Chapter 04 Motivation

Motivation
 the internal and external factors that lead an individual to engage in goal-related behaviour.
 Intensity: How hard a person tries
 Direction: Where effort is channelled
 Persistence: How long effort is maintained
TheoryX- The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be
coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Theory Y- The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will
exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives
motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation.
 It’s not necessarily you—it’s the situation
intrinsic motivators- A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest,
challenge, and personal satisfaction.
extrinsic motivators- Motivation that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay,
bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
NEEDS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

types of needs that must be met in order to motivate individuals.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
• Safety. Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
• Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
• Esteem. Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external
esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
• Self-actualization. Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment. This is the drive to
become what one is capable of becoming.
Not Much Support
As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes more important to fulfill
research does not generally validate the theory
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ERG Theory
 Clayton Alderfer has reworked Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to align it more closely with the
empirical research.
 three groups of core needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—hence, the name: ERG theory.
In contrast to the hierarchy of needs theory,

(1) more than one need may be working at the same time
(2) ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people.
Overall, however, ERG theory represents a more valid version of the need hierarchy.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs

 focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
 Motivation comes from within the person
o Need for achievement

drive is the achievement need (nAch).
o Need for power - make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
(nPow) is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others.
o Need for affiliation - close interpersonal relationships.
Individuals with a high affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg.
 What do people want from their jobs?
 intrinsic factors seem to be related to job satisfaction

 The factors that caused dissatisfaction were extrinsic
 opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed.

 “Satisfaction” vs “No Satisfaction,” “Dissatisfaction” vs “No Dissatisfaction.”
 factors leading to job satisfaction were motivators that are separate and distinct from the hygiene
factors that lead to job dissatisfaction.
o Hygiene factors include company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal

relations, working conditions, and salary. these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
neither will they be satisfied.
o Motivating factors include achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and
growth - people find intrinsically rewarding or motivating.
 some criticism but widely read

 popularity of jobs that allow employees greater responsibility attributed largely to Herzberg’s findings
Summarizing Needs Theories
propose a similar idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation
needs theories differ is in the types of needs they consider
individuals have needs and that they can be highly motivated to achieve those needs
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

how someone can set about motivating another individual
Expectancy Theory
individuals are motivated based upon their evaluation of:
 whether their effort will lead to good performance
 whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome
 whether that outcome is attractive to them.
 Note that this is driven by outcome
Effort-Performance Relationship
commonly called expectancy
probability, and ranges from 0 to 1.
• Self-esteem
•Previous success
•Help from supervisors and subordinates
• Information
•Proper materials and equipment
Expectancy
The belief that effort is related to performance.
Improve the ability of the individual to perform.
Instrumentality
The belief that performance is related to rewards.
Increase the individual’s belief that performance will lead to reward.
Valence
The value or importance an individual places on a reward.
Make sure that the reward is meaningful to the individual.
Goal-Setting Theory
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
in order for goals to be effective, they should be “SMART.” SMART stands for
•Specific: Individuals know exactly what is to be achieved.
•Measurable: The goals proposed can be tracked and reviewed.
•Attainable: The goals, even if difficult, are reasonable and achievable.
•Results-oriented: The goals should support the vision of the organization.
•Time-bound: The goals are to be achieved within a stated time.
• What are the elements of a “good Goal”

– Specific & measurable
– Set time limit
– Achievable but difficult
Goal-setting theory is consistent with expectancy theory
Contingency Factors in Goal Setting

when individuals receive negative feedback, they lower their goals
when they receive positive feedback, they raise their goals.
Self-efficacy may explain how feedback affects goal behaviour.
self-efficacy (theory in 5th textbook)
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task
four other factors:

adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture
RESPONSES TO THE REWARD SYSTEM

motivation theories are about rewards
Equity Theory
* How important is fairness to you?
equity theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
Demonstrates motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards, as well as by absolute rewards
Fair Process and Treatment

distributive justice
procedural justice
interactional justice- interpersonal treatment received from a manager.
Organizational justice- overall perception of what is fair in the work place, composed of distributive, procedural,
and interactional justice
Cognitive Evaluation Theory

cognitive evaluation theory
Offering extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the
overall level of a person’s motivation.
Leading to…
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Rewards
when extrinsic rewards are given to someone for performing an interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in
the task itself to decline
 individual experiences a loss of control over his or her own behaviour when it is being rewarded by
external sources
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

four key rewards
• Sense of choice
• Sense of competence.
• Sense of meaningfulness.
• Sense of progress.
Managers can use:
Motivating employees through reinforcement
Till now, covered people’s needs and thought processes can be used to motivate them
but Skinner found it pointless.
People learn how to behave to get sth or avoid sth

Operant conditioning a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or
prevents a punishment
Reinforcement type:
Positive r manager praises an employee for a job well done
Negative r
Punishment
Extinction
Schedules:
Continuous reinforcement
Intermittent reinforcement
4types: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio
Putting It All Together

 Recognize individual differences.
 Use goals and feedback
 Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them
 When giving rewards, be sure that they are clearly related to the performance desired
 Check the system for equity.
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

1 What is motivation? Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s SNAPSHOT
SUMMARY intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward reaching a goal.
2 How do needs motivate people? All needs theories of motivation, propose a similar idea: Individuals
have needs that will result in motivation. Needs theories suggest that motivation will be high to the
degree that the rewards individuals receive for high performance satisfy their dominant needs.
3 Are there other ways to motivate people? Process theories focus on the broader picture of how someone
can set about motivating another individual.
4
Do equity and fairness matter? Individuals look for fairness in the reward system. Rewards should be
perceived by employees as related to the inputs they bring to the job.
Read the 5th textbook for summary!
. Motivation
• What is motivation?
• What are the basic elements of Herzberg’s theory of motivation?
• What is expectancy theory?
• What is MBO? How does it differ from goal setting theory?
• What are the basic points of equity theory?
• How might a person respond when he or she perceives an inequity in his or her wages?
• What are the similarities and differences among needs theories (e.g., Maslow, Herzberg),
equity theory and expectancy theory? How relevant are each to the problems of
performance and satisfaction?
• How can we use cognitive evaluation theory to help us design a motivation program?
• What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? How can we increase
intrinsic motivation?
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Motivation

NEEDS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

In contrast to the hierarchy of needs theory,

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

o Need for achievement

 intrinsic factors seem to be related to job satisfaction

 opposite of satisfaction is not dis- satisfaction, as was traditionally believed.

o Hygiene factors include company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal

 some criticism but widely read

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

How Does Goal Setting Motivate?

• What are the elements of a “good Goal”

Contingency Factors in Goal Setting

four other factors:

RESPONSES TO THE REWARD SYSTEM

Fair Process and Treatment

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

Managers can use:

Motivating employees through reinforcement

People learn how to behave to get sth or avoid sth

Putting It All Together

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

Read the 5th textbook for summary!

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