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    Heat Treatment and Stainless

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    Heat Treatment and Stainless

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    Engineering materials

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    heat treatment and stainless(1)

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    12 views9 pages

    Heat Treatment and Stainless

    Uploaded by

    betruckouma
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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Alloy steels ound improve ex Alloying elements are added to plain carbon steels to impart special Properties, The most Common alloying elements include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt Example 1 Effect of presence of chromium (already seen in stainless steels) Example 2 _ Effect of presence of tungsten Adds red hardness by forming hard carbides which are stable at high temperatures Widens the hardening range and gives deep hardening Increases strength and wear resistance Smell quantities produce fine grained structure but large quantities tend to cause embrittlement Itimproves corrosion resistance Example 3 High speed steels Used for cutting tools and other applications where strength and hardness must be retained at temperatures up-to and including red hot (=760°C). Example 0.7% Carbon, 18% Tingsten, 4% Chromium and 1% Vanadium. This type ha also 2 balanced combination of shock resistance and abrasion resistance, | General Guidelines on Properties of Alloys Each phase is to some degree solid solution strengthened gin the Lead-Tin system, a (solid solution of Tin in Lead) is stronger than Lead, ‘The more coarse (large) the grain size the weaker the structure. The grain size is mostly affected by the rate of cooling and presence of other elements. Rapid cooling promotes formation of fine (small) grains, ‘The amount and properties of each phase/micro-constituent ©. in steel; the amount and properties of primary ferrite/cementite and pearlite. Increasing the amount of the Stronger micro-constituent increase the strength of the alloy. ‘The shape of the micro-constituent. Many small spheres dispersed evenly in matrix Aacase strength more compared to large spheres, plates or needlelike structures. Almost always the ductility ofthe alloy is less than that of Pure metal. Exceptions however do occur e.g. in Copper-Zinc alloys both strength and ductility increase. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS eat treatment is a series of heating and cooling operations which are performed to achieve desired properties in a material. The heat treatment is designed to provide an optimum Gistribution of two or more phases in a microstructure. The aim is 19 produce a final microstructure containing a uniform distribution of many tiny hard precipitate particles in a softer more ductile matrix. Transformation Processes These are property changes during heat treatment. Austeniteferrite (y-a) transformation is controlled by temperature and time available for diffusion of ron and carbon allotropes. Depending on the temperature and time available (cooling rate) several structures can result. 1. _ Formation of pearlite if the cooling rate is very slow (equilibrium cooling) and the ‘transformation allowed to occur at 72°C decomposition of austenite results in the simultaneous formation of ferrite and cementite. As the formation is simultaneous the resulting mixture is intimately mixed lamellar called peariite. The distance between the lamellar (plates of ferrite and cementite) decreases ‘with increase in cooling rate. This results in fine and coarse peariite, 2. Formation of bainite + ‘This results when the cooling rate is too high for the formation of ferrite and cementite lamellar, Austenite chariges to ferrite and excess carbon later diffuses to form dispersed cementite precipitate with a ferrite matrix. The hardness of bainite is higher than that of ferrite. 3. Formation of Martensite (m) Above a certain cooling rate and below a characteristic temperature Ms (which depends on the carbon content) gémma changes to be by shearing action (no diffusion) all atoms move in concert (together) and the carbon cannot diffuse out of solution and will end up ina super saturated solution of carbon in-bcc iron. The result which has 2 body centered tetragonal structure (bct) is called martensite. Martensite is a non equilibrium phase and with time should change to ferrite and cementite. ‘The unit eell's distorted by the excess carbon and hence slip and dislocation movement is not possible. This makes martensite very hard and brittle. The hardness of martensite will increase wwith carbon content as shown (fig. ). The increase in hardness is due to increased distortion. A vvaximum is reached at the eutectoid composition. With higher carbon content (greater than (0.8%) the percentage of retained austenite increases and pence hardness decreases. If however the cooling is from the two phase area ‘and cementite) the hardness will remain constant since the final product will be a mixture of cementite and martensite, and the hardness of cementite isthe same as that of martensite. The microstructure of martensite is seedle lke. With time, martensite changes to ferrite and cementite, The Process which is called tempering can be accelerated by heating to about 500°C. The resulting structure is called tempered martensite and consists of carbide particles dispersed in a ferrite matrix. Tempered martensite contains adequate toughness with adequate strength. ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION AND TIME-TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION (TTT) CURVES There is @ critical cooling rate that is required for all austenite to transform to martensite this rate varies with the carbon content of the steel. If this cooling rate is not reached there is only Partial transformation with some ferrite, Pearlite and bainite forming also. The formation of this involves nucleation and growth and hence require time. This require energy also and hence the temperature of transformation is important. The time required for transformation to start and end at a given temperature and the end product of transformation is determined by isothermal transformation experiments. These proceed as follows; penny shaped pieces of the steel under investigation are heated to austenizing temperature -they are quenched to the temperature being studied -they.are held at that temperature for the required time -they are then quenched in water. Any untransformed austenite then transforms into martensite ~they are then examined under microscope and the percentage and the extent of transformation inferred from the proportion of martensite . -the above procedure is repeated for different times (transformation times) ~All the above procedures are repeated for different temperatures’ The results obtained are then plotted to give the isothermal transformation diagram also called Temperature —Time-transformation (TTT) or C curves(because of their C shape).For eutectoid steel 0.8%C the curve is as shown (fig 9.17 ). Itis noted that the transformation time decreases with temperature up to a certain temperature and then increases again. The point of minimum time is called the knee. TECHNICAL HEAT TREATMENT PROCEDURES FOR STEELS 1. ANNEALING This involves heating to a temperature at which the atoms can move and arrange themselves into more stable structure. There are several annealing processes which include; a) Full Annealing This is used to soften a material prior to machining. The steel is heated to austenitizing temperature (fig.9.26) followed by furnace cooling to form coarse pearlite. Hyper-eutectold steels are not heated to wholly austenite state because on slow cooling cementite would form continuous film resulting in brittleness (heating to the as shown permits cementite to become rounded) b) Process Annealing This is an inter-stage annealing process used to eliminate effect of cold-working in steels with Jess than 0.25%6C. It restores the malleability and ductility so that further cold-working can be carried out. It involves heating to a temperature below eutectoid temperature (fig.9.26). It improves the cold working properties of the steel. As the steel is heated to a lower temperature ‘than in full anneal, the process is cheaper and less scales are formed. Cooling may also be in still air. )— Spheroidising High carbon steels, which contain a large amount of cementite have poor machining characteristics (layers of pearlitic cementite provide hard barriers to cutting). Prolonged heating at a temperature just below eutectoid temperature (fig. 9.26) causes the cementite to change into spheres and the process is known as spher ing. The resulting structure known as spheroidite has small spheroids or globules dispersed in a continuous matrix of soft and machine-able ferrite. After machining or cold forming, the steel! may be given suitable heat treatment. d) Stress relief anneal ‘The process may be employed to reduce the residual stresses in large steel castings, welded assemblies and ote formed products. Parts are heated to temperatures shown (fig. 9.26) held for a period of fime and then slow cooled to prevent the creation of additional stresses. Times and temperatures vary with the condition of the component but the basic micro-structure and associated mechenical properties generally remain unchanged. 2. NORMALISING The heating cycle is as shown (fig.9.26) followed by air cooling. Air cooling gives faster cooling rates and finer grains (fine pearlite with excess ferrite or cementite is generally produced). The main purpose is grain refinement. 3. QUENCH HARDENING ‘The steel is heated and cooled as shown (fig.9.26). It is quenched in water or oil to form martensite. Quench cracks During. quenching of thick pieces, martensite forms at the surface first and later on, core also forms martensite. Since the density of austenite is higher than that of martensite, when core forms martensite this will be accompanied by an expansion. This will cause cracks on the martensite already formed, The cracks are called quench cracks. > Retained austenite When martensite forms from austenite during the quench, a large volume expansion occurs, The first plates of martensite to form surround and isolate pools of austenite. For the remaining austenite to transform, the surrounding martensite must deform but the strong martensite resists the deformation. Either the existing martensite cracks or the austenite remains in the structure as retained austenite. Residual stresses and cracking Residual stresses are also produced due to the volume change. The hard surface is placed in tension, while the centre is compressed. If residual stresses are high enough cracks form on the surface. 4 MARTEMPERING (INTERUPTED QUENCHING) Stent This is done to avoid quench cracks. The article is quenched into a salt bath maintained at a temperature above Ms, The article is kept at that temperature for core to get to the temperature (uniform temperature throughout). Since this is past the knee of the TIT. curve, cooling and formation of martensite can then proceed at a much siower rate. This ensures uniform cooling hence avoiding quench cracks. (fig.9.24i) 5. AUSTEMPERING (ISOTHERMAL TEMPERING) Quenching is again carried out to a temperature just above Ms. The article is held at that femperature until transformation is complete. The resuiting structure is bainite which has got similar structure and properties as tempered martensite thus austempering combines the a. operations of quenching and tempering into a single operation (fig.9.24 ip. 6 TEMPERING This is done to toughen martensite while retaining adequate ‘strength. The article is heated to about 500°C (depending on carbon content and final hardness required) for about one hour. Martensite breaks dane to form bcc structure by precipitating cementite which forms dispersed Particles inside a ferrite matrix. The Particles arrest dislocation movement accounting for the Strength while the ductile ferrite can deform accounting for the toughness HARDENABILITY This is the ease with which hardness can be obtained and will depend on carbon content. Hardenability is tested by Jominy End Quench Test. in the test, a standardized round bar with standard dimensions is heated to austenizing temperature. The bar is then quenched from one end with water at a given temperature, Pressure and flow rate. No water touches the cylindrical surface hence cooling rate varies with distance. The hardness is then determined along the length of the bar at certain intervals and the values plotted in the hardenability curve. smh. be Se a — 216 Steel andits Heat-treatment *¢| & UNSTABLE, AUSTENITE fg. 2.20 A summary of he vas teat-veatont procsses epee steels in Fg carbon content and wrealent ornperah pg. 024 (sot Fa Se ae sak tah sg EES lectin, of te stale austere Dns OE = pes 020 a be see! shew! ‘SURFACE TREATMENT (CASE HARDENING) ogg ln some applications, components need to be tough and ductile and atthe same time have a hard wear resistant surfece. ‘Ductile materials are usually soft while hard materials are generaly brittle hence cificult to get a suitable single material with ‘required properties. Surface hardening s carried out to give a surface that has different properties from that ofthe core “There are two main methods used — 1. Themosteeffective way to achieve the combination of properties isto have a steel which has a surface of aifferent composition from that ofthe core as is done inthe folowing two processes; 2) Carburizing ‘The carbon cantant on the surface of a tough, ductile Tow carbon steels increased through suitable means (eg. packing charcoal around component and then heating —carbon wil diffuse tothe components surface and then the component is heat treated. The surface will then have higher carbon content and its consequent hardness afer heat treatment will be higher. b)—_Nitridng (Nitrogen Hardening) “The process involves tive interstitial solid solution of Nitrogen atoms to form a very hard skin onthe surface of the component ‘Special stee's containing either 1.0% aluminium or small amounts of chromium, molybdenum and vanadium are used so thet >) the hacd nitrides of these metas wil form the surface layer. Procedure = thepart to be treated is loaded into heat resisting steel box with inlet and outlet for the ammonia gs (NH). = The boxts put in a furnace and heated to the required temperature of 500"C and maintained at that temperature for the required duration while a steady stream of ammonia gas s passed through. ‘The ammonia gas dissociates ita Nitrogen gas and Hydrogen. The atomic Nitrogen released dissolves intesttialy in the surface. After the treatment no further hardening is required. ‘Main advantages of Nitriding compared with carburizing 1) Since no quenching is required after nitriding, cracking and distortion are unlikely. i) High surface hardness is obtained iy Resistance to corrosion and resistance to fatigue are good Iv) Hardness is retained up to 500°C whereas a hardened steel component begins to soften at 200°C due to normal effects of tempering “The main gisadvantage isthe high cost ofthe equipment. 2. AAemativelya steel af uniform carbon content can be used andits surface heat treated in a cfferent manner from the core through induction or flame hardening. The component is first normalized to give @ tough and ductile pearlitic core. ts surfaces then heated either by gas torch or induction methods and then quenched by means of ‘ater jets. Ths produces a hard martensite skin on the surface ofthe tough pearlitic core Induction heating procedure Steel part placed inside a conductor coll which s energized with alternating current |The changing magnetie field induces surface currentsin the steel which heat by electrical resistance. (Eddy currents produced in the surface layers ofthe ste! bar) ‘After attaining the required temperature the steel is then removed and quenched

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