from the fatty tissues
of cattle or sheep. Lard and edible tallow are obtained by dry or wet rendering.
In the wet rendering process, the fatty tissues are heated in the presence of
water, generally at a low temperature. The quality of the lard or tallow from this
process is better than that of products from dry rendering. Low-quality lard, and
almost all of the inedible tallow and greases, are produced by dry rendering.
Rendered lard can be used as an edible fat without any further processing.
However, because of consumer demand, lard and tallow are now often bleached
and given a deodorizing treatment before being used in food.
Traditionally, tallow and lard were used for deep frying (Weiss 1983).
However, this use is declining in the fast-food industry, due to consumer health
concerns. An alternative liquid tallow product has been developed for the
preparation of French fries and other fast foods, since less fat is absorbed.
Tallow and lard are also used for margarine and shortening (Ghotra et al. 2002).
Some edible lards are used in sausages or emulsified products.

Waste from fish:

Waste from poultry:
UNIT 5 - REGULATORY ISSUES WITH FOOD INDUSTRY WASTE

International scenario of disposal of food waste from food industry:

UK

In the UK there are around 2.2 Mt of food or food by-products from food
manufacturing used as animal feed 34 and there is regulation and standards in
place to ensure food safety and animal health is protected.

Vietnam

The most popular method of reusing food waste in Vietnam is feeding it to

livestock, particularly to pigs in smallholder farms in peri-urban areas.
Household kitchens, restaurant kitchens, markets, hotels, food shops, and food
processing plants produce a huge amount of avoidable uneaten food that
contains cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein compounds and nutrients that
are beneficial to pigs. Pigs can therefore play an important role in food waste
management, as they can eat and digest different food types and are considered
food waste collectors 35.

Egypt

The same is true in Egypt where the Zabaleen community collects food waste
from households to feed pigs. The Zabaleen are Coptic Christians and therefore
eat pork, but this is at times a conflictual issue in a mainly Muslim nation . This
highlights that culture and religious beliefs and practices should be taken into
account when considering food waste use in animal feed.

The reluctance of farmers to feed these food wastes directly to their pigs for fear
of transmission of disease can be overcome by cooking the food waste before
feeding it to the animals, producing what is colloquially known as “swill”
(cooked food waste fed to pigs) . The application of heating and fermentation
technologies rids the food waste of disease.

Treating and recycling food waste as animal feed can deliver a triple benefit of
increasing pig farmers’ incomes, managing food waste, and also reducing
disease and environmental pollution . Swill was banned in the EU in 2002 after
the UK foot-and-mouth disease epidemic (which is thought to have been started
by the illegal feeding of uncooked food waste to pigs), but it is actively
promoted in nations such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand.

As mentioned, heat treatment deactivates viruses such as foot-and-mouth and

classical swine fever, and renders food waste safe for animal feed.

Japan and South Korea

As of 2015, Japan and South Korea respectively recycled 35.9% and 42.5% of
their food waste as animal feed. In these countries, the industry is tightly
regulated: the heat treatment of food waste is carried out by registered
“Ecofeed” manufacturers, who are required by food safety law to heat treat food
waste containing meats for a minimum of 30 minutes at 70°C or 3 minutes at
80°C. In Japan and South Korea, swill is seen as a strategic resource: it is a
cheap, domestic alternative to the more expensive, volatile international market
for grain- and soybean-based feeds 39. While food waste as animal feed has
been historically used for pigs, it can, of course, be fed to other species. A
number of studies have trialled food waste diets for poultry, fish, insects, and
ruminants (cattle, goat and sheep

National scenario of waste disposal from food industry:

Waste management rules in India are based on the principles of "sustainable

development", "precaution" and "polluter pays". These principles mandate
municipalities and commercial establishments to act in an environmentally
accountable and responsible manner—restoring balance, if their actions disrupt
it. The increase in waste generation as a by-product of economic development
has led to various subordinate legislations for regulating the manner of disposal
and dealing with generated waste are made under the umbrella law of
Environment Protection Act, 1986 (EPA). Specific forms of waste are the
subject matter of separate rules and require separate compliances, mostly in the
nature of authorisations, maintenance of records and adequate disposal
mechanisms.
With rapid urbanisation, the country is facing massive waste management
challenge. Over 377 million urban people live in 7,935 towns and cities and
generate 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per annum. Only 43 million
tonnes (MT) of the waste is collected, 11.9 MT is treated and 31 MT is dumped
in landfill sites. Solid Waste Management (SWM) is one among the basic
essential services provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep urban
centres clean. However, almost all municipal authorities deposit solid waste at a
dumpyard within or outside the city haphazardly. Experts believe that India is
following a flawed system of waste disposal and management.
The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste
at source and to ensure that the waste goes through different streams of
recycling and resource recovery. Then reduced final residue is then deposited
scientifically in sanitary landfills. Sanitary landfills are the ultimate means of
disposal for unutilised municipal solid waste from waste processing facilities
and other types of inorganic waste that cannot be reused or recycled. Major
limitation of this method is the costly transportation of MSW to far away
landfill sites.
A report by IIT Kanpur (2006) found the potential of recovering at least 15 per
cent or 15,000 MT of waste generated every day in the country. This, the report
said, could also provide employment opportunities to about 500,000 rag-
pickers. The report added that despite immense potential in big cities in this
area, participation from non-profits or community is limited.
In some urban centres, people working in the informal sector collect solid waste
for each doorstep to get a collection fee and derive additional income from sale
of recyclables. The informal recycling industry plays a major role in waste
management. It also ensures that less waste reaches landfills.
Iswar Ahluwalia, in an article, points out that more than three-fourth of solid
waste management budget is allotted to collection and transportation, leaving
leaves very little for processing or resource recovery and disposal.
There has been technological advancement for processing, treatment and
disposal of solid waste. Energy-from-waste is a crucial element of SWM
because it reduces the volume of waste from disposal also helps in converting
the waste into renewable energy and organic manure. Ideally, it falls in the flow
chart after segregation, collection, recycling and before getting to the land fill.
But many waste to energy plants in India are not operating to their full potential.
Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants would reduce the
load of landfill sites. The biodegradable component of India’s solid waste is
currently estimated at a little over 50 per cent. Bio-methanation is a solution for
processing biodegradable waste which is also remains underexploited. It is
believed that if we segregate biodegradable waste from the rest, it could reduce
the challenges by half. E-waste components contain toxic materials and are non-
biodegradable which present both occupational and environmental health threats
including toxic smoke from recycling processes and leaching from e-waste in
landfill into local water tables.
The concept of common waste treatment facility (ENVIS Newsletter, December
2010) is being widely promoted and accepted as it uses waste as a resource by
either using it as a co-fuel or co-raw material in manufacturing processes. This
has led to rise of Public Private Partnership (PPP) models in waste management
which has open doors for doing business in waste management.
Bio-medical waste (management and handling) rules, 1998 prescribe that there
should be a Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) at every
150 kms in the country. CBWTFs have been set up and are functioning in cities
and towns. However, establishment of functional CBWTF throughout the
country must be ensured. Integrated common hazardous waste management
facilities combine secured landfill facility, solidification/stabilisation and
incineration to treat hazardous wastes generated by various industrial units.
They contribute about 97.8 per cent of total landfill waste and 88 per cent of
total incinerable hazardous waste generated in the country, as per an
environment ministry report.

Regulatory issues with food industry waste: