Physics

For Rwanda Schools

Senior 1
Student’s Book
 ©2020 Rwanda Basic Education Board
All rights reserved
This book is property of the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be given to REB when the content is quoted.
 Contents
1. Laboratory safety rules and measurement of physical quantities.......1
1.1 What is Physics?......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Physics as a science and its characteristics.................................................... 3
1.3 Physics and other subjects........................................................................... 6
1.4 Career opportunities in Physics .................................................................. 7
1.5 Physics, society and technology.................................................................... 8
1.6 Science processes skills used in learning of Physics..................................... 11
1.7 Laboratory safety measures....................................................................... 18
1.8 First Aid .................................................................................................. 21
1.9 Hazard symbols and their meaning........................................................... 22
1.10 Laboratory hazards and safety precautions to be taken .............................. 22
1.11 Fundamental and derived quantities of measurements............................... 24
1.12 Measuring instruments ........................................................................... 27
1.13 Measurement of length ............................................................................ 28
1.14 Measurement of time .............................................................................. 40
1.15 Measurement of derived quantities ........................................................... 44
1.16 Measurement of volume .......................................................................... 46
1.17 Measurement of mass ............................................................................. 52
1.18 Density ................................................................................................... 54
Unit Test 1 ...................................................................................................... 58

2. Qualitative analysis of linear motion ........................................... 60

2.1 Distance and displacement........................................................................ 61
2.2 Speed....................................................................................................... 65
2.3 Velocity................................................................................................... 68
2.4 Acceleration ............................................................................................ 71
2.5 Graphs of linear motion............................................................................ 73
2.6 Acceleration due to gravity........................................................................ 88
Unit Test 2 ........................................................................................................ 91

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3. Force (I).................................................................................. 95
3.1 Definition of force.................................................................................... 95
3.2 Types of forces.......................................................................................... 97
3.3 Effect of forces........................................................................................ 108
3.4 Representation of force using vector diagrams.......................................... 112
3.5 Weight and mass .................................................................................... 113
3.6 Balanced and unbalanced forces.............................................................. 116
3.7 Addition of parallel and non parallel forces.............................................. 118
Unit Test 3 ...................................................................................................... 126

4. Newton’s laws of motion(I)....................................................... 128

4.1 Newton’s first law of motion................................................................... 128
4.2 Newton’s second law of motion.............................................................. 134
4.3 Newton’s third law of motion.................................................................. 138
4.4 Newton’s universal law of gravitation..................................................... .142
Unit Test 4 ..................................................................................................... 147

5. Centre of gravity.....................................................................148
5.1 Centre of gravity and centre of mass of a body......................................... 149
5.2 Centre of gravity of regular lamina.......................................................... 150
5.3 Centre of gravity (C.O.G) of irregular lamina ........................................ 151
5.4 Effect of position of centre of gravity on states of equilibrium.................. 153
5.5 Factors affecting the stability of a body ................................................... 158
5.6 Some applications and factors affecting centre of gravity.......................... 159
Unit Test 5 ...................................................................................................... 162

6. Work, energy and power (I).......................................................164

6.1 Work...................................................................................................... 164
6.2. Power…................................................................................................. 168
6.3 Energy…................................................................................................ 172
6.4 Forms of energy …................................................................................. 173

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 6.5 Source of energy.................................................................................... .181
6.6 Renewable and non renewable sources of energy...................................... 188
6.7 Environmental effect of the use of energy sources..................................... 189
6.8 Energy transformation…........................................................................ .192
6.9 Law of conversation of energy…............................................................ . 196
6.10 The law of conversation of mechanical energy….................................... . 197
6.11 Ways of conservation of energy............................................................... 201
6.12 Energy efficiency ….............................................................................. . 202
Unit Test 6 ….................................................................................................. 207

7. Simple machines (I) ….............................................................210

7.1 Definition of simple machines…............................................................. 210
7.2 Terms used in machines…..................................................................... .211
7.3 Types of simple machines…................................................................... 215
7.4 Screws and bolts.................................................................................… 223
7.5 The wheel and axle…............................................................................ 224
7.6 Pulleys…............................................................................................... 226
Unit test 7 ..................................................................................................... 235

8. Kinetic Theory and State of Matter............................................ 238

8.1 Matter and its composition…................................................................. 238
8.2 Physical properties of matter ….............................................................. 240
8.3 Introduction to kinetic theory…............................................................ . 242
8.4 Physical properties of solids…................................................................ 243
8.5 Physical properties of liquids….............................................................. 246
8.6 Physical properties of gases…................................................................. 250
Unit test 8 ….................................................................................................. 253

9. Heat and Temperature ............................................................ 254

9.1 Heat as a form of energy…...................................................................... 255
9.2 Heat and temperature ........................................................................... 255
9.3 Temperature scales….............................................................................. 256
9.4 Thermal equilibrium…........................................................................... 265

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 9.5 Measurement of temperature ................................................................ 266
9.6 Types of thermometers…........................................................................ 268
9.7 Calibration of thermometers…................................................................ 273
9.8 Melting and boiling points of substances….............................................. 276
9.9 Effects of solutes on boiling points…....................................................... 283
Unit test 9....................................................................................................... 285

10. Magnetism ............................................................................ 287

10.1 Definition of magnetism ....................................................................... 287
10.2 Magnetic and non-magnetic materials ................................................... 288
10.3 Properties of magnets ........................................................................... 290
10.4 Test of magnetism ................................................................................ 292
10.5 Types of magnets................................................................................... 295
10.6 Magnetic field patterns around a magnet ............................................... 299
Unit test 10.................................................................................................... 301

11. Electrostatics......................................................................... 302

11.1 Types of electrostatic charges ................................................................ 303
11.2 Origins of charges ................................................................................. 304
11.3 Methods of charging bodies .................................................................. 305
11.4 The laws of electrostatics ...................................................................... 312
11.5 Coulomb’s Law .................................................................................... 315
11.6 Factors affecting the magnitude of the forces between
two charged bodies ................................................................................ 316
11.7 Conductors and insulators ..................................................................... 318
11.8 Electric field and electric potential ......................................................... 320
11.9 Distribution of charge on metallic conductors ........................................ 321
11.10 The law of conservation of charge .......................................................... 323
11.11 Effects and application of electrostatistics ............................................... 325
Unit test 11 .................................................................................................... 328

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12 Current Electricity (I)..............................................................331
12.1 Simple electric circuit and its components............................................... 331
12.2 Simple cells and batteries........................................................................ 333
12.3 Electric current....................................................................................... 337
12.4 Potential difference (p.d) ....................................................................... 344
12.5 Ohm’s law.............................................................................................. 348
12.6 Electrical energy and power.................................................................... 352
12.7 Earth wire, switch and fuse...................................................................... 358
12.8 Effect of an electric current..................................................................... 362
12.9 Applications of chemical effects of an electric current .............................. 371
12.10 Project work .......................................................................................... 372
Unit test 12 .................................................................................................... 374

13. Rectilinear propagation of light................................................ 378

13.1 Nature of light........................................................................................ 379
13.2 Rays and beams........................................................................................ 380
13.3 Transparent, translucent and opaque materials........................................... 381
13.4 Rectilinear propagation of light................................................................ 382
13.5 Formation of shadows and eclipses ........................................................ 384
13.6 Pinhole camera...................................................................................... .388
13.7 Reflection of light on a plane surface....................................................... 393
13.6 Image formed by a plane mirror.............................................................. 399
13.9 Application of reflection on plane surfaces............................................... 409
13.10 Project work........................................................................................... 411
Unit test 13 ................................................................................................... 414

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 Laboratory safety rules and
UNIT 1 measurements of physical
quantities

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain the importance of Physics,
measure physical quantities and express findings in appropriate units.

Unit outline
• Physics as science subject.
• Definition of Physics.
• Relationship between Physics, other science subjects, society and technology.
• Science processes skills used in learning of Physics.
• Laboratory safety and safety rules.
• Fundamental and derived quantities.
• International System of Unit (SI).
• Measuring instruments.
• Prefixes for SI units.
• Density.

Introduction
Welcome to the world of science and Physics. Science is a way
of learning about the natural world by gathering information.
Science includes all of the knowledge gained by exploring nature.
To think and work like a scientist, you need to use the same
skills that they do. Scientists use the skills of observing, inferring
and predicting to learn more about the natural world. Here
Scientists usually make observations in a careful and orderly
way by making both qualitative (descriptions) and quantitative
(measurements) observations.
Therefore, be prepared to acquire more interesting scientific
skills in this course and then, we explore different branches
of science and get to know what Physics means and related Fig. 1.1: Science in action
concepts.

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1.1 What is science?

Activity 1.1
Classifying Perform the following tasks

1. Which of the following questions can be answered by scientific inquiry?

• Is running a better sport than swimming?
• Does running make your muscles stronger than swimming does?
• Which brand of running does looks best?
• Why does the passenger in a fast moving vehicle surge forward when the
brakes are suddenly applied?
• Why a pen rubbed onto the hair, it attracts small pieces of paper?
2. How did you make your decision in each case?
3. Explain the meaning of physics and why it is recognized as a science based on
its importance and tasks above?
Key facts
Scientific inquiry refers to the different ways scientists study the natural world. It
is the ongoing process of discovery in science. Just like you, scientists often find
being curious is the first step in scientific inquiry.
Scientists have habits of mind as well: honesty (reporting observations truthfully),
open-mindedness (accepting new and different ideas), skepticism (being doubtful
about information presented without evidence) and creativity( coming up with
new ways to solve problems). The questions in the activity can be answered based
on personal opinion but scientific inquiry cannot answer questions based on
opinions, values or judgments.

The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’ which means knowledge
attained through study and practice.
Thus, science refers to a systematic study that uses observation and experimentation to
describe and explain natural phenomena.The word also refers to the organised body of
knowledge people have gained using a system of observation and experimentation.
This system of study is called the scientific method or scientific investigation.
The purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality which are used to
advance the development of technology, leading to better quality of life for man
and the environment around him.
There are many branches of science and various ways of classifying them. One
of the most common ways is to classify the branches into social sciences, natural
sciences and formal sciences.
Social sciences deal with the study of human behaviour and society. Examples of
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these are psychology and sociology. Natural sciences deal with the study of natural
phenomena, for example lightning, motion, earthquakes all which can be observed
and tested. Examples of these are physics, chemistry and biology. Formal sciences
deal with mathematical concepts and logics. An example of this is mathematics.

1.2 Physics as a science and its characteristics

Activity 1.2
To define Physics as a science

• Let each of your group members at their own time conduct a research
from the Internet or reference books on the definition of physics and a
justification why physics is a science.
• In addition, find out the branches of physics and why it is important to
study physics.
• In your research, identify some key early philosphers and great scientists,
the theories, principles, laws and the discoveries they came up with.
• Let each group member present his/her findings to the group. The group
leader will then present your group findings to the class.

At Primary level science, we learnt that matter is anything that has weight and
occupies space. Physics is a natural science that is concerned with the study of matter
and natural forces. In this study, it employs a scientific approach. The approach is
based on systematic experimentation through careful measurements and analysis.
Conclusions are drawn from the analysis. These conclusions are tested to find
out if they are valid. It is from the conclusions arrived at, that general laws and
principles are stated. As such physics qualifies as a science.

History of Physics
Physics was born by the first people who started asking the ‘why’ question. For
example, why is there day and night? Why do objects fall downwards instead of
going upwards when released in air? Why, why, why why? This question always
requires that you give an explanation.
The first people to attempt to answer this question were the Greeks who started
doing this before 400 BC (Before Christ). By about 320 BC one of the greatest
physicists of the day, Aristotle had developed a comprehensive explanation of
motion by 1543 AD (Anedomino means After Christ), Nicolus Copernicus had
explained that the earth goes round the sun and not the other way round.
By 1727 AD, Isaac Newton had explained why objects always fall towards the earth.
By 1940, Albert Einstein had explained how nuclear energy can be gotten from
the centre of the atom. Throughout history, Physics has continued to advance

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while making invaluable contributions to development of science and technology.

Importance of Physics
1. Physics provides the basic foundation on which other sciences are built.
We have already mentioned that Physics enables us to understand the basic
components of matter and their mutual interactions. This helps in explaining
natural phenomena such as properties of matter. For instance, the knowledge
of capillarity in liquids which is learnt in Physics is used to explain the rise of
water in plants; pressure difference concept in liquids is also used to explain
blood circulation in animals etc.
2. Knowledge and skills learnt in Physics find application in many areas of
our daily lives. For example, proper use of household appliances such as
refrigerators, iron boxes, television sets, replacing blown-up electric bulbs
or fuses all require the knowledge learnt in Physics.
3. Knowledge in Physics helps in the acquisition of career of well paying jobs.
The most obvious careers are in the field of engineering which include: civil,
electrical, mechanical, agricultural, chemical, computer engineering etc.
Other careers are in the fields like meteorology, computer science, laboratory
technology, surveying, geology and astronomy. Besides, one may become a
Physics teacher in secondary school, college and university. Physics is also
useful to doctors, nurses and other science based careers.
4. Technical instruments and equipment provided by Physics find application
in almost every area of research. For example, meteorologists make use of
instruments such as thermometers, barometers, among others developed
by physicists. In medical laboratories, Physics principles and equipments
such as electric microwaves are used in carrying out research on HIV and
AIDS and other diseases.

Healthy Matters
It is important to remember that though much research has been
conducted, no cure for HIV and AIDS has been discovered yet.
Abstinence is the best way to prevent HIV infection.

Branches of Physics
Physics is a wide body of knowledge which is studied under several overlapping
branches. The following are the major branches of physics:

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1. Electromagnetism: is the study of the interaction of electrical and magnetic

fields. This has lead to development of useful electronic devices such as
loudspeakers, electricity generators, telephone receivers and electric bells
among other devices.
2. Mechanics: is the study of the action of forces on objects and motion. The
knowledge of mechanics has lead to development of many motion related
objects including vehicles, planes, ships, trains etc that have made our
movement from one place to other faster and easier.
3. Thermodynamics: is the study of the relationship between heat, other forms
of energy and work. The knowledge of thermodynamic is applied in making
thermos flask, refrigerators, car engine radiators and air conditioners among
other devices.
4. Optics: is the study of the behaviour and physical properties of light. This has
lead to development of various optical devices like the lenses that are used
in cameras by people with eye defects, projectors, microscopes, telescope,
fibre optics among others.
5. Acoustics: is the study of sound and sound waves. This study has been an
instrumental tool in the development of various musical instruments like
guitars, drums and pianos among other devices.
6. Electronics: is the study of the flow of electrons, generally in a circuit. It has
led to the development various telecommunication devices like television,
radios, computers, amplifiers and mobile phones among others.
7. Geophysics: is the study of the substances that make up the Earth and the
physical processes occurring on, in and above it. The knowledge gained has
made it possible to predict, measure and analyse the magnitude of natural
phenomena like earthquakes and tsunamis.
8. Atomic Physics – is the study of the structure of the atom, its energy states
and how it interacts with other particles and with magnetic and electric fields.
This has lead to great milestones in the study of the chemical properties of
matter.This has lead to generation of useful atomic energy and atomic bombs.
9. Nuclear Physics - is the study of the physical properties of the nucleus of
atoms. This has led to the generation of nuclear energy which is reliable,
relatively cheap and makes minimal pollution to the environment.
10. Astronomy: is the study of the universe, the celestial objects like sun moon,
planets and stars that make up the universe, and the processes that govern
the lifecycle of those objects. The discoveries made through astronomy go
along way in satisfying our curiosity of the world we live in. The study has
aided the setting up of communication satellites and the development of
devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) that are key in locating
points on the earth’s surface.

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1.3 Physics and other subjects

Activity 1.3 To establish the relationship between Physics and

other subject areas

With the help of the knowledge of Physics and its branches so far covered, discuss
how Physics relate to other subject areas like Chemistry, Biology, Technology,
Medicine, Geography and Agriculture.

1. Chemistry mainly deals with the study of salts, acids and their reactions.
For a physicist to understand the working mechanism of chemical cells,
help is sought from a chemist. On the other hand, the reasons behind the
various colours observed in most of the chemical reactions are explained
by a physicist. Petroleum products are dealt with by the chemist, but the
transportation of such products make use of the principles of physics.
2. In Biology, the study of living cells and small insects by a biologist requires
magnification. The concept of magnification using simple or compound
microscope is a brain child of a physicist. A good physicist needs to have
good health.
A biologist will assist a physicist in the awareness of the following:
(a) A balanced and nutritive diet.
(b) Some simple physical exercises to keep fit.
(c) The various bacteria and viruses normally found in one’s blood system
e.g. malaria, HIV, etc.
(d) The possible preventive measures in dealing with people who have been
infected with diseases such as small pox, HIV and AIDS, etc.
(e) Effects and dangers of drinking excess alcohol, drug abuse, etc.
3. In Geography, weather forecast, a geographer uses a barometer, wind gauge,
etc. which are instruments developed by a physicist.
4. In Agriculture, the water sprinkler, insecticide sprayer, etc. make use of the
principles developed by physicists.
5. In History, the determination of age fossils by historians and archaeologists
use the principle developed by physicists.
6. The theatrical setup, the audio and visual arrangements are the creations of
physicists.
7. In games and sports, accurate measurement of time, distance, weight,
etc. uses instruments developed by physicists.

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1.4 Career opportunities in Physics

Activity 1.4 To identify career opportunities in Physics

• Discuss of three the careers you think require knowledge in physics.

• From the careers you have identified, justify how physics knowledge has
contributed to the well being of Rwanda as a country and its economy.

From Activity 1.4, you should have learnt that Physics, being a practical subject has
many applications.These applications lead to diverse career opportunities depending
on one’s skill and aptitude. The most promising area of job opportunities is in
engineering and technology. Some of the careers one can fit in after studying Physics
include: laboratory technology, mapping and surveying, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, mechanical engineering, instrumentation technology, meteorology,
electronics and telecommunication engineering, architecture, environmental
engineering, aeronautical engineering, etc. Apart from engineering, pure sciences
such as physics, geology, astronomy, astro-physics, etc. also offer suitable and
promising careers. In the application of medical physics, there are career openings
in radiology, ultra-sound scanning, medical sports, optometry, etc. In education, one
can be a school teacher, university lecturer or a researcher. Therefore, a successful
physics student can always find a suitable career opportunity.
Fig. 1.2 shows an electrical engineer at work.

Fig. 1.2: An electrical engineer at work

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1.5 Physics, society and technology

Activity 1.5 To establish the relationship between physics

technology and society

Materials: 2 mobile phones, envelope, a bag

Steps
1. Let one of your members be ‘Physics’ and assume he/she has two mobile
phones in a bag, another one to be ‘technology’, two of you to be two ‘society’
members and one member the group secretary.
2. Now, let ‘Physics’ and ‘technology’ move to one corner of your classroom or
any other room and the two society members to one of the other corners.
3. Let ‘Physics’ produce the two mobile phones from the bag and give both to
‘technology’.
4. Let ‘technology’ move to the ‘society’ corner and give the two mobile phones
one to each of the society members.
5. Now, let the two ‘society members’ use the mobile phones to text each other
the words Physics, technology and society. Let the secretary note down the time
the message takes to reach each other. How long does it take?
6. Let the two society members move far from each other and let one of them
make a call, to the other. Observe how long it takes for the other mobile
phone to start ringing. Let them start communicating to each other.
7. Discuss in your group the importance and relationship between Physics as
a subject, technology and society.
8. Now, repeat the role play by removing ‘Physics’ and ‘technology’ and let
the society members be far away from each other (preferably outside the
classroom).
9. Let one ‘society’ member be a messenger and the other one the recipient .
10. Let the messenger take the envelope to the recipient. Let the secretary note
the time taken.
11. Compare the time taken in step 5 and 10. What do you notice? Explain.

Physicists search for reliable information and then organise it into fundamental
laws and principles. On the basis of these laws and principles, the engineers and
technologists design and develop devices and appliances, that make our living

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more comfortable. For example, windmills make drawing of water from deep
wells easier (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3: Windmill drawing water from a well

The advancement of technology has led to the manufacture of computers, motor

cars, aeroplanes, communication satellites, etc. Fig. 1.4 shows a communication
satellite dish.

Fig. 1.4: Satellite dish for communication

These advancements have improved our lives greatly since we can nowadays know
what is happening around the world within seconds. Indeed the world has become
a global village.

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In addition to the above, it is important to note that physics has played a very vital
role in:
• Transport where high speed electrical trains larger and more fuel efficient
marine vessels (e.g. ships), faster and safer automobiles have been developed.
• Manufacturing sector where labour efficient robots and other gadgetry have
been developed.
• Medicine where development of better equipment in surgery and use of safer
diagnostic techniques (such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) have
been developed.
• Recreation and sporting where better equipment for recreation and training
are continuously being developed.
Physics continues to play an invaluable role in all activities that relate to energy
and its interaction with matter. The principles and laws of physics continue to be
used in all areas of human activities such as engineering, medicine, transport, food
processing, communication and many other areas.
Here is a list of some of the milestones of advancements that have been achieved
by application of physics:
- Computers - Digital video - Jet engine
- The internet - Artificial satellites - Nuclear energy
- GPS - Solar power - Space craft
- Digital sound - TV - Electron microscope

Exercise 1.1

1. What is science?
2. Differentiate between natural and social sciences.
3. State some aspects of the natural sciences which you have learnt at the
primary school level.
4. Name any four branches of natural sciences.
5. Define the term Physics.
6. Name six different branches of physics.
7. Give instances where physics inter-depend with the following: chemistry,
history and agriculture.
8. Mention four career opportunities of a physicist.
9. Describe five contributions of physics to the development of Rwanda as a
nation.

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1.6 Science processes skills used in learning Physics

Activity 1.6 To identify the stages of a scientific investigation

• As a young scientist you have set out to investigate who is heavier between
you and your partner
• Together with your partner, list down all the steps you would follow to
conduct all this investigation.

Scientific investigation is a systematic process of testing ideas or finding out

answers to questions and observations. All scientific investigations are carried
out using a common process.
The processes are observations, hypothesis (prediction), experiments and
explanation. They form a cycle as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Stages of a scientific investigation

Observation
1.

2.
6.
Prediction/Hypothesis
Presentation

Stages of a
Scientific Investigation

5.
Decision making
3.
(Conclusion)
Data collection/recording
4. (Experimentation)

Data analysis

Fig. 1.5: Stages of a scientific investigation

(a) Observation
This is the initial step of scientific knowledge and investigation. Scientists make
observations everyday, for which they wish to get answers and explanations.
The following is an example of an observation:
“When a pen is rubbed onto the hair, it attracts small pieces of paper”.
Scientists then ask questions from the observations they make. The questions
may take several forms such as why, how, what and when. A good question that

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can be answered through scientific investigation should be well defined, testable,

measurable and controllable.
The following is an example of a scientific question:
“Why does the passenger in a fast moving vehicle surge forward when the brakes are
suddenly applied ?”
It is important as a young physicist to be keen on observing things happening
around you with a view to understanding how and why they happen.

(b) Prediction/hypothesis
A hypothesis or prediction is a guessed possible answer to the question. It can
come from experience or existing scientific knowledge. It must however be testable
in order to approve or disapprove it. Note that it is possible to have more than
one hypothesis to one question.
The following is an example of a hypothesis:
“Wood floats on paraffin because its density is lower than that of paraffin.

(c) Experimentation (Data collection and recording)

This stage involves designing and carrying out an experiment in order to collect
and record data. The experiment design outlines the materials to be used,
procedures to be followed, precautions to take and the method of recording data.

The scientists carries out data collection and recording procedures and trials
carefully in order to get the appropriate and accurate data. In carrying out
the procedures, good scientist observes health, safety and environmental
measures.

Safety Matters
Some chemicals and apparatus involved in some experiments can cause
serious health and environmental problems.
Examples are toxic chemicals and X-rays equipment. One should
follow the manufactures instructions carefully.

To get accurate results, a scientist collects and record the data to the right precision
as he/she carries out the procedures.
The methods of recording data include tables, charts, photographing and recording
of sound.

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For example, Table 1.1 shows one way of recording the data obtained in the
investigation to determine how pressure affects the volume of a fixed mass of a
gas at constant temperature.
Constants: mass of gas = 0.5 g; temperature = 25˚C

Pressure ( × 105 Pa) Volume (cm3)

1.00331 7.339
1.02180 7.241
1.03907 7.143
1.02565 7.038
1.07390 6.88
1.08481 6.83
1.09388 6.78
1.11137 6.67
1.12196 6.63
Table 1.1: Corresponding values of pressure and volume

(d) Data analysis

The raw data collected and recorded need to be analysed in order to give
meaningful information. Data analysis may involve:
• Organising the data and studying the trend to determine how it is varying
or it remain constant.
• Drawing graphs and charts to show the trend in the set of data.
• Calculating required values that are representative of the data.
• Identifying sources of error in the experiment.

(e) Interpretation of results

This involves deriving meaningful information from the analysed data.
This may include establishing the meaning of data values obtained, trend or the
behaviour observed for the object under investigation.

(f) Drawing conclusions (decision making)

A conclusion is a summary of what was established through the investigation. It
can be a statement to the effect that the quantities or objects considered in the

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investigation obey a certain law, condition etc. or not.

At this stage the scientists also compares the hypothesis with the conclusion, and
gives a statement confirming the hypothesis as true or disapproving it all together.
The following is an example of a conclusion:
We have established that the volume of fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature is
directly proportional to its pressure provided the temperature is kept constant.

(h) Reporting the results of a scientific investigation

In most cases, the findings of a scientific investigation have to be communicated
in a formal way to the interested parties. Methods of presenting the findings of a
scientific investigation include:
• Oral presentation.
• Power point presentation.
• Use of posters.
• Video conferencing.
• Scientific journals and publications, and reports.
The presenter should select the most appropriate method of presentation
depending on the nature of research.

Evaluating a scientific investigation

After completing a scientific investigation, the researcher should evaluate the entire
process of the investigation against the objectives that were outlined before the
commencement of the investigation.

Activity 1.7 To point out the scientific processes in a conducted-

scientific investigation

Isaac Newton, a famous scientist, observed that all free objects in the air fall to
the ground. He then asked the question: why do free objects in the air fall
to the ground? He guessed that they are heavier than air and that they are
attracted to the ground. He went to the laboratory to investigate the accuracy of
his hypothesis. The results showed that free objects fall to the ground because
they are attracted by the earth.
Identify the stages in the Newton’s investigation from this information.

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Sample scientific investigation

Senior 1 students were given an exercise to practice the use of a mass balance to
measure mass and a measuring cylinder to measure the volume of each of four
different liquids. Their teacher recommended that they measure the mass and the
volume of each liquid at least four times using different volumes of each liquid.
The liquids were water, a salt solution, cow milk and a fruit juice.
While carrying out the exercise, two students noticed that for each liquid, the
mass
ratio volume was nearly the same for all portions of the liquids they used, and they
alerted their teacher. The teacher suggested that they investigate this hypothesis
with his help.
They formulated the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis
mass
The ratio volume of a liquid is a constant for that liquid at a constant temperature.
They designed and conducted an experiment to investigate the hypothesis for
water and filled the following report:

Title: To find out whether the ratio mass of water is a constant at room
volume
temperature.
Materials: A beaker, a measuring cylinder, a weighing balance,
water
Procedure used
1. Determine the mass (me) of the empty measuring
cylinder using the mass balance (Fig. 1.6).
2. Add about 40 cm3 of water to the measuring
cylinder and determine the total mass (mt) of the
cylinder together with water.
3. Determine the mass of water (mw) put in the
measuring cylinder using mw = mt – me
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for seven readings of volume
by increasing the volume with about 40 cm3 each Fig. 1.6: Measuring the mass
time.
5. Record the results in a tabular form as shown in Table 1.2.

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mass
6. Calculate the ratio of mass to volume i.e. volume for each set of values
and enter in the table.
7. Draw a graph of mass against volume.
8. Determine the slope (gradient) of the graph.

Table of results
Average room temperature was 24°C.

Volume (cm3) Mass (g) mass

(g/cm3)
volume
41 41.9 1.02
80 81.3 1.02
122 123.9 1.02
161 162.8 1.02
201 203.2 1.01
244 249.9 1.02
281 283.2 1.01
Table 1.2: Corresponding values of volume and mass
They obtain the straight line graph shown in Fig. 1.7.

350

300

250
Mass (g)

200
∆M
150

100
∆V
50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Volume (cm3)
Fig. 1.7: Graph of mass against volume

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∆ mass (250 – 100) g

The gradient = = = 1.00 g/cm3
∆ volume (250 – 100) cm3
mass
This shows that of the liquid is a constant at 24°C.
volume
Analysis
mass
The results show that indeed the ratio for water is a constant at a
volume
given temperature.
Its average value = 1.0 g/cm3 at 24°C.

Conclusion
mass
The ratio for water at 24°C is 1.02 g/cm3.
volume
This shows that, allowing for experimental error, the hypothesis has been proved
to be correct at 24°C.

Activity 1.8 Identifying scientific processes

Go through the sample investigation we have just seen.

• Fill the following table with when a scientific process was conducted and
X if it was not conducted
• Write down the evidence to show that it was conducted

Process Tick  or × Evidence

1. Observation
2. Prediction
3. Data collection
4. Data analysis √ Graph, calculation
5. Decision making
6. Presentation

Table 1:3: Scientific process

Note: It is always better to draw a graph than to find the average of a few pairs of
values obtained in an experiment. This gives a more accurate value of the quantity
being determined.
The line of best fit is an average of all possible pairs of results within a range. It
is the preferred method of analysing graphical data.

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Exercise 1.2

1. What is a scientific investigation?

2. Why is the step of making observation in the process of scientific investigation
very important?
3. How is scientific investigation different from non-scientific investigation?
Give examples.
4. Discuss the meanings of the following terms:
(a) Prediction (b) Interpretation of result
(c) Data analysis (d) Decision making

1.7 Laboratory safety measures

Activity 1.9 To observe a laboratory and identify safety rules

therein.

• Your teacher will take you to the laboratory or science room; where you will
be conducting physics experiments.
• Identify some apparatus you may have seen before.
• Identify some situations that may pose danger to learners while in the
laboratory.
• List at least five safety rules you may think of that should be observed while
in the laboratory.
• Compare and discuss your findings with other groups in your class.

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A laboratory is a room in which science experiments or investigations are

conducted. While in the laboratory, you are expected to observe some measures
to avoid occurrence of accidents that may harm them or the apparatus..
The list of laboratory safety rules and regulations is quite long and you will be
learning more rules and regulations throughout your study in Physics.
Generally, the rules and regulations fall under seven main categories as summarised
in Table 1.4.

Name of category Safety rules and regulation

1. Personal safety rules • Read labels carefully.
• Follow instructions to the latter.
• Long hair or loose clothes must be tied back or
confined.
• Clean up your work area before leaving.
• While inside the laboratory, do not run, play or
throw things.
• Never chew, eat or drink in the laboratory.
• Inform the teacher at once about any accidents.
2. Emergency response safety • Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eye
rules wash and safety shower in your laboratory
• Attend training by the teacher on how to use fire
extinguisher, eye wash and safety shower.
• Inform your teacher immediately at the occurrence
of an injury, fire or explosion and spillages.
3. Equipment safety rules • Follow all instructions on how to use an equipment
carefully before using it.
• Use the appropriate equipment for the appropriate
purpose of laboratory activity.
• Report to the teacher any damage to an equipment
as well as any faulty equipment.
• Never heat glass bottles and containers with the
stoppers on as build up pressure could cause an
explosion.

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4. Electrical safety rules • Report to the teacher the presence of loose

electrical wires.
• Switch on electricity only when instructed by the
teacher or laboratory assistant.
• Your hands must be dry when working with
electricity.
• Open live electrical circuits should be avoided
under all circumstances.
• Always ensure that the electric socket switch is off
before plugging in any electrical device.
• Never try to connect anything other than the
proper plug into the mains socket.
5. Chemical safety rules • Follow instructions on how to use the chemicals
in any laboratory activity
• Keep your skin away from contact with chemicals.
• Ensure that you do not taste chemicals in the
laboratory.
• Never handle radioactive material with bare hands
(use tongs and forceps).
6. Other safety rules • Only experiments authorized by the teacher
should be conducted in the laboratory
• Conducting experiments in groups require team
spirit.
• ‘Cleanliness is next to Godliness’. Ensure the
laboratory is clean and organized.
• All experiments must be completed before you
can change places
• Be honest with your work and data
7. Common sense safety rules • ‘Be responsible for your safety and that of others
including the laboratory as a whole.
• ‘If at any time you are not sure of how to handle
a particular situation, feel free to get advice from
your teacher or laboratory assistant.

Table 1.4: Laboratory safety rules and regulations

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 Mechanics

Since it is impossible to eliminate all the risks of an accident, it is your responsibility

to minimise them and ensure that you are able to take appropriate action should
any occur. In case of an accident, despite taking all the precautions, the most
important consideration at all times is human safety. You should act quietly and
methodically. Common sense is the best judge.

1.8 First aid

Activity 1.10 To define first aid and interpret hazard symbols

(Work in groups)
Materials: first aid kit, chart showing hazard symbols
• In groups of three, discuss what first aid is and why it is important to have
adequate knowledge on first aid.
• Open the first aid kit provided to you and identify all the items in it and their
uses.
• Now, discuss each hazard symbols shown on the chart provided and suggest
why it is important to understand them.

The purpose of first aid is to make the victim secure and comfortable. This prevents
his/her condition from becoming worse until professional assistance is available.
All physics students need to have adequate knowledge of first aid. The physics
laboratory should have a fire extinguisher and a first aid kit containing the
following items:
• A pair of blunt-ended scissors. • Mild antiseptic solution.
• Safety pins. • Forceps.
• Gloves. • An assortment of bandages.
• Adhesive plaster. • Sterilised cotton wool and gauze.

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 Mechanics

1.9 Hazard symbols and their meanings

Signs and symbols(Fig 1.8) are meant to help us quickly identify the risks we
are likely to be exposed to when handling equipments, apparatus and chemicals.
The following are some of the common hazard symbols in a laboratory.

(a) Oxidising liquids (b) Harmful/Irritant (c) Dangerous for (d) General danger
to the environment acquatic environment

(e) Risk of fire (f) Risk of explosion (g) Toxic (h) Corrosive
substance

(i) Risk of ionisation (j) Risk of electric (k) Laser beam (i) Biohazard
gradiation shock
Fig. 1.8: Hazard symbols

1.10 Laboratory hazards and safety precautions to be taken

Activity 1.11 To identify laboratory precautions

(Work in groups)
Steps
• Discuss with your group members what laboratory safety precautions are.
• List at least five precaution which must be taken when one is in the laboratory.
• Now, identify and discuss with your partner possible hazards if the precaution
identified are not observed.

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 Mechanics

From Activity 1.11, you should have learnt that safety measures in the laboratory
are the set of safety guidelines that are supposed to be followed incase of any
laboratory hazards.Table 1.5 shows some of the hazards in the laboratory and safety
precautions to be taken.

Laboratory Hazards Safety precautions to be taken

1. Fire outbreak • Move to fire assembly points using fire exit points.
• Inform the teacher or the instructor.
• If you can, use the fire extinguisher to put the fire
off.
• If you can, switch off the main switch of the
laboratory wiring system.
• Note: Do not scream or run randomly.
2. Electric shock • Switch off the power at the socket first.
• Pull out the victim from the appliances
• Give the victim first Aid.
• If the victim is not breathing, tap three times on
his/her left side of the chest
• If not breathing,‘give a kiss of life’ i.e. help the
victim to breath
• Seek for medical assistance from a medical
personnel.
3. Suffocation • Take the victim out of the laboratory to open air
for fresh air.
• Open all the windows and doors.
• Seek assistance from the medical personnel.
4. Chemical spillage • Pour a lot of pure water to the affected part to
on the skin, floor, table etc dilute the chemical.
• In case the chemical is in contact with your eye,
use the eye wash.
• If you tasted the chemicals, drink clean water.
• Seek medication immediately.
5. Breaking of equipments • The teacher should guide the students to use
equipment correctly.
• Inform the teacher immediately.
• With the help of the teacher or instructor collect
the pieces of broken apparatus.
6. Breaking of general safety • Guide and counsel the students
• Use school disciplinary committee to correct the
student.
Table 1.5: Laboratory hazards and safety precaution to be taken

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Exercise 1.3
1. Explain why it is important to observe laboratory rules and regulations.
2. State five laboratory safety rules and regulations.
3. You are working in the laboratory and you see the hazard symbols shown in
Fig. 1.9 below:

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9: Hazard symbols
(a) Describe the meaning of each symbol.
(b) Describe the steps you would take to guard against the hazard depicted
by each symbol.
4. In every school, there is a procedure to be followed by every member of the
school community in case of fire outbreak. Describe the procedure to be
followed in your school. You may need to consult your teacher and other
sources to answer this question.
5. Give three safety measures to be taken incase of fire outbreak.

1.11 Fundamental and derived quantities of measurements

Activity 1.12 To describe and identify fundamental and derived

quantities

Materials: reference books, internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research from Internet or reference books on:
(a) Definition of fundamental and derived quantities. Note down examples
on each.
(b) International System of Units ( SI) for different quantities.
2. Identify the SI unit of height, mass and time.
3. Identify two smaller units of measurement mass, height and time and their
symbols. Identify one unit for each larger than the SI unit.

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 Mechanics

From Activity 1.12, you should have discovered that any quantity of measurements
are either a fundamental or derived quantity.

Fundamental quantities
A quantity may be defined as any observable property or process in nature with
which a number may be associated. This number is obtained by the operation of
measurements. The number may be obtained directly by a single measurement
or indirectly, say for example, by multiplying together two numbers obtained in
separate operations of measurement. Fundamental quantities are those quantities
that are not defined in terms of other quantities. In physics there are 7 fundamental
quantities of measurements namely length, mass, time, temperature, electric
current, amount of substance and luminous intensity. In this book we will study
the following 5 fundamental quantities: length, mass, time, temperature and electric
current.

SI units and symbols

In order to measure any quantity, a standard unit (base unit) of reference is chosen.
The standard unit chosen must be unchangeable, always reproducible and not subject
to either the effect of aging and deterioration or possible destruction.
Before 1960, there were several systems of measurements in use around the world.
In 1960, an international system of units was established. This system is called the
International System of Units (SI). Table 1.6 contains the 7 fundamental physical
quantities, their SI units and symbols.

Fundamental quantity SI Unit Symbol

1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric current Ampere A
6. Amount of substance Moles mol
7. Luminous Intensity Candela cd

Table 1.6: Fundamental quantities and SI units

Derived quantities
Quantities which are defined in terms of the fundamental quantities via a system
of quantity equations are called derived quantities. Examples of derived quantities
include area, volume, velocity, acceleration, density, weight and force.

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 Mechanics

The SI units of derived quantities are obtained from equations using mathematical
expressions as follows:
(a) Area (e.g for square objects)=length (m) × length (m).
The SI unit of area in symbols is m2.
(b) Volume(e.g for cubic objects)=length (m) × length (m) × length (m).
The SI unit of volume in symbols is m3
mass (kg) . The SI unit of density in symbols is kg/m3.
(c) Density =
volume (m3)

displacement (m)
(d) Velocity = . The SI unit of velocity in symbols is m/s.
time taken (s)

change in velocity (m/s)

(e) Acceleration = The SI unit of acceleration in
time taken (s)
symbols is m/s2.
Note that some derived units have been given names. For example, force is
measured in kg m/s2 and has been given a named unit called a newton (N).We shall
encounter other derived quantities later in this course and other levels of physics.

Prefixes for SI units

Activity 1.1 To practice the use of prefixes

Steps
1. Write each of the following figures five times in your exercise book.
(a) 1 000 000 (b) 2 000 000 000 metres
(c) 0.000 001 kg (d) 0. 000 005 litre
2. Repeat step 1 by writing the values using prefixes like milli mega, micro
milli and so on.
3. which step was faster and less tedious? Suggest the name given to figures
when written as in step 2.

Physical quantities are of wide range of magnitude. For example the mass of earth
is about 6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg while the diameter of a molecule
is 0.000 000 0001m. Writing such quantities is very tedious and clumsy. Some
words have been used with SI units as short-cut to writing such magnitude. These
words are associated with certain magnitude. For example a word like milli stands
for 1 , kilo for 1000. Since these words are used or fixed before the SI units,
1000
they are called prefixes.

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 Mechanics

Table 1.7 shows some common prefixes and their symbols.

Prefix Symbol Magnitude

nano n 10-9
micro µ 10-6
mill m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
deca da 101
hecto h 102
kilo k 103
Mega M 106
Giga G 109

Table 1.7: Prefix, symbol and magnitude of SI units

1.12 Measuring instruments

Activity 1.14 To match an instrument with what it measures

Instrument Quantity measurement

Metre rule Time
Thermometer Small volume
Vernier callipers Lengh in mm, cm, m
Beam balance Temperature
Stop watch Mass
Burrette Diameters of objects

Table 1.8: Instruments and quantity of measurement

Measurements involve comparing an unknown quantity with a known fixed unit

quantity (standard unit). This measurement consists of two parts, the unit and
the number indicating how many units are there in the quantity being measured.
In order to obtain various measurements, early scientists had to develop measuring
devices. A measuring device has a scale marked in the standard or multiple units

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of the quantity to be measured. The choice of the instrument to be used depends

entirely on the quantity being measured and the level of accuracy needed.
In this sub-unit, we shall learn how to use accurately the metre rule and tape measure
for the measurement of length, beam balance for the measurement of mass, stop
clock or stopwatch for the measurement of time and measuring cylinder, pipette, and
burette for the measurement of volume.

1.13 Measurement of length

Activity 1.15
To identify the units of measuring length

Steps
1. Discuss with your partner what you think length is.
2. Suggest the SI unit of length and its symbol.
3. Name other units are used to measure length and their symbols.

Length is measured in metres. One metre is the distance between the two marks
on a standard platinum-iridium bar kept at Paris (France).
Although the metre is the standard unit of length, it is sometimes too big to measure
some distances and too small to measure others. We therefore need other larger
and smaller units related to the metre to carry out some measurements.

Table 1.9 shows the SI units of length and its relationship with other larger and
smaller units of length.

Unit Symbol Comparison with metre

1 kilometre km 1 000 m
1 metre m 1 m
1 centimetre cm 0.01 m
1 millimetre mm 0.001 m
1 micrometre µm 0.000 001 m

Table 1.9: Units and symbols of length

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 Mechanics

Let us now discuss some of the instruments used to measure length.

Meter stick

Activity 1.16 To make and use a metre stick

Materials: a meter rule, a stick

Steps
1. Measure and cut out a piece of stick of length 1m
2. Use your stick to measure in full metres:
(a) The length of your classroom.
(b) The length of your football field.
(c) The with of your flower garden.
(d) The distance from your the flag post.
3. Record, compare and discuss your measurement with other groups in your
class.

Metre rule

Activity 1.17 To observe the scale of metre rule

Materials: A metre rule

Steps
1. Hold a metre rule provided to you and note its calibration. What does each
division represent?
2. Discuss the calibration of a metre rule with your colleagues in your class.

Straight distances which are less than one metre in length are generally measured
using metre rules. Metre rules are graduated in millimetres (mm). Each division on
the scale represents 1 mm unit (Fig. 1.10).
cm
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 100

Fig. 1.10: A metre rule

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 Mechanics

Activity 1.18 To demonstrate how to use a metre rule

Materials: A metre rule, a block of wood

Steps
1. Place the metre rule in contact with the block as shown in Fig. 1.12. The zero
mark on the scale is placed at the edge of the object.
2. Position your eyes vertically above at the other end of the block as shown in
Fig. 1.11 position. Suggest the reason for this. Read the measurement and
record it down in your exercise book.
correct position
incorrect (a)
(b)
position (c)
incorrect
position

0 1 2 3 4 5

h
w

l
Fig. 1.11: Reading a metre rule
3. Repeat the steps this time measuring the width (w) and height (h) of the block.
4. Record your reading in tabular form as shown in table 1.10.

Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm)

Table 1.10: Result table

Note: It is not always necessary to start measuring at the zero mark of the
metre rule as shown in Fig. 1.11. You may use any two points on the scale,
make your readings and obtain the required length by subtraction.

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 Mechanics

Activity 1.19
To measure the length of a pencil

Materials: a meter rule, a pencil

Steps
1. Line up the zero mark of the meter stick up with the end of the pencil.
2. Note the mark exactly at the other end of the pencil.
(Fig 1.12)

cm

Fig 1.12: Measuring length of a pencil

3. Record the length of the pencil.
4. Now practice measuring the length of different objects in your classroom.
5. Compare your measurements with those of your classmates? Did everyone
get the same measurements?

Vernier callipers

Activity 1.20 To observe the parts of a vernier calliper

(Work in groups)
Materials: vernier calliper
Steps
1. Look at a vernier calliper provided. Name the parts and describe their
functions.
2. Observe its horizontal and rotating scales, its jaws and knobs.
3. Discuss how it measures length.
Fig. 1.13(a) shows the photograph of a vernier calliper.

inside jaws

S A
cm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C
D main scale
B vernier scale

E
outside jaws
Fig. 1.13(a) Vernier calliper Fig. 1.13(b): Parts of a vernier callipers.

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 Mechanics

Fig. 1.13 (b) shows the parts of a vernier calliper.

The calliper consists of a steel rigid frame A, onto which a linear scale is engraved.
This scale is called the main scale and it is calibrated in centimetres and millimetres.
It has a fixed jaw E at one end and a sliding jaw B centrally aligned by a thin flat
bar C. The spring-loaded button D is used to prevent the sliding jaw from moving
unnecessarily. The sliding jaw carrying a vernier scale can move along the main
scale and can be fixed in any position along the main scale by screw S.
The outside jaws are used to take external length measurements of objects. The
inside jaws are used to take internal length measurement of an object. The sliding
flat bar C is used to find the depth of blind holes.

Using a vernier scale

Least count of a vernier calliper

Activity 1.21 To observe and analyse the scale on a vernier calliper

Materials: Vernier calliper

Steps
1. Take a vernier callipers and observe its scale. How many divisions are there
between 0 and 1, 4 and 5?
2. Iind out what each division represents. What is the name given to the value?

The vernier scale has a length of 9 mm. It is divided into ten equal divisions.
Therefore, each division has a length of 0.9 mm. The difference between 1 division
on the main scale and 1 division in the vernier scale is (1– 0.9) mm =0.1 mm. The
smallest reading called the least count (LC) that can be read from vernier
callipers is 1 mm – 0.9 mm = 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm .
The second decimal value in a reading is obtained by identifying the mark on
the vernier scale which coincides with a mark on the main scale called the vernier
coincidence (VC) and multiplying it with the least count i.e 0.01 cm.

Second decimal value = (VC × LC).

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How to read the vernier callipers scale

Activity 1.22 To read and record the reading on a vernier calliper

Materials: cylindrical object, vernier calliper

Steps
1. Place the object to be measured between the outside jaws as shown in Fig.
1.14. Slide the jaw until they touch the rod.

cm 0 1 3 5 6 7 8 9

read here

Fig. 1.14: Measurement of external diameter using vernier callipers

2. Record the readings on the main scale and the vernier scale. The main scale
reading is the mark on the main scale that is immediately before the zero
mark of the vernier scale.
3. Multiply the vernier scale reading by 0.01 cm.
4. Add the main scale reading (in cm) and the vernier scale reading (in cm)
to get the diameter of the rod.

For instance, for the vernier shown in Fig. 1.14, the main scale reading (MSR)
is 2.6 cm. However, to get the second decimal value, we make use of the vernier
scale. The vernier scale mark that coincides exactly with a main scale mark gives
the vernier coincidence (VC).
In this case, the 6th division coincides with the main scale division.
Therefore, the external diameter of the cylindrical object is
MSR + (VC × LC) = 2.6 cm + (6 × 0.01) cm
= 2.66 cm.

Activity 1.23 To measure the internal diameter of a test tube using

a vernier calliper

Steps
1. Insert the inside jaws of a vernier callipers into the test tube.
2. Move the sliding jaws until the jaws just touch the inside walls of the test
tube as shown in Fig. 1.15.

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3. Take and record the readings on the main scale and the vernier scale. Use
these readings to determine the internal diameter of the test tube.

test tube

cm 0 1 3 5 6 2 3 4

Readings enlarged

Fig. 1.15: Measurement of internal diameter using vernier callipers.

We can determine the diameter of the test tube shown in Fig. 1.15 as follows:
The internal diameter of the test tube = MSR + (VC × LC)
= 2.6 cm + (2 × 0.01) cm
= 2.62 cm

Example 1.1
What are the readings shown by the vernier callipers in Fig. 1.16(a) and (b)?

2 3 4 0 1 2
main
scale

vernier
(a) (b)
scale
Fig. 1.16:Vernier calliper readings

Solution
(a) Main scale reading = 2.6 cm (b) Main scale reading = 0.00 cm
Vernier scale reading = 0.04 cm Vernier scale reading = 0.05 cm
Reading = 2.64 cm Reading = 0.05 cm

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 Mechanics

Exercise 1.4
1. Explain the advantages of using a vernier calliper over a metre rule in measuring
the diameter of a small ball bearing.
2. With the aid of a well labelled diagram describe the main features of a
vernier calliper.
3. What are the readings shown on the calipers in Fig. 1.17 (a) and (b)?

5 6 7 main 3 4 5
scale

vernier scale

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.17:Vernier calliper readings

4. Micrometer screw gauge

Activity 1.24
To observe the parts of micrometre screw gauge

Materials: a micrometer screw gauge

Steps
1. Look at the micrometre screw gauge provided
2. Observe its horizontal and rotating scales.
3. Observe its jaws and practice how to open and close them slightly,

A micrometer screw gauge is an instrument for measuring very short length such
as the diameters of wires, thin rods, thickness of a paper etc. It was first made by
an astronomer called William Gascoigne in the 17th century.
Fig. 1.18(a) shows the photograph of a micrometer screw gauge.
anvil spindle sleeve thimble
25

20

15

head
zero main scale ratchet
adjusting scale
screw
u-frame
Fig. 1.18(a): Micrometer screw gauge Fig. 1.18:(b) Parts of a micrometer screw gauge

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 Mechanics

Fig. 1.18(b) shows the parts of a micrometer screw gauge.

A micrometer screw gauge consists of the following:
• U-frame which holds an anvil at one end and a spindle at the other end.
• Sleeve, which has a linear main scale (sleeve scale) marked in millimetres or
halve millimetres.
• Thimble, which has a circular rotating scale that is calibrated from 0 to either
50 or 100 divisions. This scale is called the head scale (thimble scale). When
the thimble is rotated, the spindle can move either forward or backwards.
• Ratchet which prevents the operator from exerting too much pressure on the
object to be measured.
• Zero adjusting screw that is used to clear zero errors.

Reading a micrometer screw gauge

How to use and determine the reading on the micrometre screw gauge

Activity 1.25 To analyse the scale on micrometre screw gauge

Materials: a micrometer screw gauge

Steps
1. Take a micrometer screw gauge given to you and observe its sleeve and
thimble scales.
2. Now, take a keen look on a thimble scale. How many divisions are between
0 and 100? or 0 and 50?
3. How to find the value represented by each division?

The movement of the thimble is controlled by a screw of known pitch as shown

in Fig. 1.19. There are two common types of pitches on the thimble namely:
1 mm and 0.5 mm.
When the pitch is 1 mm, the thimble has 100 divisions called head scale divisions.
In this case each division represents 0.01 mm. This is the least count (LC) of
this screw gauge.

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 Mechanics

pitch

1 mm
LC = = 0.01 mm.
100

Fig. 1.19: The pitch of a thimble.

Similarly, if the pitch is 0.5 mm the thimble has 50 division. Each divisions
represents 0.01 mm, i.e.
0.5 mm
LC = = 0.01 mm.
50
The thimble reading called the head scale coincidence (HSC) is the value of the
mark on the thimble that coincides with the horizontal line on the sleeve. Main
scale reading is taken by considering the reading of a mark on the fixed scale that
is immediately before the sleeve enters the rim of the head scale.
The linear main scale on the sleeve is calibrated in millimetres or half millimetres.
The micrometer screw gauge is operated by turning the thimble until the object
whose measurement is required just touches the anvil and the spindle. The ratchet
is then rotated to press the object gently between the anvil and the spindle. When
the correct pressure has been exerted on the object, a clicking noise is heard
indicating that the reading can now be taken. See Fig. 1.20.
85 35

80 30

75 25
Thimble with 100 divisions Thimble with 50 divisions
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.20: Thimble divisions.

In Fig. 1.20(a), the least count = 0.01 mm.

The micrometer screw gauge reading
= MSR + (HSC × LC)
= 4.0 m + (80 × 0.01) mm
= 4.80 mm.

In Fig. 1.20(b), LC = 0.01 mm.

The micrometer screw gauge reading
= MSR + (HSC × LC)
= 4.5 + (30 × 0.01) mm
= 4.80 mm.

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 Mechanics

Example 1.2
A micrometer screw gauge has a thimble scale with 100 divisions and screw pitch of
1.00 mm. Find the length of one division (least count) on the thimble scale.
Solution
100 divisions have a length of 1.00 mm
1.00
∴1 division has a length of = 0.01 mm
100

Activity 1.26 To determine the diameter of a ball bearing using a

micrometer screw gauge

Materials: a ball bearing, micrometer screw gauge

Steps
1. Clean the faces of the spindle and the anvil to remove any dirt.
2. Close the gap between the anvil and the spindle to check for zero error. In
case of any error, remove it by rotating the zero adjustment screw clockwise
or anticlockwise as the case may demand. Alternatively you may note the
error as a negative or a positive value and add it to or subtract it from the
final reading accordingly.
3. Turn the spindle to open a suitable gap for holding the ball bearing in
between the anvil and the spindle.
4. Close the spindle to the correct tightness (Fig. 1.21).
5. Take the readings on the main scale and the thimble scale and record them
down in your exercise book.

ball bearing

0
20

15

Fig. 1.21: Using a micrometer screw gauge

6. Repeat the activity by taking two more measurements. Obtain the average
value.

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 Mechanics

7. Multiply the thimble scale reading by 0.01 mm.

8. Add the main scale reading (in mm) and the thimble scale reading (in mm)
to get the diameter of the ball bearing.

Example 1.3
What is the diameter of the ball bearing shown in Fig. 1.22?
ball bearing

0
20

15

Fig. 1.22: Determining diameter of a ball bearing

Solution
Main scale reading = 5.0 mm 5.00 mm
Head scale coincidence = 19 divisions +
Head scale reading = 19 × 0.01 = 0.19 mm
Full reading = 5.0 + 0.19 = 5.19 mm
The diameter of the ball bearing is 5.19 mm

Exercise 1.5
1. State the value of the readings shown by the micrometer screw gauges in
Fig 1.23.
mm mm
0 5 10 65 0 5 15

60 10

(a) Fig. 1.23: Reading of micrometer screw gauge. (b)

2. Draw a micrometer screw gauge showing the following reading if the screw
pitch is 0.5 mm.
(a) 18.56 mm (b) 2.36 mm (c) 5.72 mm
3. Repeat Question 2 above for a micrometer screw gauge of pitch 1 mm.

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 Mechanics

1.14 Measurement of time

Activity 1.27 To describe the concept of time

Materials: stopwatch, playing ground

Steps
1. Ask your partner to run from one end of the field to the other as you time
the event.
2. Let him/her also time as you ran the same distance. Compare the times
you took. Who took the shortest time? Explain.
3. Discuss with your partner what you think time is, its SI unit, symbol and
how to use the stopwatch.

Hey!!!

Co-curriculum activities and physical exercises are very crucial and

beneficial to you as a student. Always participate in different disciplines
that are offered in your school.

From Activity 1.27, you should have established that time is a measure of duration
taken by an event. The SI unit of time is the second and its symbol is s.

Stopclocks and watches

All living things have an inbuilt biological clock which seems to control the rhythm
of their life cycle. For example, the cock will crow only at specific time intervals.
Regardless of where we are located or what we are doing, we are always aware
of the idea of passage of time. This passage of time is noticed in many ways, for
example by the heartbeat, the sun, seasons, etc. The measurement of time is based
on rhythm.
Time is measured using either analogue or digital watches and clocks (Fig. 1.24).
Analogue watches and clocks (Fig. 1.24(b) and (c)) are controlled by oscillations
of a balance wheel and hairspring or electrical oscillations of a quartz crystal.

40
 Mechanics

0
55 5

50 10

45 15

40 20

35 25
30

(a) A digital stopwatch (b) a stopwatch (c) a stop clock
Fig. 1.24: Stop watches and a stop clock
Table 1.11 shows units of time and their relationships with the seconds.

Unit Symbol Comparison with SI unit

1 hour h 3 600 s
1 minute min 60 s
1 second s 1s
1 millisecond ms 0.001 s
1 microsecond µs 0.000 001 s

Table 1.11: Units of time and their relationship with the second

Example 1.4
How many seconds are there in 1 week?
Solution
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 h 1 week = 7 × 24 ×60 × 60
1h = 60 min = 604 800 s
1 min = 60 s

Digital stopwatch can measure very small time intervals. It can display, hours,
minutes, seconds and milliseconds.

Using a digital stopwatch

Timing the reading of words

Activity 1.28 To measure and record the time taken to read words

Materials: stopwatch

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 Mechanics

Steps
1. Start the stopwatch and time how long it takes your partner to read a certain
sentence e.g.
• Stop environmental pollution!
• Our environment is our livelihood!
• HIV/AIDS is incurable!
• Avoid unprotected sex!
2. Stop the watch, reset and repeat the activity about four times. Find your
average time for reading the sentence.

You should have observed that the longer the sentence, the longer the time taken
to read it. The average time for reading a sentence is more accurate than each
individuals time recorded for the same event.

Activity 1.29
To time the heart beat

Materials: stopwatch
1. Place your palm on the side of your chest and feel your heartbeat.
2. Start the stopwatch.
3. By feeling and counting your heartbeats, determine the number (n) of
heartbeat in 60 s.
60 .
4. Determine the time interval between your two heartbeats as n

When breathing normally, you should obtain 72 heart beats in one minute (60s).
60 s
Hence the interval between your two heart beat should be = 0.833 s.
72

Example 1.5
The heart of an obese student was beating at 85 beats per minute. Find the time interval
for one beat. What can you advice the person (Hint: the normal heartbeat rate is 72
beats per minute).
Solution
85 beats takes 60 seconds
1 beat will take ?
1 × 60 s
= 0.706 s
85
The time for one heartbeat is 0.706 s. The person should visit a doctor for checkup.

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 Mechanics

Health Matters
Always have a medical check up, exercise your body and eat properly
to avoid most lifestyle diseases.

Exercise 1.6

1. Define the term time and state its SI unit. 55

0
5

50 10

2. A student used the stopwatch shown in 45 15

Fig. 1.25 to measure the time taken by an 40

20

athlete to cover 100 m. What is the time 35 25

taken by the athlete? 30

Fig. 1.25: A stopwatch measuring time

3. The stopwatch in Question 2 was accidentally dropped and its pointer pin
became loose such that when the stopwatch is started, the pointer pin swifts
backwards by 1 division. What is the actual reading of the stopwatch shown
in Fig. 1.26?

0
55 5

50 10

45 15

40 20

35 25
30

Fig. 1.26: Stopwatch measuring time

4. A wheel of a car rotating uniformly makes 400 revolutions in one

minute.
How long will the wheel take to make one revolution?
5. Describe an experiment to measure the time interval for one heartbeat.

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1.15 Measurement of derived quantities

Measurement of area

Activity 1.30 To define area and its unit of measurement.

Materials: a ruler, a square solid, a rectangular solid

Steps
1. Measure the lengths and widths of the square and rectangular solids and
record down their measurements.
2. For each item, multiply the two dimensions measured in step 1. What value
do you obtain?
3. Suggest what area is and its SI unit?
4. Suggest how to determine the areas of regular and irregular solids?

In your discussion, you should have learnt that area is the measure of the extent
of a surface. The SI unit of area is square metre (m2). Area is a derived quantity.
Table 1.12 shows the unit of area, its symbol and its relationship with the SI unit
of area (m2).

Unit Symbol Comparison with m2

1 square kilometre km2 1 000 000 m2
1 square metre m2 1m2
1 square centimetre cm2 0.000 1 m2
1 square millimetre mm2 0.000 001 m2

Table 1.12: Units of measuring area and their symbols.

Example 1.6 Example 1.7

Convert 97.5 mm2 into m2 Convert 100 cm2 into m2

Solution Solution
1 000 000 mm =1 m2 2
1 m2 = 10 000 cm2

97.5 × 1 100 1
100 cm2 = 10 000 = 100 = 0.01 m2
99.5 mm = 1000 000
2

0.0000975 or 9.75 ×10-5 m2

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 Mechanics

Area of regularly shaped objects

The area of a regularly shaped objects may be obtained by measuring the relevant
dimension(s) and then applying the appropriate formula.

Table 1.13 shows some of the formulae used in the measurement of area.

Name Shape Formula (Area)

Square Length (L)

A=L×L
Length (L)

Rectangle Width (W)

A=L×W
Length (L)

Triangle A = 12 (b × h)
Height (h)
Base (b)

Circle Radius (r) A = r2

Table 1.13: Formulae used in measurement of area

Example 1.8

The dimensions of the top of a small coffee table are 40 cm by 30 cm.

Calculate the area of the top of the table in (a) m2 (b) mm2
Solution
(a) Area = L W or A = 40 cm 30 cm
= 40 cm 30 cm
40 30
= 1 200 cm2 = 100 m 100 m
1200
A = 10 000 = 0.12 m2 = 0.12 m2

(b) Area = L W or A = 40 cm 30 cm
= 40 cm 30 cm = (40 10) mm (30 10) mm
= 1 200 cm2 = 400 300 mm2
= 1 200 100 mm2 = 120 000 mm2
= 120 000 mm2

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 Mechanics

Exercise 1.7

1. Define the term area.

2. Explain clearly how you would determine the surface areas of the following:
(a) A laboratory bench.
(b) A cylindrical object.
3. A cylinder has a diameter of 4.2 cm. How many times would a thread of
132 cm be wound around the cylinder?
4. A page of a book measures 14.5 cm × 21.4 cm. What is its area in square
millimetres?
5. The diameter of a cylindrical pencil is 9 mm. Calculate the cross-sectional
area in square centimetres.

1.16 Measurement of volume

Activity 1.31 To define volume and state its SI units

Materials: beaker, water

Steps
• Now, pour water into the beaker and read the level of water. What does the
reading represent? Explain.
• Suggest your members what volume is and its SI units. What are the other
smaller and larger units that are used to measure volume?

From Activity 1.31, you should have established that volume is the amount of
space occupied by a substance. The reading obtained when water is poured in the
beaker represents the volume of water. The SI unit of volume is cubic metres(m3).
Like area, volume is also a derived quantity. Table 1.14 shows the SI unit of volume
and its relationship with other units of volume and capacity.

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Unit Symbol Comparison with m3

1 cubic kilometres km3 1000 000 000 m3

1 cubic metres m3 1 m3
1 cubic centimetres cm3 0.000 001 m3
1 litre l 0.001 m3
1 millilitre ml 0.000 001 m3

Table 1.14: Units of measuring volume and their symbols.

Example 1.9
A car uses 1 litre of petrol to cover a distance of 13 km. How long, in metres,
would such a car cover with 30 cm3 of petrol?
Solution
1 litre = 1 000 cm3
1 km = 1 000 m
13 km = 13 000 m
1 000 cm3 covers 13 000 m
13 000 × 30
With 30 cm3, it would cover 1 000
= 390 m

Volume of regular shaped solids

The volume of a regularly shaped solid may be determined by measuring the
required dimensions and then applying the appropriate formula. Table 1.15 shows
some of the solids and the formulae to find their volumes

Name Shape Formula

h
Cuboid w V=l w h
l

Sphere V= 4 r3
3

r
Cylinder V= r2h
h

Table 1.15: Formulae for finding volume of regular solids

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Volume of liquids
Activity 1.32 To calculate a volume of a liquid in a container

Materials: rectangular container, a cylindrical container, water

Steps
1. Pour some water into a rectangular container as shown in Fig. 1.27(a).
Measure length, l breadth, b and height, h and calculate the volume of
liquid inside the container.
2. Repeat the activity using the same amount of the liquid with a cylindrical
container as shown in Fig. 1.27(b).
r

h
h
b
l

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.27: Measurement of volume of liquids

3. Measure the radius r and the height h then determine the volume of the
liquid using the appropriate formulas.
4. Compare the two volumes to see if they are the same.

From Activity 1.32, you should have established that the volume of water in a
rectangular container is equal to the cylindrical container i.e
v = l × b × h = πr2h

Instruments for measuring volume of liquids

Activity 1.33 To identify instruments for measuring volume

Materials: measuring cylinder, burette, pipette, reference books, internet

1. Identify the unit marked on each instrument

2. Now, take each instrument provided at a time and study their scales
carefully.

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 Mechanics

From Activity 1.33, you should have discovered that instruments for measuring
volume include measuring cylinders, burettes and pipettes. These instruments
are already calibrated (marked) in the units of volume (cubic centimetres, cm3)
or capacity (millilitres, ml).

(a) Measuring cylinder

Measuring cylinders hold different volumes or capacities.They have a scale marked
either in cm3 or ml. (1 cm3 = 1 ml). They measure the contained column of the
liquid. It is for this reason that they are graduated from zero upwards.

How to use a measuring cylinder

50 incorrect
Pour some coloured water into a measuring 40
correct
cylinder. Observe the shape of the liquid surface. 30
Sketch the shape of the liquid surface. What do 20 incorrect
you notice?You will notice that the liquid surface is 10
curved.The curved liquid surface is called meniscus. 0
Read the level of the bottom of the meniscus with
Fig. 1.28: How to use a measuring cylinder
your eyes at the horizontal level (Fig. 1.28).
ml

(b) Burette 0

10
A burette consists of a long graduated glass tube fitted
with a tap which opens and closes easily. Burettes are 20

mostly used when a known volume of a liquid is to 30

be run off. The scale is graduated in cm3 or ml and 40

runs from zero downwards since the volume required 50

is run off from the bottom (Fig. 1.29). tap

How to use a burette Fig. 1.29: A burette

Pour a liquid into the burette with the help of a funnel. Make sure that the level goes
well beyond the zero. Open the tap and allow the level to come to the zero mark.
(This is to ensure that even the lower part 25 ml
of the tap is filled with the liquid). Run
off the required volume of the liquid by
opening the tap. 25 ml

(c) Pipette
0
Pipette like a burette, it is used to run off
known volume of a liquid. There are two
types of pipettes commonly used in school
(a) Graduated pipette (b) One mark pipette
laboratories. They are: graduated pipette Fig. 1.30: Types of pipettes
and one mark pipette (Fig. 1.30).

49
 Mechanics

The graduated pipette can deliver various amounts of known volumes of a liquid.
The one mark pipette delivers only one known volume of a liquid, e.g. 25 ml for
a 25 ml pipette.

How to use a one mark pipette

Dip a 25 ml pipette in a beaker containing clean water. Suck in the water to a

level above the mark. Close the mouth of the pipette with your thumb and slowly
allow the liquid level to drop to the one mark. Run off the liquid into a measuring
cylinder. Compare the volume delivered by the pipette and the volume read from
the measuring cylinder. The two volumes should be the same.

Volume of solids by displacement method

Activity 1.34 To determine the volume of a regularly shaped solid

using a measuring cylinder

Materials: metre rule, marble, measuring cylinder, water

Steps
1. Measure the diameter r of the marble using a metre rule and calculate its
4
volume V1 using the formula V = πr3.
3
2. Partly fill a measuring cylinder with
water and record the initial volume of 50
the water V1. Carefully lower the marble
40
into the water in the measuring cylinder
(see Fig. 1.31). Record the new volume 30

of the water V2. 20

3. Find the volume of the water displaced, 10

( V2 – V1). Compare this volume with the 0
volume of the marble calculated using
Fig.1.31: Volume by displacement method
the formula.

You will notice that:

The volume of the displaced water = volume of the marble.
The activity shows that solids displace their own volume of the liquid. The method
of finding the volume of a solid by displacing a liquid is called displacement method.

50
 Mechanics

Activity 1.35 To determine the volume of an irregularly shaped

solid using a Eureka can
(Work in groups)
Materials: Eureka can, irregular stone, water, measuring cylinder
Steps
1. Fill a Eureka can with water
until some of it over flows Eureka can
through the spout. (an overflowing spout
can)
2. Once the overflow stops, put measuring
the measuring cylinder at the 30

20
cylinder
mouth of the spout. 10

3. Tie the irregular solid with

Fig. 1.32: Measuring volume using a Eureka can
a string and lower the solid
carefully into the can. Make
sure the solid is completely
immersed.
4. Collect and measure the volume of the water displaced (Fig. 1.32).

From Activity 1.35, you must have noted that the volume of the solid is equal to
the volume of the water displaced.

Exercise 1.8
1. Define volume and state its SI unit.
2. A tank full of a liquid has a volume of 0.6 m3. Find the volume of the tank in:
(a) litres (b) cm3 (c) ml
3. A metal block measures 5 cm by 4 cm by 10 cm. Calculate:
(a) The volume of the block.
(b) The number of blocks each measuring 2 cm by 1 cm by 5 cm that have
the same volume as that of the metal block.
4. A beaker of radius 5 cm contains water to a height of 10 cm.
(a) What is the volume of the water in the beaker?
(b) When a stone is completely immersed in the beaker, water rises to a height
of 19 cm. What is the volume of the stone?
5. Give one advantage of using burette over a one mark pipette in measuring
the volume of a liquid.

51
 Mechanics

6. Explain why burettes are more accurate than

measuring cylinders in measuring volume. ml
50

7. What is: 40

30
(a) the minimum volume of a liquid that can be
20
measured by the measuring cylinder shown in
10
Fig. 1.33?
0
(b) the volume of the liquid in the measuring Fig. 1.33:
cylinder? Measuring cylinder
ml
8. The tap of a burette is adjusted such that water ml
0
50

comes out in drops (Fig. 1.34). What would be the 10 40

20 30
reading on the burette if 60 drops of water fall from
30 20

the burette? Take the average volume of the drop to

40 10

be 50 mm3. 50 0

tap

Fig. 1.34: Drops of water from a burette

1.17 Measurement of mass

Activity 1.36 To compare massess using non-standard measures

Materials: a brick, a jug full of water

Steps
1. By lifting a brick and a jug full of water each at a time, determine which is
heavier.
2. What is the disadvantage of using such a method to measure mass?
3. What would be the remedy?

From Activity 1.36, you must have noted that, one cannot be accurate when
determining how heavy an object is using non standard measures like hands. This
calls for the need to use a standard measure.

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 Mechanics

Mass is the amount of matter in a substance. Its SI unit is kilogram (kg). The
standard kilogram is the mass of a block of platinum iridium alloy kept at the office
of weights and measures in Paris. Other masses are measured by comparing them
directly or indirectly with this mass. Table 1.16 shows the relationship between
the SI unit of mass (kg) and other larger and smaller units of mass.
Unit Symbol Comparison with kg
1 tonne t 1 000 kg
1 kilogram kg 1 kg
1 gram g 0.001 kg
1 milligram mg 0.000 001 kg
Table 1.16: Units of measuring mass and their symbols

Example 1.10
Convert 39.6 mg into kilograms
Solution
1 1
1 mg = 1000 g = 1 000 000 kg
1
Therefore, 39.6 mg = ( 1 000 000 × 39.6) kg
= 0.000 039 6 kg

Balance for measuring mass

There are many kinds of balances used for measuring mass (Fig. 1.35).

(a) beam balance (b) traditional pan balance (c) electronic balance

Fig. 1.35: Different types of balances

In the laboratory, the mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance
and a set of standard masses (Fig. 1.36).

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 Mechanics

beam bearing stirrup bearing

crystal C

support T
beam B

stirrup balancing screw

C C

pillar M
hook
bow plumbline, L
pointer P

pan X pan Y

W scale S
W
adjustment levelling screw
knob
Fig. 1.36: A beam balance
The beam balance has an beam B and two containers (X andY).The first container
holds the load while the other container holds the metal that has a fixed weight.
The beam is zeroed before using. This involves making sure that the pointer P is
at the middle of the scale S and the plumbline L is just touching pillar M. This
is done by adjusting the screws W and W’ respectively. When the beam balances,
the masses on the scale-pans are equal. The mass to be measured is placed on
one scale-pan which is then balanced by using known or standard masses on the
other scale pan. After weighing, the beam is gently lowered so that it rests on the
support T, which takes the load off the delicate wedges.

1.18 Density
Definition of density

Activity 1.37 To define density and identify its SI units

You were introduced to density in Primary 5.

1. Remind your partner the meaning of density.
2. Discuss with your partner the SI units of density based on the definition.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. From the definition, the formula for
calculating density is as follows:
Mass of substance
Density = Volume of substance
The derived SI unit for density is kilogram per cubic metre, kg/m3, also written
as kg/m 3. Density may also be measured in grams per cubic centimetre,

54
 Mechanics

g/cm3, or g/cm3. The relationship 1 000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 is used for conversion
of units of density.
The symbol for density is the Greek letter ρ read as Rho, while mass and volume
are abbreviated (m) and (V) respectively. Using these symbols, the formula for
m
density is ρ = v
Different substances have different densities as indicated in Table 1.18 below.
Substance Density Density Substance Density Density in
in kg/m3 in g/cm3 in kg/m3 g/cm3
Aluminum 2 700 2.70 Sand (varies) 2 600 2.60
Brass (varies) 8 500 8.50 Steel (varies) 7 800 7.8
Copper 8 930 8.93 White spirit 850 0.85
Glass (varies) 2 600 2.60 Zinc 7 100 7.10
Gold 19 300 19.3 Iron 7 500 7.50
Ice (at 0ºc) 920 0.92 Invar 8 000 8.00
Lead 11 300 11.3 Cork 180 0.18
Mercury 13 600 13.6 Air 1.293 0.001 293
Methylated spirit 800 0.80 Hydrogen 0.899 0.000 089 9
Platinum 21 500 21.50 Pure water 1000 1.0
Table 1.18: Densities of different substances

Example: 1.11
An object of volume 0.004 23 m3 has mass 36 kg. Determine its density in kg/m3.
From table 1.18, identify the substance from which the object is made.
Solution
m
(a) ρ = V
36 kg
= 0.00432 m3 = 8 510.6 kg/m3.

(b) The object is made from brass.

Example 1.12
The density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm3. What volume will have a mass of 200 g.
Solution

ρ =13.6 g/cm3
m = 200 g
m m 200
We know that V= p therefore V = ρ = 13.6 = 14.7 cm3

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 Mechanics

Example 1.13
What mass of gold has a volume of 2.5 cm3? (Take the density of gold as
19.3 g/cm3).
Solution
Density of gold = 19.3 g/cm3, Volume (V) = 2.5 cm3
m
ρ= V ⇒m=ρV
= 19.3 × 2.5
= 48.25 g

Comparing densities of substances

Activity 1.38 To compare densities of different substances

Materials: Drinking glass, water, stone

Steps
1. Pour water into a drinking glass and place a stone on the surface of water.
Observe and explain what happens to the stone.
2. Repeat step 1 with a piece of wood, small piece of copper metal and a cork.
Observe what happens in each case.
3. Compare the known densities of the objects you have used with that of
water. What do you observe? Explain.

From activity 1.38, we observe that;

(i) The stone sinks to the bottom of the glass.

(ii) A piece of wood floats on the surface of water.
(iii) A piece of copper metal sinks to the bottom water.
(iv) A cork floats on the surface of water.
If the density of an object is greater than the density of water, the object sinks in
the water. For example, a stone is more dense than water.
If density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, the object floats in the
liquid.
A piece of cork is less dense than water; the cork floats on water.

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 Mechanics

Activity 1.39 To compare densities of fresh and rotten eggs

Materials: fresh and rotten eggs, water, a drinking glass

Steps
1. Pour water in a glass and place a fresh egg on the surface of the water.
(See Fig. 1.37(a)) Observe and explain what happens to the egg.

Glass

Rotten egg
Water
Water
Fresh egg

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.37: To compare densities of fresh and rotten eggs

2. Repeat step 1 using a rotten egg. Observe and explain what happens to the egg. (See
Fig. 1.37(b))

From Activity 1.39, we note that:

A fresh egg sinks in water, therefore, it is more dense than water.
A rotten egg floats on water; thus it is less denser than water.
Therefore, we can predict whether a body can sink or float in water if we know
its density.

Exercise 1.9

1. Define the following terms:

(a) Mass (b) density.
2. Convert each of the following to their SI units.
(a) 6434.2 g (b) 0.0000046 t
(c) 40065 μg

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 Mechanics

3. Fig. 1.38 alongside shows an irregular object of String

mass 56 g immersed in water. Given that the volume

of water in the measuring
Measuring cylindercylinder was 10.0 cm ,
3 V2

calculate the density of the object in g/cm3.

V1
4. The volume of methylated spirit is 0.8 g/cm 3.
Stone
Calculate the volume of 20 grams of the liquid.
Liquid

5. A substance has mass, volume and density as its

properties. Which properties may change if a lump
of sugar is crushed? Fig. 1.38:Volume of irregular object

Unit Summary and new words

• Science is the systematic study that uses observation and experimentation
to describe and explain natural phenomena.
• Physics is a science that deals with the study of matter.
• There are various branches of physics: mechanics, optics, electromagnetics
etc.
• Physics creates technology.
• There are numerous career opportunities for example being a physics
teacher and engineering.
• Length is the distance between two points. The SI unit of length is the
metre, m. It is measured using a metre rule, tape measure etc.
• Time is the duration between any two events. Its SI unit is the second, s.
It is measured using a clock/watch.
• Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance. Its SI unit is the kilogram,
kg. It is measured using a beam balance.
• Length, time and mass are fundamental quantities.
• Area and volume are the derived quantities of length.
• Volume may be measured using a measuring cylinder, burette, pipette, etc.
Mass
• Density is the ratio of mass to volume i.e. Density = . SI unit of
Volume
density is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m ).
3

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 Mechanics

Unit Test 1
1. Define the term Physics.
2. Explain why Physics is a science.
3. Discuss the relationship between physics and society.
4. State the career opportunities that physics opens for you.
5. Describe the scientific investigation processes.
6. Distinguish between a fundamental (base) quantity and a derived quantity.
Give one example of each.
7. Name three fundamental quantities and their SI units.
8. Give a reason why it was necessary to establish SI units.
9. How many micrometres are there in 4 cm?
10. Express the following in millimetres:
(a) 2.7 m (b) 26.9 cm (c) 356 µm.
11. Name the instruments you would use to measure each of the following:
(a) the length of a football field.
(b) the height of a 20 litre jerrican.
(c) the circumference of your waist.
12. A sea vessel carries 2 megatonnes of cargo. What is this mass in kg?
13. Explain how you would measure the exter nal diameter of a
measuring cylinder.
14. Describe briefly how you would measure:
(a) the volume of a single drop of water from a burette.
(b)the time taken by an ant to cover a distance of 2 m.
15. Drops of water coming from a crack in a water tap are collected at regular
intervals as shown in Fig. 1.39(a).
(a) What is the volume of the water
collected?
(b) Fig. 1.39 (b) shows the time 25 55
60
5

taken to fill the measuring ml

20
50 10

cylinder. What is the time taken 15

45 15

to collect this volume? 10

40 20

35 25

(c) The measuring cylinder used 5

30

has a capacity of 25 ml. What 0

is the time taken to fill the (a) (b)

measuring cylinder? Fig. 1.39: Measuring volume of water

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 Mechanics

Conserve water always! Repair damaged taps to avoid water loss.

16. Estimate the volume of air in your classroom.

17. A solid cube of aluminium has sides 10 cm long.
(a) Calculate its volume.
(b) What mass in kilogram of aluminium has a mass of 100 g? Use the
table of densities on page 54.
18. A Eureka can of cross sectional area 60 cm2 is filled with water to a height
of 10 cm. A piece of steel is lowered carefully into the can as shown in
Fig. 1.40 then removed. If the height of the water dropped to 7 cm, after
overflowing, determine the volume of steel metal.

10 cm

Fig. 1.40: Measuring volume using Eureka can

19. An aquarium measuring 1 m by 0.8 m by 0.5 m is filled with water of density
1 000 kg/m3. Calculate the mass of water contained in the aquarium.
20. 1 kg of lead and 1 kg of aluminium are each made into a spherical ball. Which
one will occupy more space? Explain step by step how you arrived at your
answer (Use table 1.13 showing densities of common substances).
21. What is the length of the glass rod shown in Fig. 1.41?
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 24

0 mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Glass rod
Fig. 1.41: Measuring length of a glass rod

22. Describe how you would determine the volume of an irregular object such as
a small stone.
23. How would you determine the circumference of a test tube using a cotton
thread and a metre rule? State any precautions that need to be taken.
24. What is the mass of air in a room measuring 5 m × 10 m × 10 m? (Take the
density of air to be 1.293 kg/m3).

60
 Qualitative analysis of linear
UNIT 2 motion

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to describe objects in motion in one
dimension using the principles of kinematics.

Unit outline
• Define distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
• Definition of motion and types of linear motion.
• Distinguish between instantaneous and average speed, velocity and
acceleration.
• Draw and analyse graphs of distance against time, displacement against time,
speed against time, velocity against time and acceleration against time.
• Formulae of linear motion.
• Measurement of g (acceleration due to gravity).

Introduction

Activity 2.1 To identify different kinds of motion

Steps
1. Observe and describe the following types of motions of bodies in terms
B
of direction(Fig. 2.1).

A C

(a) Throwing a stone over a cliff (b) Whirling a stone (c) 100 m race
Fig 2.1: Different types of motion

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 Mechanics

2. Suggest on what linear motion is.

In our daily lives, we come across various objects moving from one point to the
other. The objects are said to be in motion. People, animals and machines are
from time to time involved in motion in different directions. Motion in a straight
line is called linear motion(see Fig. 2.1 (c)).
In this unit, we are going to study linear motion. We shall pay attention to the
time taken, distance covered, speed, velocity and acceleration of the motion and
their relationships.

There are two types of linear motion namely: uniform motion and non-uniform
motion.
Uniform motion
In this motion, the speed of the moving remains the same or constant.
Non-uniform or uniform accelerated motion
In this motion the speed of an object changes at a constant rate, a good example
is the free fall.

2.1 Distance and displacement

Activity 2.2 To compare the lengths of a straight line and a

curved one

Materials: playing ground, tape measure

Steps
1. Mark points A and B on the playing ground far way from each other.
2. Starting from point A, make full strides towards point B in a straight line. How
many strides do you get?
3. Repeat the activity but this time taking any curved path from point A to B. Between
the straight and the curved paths, which one is longer ?
4. Now, measure the total length from points A to B using a surveyor tape measure.
What length do you get? What is the SI unit of length?
5. Brainstorm on what distance and displacement are and their SI units.

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 Mechanics

In your discussion, you should have noted the following:

Distance
Distance is the total length of the path followed by an object, regardless of the direction
of motion. It is a scalar quantity and measured in units of length. The SI unit of
distance is the metre (m). Long distances may be measured in kilometres (km)
while short distances may be measured in centimetres (cm) or millimetres (mm).
It should be noted that in determining the distance between two points, the
direction at any point along the path is not considered. The direction along the
path may keep on changing (Fig. 2.2) or remain constant (Fig. 2.3).

N
A
142 km W E
B
S
Road (path of travel)
Fig.2.2: Distance between points A and B is 142 km (direction keeps on changing)

P 8.5 cm Q

3 cm 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Fig. 2.3: Distance between points P and Q is 8.5 cm (direction is constant)

Displacement
Displacement is the object’s overall change in position from the starting to the end point.
It is the shortest distance along a straight line between two points in the direction
of motion. The SI unit of displacement is the metre (m).
To fully describe displacement, you need to specify how far you have travelled from
where you started and in what direction you have travelled. For example, point A
is 100 kilometres Northwest of point B. In diagrams, an arrowhead indicates the
direction of motion (Fig. 2.4). Displacement is a vector quantity.
displacement = distance in a stated direction from a reference point
A nce
142 km dista ent
100 km acem
displ

B
Road

Fig. 2.4: Displacement between points A and B is 100 km

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 Mechanics

Difference between distance and displacement

Activity 2.3 To distinguish between distance and displacement

Materials: a tennis ball, rigid wall

Steps
1. Stand 2 m from a rigid wall.
2. Throw a tennis ball perpendicularly to a vertical wall.
3. Catch the ball when it bounces back.
4. Determine the distance and displacement covered by the ball.
5. Compare the two values.

In Activity 2.3, you will find that the distance is 4 m while displacement is 0 m.

Suppose a boat starts at point A moves 40 km East to point B followed by 30 m

North to point C as shown in Figure 2.5.
C (End point)

30 m

A B
(Start point) 40 m
Fig. 2.5 Path followed by a boat

From Fig 2.5, point B is 100 Km SE of point A (magnitude and direction).

It should be noted that the distance can be greater or equal to the displacement
in magnitude.

We can determine its distance and displacement covered as follows:

Distance = AB + BC = 40 m + 30 m = 70 m
Displacement = AC = AB2 + BC2 = 402 + 302 = 50 m.

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 Mechanics

Road Safety

Activity 2.4 To determine the shortest path when crossing the

road and the safety measures to observe

Steps
1. Fig 2.6 shows a sketch of a road. Redraw it in your exercise book.

Side B P Starting point

Road

Side A M N Q

Fig. 2.6: Sketch of a road.

2. Three Senior one students: Peter, Jane and John were standing at point
P on side B of the road where a school bus was packed. They crossed the
road to points M, N and Q respectively on side A of the road. They took
the routes shown by the dotted lines. Whose route was shortest? Discuss
with your partner.
3. Suggest a reason why the shortest distance ( displacement) is very important
to the safety of a person crossing a road.
4. What are the safety precautions a person should observe before and when
crossing a road.

In your discussion, you should have observed that route PN is the shortest. It is
safer and move convenient to take this route than routes PM or PQ because it
takes a shorter time to cross the road thus reducing the chances of being involved
in an accident on a busy road.
The following are some of the safety measures one should take before crossing
a road:
1. Always cross the road where there is a zebra-crossing.
2. Before you cross at a zebra-crossing, look right, left, then right again and
if there are no oncoming vehicles then walk across. Do not run. Always
remember it is better to be late but arrive safely.
3. Do not make abrupt decision to cross a road. Always put all your
concentration on the road when crossing it.

64
 Mechanics

2.2 Speed

Activity 2.5 To establish the formula for speed

A car takes 20 s to travel a distance of 600 m between points A and B while a

bicycle takes 300 s to travel the same distance.
1. Using a simple mathematics approach, find the distance travelled by the:
(a) car in one second.
(b) bicycle in one second.
2. Using the result in step 1, which of the two means of transport is faster than
the other.
3. What is the name and SI unit of the quantity obtained in 1?
4. Write the formula for finding the quantity you have identified in step 3.

In your discussion, you should have established that the distance moved by a body
per unit time is called speed. In this motion, direction is not considered. Thus,
distance moved
Speed =
time taken

The SI unit of speed is metres per second (m/s). Other units of speed such as
kilometres per hour (km/h) and centimetres per second (cm/s) are also in common
use.
When a body covers equal distances in equal time intervals, it is said to move with
uniform speed.

Activity 2.6 To establish the formula for distance covered and

time taken

Discuss with your partner how to determine:

(a) Distance covered by a body given its uniform speed and time it takes.
(b) Time taken by a body to cover a known distance given its uniform speed.

From your discussion, you must have found the following:

Distance covered by a body = speed × time taken
distance covered
Time taken by a body =
speed

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 Mechanics

Example 2.1
What is the speed of a racing car in metres per second if the car covers 360 km in 2
hours?
Solution
distance moved distance moved
Speed = OR Speed =
time taken time taken
360 km 360 × 1 000 m
= =
2h 2 × 3600
= 180 km/h = 50 m/s

Instantaneous speed
Activity 2.7 To observe variation of speed at different instances

Steps
1. Sit on the front seat of a vehicle and observe its speedometer when in
motion. How does the pointer behaves? Explain.
2. Note the speed indicated by the pointer at different points while in motion
until the vehicle stops.
3. Record the speeds in a tabular form at point A to E as shown in Table 2.1

Points A B C D E
Speed

Table 2.1 Record of speed at different points

4. Comment on the trend of the speed from points A to E.

5. Discuss with your partner what instantaneous speed is.

As you travel in a car or bus, you notice that the speedometer of the car keeps on
showing different values of speed. The speed at any given instant in your journey
is called instantaneous speed.

66
 Mechanics

Average speed
Activity 2.8 To establish the formula for average speed
(Work in pairs)
1. Discuss with your partner how you can calculate the whole journey’s speed
for a body if the speed keeps on changing from one point to the other.
2. What is the name given to the quantity obtained in step 1?

Quite often, the speed a body moving between two points keep on varying. Such
a body is said to be move with non-uniform speed. The equivalent constant speed
that the body would move at to cover the same distance in the same time is called
avarage speed.

Average speed of a body is the total distance covered by the body over the total
time taken i.e.
Total distance moved
Average speed =
Total time taken
Instantaneous speed of an object should not be confused with the
average speed. We can use an example of a car travelling between two
points A and B to differentiate the two. The average speed of a car is
the total distance AB the car travels over the total time it takes to cover
the distance whereas instantaneous speed is the varying speed shown
by speedometer of the car at different instants along the distance AB.

Example 2.2
A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in Fig. 2.7 maintains an average
speed of 90 km/h between points A and B and 36 km/h between points B and C.
A B C
1.5 km 2.4 km

Fig. 2.7: Car moving along a straight line

Calculate the:
(a) Total time taken in seconds by the car between points A and C.
(b) Average speed in metres per second of the car between points A and C.

Solution
Total distance
(a) Average speed =
Time taken

67
 Mechanics

Total distance
total time between A and B =
Average speed
1.5 1.5
= 90 h = × 60 × 60 s = 60 s
90
2.4
Total time between B and C = × 60 × 60 s = 240 s
36
Total time between A and C = 60 s + 240 s = 300 s
Total distance
(b) Average speed =
Time taken
(1.5 + 2.4) × 1 000 m
=
300 s
= 13 m/s

2.3 Velocity

Activity 2.9
To determine the speed in a specified direction

Materials: playing ground, surveyor tape measure, stopwatch

Steps
1. Mark three points, A, B and C on a straight line on the ground (Fig. 2.8).
10 m 10 m
A B C
Fig. 2.8: Marked points on a playground
2. Stand at point B. Start making forward steps to point C, as your partner
does the timing and records the time you take.
3. Repeat the activity but now start at point B and move to point A.
4. Reverse your roles with your partner and repeat the activity.
5. Taking the distance covered in the forward direction (B to C) to be
positive and the one on the reverse direction (B to A) to be negative, find
your speeds in each case. What does the result you have found represent?
Explain.
6. Suppose you are to describe your motions to somebody who was not at the
venue. What aspects of the motion must you mention so that the person
distinguishes the motions from B to C and B to A?
7. What name is given to a quantity that has both speed and direction.

68
 Mechanics

The speed of a body in a specified direction is called velocity or velocity is the rate
of change of distance in a particular direction. Therefore,
distance moved in a particular direction
Velocity =
time taken

Velocity is also defined as the displacement covered per unit time or the rate of change
of displacement. In Activity 2.9, the result obtained in step 5 is a displacement and
when divided by time we find velocity. i.e.
displacement
Velocity =
time taken
The SI unit of velocity is metres per second (m/s).

In some cases, the velocity of a moving body keeps on changing. In such cases, it
the average velocity of the body is considered.
total displacement
Average velocity =
time taken

When stating or describing the velocity of an object, the direction of velocity

should always be indicated. In doing so, we state direction say north, south,
upwards, downwards, etc. A negative sign in a value of velocity is commonly used
to indicate movement in the reverse direction.

Note: Just as distance and displace despite their similarities, so do speed

and velocity. For instance, if we say the car is travelling 50 km/h towards
north of Kigali, then we are talking about velocity. Remember that the
only aspect that differentiate speed and velocity is the component of
direction.

When velocity in a particular direction is constant, the velocity is referred to as

uniform velocity. For example, Table 2.2 below shows the displacement of a car
and the corresponding time taken.

Displacement (m) 0 4 8 12
Time taken (s) 0 2 4 6
Table 2.2: Values of displacement and time taken by a moving car
The velocity after every two seconds is 2 m/s, hence velocity of the car is uniform.

69
 Mechanics

Example 2.3
A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km N
C
east of A in 3 hours. It then changed direction
and travelled a distance of 150 km due north
from town B to town C in 2 hours. (Fig. 2.9). 150 km
Calculate the average
(a) speed for the whole journey.
(b) velocity for the whole journey.
A 200 km B
Fig. 2.9: Town A, B and C
Solution
total distance (200 + 150) km
(a) Average speed = =
time taken (3 + 2) h

=5
350
(km
h )
= 70 km/h
displacement, AC 2002 + 1502 km
(b) Average velocity = =
time taken 3+2h
250
= km
5h
= 50 km/h, Direction is from A to C
50 000 m
In m/s =
3 600 s
= 13.89 m/s

Exercise 2.1
1. Distinguish between:
(a) Speed and velocity.
(b) Distance and displacement.
2. Rusangwanwa cycles to school 2.5 km away in 5 minutes.What is his average
speed in (a) metres per second (b) kilometres per hour.
3. Nesa and Nshimiye decided to walk to a picnic site 12 km away. They
walked the first 6 km at an average speed of 6 km/h and the rest at 5 km/h.
(a) How long did the journey take?
(b) What was their average speed for the journey?

70
 Mechanics

4. The initial velocity of a motor cyclist riding on a straight road is 10 m/s. If

the velocity was increasing by 5 m/s every second, find;
(a) the velocity after (i) 1 s (ii) 2 s (iii) 5 s
(b) the average velocity in 5 s?

2.4 Acceleration

Activity 2.10 To determine the rate of change of velocity with time

Materials: A long tape, carbon disk, a runway, ticker-tape timer, a trolley

Steps
1. Pass a long tape under the carbon disc of the ticker-tape timer and attach
it to a trolley. Place the trolley on a horizontal runway. Ensure that the
runway is friction compensated as in Fig. 2.10.
Ticker timer
Trolley
Runway

Fig. 2.10:To determine uniform velocity using a ticker-tape timer.

2. Now, increase the angle of inclination using the wooden block until the
trolley is seen to be moving with increasing speed down the runway.
3. Release the trolley and start the ticker-timer. What do you notice about the
separation of adjacent dots on the tape?
4. Suggest how the dots on ticker-tape will look like when the speed of trolley
is reducing with time.
5. What quantity is used to refer to the change of velocity with time. Suggest its SI
units.

It can be seen that the separation of the dots increases with time as shown in Fig.
2.11. Since the time between two successive dots is 0.02 s, the time between
each 5 spaces length is 0.10 s.

Fig. 2.11: Ticker-tape for an accelerating body

This shows that the velocity of the trolley is not constant but changing with the
time.
When the velocity of a body changes with time it is said to be accelerating.

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 Mechanics

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity i.e.

Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken

The SI unit of acceleration is metres per square second or m/s2.

If the acceleration of a body is 4 m/s2, it means that its velocity is increasing by
4 m/s every second. When the velocity of a body decreases, it is said to be
decelerating or retarding. Deceleration or retardation is negative acceleration. This is
usually shown with a negative sign before the value e.g – 4 m/s2, deceleration at
4m/s2. A body moving with uniform velocity has zero acceleration since there is
no change in velocity.
When the rate of change of velocity with time is constant, the acceleration is
referred to as uniform acceleration. Consider a body moving with velocity in time
as shown in Table 2.3.

Velocity (m/s) 0 5 10 15
Time taken (s) 0 2 4 6
Table 2.3: Values of velocity (m/s) and time taken (s)

The velocity increases by 5 m/s for every 2 seconds. Thus, the body is said to be
accelerating uniformly at 2.5 m/s2.

Example 2.4

A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter, it decelerates to

a rest in 8 s. Calculate the acceleration of the car (a) in the first 5 s, (b) in the next 8 s.

Solution
change in velocity (b) Acceleration
(a) Acceleration =
time taken
final velocity – initial velocity
final velocity – initial velocity time taken
=
time taken (0 – 20) m/s
=
(rest means velocity is zero) 8s
– 20 m/s
= (20 – 0 m/s = = -2.5 m/s2
5s 8s
= 4 m/s2 or deceleration of 2.5 m/s2

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 Mechanics

2.5 Graphs of linear motion

(a) Distance – time graphs

Activity 2.11 To draw and interpret a distance-time graph

Materials: graph papers, pencil, ruler

Steps
1. Discuss and sketch distance-time graphs for two bodies: one at rest and
the other moving at a constant velocity.
2. Discuss and interpret each graph in your group.
3. Draw and analyse graphs of bodies whose speed is increasing or decreasing
with time.
4. Suggest what the gradient represent in a distance-time graph.

In your discussion, you should have obtained Fig. 2.12(a) and (b) for the body
at rest and one moving at a constant velocity respectively.
Distance (m)

Distance (m)

∆s

∆t

Time (s) Time (s)

(a) Body at rest (b) Moving body with constant velocity

Fig. 2.12(a) and (b): Distance-time graph

The graph in Fig. 2.11(a) shows that the distance covered by the body is not
changing with time. The body is therefore at rest (stationary).
The graph in Fig. 2.11(b) shows that the distance covered by the body is increasing
with time.
The gradient of the graph is ∆s
∆t and represents the speed of the object. Thus, the
graph represents the motion of the body moving with constant (uniform) speed.
In some cases, the speed of an object increases or decreases with time as shown
by the graphs in Fig. 2.13.

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 Mechanics

Distance (m)
Distance (m)

Time (s)
Time (s)

(a): Speed increasing with time (b): Speed decreases with time
Fig. 2.13: Distance - time graph
In Fig. 2.13(a) the gradient (representing speed) is increasing, implying that the
object is accelerating. Examples of real life settings where such motion is exhibited
include:
• a body rolling down an inclined plane.
• a car accelerating uniformly from rest.
In Fig. 2.13(b), the speed of the object is decreasing, implying that the object
is decelerating. Examples of real life setting where such motion is exihibited
include
• a body thrown vertically upward.
• a body rolling uphill an inclined plane.
• a car decelerating uniformly.

Example 2.5
Fig. 2.14 shows a distance-time graph for a motorist. Study it and answer the questions
that follow.
20

B C
Distance (m)

15

10

A E D time (s)
0 10 20 30
Fig. 2.14: Distance - time graph

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 Mechanics

(a) How far was the motorist from the starting point after 10 seconds?
(b) Calculate the average speed of the motorist for the first 10 seconds.
(c) Describe the motion of the motorist in regions (i) BC (ii) CD

Solutions
(a) By reading directly from the graph, distance travelled in 10 s = 15 m.
(b) Slope of the graph = speed of the motorist.
change in distance = (15 – 0)m = 1.5 m/s
Slope = change in time (10 – 0)s
(c) (i) In the internal BC, distance is not changing but time changes,
hence the body is at rest (stationary).
(ii) In the internal CD, the motorist is moving at a constant speed
towards the starting point.

(b) Displacement-time graphs

Activity 2.12 To draw and interpret a displacement time graph

Materials: graph papers, pencil, ruler

1. Discuss and sketch the displacement-time graph for a body:
(a) whose displacement changes uniformly with time.
(b) at rest.
(c) whose rate of changes of displacement is not constant.
2. Analyse and interpret the displacemnt-time graph in 1(a), (b) and (c).
3. Compare your graphs with those of other groups in a class discussion.

In order to describe the displacement of a body, a reference point is considered.

The reference point is the point when the body is at zero displacement as shown in
Fig. 2.15. The body may be moving tow the left or right from the reference point.

-ve 0 +ve
Reference point
Fig. 2.15: Moving object

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 Mechanics

Let us consider a body moving in such a way that its displacement changes
uniformly with time. Depending on the direction taken, two graphs can be drawn
as shown in Fig. 2.16(a) and (b).

+ +

Ds
displacement (s)

displacement (s)
Dt
0 0
time (s) time (s)
Dt

Ds
- -
(a) A body moving forward at constant (b) A body moving reverse at constant velocity
velocity

Fig. 2.16: Displacement-time graphs for moving constant velocities objects

As we have seen already, the gradient Ds/Dt of a displacement-time graph gives

the velocity of the body. Thus, in Fig. 2.16(a), the body is moving forward at
constant velocity while in Fig. 2.16(b), the body is moving in the reverse (opposite
direction) at constant velocity.

Let us now sketch displacement-time graphs for a body at rest and that whose
rate of change of displacement with time (velocity) is not constant (Fig. 2.17).
Displacement
Displacement

Time Time

(a) Object at rest. (b) Displacement increases non-uniformly

with time.
Fig. 2.17: Displacement-time graphs

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 Mechanics

Displacement

Time

(c) Displacement decreases non-uniformly with time.

Fig. 2.17: Displacement-time graphs
In Fig. 2.17(a), the displacement does not change with time, hence the body
is at rest. In Fig 2.17(b), the gradient (velocity) is increasing hence the body is
accelerating. In Fig. 2.17(c), velocity (gradient) is decreasing hence the body is
decelerating.

(c) Speed-time graphs

Activity 2.13 To draw and interpret speed-time graphs

Materials: graph papers, pencil, ruler

Steps
1. Draw and interpret speed-time graphs for a body:
(a) at rest.
(b) moving with uniform and non –uniform speed.
(c) moving with increasing speed.

(i) Object at rest

At rest, the objet covers no distance since there is no movement. Therefore, the
speed of the object is zero as shown in Fig. 2.18.

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 Mechanics

speed m/s
speed = 0

0
time, s

Fig. 2.18: Speed-time graph for a body at rest

The gradient in a speed time graph gives us

Change in speed
= acceleration.
Change in time
In this case (when the object is stationary), the gradient is zero and so acceleration
is zero.

(ii) A body moving with uniform (constant) speed

Fig. 2.19 shows the motion of a body moving with the uniform speed.

v
Speed, (m/s)

0
time, (s)

Fig. 2.19: Speed-time graph for a body in uniform speed

Gradient = 0
Acceleration in this case is zero i.e
a = 0 m/s2
(iii) A body moving with non-uniform speed (body accelerating)
When a body moves with uniform acceleration, its speed changes by equal amounts
in equal interval time. The speed-time graph for a body whose speed changes
unformally is a straight line as shown in Fig. 2.20.

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 Mechanics

speed (m/s)
0
time (s)
Fig. 2.20 Speed-time graph

Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed u from the top of
a cliff which is s metres from the water level. See Fig. 2.21.
B

A S

Water level
Cliff
Sea

Fig. 2.21: A ball thrown upwards from a cliff

Taking the top of the cliff as the reference point and upwards as the positive
direction, the motion graph is as shown is Fig. 2.22
C

A
speed (m/s)

0
B time (s)

Fig. 2.22: Speed-time graph

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 Mechanics

The stone was thrown upwards and so it started either with some speed which
then started decreasing to zero at the maximum height. Then the stone started
dropping downwards, as its speed started increasing from zero. Notice that the
stone is now moving to opposite in the negative direction (downwards in this
case), (See Fig. 2.22).

Example 2.6
Fig. 2.23 shows a graph of speed against time for the motion of a car travelling from
Ruhengeri to Gitarama.
Determine:
(a) the acceleration of a car in the first 4 s.
(b) the distance travelled in the first 4 s.

35
30

25
Speed (m/s)

20

15

10

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
Fig. 2.23: Speed - time graph

Solution
change in speed ∆s 20 m/s
(a) Accelaration = = ∆t = = 5 m/s2
time taken 4s
1
(b) Distance travelled = Area under the graph = speed (m/s) × time (s)
2
1
= × 20 m/s× 4
2
= 40 m

Exercise 2.2
1. Sketch the following graphs.
(i) The speed-time graph for a body moving with uniform speed.
(ii) The distance-time graph for a body moving with uniform speed.

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(iii) The speed-time graph for a body moving with non-uniform (speed)
acceleration.
(iv) The speed-time graph for a body moving with non-uniform acceleration.
(v) The speed-time graph for a ball thrown upwards and then caught again.
2. Fig. 2.24 (a) shows the distance-time graph for body A while Fig. 2.24 (b)
shows the speed-time graph for body B.
Body A Body B

Speed (m/s)
M N P Q
Distance (m)

0 Time(s) 0 Time(s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.24: Distance-time graphs

Describe fully the motion of the bodies in the following regions:

(a) OM (b) MN (c) OP (d) PQ

(d) Velocity – time graphs

Activity 2.14 To draw and interpret a velocity-time graph

Materials: Graph papers, pencils, ruler

Steps
1. Brainstorm on what a velocity-time graphs is.
2. Suggest what the gradient of a velocity-time graphs represents.
3. Draw and interpret velocity-time graphs for a body:
(a) moving with a constant velocity.
(b) accelerating from rest uniformly.
(c) decelerating uniformly.
(d) moving with non-uniform acceleration.
4. Suggest what the area under a velocity-time graph represent.

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 Mechanics

In your discussion, you should have learnt that a velocity-time graph tells us
how the speed and direction of an object changes with time. Where there is no
change in direction, a velocity–time graph looks the same as a speed-time graph.
On a velocity – time graph, the gradient of the line is numerically equal to the
acceleration. The gradient tells us how much extra speed is gained every second.
From Activity 2.14, you should have obtained the following line graphs:

(i) A body moving at constant velocity

The velocity-time graph for a body moving at constant velocity is shown in
Fig.2.25.
velocity (m/s)

gradient = 0
B
C

O A time

Fig. 2.25:Velocity-time graph for a body at constant speed

(ii) A body moving with steady acceleration from rest

Consider a car that started from rest and increased its velocity regularly. Its
velocity-time graph is shown in Fig. 2.26.

B
velocity (m/s)

A
0 time (s)
Fig. 2.26:Velocity-time graph for uniform acceleration.

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The gradient of velocity time graph represents the acceleration i.e.

change in velocity (∆V)
gradient = = acceleration
time taken (∆t)
The rate of change of velocity (acceleration) is uniform, hence the graph is a
straight line.

velocity(m/s)
(iii) A body decelerating uniformly
Consider a car moving at a particular
velocity. If the brakes are applied such that
it decelerates uniformly to rest, its velocity
time-graph is as shown in Fig. 2.27 0 time (s)

Fig. 2.27: Velocity-time graphs for

uniform deceleration
(iv) A body moving with non-uniform acceleration
In some situations, acceleration is not uniform; it may be increasing or decreasing.
This can be represented by the graphs shown in Fig. 2.28 (a) and (b).
velocity (m/s)

velocity (m/s)

time (s) time(s)

(a): Increasing acceleration (b): Decreasing acceleration

Fig. 2.28:Motion with non-uniform acceleration.

When an object is thrown upwards, it describes a curve shown in Fig 2.27(b).
The graph is called trajectory.
A trajectory is the path /curve described by an object (projectile) moving through
air or space under the influence of forces such as gravity, upthrust and weight.

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Example 2.7

A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity u. Sketch its:

(a) speed-time graph.
(b) velocity-time graph for its motion up to the time it comes back
to its original position.

Solution

u
Speed m/s

2t1
u 0
t1 Time, t (s)

0 –u
t1 2t1
Time t
(a) Speed-time graph of the stone (b) Velocity-time graph of the stone

Fig. 2.29: Motion of the body under gravity

The time taken to reach the maximum height is t1.

The time taken by the body to fall back to its starting point is also t1.
The total time of flight is 2t1.

Example 2.8

Table 2.4 shows the data collected to study the motion of cylist.
Velocity m/s 0 3 6 6 6 6
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Table 2.3: Values of velocity and time

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(a) Plot a graph of velocity (y-axis) against time (x-axis).

(b) Use your graph to determine the acceleration of the cyclist in the first four
seconds
Solutions
(a)

A B
6
Velocity (m/s)

O
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)

Fig. 2.30: Velocity-time graph

(b) Acceleration = slope of the graph
Change in velocity
=
Change in time
(6 – 0) m/s 6 m/s
= =
(4 – 0) s 4s
= 1.5 m/s2

Exercise 2.3

1. Define the term acceleration.

2. A bus changes its speed from 180 m/s to rest in 10 s. Calculate the:
(a) deceleration of the bus
(b) displacement of the bus
3. (a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration from
10 m/s to 30 m/s in 20 s.
(b) Use the graph to find the acceleration of the car and the total distance travelled
by the car.

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4. Fig. 2.31 shows the velocity-time graph of a car. Use the graph to find

(a) acceleration of the 30

Velocity (m/s)
car.
20
(b) deceleration of the
car.
10
(c) total displacement of
the car.
0 10 20 30 Time (s)
Fig. 2.31: Velocity-time graph
5. The graph in Fig. 2.32 shows the motion of a body falling freely under gravity.
100
(a) Determine the values of Displacement (m)
displacement(s) at t = 1, 2, 3 75
and 4 s.
(b) Draw a graph of velocity(v) 50
against time (t).
(c) Use your graph in (b) to find the 25
value of gravitational acceleration.
0 1 2 3 4 Time (s)
Fig. 2.32: Displacement-time graph
6.
The sketches in Fig. 2.33 represent the motions of bodies in a straight line.
Match each graphs with appropriately description from the ones given.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
v v v v

0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t

(e) (f) (g)

v v v

0 t 0 t 0 t
Fig. 2.33: Motion graphs

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(a) Uniform acceleration of a body starting from rest.

(b)The body moves with constant velocity.
(c) Body decelerates uniformly, starting with finite positive velocity.
(d)Body accelerates from a velocity.
(e) A ball thrown to hit the ground and bounces back.
(f) Body at rest.
7. Fig. 2.34 shows the velocity-time graph for a motorcar during a short
drive.

60

50
Velocity (m/s)

40

30

20

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
time (s)
Fig. 2.34: Velocity-time graph
(a) Describe the motion of the car.
(c) Find the retardation in the interval 90 s-100 s.
8. Figure 2.35 shows velocity-time graph for a certain body.
Velocity (m/s)

30

20

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (s)
Fig. 2.35: Velocity-time graph
Find the acceleration at t = 10 seconds
9. Draw a graph of velocity against time for a car which starts with an initial
velocity of 20 m/s and accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s2 for 8 seconds, then
slows down to rest in 20 seconds.

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(a) How far does the car travel?

(b) What is the maximum velocity attained by the car?
(c) What is the retardation of the car as it comes to rest?

2.6 Acceleration due to gravity

Activity 2.15 To observe the effect of earth’s gravitational force

Materials: A tennis ball

Steps
1. Throw a tennis ball vertically upwards and catch it when it comes down.
2. Describe the motion of the ball in terms of variation of velocity with time.
3. Suggest a reason why the ball falls back to you.
4. Repeat the activity using other objects such as polystyrene balls or paper
balls. Consult your teacher if you have to use an object such as a stone.
Take care that you are not hit by the falling objects.
5. Compare and discuss your findings with other members in your class.

You may have noticed that when an object is thrown vertically upwards, it starts
with a certain speed which decreases as the object moves upwards. At some point
the speed of the object becomes zero and the object starts falling back to the earth.
If an object is dropped from the top of a building or a tree, it starts from rest (with
zero velocity) and its velocity increases as it falls.

These observations show that objects experience an acceleration towards the

earth as they fall. This acceleration due to the pull of the earth on the objects
is called acceleration due to gravity (g). All freely falling objects near the earth’s
surface are attracted towards the centre of the earth with this acceleration. The
acceleration is known as the acceleration of free fall i.e. when a body is just allowed
to fall freely in air.
Think about this

How can a parachutist land from the sky without getting

hurt yet we cannot jump from a roof-top safely?

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Determination of acceleration due to gravity (g)

Activity 2.16 To determine acceleration due to gravity

(Work in groups)
Materials: A string, pendulum bob, stand, stop watch, metre rule.
Steps

1. Assemble the apparatus as shown

clamp
in Fig. 2.36(a).
2. Displace the pendulum through θ θ
a small angle θ (i.e θ < 10°) and stand string
release it (Fig.2.36(b)).
3. Use a stop- watch to time 20
oscillations (complete cycles) of
the pendulum.
table
4. Repeat the activity a second time
and calculate the average time (a) (b)
for 20 oscillations. Fig. 2.36: Set-up
5. Repeat the process for at least six
different lengths.
6. Record your results in a table (see Table 2.5).

Length, l (m) Time for 20 Average time t for Periodic T2 (s2)

oscillations (s) 20 oscillations (s) time T (s)
t
trial 1 trial 2 t=
t1 + t2
T = 20
t1 t2 2
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10

Table 2.5: Time, distance and velocity values

7. Draw a graph of T2 against l.

8. Draw the line of best fit through the points. Determine the gradient, m of
the line.

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It can be shown that the periodic time, T of a simple pendulum of length l is given
by the equation

T = 2π l
g
4π2
Squaring both sides of the equation gives T 2 = g l
Comparing this equation with the general straight line equation, y = mx + c shows
that
T 2 = y, m = 4π , l = x and c = 0
2

g
Therefore, a graph of T 2 against l (Fig. 2.37) is a straight line with gradient m = 4π .
2

g
T 2 (s2)

∆T 2
Gradient, m =
∆l

l(m)
Fig. 2.37: Graph of time, T 2, against length, l.

From the gradient, we get g = 4π = 4π

2 2
.
m gradient
Using the results of your experiment, calculate the acceleration due to gravity
g using the above equation. Experiments have shown that g is approximately 9.8 m/s2 .
However, a more convenient value of 10 m/s2 is usually used in calculations.

Exercise 2.4

(Take acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface as 10 m/s2)

1. Define the term acceleration due to gravity.
2. Explain why object falls back to the earth’s surface when thrown upwards.
3. An object of mass 300 g is thrown upwards with initial velocity of 10 m/s. If the
acceleration due to gravity of the place is 9.8 m/s2, find the weight of the object.

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4. Describe a laboratory experiment by which you would measure the

acceleration due to gravity. Show how the acceleration is obtained from
your results.

Unit summary and new words

• Distance is the total length of the path travelled.
• Displacement is the shortest distance between two points in the direction
of motion.
• Speed is the distance moved by the body per unit time. i.e.

Speed = distance moved

time taken
• A body covering equal distances in unit time intervals is said to move with
uniform speed.
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. i.e.
change in displacement
Velocity = time taken
• Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a body at a specific moment in time.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. i.e.
change in velocity
Acceleration = change in time
• The gradient of a velocity-time graph represents acceleration.
• The area under a velocity-time graph represents displacement.
• The gradient of a displacement-time graph represents velocity.

Unit Test 2
(Where necessary take g = 10 m/s2)
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Distance (d) Velocity
(b) Displacement (e) acceleration
(c) Speed
2. Iragena and Hakizimana were discussing about velocity in their Physics class
before presenting their findings to the whole class. Which of the following

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is correct about uniform velocity.

A. the rate of change of acceleration with time is constant.
B. the rate of change of displacement with time is constant.
C. the rate of change of velocity with time is constant.
D. the rate of change of distance with time is constant
3. A cyclist travelling at a uniform acceleration of 2.5 m/s2 passes through
two points P and Q in a straight line. Her speed at point P is 20 m/s and
the distance between the points is 100 m. Calculate her speed at point Q.
4. A car increases its speed steadily from 8.0 m/s to 30 m/s in 10 s. How far
does it travel in this time?
6. Ntwali runs 100 m race in 12.0 s. Find his average velocity.
7. A racing cyclist starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity of
20 m/s in 4 s.
(a) What is the acceleration of the cyclist?
(b) What is the distance covered in the 4 s?
8. Uwase threw a ball vertically upwards while playing in the school field.
Sketch:
(a) a speed-time graph for the motion of the ball.
(b) a velocity-time graph for the motion of the ball.
9. Which one of the following motion-time graphs and acceleration-time
graphs represents a body moving with uniform acceleration from rest? (Fig.
2.38).

(a) (b) (c)

v a a

t t t
(d) (e) (f)
a v s

t t t
Fig. 2.38: Motion-time graphs

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10. The velocity-time graph in Fig. 2.39 shows the movement of a toy car on
a straight path. Use the information to find:
Velocity
(m/s)

20

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Time (s)

–20

Fig. 2.39: Velocity-time graph

(a) the initial acceleration of the car.

(b) the total time the car was not moving.
(c) the total distance travelled by the car.
(d) the displacement of the car from the starting point.
11. A lift carrying people starts from the third floor and stops on the sixth
floor of a building after 20 s. Sketch a velocity-time graph of the motion
of the lift. Show how you would use your sketch to determine the distance
between the third and the sixth floor of the building.
12. Fig. 2.40 shows the motion of a motorcyclist on a straight road. Use the
information on the graph to answer the following questions.
Velocity
40
(m/s)
B C
30

20
F
10

A D E
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Time (s)
Fig. 2.40: Graph of velocity against time

(a) In which section of the graph was the cyclist accelerating most rapidly?
Explain how you would determine this acceleration.
(b) Calculate the retardation of the motorcyclist from the graph.
(c) Which part of the graph shows that the motorcyclist was stationary
and for how long?

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(d) Use the graph to find the distance travelled by the motorcyclist before
stopping.
13. Fig. 2.41 represents the velocity-time graph of a body during a period of
30 s.

10
Velocity, (m/s)

10 20 30 Time(s)
Fig. 2.41: Graph of velocity against time

(a) Use the equations of motion to find the displacement of the body in
30 s.
(b) Use the graph to determine the displacement of the body in 30 s.
(c) What is the retardation of the body?
14. Fig. 2.42 shows a displacement-time graph of the motion of a body over a
period of 14 s. Use the graph to determine:

50

40
Displacement (m)

30

20

10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)

Fig. 2.42: Displacement-time graph

(a) the velocity when t = 3 s and t = 7 s.

(b) the acceleration of the body between 3 s and 7 s.
(c) the time, in seconds, the body was stationary.

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UNIT 3 Force (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to define, explain and describe forces
and their effects.

Unit outlines
• Definition of force.
• Types of forces and difference between contact and non-contact forces.
• Representation of forces using vector diagrams.
• Addition of parallel and non-parallel forces.

3.1 Definition of force

In our daily lives, it is common to see things being pushed or pulled. Activity 3.1
gives us some of the instances where things are either being pulled or pushed.

Activity 3.1
To demonstrate the effects of force on a body

Materials
• Charts • A stone
• Rope

Steps
1. Push a table in your classroom
slightly to displace it. Take care not
to damage the legs of the table due to
dragging.
2. Tie a stone or brick using a rope and
pull it to other positions. (Take care
not to be hurt by the stone). Fig. 3.1 : Pushing a table

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3. Now, study the pictures shown in Fig 3.2 and discuss with your class partner
what is happening in each of them.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.2 : Pushing or pulling objects

4. TWhere a push or a pull is occurring.

5. List other examples where a push or a pull occurs in our daily lives.

From your discussion in Activity 3.2, you should have found that in Fig. 3.2 (a) a
donkey is pulling a cart, 3.2(b) a car is being pushed to start, Fig. 3.2(c) a man is
pushing a wheel chair and in Fig. 3.2(d), a woman is pushing a supermarket trolley.
These activities and many more involve either pushing or pulling. In physics, a
pull or a push is called a force.
The SI unit of force is the newton (N), named after the famous physicist Sir Isaac
Newton (1642 –1727).
Force is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude
is represented by a straight line while the direction is shown using an arrow as
shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Force exerted to the right

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3.2 Types of forces

(a) Contact forces
Contact forces are those forces that act at the point of contact between two objects,
in contrast to body forces. Examples of contact forces are frictional force, tension,
normal action reaction force, air resitence and upthrust.
(i) Friction force

Activity 3.2
To demonstrate friction in solids

Materials
• Wooden block • A light spring
Steps
1. Place the wooden block with the spring attached on the bench.
2. Pull a wooden block using a light spring slowly and then faster across the
bench. (Fig. 3.4). Observe what happens.
3. Discuss the observations made in step 2.
block of wood pull

frictional
force

Fig. 3.4: Direction of frictional force

4. Place a pencil on the horizontal bench and give it a slight push. Observe and
explain what happens.

In Activity 3.2, you should have noted that the spring extends without the wooden
block moving and then it starts to move. When the pencil is given a slight push,
it moves but finally comes to a stop.
In the first case, there is a force preventing the stationary block of wood from
moving. In the second case, there is a force compelling the moving pencil to stop.
These forces are called frictional forces. The force of friction exists whenever two
bodies which are in contact, move relative to one another. If the two bodies are
solids, the force is called solid frictional force. It does not matter which body is
in motion.

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 Mechanics

Exercise 3.1
Do a research from internet and reference books on how to demonstrate friction
in fluids i.e in liquids and gases.

(ii) Tension force

Activity 3.3 To demonstrate the existence of tension force in

strings

Materials:
• A string • A pail with water
Steps
1. Hold one end of a string and your friend the other end.
2. Let both of you pull the ends away from each other as shown in Figure 3.5.
What happens to the string?

String

Fig. 3.5: Pulling a string

3. Discuss your observations in step 2 with your Rigid support

class partner.
4. Tie a string to the pail and hang it as shown in
Figure 3.6. Tension
5. Discuss with your class partner any forces
acting on the string and the pail in fig 3.5.
6. Sketch a diagram to show the direction in
which the forces in step 2 and 4 are acting.
7. Compare your findings in step 5 and 6 with Pull of gravity
those of other pairs in the class. Fig. 3.6: Pail with water

In step 2, you should have felt that the string pulls inwards with a force. This force
that develops in the string, cable or rope when it is being pulled tightly by forces
acting from opposite end is called tension force.

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The tension force can be shown on a force diagram by an arrow pointing inwards
along the string marked with the letter, T. (Fig. 3.7)

T T

Fig. 3.7: Showing tension force

In step 5, you should have found that there T

are two forces acting on the setup; Tension T
force, which act in the string upwards and
downwards and weight (pull of gravity) which
act from the centre of the pail downwards.
(See Fig. 3.8).

Pull of gravity
Fig. 3.8 : Tension force

Note: We will learn more on how to represent forces using vector

diagram later in this unit.

Exercise 3.2
Do a research from internet and reference books on why it is important to have
an idea of tension force on materials while constructing bridges and houses.

(ii) Action and reaction forces

Activity 3.4 To demonstrate action and reaction forces

Materials:
• A rigid support • Two identical spring balances

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 Mechanics

Steps
1. Hook one end of a spring balance A to a rigid support e.g a wall. Pull the
other end until the spring shows a reading (see Fig 3.9(a)).
2. Discuss with your partner what happens to the rigid support.
3. Repeat the activity by using a similar spring B instead of a rigid support.
4. Pull the two springs until the reading on spring A is the same as before
(see fig 3.9(b)). What reading is shown by spring B?

Spring A
Pull
Rigid support

(a)

Pull Spring A Spring B Pull

(b)
Fig. 3.9: To demonstrate action and reaction forces

From activity 3.4, you should have noted that the reading of spring A is the same
as of spring B. This implies that there are two equal forces which are acting in
opposite directions in the two springs.
Similarly, when spring A pulled the rigid support, the support also pulled it with
an equal and opposite force. These two equal forces that act in opposite directions
are called action and reaction force.
Another example that shows action and reaction force is when a book is placed on
a table. The weight of the book provides action force while the table supporting
the book provides reaction (Fig. 3.10)
Reaction
Table

Book

Action

Fig. 3.10: A book on a table

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 Mechanics

Activity 3.5
To demonstrate existence of normal reaction force

Materials
• A bench • A wooden block
Steps
1. Press the bench downwards with your thumb (Fig. 3.11). What do you feel?
Suggest the kind of force acting on your thumb.

Fig 3.11: Thumb pressing on a table

2. Place a wooden block on the bench. Suggest the forces that are acting on the
wooden block.
3. Lift one side of the bench top upwards at an angle Ɵ. Ensure that the wooden
block does not fall down.(see fig 3.12)
Bench top

Wooden block

Fig 3.12: Wooden block at an angle

4. Identify the forces that are acting on the block of wood in step 3.

In step 1, you must have felt the bench pressing upwards against your thumb. The
force you feel acting on your thumb by the table is called reaction force and the
one acted by the thumb on the table is called action force.
This activity has shown that the reaction and action forces are always perpendicular
(normal) to the surface of the body exerting the reaction (Fig 3.13)

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Normal reaction

Normal action
Fig. 3.13: Normal reaction and action perpendicular to the surface

Normal reaction and action also acts on the wooden block resting on the bar
(step 2).
The force due to the block is called the action force, while that due to the table
is called normal reaction force. Since the block is at rest the two forces must be
equal though acting in opposite directions. (Fig. 3.14).
Normal reaction
Wooden block

Table
Action

Fig. 3.14: Action and reaction forces

The forces that are acting on a wooden block when the bench top is lifted at an
angle Ɵ are shown in Fig 3.15.
Normal reaction

n
ctio
Fri
llel Centre dot (•)
p ara
e
r c e an
Fo the pl
to
Weight Action
Ɵ

Fig 3.15: Forces acting on a wooden block at an angle

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 Mechanics

Note: The normal action force is the component of weight in an inclined

body.

Exercise 3.3
Give explanation to the following observations:
(a) A balloon will start moving when the air inside it is released.
(b) A garden sprinkler starts rotating immediately the water starts to jet out of
nozzles.
(c) When a gun is fired, the holder shakes as the gun tends to move
backwards(recoil).

(iii) Air resistance (Friction due to air)

Activity 3.6
To demonstrate the existence of air resistance

Materials
• An umbrella • A stopwatch
Steps
1. Run with an open umbrella as shown in Fig. 3.16 (a). What do you observe?
2. Record the time you take to move a given distance.
3. Repeat the activity, but this time with the umbrella closed as shown in
Fig. 3.16 (b). Note the time taken to move the same distance.
4. Compare the time obtained in steps 2 and 3. What do you notice? Explain to
your colleague in class.

(a) Umbrella opened (b) Umbrella closed

Fig. 3.16: Friction due to air

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From activity 3.6, you should have noted that the time taken is more with
open umbrella than the closed one. This shows that air offers hindrance to the
movement. This hindrance is due to air resistance, also referred to friction due to
air). Frictional force in fluid (liquids and gases) is called viscous drag.

Upthrust

Activity 3.7 To demonstrate upthrust force

Materials
• resort stand • a spring balance
• metre rule • beaker with water
• a solid mass.

Steps
1. Suspend a solid in air using a spring balance (Fig 3.17(a). Note its weight.
2. Push the solid upwards gradually with your hand (Fig 3.17(b).What happens
to the reading of the balance? Explain.
3. Release the solid and submerge it in a fluid such as water as shown in
Fig 3.17(c). What is the weight of the solid? Note it down.

Water

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.17: To demonstrate upthrust force

4. Compare the weight of the solid? Note it down. Suggest the reason for your
observation.

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In Activity 3.7, you must have noted that the pointer of the spring balance moves
upwards in both cases. However, the pointer moves upwards in step 3 due to
upward force in water which acts from below the solid submerged in it. This
upward force due to a fluid is called upthrust.

Exercise 3.4

Do a research on the importance of upthrust force to:

1. Divers and some animals e.g crocodiles.
2. Ship industry.

(b) Non-contact forces

A non-contact forces is a force applied to an object by another body that is not in
direct contact with it. Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational, electrostatic
and magnetic forces.

(i) Gravitational force

Activity 3.8 To demonstrate gravitational force

Material
• A ball

Steps
1. Hold a ball above the ground and release it. What happens to the ball?
2. Repeat step 1 but this time throw the ball upwards in the air as far as you can
(do it in the field). Observe and describe the motion of the ball.
3. Discuss what made the ball to behave the way it did in steps 1 and 2.

In this activity, you should have noticed that when the ball is released, it moves
down, hits the ground and eventually comes to rest. When it was thrown upwards,
the ball moves up, stops momentarily and comes down.
Sir Isaac Newton made a similar observation as in step 1. He observed an apple
falling from a tree and wondered why this was so (see Fig 3.18).

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Fig. 3.18: A falling apple

After many experiments, Newton concluded that the apple he saw falling from
a tree was attracted downwards by a force in the earth. He called this force of
attraction gravitational force or force of gravity. The force of gravity pulls bodies
towards the centre of the earth, as observed in activity 3.18 above.
Fig 3.19 shows how bodies are attracted by gravitational force towards centre of
the earth.

force of
gravity
mass
force of
gravity
earth

mass
Fig. 3.19: Force of gravity pulls bodies towards the centre of the earth

Exercise 3.5
Do a research from Internet and reference books on what causes tides in oceans.

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(ii) Electrostatic force

Activity 3.9 To demonstrate electrostatic force

Materials

• Plastic ruler/pen • Dry piece of cloth

• Piece of paper

Steps

1. Rub a plastic ruler against a dry piece of cloth. Suggest a reason why we do
so.
2. Bring the plastic ruler close to small pieces of paper (Fig 3.20). What happens
to the pieces of paper? Explain.
3. Discuss with your colleagues in class your observation in step 2.

Fig. 3.20: Ruler pulling up a paper

You must have noticed that the pieces of paper were attracted towards the ruler in
step 2 in Activity 3.9. The force of attraction or repulsion between static charges
is called electrostatic force.
Electrostatic force is created when the plastic ruler was rubbed against a dry piece
of cloth. We will learn more about electrostatic in Unit 11 of this book.

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(iii) Magnetic force

Activity 3.10 To investigate repulsion and attraction effects of a

magnetic force

Materials
• 2 bar magnet • A thread
• Iron rod
Steps
1. Suspend a bar magnet from a support using a light thread. Allow the bar
magnet to swing freely until it comes to rest.
2. Bring a second bar magnet near it (Fig 3.21). What do you observe? Explain
your observations.

(a) Repulsion (b) Attraction

Fig 3.21: Behaviour of two poles of bar magnets brought near one another

3. Repeat step 1 and 2 using a bar magnet and iron rod. What do you observe?
Explain your observations.

In Activity 3.10, you must have observed that when like poles of the suspended
magnet and the other magnet are near each other, the suspended magnet is repelled
(Fig 3.21(a). However, when or unlike pole or iron rod are brought close the
suspended magnet, they are attracted (Fig 3.21(b)). The repulsion and attraction
between magnets is called magnetic force. Magnetic forces also exists between
magnets and other materials such as iron rod. Such materials with magnetic force
are called magnetic materials.

3.3 Effects of forces

The effect of a force depends on the size, nature, how and where the force is
applied. The following activities illustrate the effect of forces on bodies.

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Activity 3.11 To demonstrate the effect of a force on an object at

rest or in motion

Materials
a ball
Steps
1. Kick the ball from its resting position. What do you observe? Explain your
observation.
2. Identify the effects of forces shown in Fig. 3.22(a) and (b).

(a) Kicking a ball (b) Catching a moving ball

Fig. 3.22: Forces changing state

A force can make a body at rest to start moving (Fig 3.22(a)) or a moving body to
come to rest (Fig. 3.22(b)). It can also change the direction of motion of a body.
Therefore, force can change the state of motion of a body.

Activity 3.12 To demonstrate the effect of a force on the shape of

an object

Materials
a ball

Steps

1. Sit on the ball and let your class partner observe what happens to the ball.
2. Let your class partner also sit on the ball. What do you observe. Discuss?
3. Identify the effects of forces shown in Fig. 3.23 (a) and (b).

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(a) Cars colliding. (b) A girl sitting on a balloon.

Fig. 3.23: Forces changing shape
4. Discuss other cases where the effects you have observed in step 1 are also
experienced.

A force can distort or change the shape of an object. For example, stretching a
rubber band or a spring when compressed by a force and squeezing a balloon.
Clay and plasticine are also other examples of substances whose shapes change
easily when a force acts on them.
A force due to an earthquake can also cause massive destruction such as death of
people and animals. It can also cause land deformation which leads to soil erosion
and consequently contribute to pollution.

Plant more trees and plough across the farm to minimise on soil erosion.

Activity 3.13 To show that force produces a turning effect on an

object

Materials
• A seesaw • A steering wheel
Steps
1. With your partner, try to balance on a seesaw (Fig. 3.24(a)). Now try to lift
your partner on the seesaw. What do you observe?
2. Observe the activity in Fig. 3.24 (b).

(a) Seesaw (b) A steering wheel

Fig. 3.24: Forces causing turning and rotation

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3. Discuss the effects of force shown in Fig. 3.24(b).

From activity 3.13, we notice that, forces when suitably applied can make a body
to turn about a point or cause a rotation. See Fig. 3.24(b).

Activity 3.14
To demonstrate tear and wear as caused by a force

Materials
• Different tyres
Steps
1. Take a close look at different tyres of vehicles within the school compound
or roadside. What can you comment about their treads? Suggest a reason.
2. Now, compare and discuss the state and condition of the tyres shown in
Fig. 3.25.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.25: Conditions of tyres

3. Name the effect of the force demonstrated in Fig 3.25 (b).

From Fig. 3.25, tyre (a) has its treads still in good condition. The tyre in (b) has
its treads worn out. The tyres wear and sometimes tear because of friction between
the road and the tyre when in use. This shows that, forces can cause wear and tear.

In summary, the following are the effects of forces:

• Force can cause change in the state of motion of a body, i.e. force can start,
stop, increase or reduce motion and change the direction of a body in motion.
• Force can change the shape of a body i.e. force can distort, stretch or compress
a body.
• Force can cause turning effect. Examples are a seesaw and a beam balance.
• Force can cause rotation in the bodies e.g a steering wheel.
• Force can cause heating effect, i.e. frictional force cause heating, e.g. lighting
a matchstick.
• Frictional force causes noise when rough surfaces are rubbed together.

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3.4 Representation of forces using vector diagrams

Activity 3.15 To demonstrate representation of force

Material
• Marbles
Steps
1. Arrange the marbles on top of your desk in a straight line (Fig. 3.26).

Fig. 3.26: Movement of marbles

2. Give one marble a slight push toward others and observe what happens.
3. What is your observations? suggest how forces are represented.

From Activity 3.15, you should have observed that the force on the marble made
others to start moving in a particular direction.
Force is a vector quantity, that is, it has both magnitude (size) and direction. A
vector is normally represented by a line with an arrow head ( ). The length
of the line represents the magnitude and the arrow head shows the direction. We
therefore need a way of representing both magnitude and direction on a diagram
in order to represent forces.
A diagram showing all the forces acting on a body in a certain situation is called
a free body diagram or simply a vector diagram. A free body diagram shows only
the force acting on the object under consideration, not those acting on other
objects. Fig. 3.27 shows forces acting on a body.

v v, is the viscous drag of the liquid.

w, is the weight of the object.
u, is the upthrust in the liquid.
w u

Fig. 3.27: A moving object in a liquid

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Fig. 3.28 shows a body moving toward right on a rough surface.

N
Motion
N is the normal reaction.
Fs
Fa Fa is the applied force.
Fs is the friction force.
A A is the action force or (weight).
Fig. 3.28: Normal, applied force and friction force
Fig. 3.29 shows a person pushing a wheelbarrow.

P D

W
Fig. 3.29: Shows a wheelbarrow being pushed towards left

R is the reaction force of earth on the wheelbarrow. This force acts at right angle
(or normally) to the ground. It is also referred to as the normal reaction force.
P is the forward force exerted by the worker on wheelbarrow.
W is the pull of earth on wheelbarrow (its weight).
D is the drag force acting on the wheelbarrow.

3.6 Weight and mass

Activity 3.16 To determine the weight of an object using a spring

balance

Materials
• Spring balance
Steps
1. Study the spring balance provided. What does it measure?

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2. Identify the units labelled on the spring balance. Which units do you think
are used to measure weight?
3. Tie a small stone with a string and suspend it on a spring balance. What is
the reading on the spring balance?

Weight is the measure of gravitational pull on an object. It always act from the
centre of a body downwards in the direction of gravitational acceleration. The SI
unit of weight is newton (N).
Weight is measured using a spring balance (See Fig. 3.30)

Fig 3.30: A spring balance

Weight and mass are related. Do you remember what we learnt on mass in unit
1 of this book? Remind your class partner.
Relationship between mass and weight

Activity 3.17
To differentiate between mass and weight

Material: spring balance

1. Look at the graduations of the spring balance provided to you. Deduce the
relationship between the two units (i.e Newton and grams).
2. In your group, find out 1 kg is equivalent to how many newton (N).
3. Write down an expression relating weight and mass.
4. List and discuss five differences between mass and weight.
5. Compare and discuss your findings with other pairs in your class.

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In your discussion, you should have come up with the following relationship
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
w = mg
Hence,
Weight (w)
= gravitational field strength (g) abbreviated as w = g
Mass (m) m

w = mg or m = w
g
Experimentally it has been shown that the earth pulls a mass of 1 kg with a force of
9.8 N/kg. However a convenient rounded up value of 10 N/kg is commonly used.
Gravitational field strength (g) = Force (N) = 10 N
Mass (kg) 1 kg
g = 10 N/kg

Differences between mass and weight

Table 3.1 shows the main differences between mass and weight.

Mass Weight
Quantity of matter in a body. Pull of gravity on a body.
SI unit is kilogram (kg). SI unit is newton (N).
Constant everywhere. Changes from place to place.
Scalar quantity. Vector quantity.
Measured using a beam balance. Measured using a spring balance.
Table 3.1: Differences between mass and weight

Example 3.1
A van of mass 2500 kg is authorised to carry 14 passengers. If the average mass
per passenger is 50 kg, calculate the:
(a) weight of the van.
(b) weight of all passengers.
(c) total weight of the van and the passengers.

Solution
(a) w = mg (b) w = mg = (50 × 14) Kg × 10 N/Kg
w = 2 500 kg × 10 N/kg = 7 000 N
= 25 000 N
(c) w = (25 000 + 7 000) N
= 32 000 N

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Exercise 3.6

1. Define a vector quantity. Give two examples.

2. Distinguish between mass and weight.
3. Calculate the weight of the following. (Take g = 10 N/kg).
(a) 300 g mass of water.
(b) 700 kg mass of sand.
(c) 0.05 mg mass of wool.
4. A metal bob of mass 20 g is suspended using a light thread. Calculate the
tension developed in the thread. Take g = 10 N/kg

3.6 Balanced and unbalanced forces

Activity 3.18 To demonstrate balanced and unbalanced force in a

tug of war

Material
• A rope • 5 very strong boys
• 5 very small boys

Step
1. Let the 5 very strong boys pull a rope on one end and 5 small boys pull on
the other end.
2. Observe and explain what happens.
3. Suppose the boys on both sides are of equal strength. What would you
observe?

From Activity 3.18, you should have noticed that the rope moves to the side
with the stronger boys ones who applied a greater force than the weak ones. The
pulling forces are said to be unbalanced.

Incase the two teams had equal strength or force, the rope will stay in the same
place. The pulling force applied is said to be balanced or at equilibrium.
Similarly, consider the following:

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1. A book is placed on a table top as shown in Fig. 3.31. The gravity pulls the
book vertically downward while the table support the book with a force
acting vertically upwards.
Reaction
Table

Book

Action
Fig. 3.31: Gravity pull downward on the book

Since the two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions,
they balance each other. The book is said to be in equilibrium. There is no
unbalanced force acting on the book and therefore the book maintains the
state of rest. Also, there is no change in motion.
2. If you compete in arm wrestling competition with someone who is just
as strong as you are, and both of you are pushing as hard as you can,
your arms stay in the same place. This is an example of balanced forces.
The force exerted by both of you are equal, but are acting in opposite
directions. The resulting force is zero hence there is no change in motion.
See Fig. 3.32.

Fig. 3.32: Arm wrestling

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If one of the forces is greater than the other, motion occurs towards the weaker
forces. The forces are said to be unbalanced.

3.7 Addition of parallel and non-parallel forces

Parallel forces

Activity 3.19 To demonstrate parallel forces

• A block of wood • Two identical springs

Steps
1. Place a block of wood on a rough surface.
2. Pull the block using a string attached to a spring balance until the block just
starts to move Fig. 3.33(a). Record the value of the force applied.
3. Repeat the activity but use two identical springs parallel to each other.
(Fig.3.33(b)). Record the force applied in each of the springs.

wooden
block

(a) Pulling a block using one spring

wooden
block

(b) Pulling a block using two springs

Fig. 3.33: Measuring force using spring balance

4. Compare the value of the forces applied in steps 2 and 3. Explain the
difference if any.

You should have observed that the two spring pulling together record the same
value. This value is half of that recorded by the single spring.

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Let the force applied by the single spring A values = y

Force applied by each one of the two spring = x
Therefore, x + x = y
2x = y
y
x=2
When several parallel forces act together on the same body in the same direction
the combined or resultant force can be added by the ordinary rules of arithmetic.

If the Activity 3.19 is repeated with two equal forces pulling the wooden block at
the same time but in opposite direction, one force cancels or counters the other
one. If the force in one direction is taken as positive, then the force in the other
direction is taken as negative.

When a number of parallel forces act on a single body, the resultant

force acting on the body can be found by adding all the forces taking
considerations of the directions (+ or –).

Example 3.2
Two oxen are pulling a heavy block along a floor in the same direction. One exerts
a horizontal force of 800 N and the other a force of 1000 N. If the frictional force
between the crate and the floor is 430 N.
(a) Draw the force diagram.
(b) Find the total horizontal force in (a) above.
(c) Find the direction of the force in (a) above.
Solution
(a)

800 N
430 N 1000 N

Fig. 3.34: Addition of parallel forces

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(b) We shall chose the forward direction as positive since the frictional force
opposes motion i.e acts backwards in the negative direction.
Force exerted by the oxen = 800 N + 1000 N
Force exerted by friction = -430 N
The total force on the crate = 800 + 1000 – 430 N
= 1370 N
The resultant force on the crate = 1370 N
(c) Since the force is positive its direction is forward.

Exercise 3.7

1. Name all the forces acting on the following:

(a) A book resting on a table.
(b) A book which is being pushed across a flat rough table by a student’s
finger.
(c) A stone resting on a rough sloping board.
(d) A box supported on a tall thin pillar.
2. Draw force diagrams for the cases in question 1.
3. Find the resultant of the following sets of forces:
(a) A force of 35 N backwards and a force of 35 N forward.
(b) A force of 120 N upwards and a weight of 150 N.
(c) A force of 29 N upward, a force of 34 N upward, and a force of 50 N
downwards.

Non-parallel forces

Activity 3.20
To demonstrate non-parallel forces

Materials
• A ring
• 3 ropes/strings

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Steps
1. Tie three ropes at different points on the ring as shown in Fig 3.35.

Rope

Ring

Fig. 3.35: Strings tied to a ring

2. Let three of you pull each rope in different directions. What do you observe?
Explain.

When one one rope is pulled by a greater force than the rest, the other two, move
towards its direction. However, when the ropes are pulled with the same force,
neither of you moved to any particular direction since the forces are balanced.
These three forces in this activity acting on the ring in different directions. Such
forces are called non-parallel forces.

Addition of non-parallel forces

Activity 3.21
To illustrate addition of non-parallel forces

Materials
• 3 - identical spring balances • A ring
• Plane paper • 3 - heavy wooden blocks
Part A
1. Cover the top of a table with a plane paper.
2. Hook the springs balances to wooden blocks.
3. Hook the springs to the ring by means of loose loops of the string as shown
in Fig 3.36.

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Wooden block

A
String A
B

O String B

String C
C

Wooden block

Fig. 3.36: Addition of non-parallel forces

4. Move the wooden blocks outwards until each spring balance is showing
appreciable reading. Record the readings of the spring balances.
5. Tap the ring and the strings so as to be in their true position. Is the ring
balanced? Give a reason. Mark the centre of the ring as point O.
6. Draw a straight line along each string. Mark points A, B and C along the
lines representing the respective strings as shown in Fig. 3.36.

From Activity 3.21 part A, the ring is observed to be in equilibrium i.e. state of
balance. Therefore, the total force acting upon it must be zero. This can be shown
by adding together the forces exerted by spring balances A, B and C as shown
in part B below.
Part B
Steps
1. Remove the set ups.
2. Produce the lines through A, B and C inwards to meet at O.
3. Using a suitable scale, mark off distances OA, OB and OC accurately and
proportional to the readings you recorded for the respective springs.

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4. Construct a parallelogram OBRA and draw the diagonal OR (see Fig 3.37).
5. Find the length OR and compare it with the length OC. What can you say about
forces OC and OR. What is the relationship between Forces OA, OC and OR.
The magnitude force OR and OC are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
(Fig. 3.37).
R

C
Fig. 3.37: Construction of parallelogram

This force OR represent the resultant force exerted by OA and OB. This method
of obtaining the resultant of two forces is called the parallelogram law method
which says that;
If two forces are represented in magnitude and direction by two sides OA and
OB of the parallelogram OARB, then the resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal OR.

Example 3.3
A wooden crate is pulled horizontally by two forces of 250 N and 150 N at an
angle of 70º to each other. (Fig. 3.38). Determine the resultant force on the box.

150 N

70º

250 N
Fig. 3.38: Wooden crate being pulled by two forces

Solution
Using a scale of 1.0 cm represent 50 N
Draw a line OA to represent 250 N
Draw a line OB to represent 150 N

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Let O be the common point and the angle between the two lines be equal to 70º
A

O OA = 5.0 cm
70º OB = 3.0 cm

B Parallelogram of forces acting on a crate

Fig 3.39:
Construct the parallelogram OARB using these lines OA and OB as adjacent
sides and measure the diagonal OR = 6.9 cm.
Using the scale of 1.0 cm = 50 N, we find the resultant force is 345 N.

NB: When the angle between two forces is very close to 0º or close to
180º, the parallelogram of forces folds down into a flattened form lying
almost along a single straight line. The parallelogram rule of addition
of slanting forces then gives the same result as the simple addition rule
for parallel forces.

Equilibrium of three non-parallel forces

Consider a balloon suspended from a rigid support (Fig. 3.40).

W
Fig. 3.40: Suspended balloon

Supposing the wind exerts a horizontal force on the balloon. The balloon moves
and stops with the string making an angle with the vertical line. The balloon is

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in equilibrium under the force due to the wind, the force due to the ball’s own
weight, and the tension in the string.

The resultant of the wind force and the weight in the string is therefore equal
and opposite to the tension in the string. Hence, the net resultant force is equal
to zero at equilibrium.
A O

Ɵ Ɵ
T
Resultant of wind Weight
force and weight
Wind force
R Force due to wind B
W
Fig. 3.41: Determining resultant force of suspended balloon

The resultant force is known to act in the same straight line as the tension in the
string.

Exercise 3.8
1. State the parallelogram law.
2. Explain the term equilibrium.
3. A box is moving constantly across a rough horizontal floor, pulled by two
horizontal ropes. One of the ropes has a tension of 150 N and makes an
angle 20º with the direction of motion of the box. The other rope with a
tension force of 90 N makes an angle 40º with the direction of motion of the
box.
(a) Sketch the arrangement.
(b) By scale drawing find the resultant forward force acting on the box.
(c) Give the backward force on the box due to friction.

Unit summary and new words

• A force is a push or a pull. The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
• Unbalanced forces cause acceleration.
• Frictional force is that force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces
in contact with one another.

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• Weight is the gravitational pull in an object.

• A force can cause:
- Change in the state of motion of a body.
- Change of the shape of a body.
- Turning effect on a body.
- Wear and tear on a body.
• Types of forces include friction, tension, pull of gravity(weight), normal
reaction force, air resistant, upthrust, action and reaction force, gravitational,
magnetic and electric force.
• Contact force include tension, pull of gravity(weight), action and reaction
force, air resistance etc.
• Non-contact force includes gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic forces.
• Force is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction. It is normally
represented by a line with an arrow ( ).
• Weight is measured using a spring balance.
• Two or more forces are said to be balanced if they are equal in magnitude and
act in opposite direction.

Unit Test 3
1. Define force and state its SI unit.
2. State three types of contact and non-contact forces.
3. Name the instrument which is used to measure weight.
4. A first aid kit box used at a fire accident scene has a weight of 2 500 N. What
is its mass?
5. The mass, weight and density of chalk is not changed by grinding it into
powder, but air friction is greater when the powder falls towards the ground.
Explain.
6. Calculate the weight of the following. (Take g = 10N/kg.)
(a) 300 g mass of water
(b) 700 kg mass of sand
(c) 0.5 mg mass of wool
7. A metal bob of mass 20 g is suspended using a light thread. Calculate the
tension developed in the thread. (Take g = 10N/kg.)

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8. What effect of a force is shown in Fig. 3.42?

Fig. 3.42: Effect of force on a body

9. What is frictional force?

10. Find the resultant of the following forces:
(a) 150 N due East and 200 N due West.
(b) 450 N due North and 250 N due South.
11. State four differences between mass and weight.
12. Moon’s gravitational pull is 16 of the earth’s gravitational pull. Calculate the
weight of a body whose mass is 40 kg on:
(a) the moon’s surface.
(b) the earth’s surface.
13. Three strings are attached to a small metal ring. Two of the strings make an
angle of 70º and each is pulled with a force of 7 N, find the force that must
be applied to the third string to keep the string stationary.
14. A body is acted upon by two forces each of magnitude 50 N. Find the
magnitude of the resultant force on the body when the angle between the
two forces is:
(a) 0º (b) 45º (c) 90º
(d) 135º (e) 180º

Drive and observe all traffic rules carefully. Careless driving and
breaking of traffic rules can cause death!

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UNIT 4 Newton's Laws of Motion (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to state Newton’s laws to describe the
effects of forces on objects.

Unit Outline
• Relationship between mass and inertia.
• Newton's First law (law of inertia).
• Newton's Second law (Impulse) F = ma.
• Newton's Third law (Principle of action and reaction).
• Newton's law of universal gravitation.
• Weight = mg.
• Application of Newton's law of motion on frictionless horizontal surface.
• Determination of acceleration due to gravity.

Introduction
You may have observed the following: passengers make an abrupt forward
movement when emergency brakes of a car are applied, a group of people are
able to push a stalled car to a high speed faster than one person, etc. These
observations and similar ones are explained by Newton’s laws of motion. In this
unit, we shall discuss these laws of motion and their applications.
4.1 Newton's first law of motion
Activity 4.1
To demonstrate effect of inertia

Discuss in pairs and suggest what causes the following observations to take place:
1. A passenger lurches backwards when a bus initially at rest suddenly starts
moving forward.
2. When a bus is moving very fast and suddenly negotiates a corner in one
direction, the passengers lurches to the opposite side.
3. If the brakes of a fast moving bus are applied suddenly, the passengers lurch
forward.

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From the observation in Activity 4.1, we see that the body of the passenger is
always tending to resist any action taken by the bus e.g when the bus wants to
move, the body wants to remain behind; when the bus wants to stop the body
wants to continue moving.
The reluctance of a body to resist change to its state of motion i.e either to remain
at rest or to continue moving is known as inertia (latin word meaning laziness).

To demonstrate Inertia

Activity 4.2
To demonstrate inertia using a coin

Materials
• A coin • A beaker • A smooth cardboard
Steps
1. Place a coin on a smooth cardboard and place it over a beaker. Pull the card
away slowly (Fig. 4.1 (a)). Observe what happens to the coin.
2. Repeat the activity but this time pull the card away suddenly
(Fig. 4.1 (b)). Observe what happens to the coin.
3. Suggest a reason why the coin behave differently in these steps.
Coin Card Pull quickly
Pull slowly
Coin left behind
Coin with the card

Beaker Beaker

Coin drops to the

bottom of the beaker

(b) Coin left behind

(a) Coin moves with the card
Fig. 4.1: Card with coin pulled (a) slowly (b) suddenly

In Activity 4.2, you should have observed that when the card is pulled slowly, the
coin moves together with the card Fig. 4.1(a). This is because the frictional force
between the card and the coin makes the two to move together. However, when the
card is pulled suddenly, the coin is left behind and drops vertically down into the
beaker (Fig. 4.1(b)). This is because the coin resists motion and does not move with
the card and hence drops vertically downwards into the beaker.
The coin resists to change its state of rest but due to lack of support from below,
falls into the beaker.

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Activity 4.3
To demonstrate inertia using a wooden block

Materials
• Four wooden blocks • Smooth surface • String
Steps
1. Place a pile of wooden blocks on a table. Tie the block with a string. Pull
the lower block slowly and note what happens (Fig. 4.2 (a)). Discuss and
suggest a reason for this.
2. Repeat the activity but this time pull the lower block suddenly
(Fig. 4.2 (b)). Write down your observation.
3. Suggest a reason for this observation. Why does the pile behave differently in
step 1 and 2.

Blocks of wood

Pull Pull

(a) The lower block pulled slowly (b) The lower block pulled suddenly
Fig. 4.2: Pulling the blocks of wood

In Activity 4.3, you should have observed that the whole pile moves when the lower
block is pulled slowly (Fig.4.2(a)). When pulled suddenly, the lower block moves
leaving the other blocks behind. In the second case, the pile of blocks above the
lowest ones resist sudden movement hence drops down on the table (See Fig. 4.2(b)).

Activity 4.4 To demonstrate inertia using a mass suspended with

a string

Materials
• Three 200 g masses • Pieces of strings
Steps
1. Hang a mass as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a).
2. Pull the lower string below the block slowly (Fig. 4.3 (b)). Note what happens
to the two strings. Suggest a reason for your observation.
3. Repeat the activity but now pull the lower string suddenly (Fig. 4.3 (c)).
Write down your observation.

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4. Discuss your observations in steps 2 and 3 and suggest a reason why the
strings behaved differently.

String

Mass Mass Mass

String

(a) (b) (c)

Pulled slowly Pulled suddenly
Fig. 4.3: String pulled

In Activity 4.4, when the lower string is pulled slowly, the upper string breaks (Fig.
4.3(b)). This is because the force applied is gradually exerted on the two strings. The
upper string experience a greater force than the lower one due to the block's weight.
However, when pulled suddenly, the lower string breaks. In this case, the upper string
resist the sudden change hence only the lower string breaks (See Fig. 4.3(c)).

Activity 4.5
To illustrate the law of inertia using a trolley

Materials
• A wooden block • A trolley • A runway
Steps
1. Place a wooden block on a trolley. Allow the trolley to move down a friction
compensated runway as shown in Fig. 4.4 (a).
Trolley
Block Runway

Stopper

(a)
Runway Trolley stops Block continues in
motion
Stopper
(b)
Fig. 4.4: A body is reluctant to stop moving

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2. Note what happens to the wooden block once the trolley is stopped suddenly
Fig. 4.4 (b).
3. Suggest a reason for the behaviour of the block.

The wooden block slides off the trolley and continues moving in the same direction
the trolley was moving (Fig. 4.4 (b)) i.e. wooden block is reluctant to stop moving.
Mass and inertia
In this section, we will discuss the relationship between mass of a body and its
inertia. The following activity will help us establish their relationships.

Activity 4.6 To investigate the relationship between mass and

inertia

Materials
• String • hook
• heavy stone • light stone
Steps
1. Suspend the heavy stone using the strings as shown in Fig. 4.5.
2. Push the heavy stone towards one side. Release the stone to swing (Fig. 4.5.
(a)) and then try to stop the stone from moving.
3. Repeat the activity with the light stone. (Fig.4.5 (b)).

(b) Light stone

(a) Heavy stone

Fig. 4.5: Relationship between mass and inertia.
4. Which stone is easier to start moving and to stop moving? Suggest a reason
for this.

The lighter stone in Activity 4.6 is easier to start moving and to stop moving.
The heavier stone is more difficult to start or stop moving i.e, it requires a larger
force to do so.
This activity shows that the mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. A body with
a large mass has a greater inertia and vise versa.

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If Activity 4.6 is repeated in a place where there is no gravitational pull e.g.

interplanetary space, the same results are obtained. The mass of a body in this
case is called inertial mass (Fig. 4.6(a)). When the mass of a body is pulled by the
force of gravity the mass is called gravitational mass (Fig. 4.6 (b)).

(a) Inertial mass (b) Gravitational force

Fig. 4.6: Inertia and gravitational mass

Statement of Newton’s first law of motion

Activities 4.2 to 4.5 shows that bodies tend to resist change to their states of
motion i.e they exhibit inertia.
These observations were summarised by Sir Isaac Newton in his first law of
motion, called the law of inertia. The law states that:
Newtons first law of motion
A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by some external force to act otherwise.
From this law we can define a force as that quantity which produces
motion of a body at rest or that which alters its existing state of motion.

Exercise 4.1

1. Explain the term inertia.

2. State three practical applications of inertia law.
3. Explain the following experiences.
(a) When one alights from a moving bus, he/she is more likely to fall unlike
when alighting from a stationary one.
(b) When a car suddenly stops, the passengers are jerked forward.
4. An umbrella kept upside down can be dried by rapidly closing and opening
it. Explain.
5. Explain why safety belts are worn in cars.

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6. An object of large mass is suspended by means of a string A from the ceiling.

Another similar string, B, is attached to the bottom of the object. Explain
which string would break when string B is pulled,
(a) slowly
(b) suddenly
7. Place a coin on a cardboard which is on a table as shown in Fig. 4.7. Move
the cardboard backwards and forward several times, moving the cardboard
very slowly in one direction and very quickly in the other. Explain your
observation on the movement of the coin.
Card Coin
Push card slowly
Pull card quickly
Table

Fig. 4.7: A card being pulled on the table

8. Differentiate between inertial mass and gravitational mass.

4.2 Newton’s second law of motion

As we already learnt in Unit 3 of this book, one of the effects of a force is that it
changes the state of motion of an object i.e, it causes a body at rest to move or if
moving, to accelerate (increase its speed) or decelerate (decrease in speed). We
also learnt in that a = v –t u in Unit 2.
But what is the relationship between the net force (F) acting on the body,the
acceleration (a) it produces on the object and the mass (m) of the object?

Activity 4.7 To investigate the relationship between net forces (f),

acceleration (a) and mass (m)

Materials
• Footballs
Steps
1. Kick a football in two ways: In case one, kick it with a small force on a
smooth path towards your partner. Fig 4.8.

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2. In the second case, kick the same ball with

a greater force on the same path. In which
case does the ball gain a greater acceleration?
Explain.

Fig 4.8: Kicking a ball at rest

3. Take two balls of different masses e.g 1 kg and 2 kg balls. Kick them each
at a time on the same path with the same force. Which ball gains a greater
acceleration?
4. Discuss the observations in steps 1, 2 and 3 and deduce a relationship
between force, mass and acceleration of the ball.

Sir Isaac Newton made similar observations to those in Activity 4.7 and summarized
them in what is now called Newton’s second law of motion. It states that;

Newtons second law of motion

The acceleration (a) of an object is directly proportional to net
(resultant) force(F) acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass;
and the acceleration takes place in the direction of the resultant force.
m(∆s)
Fα t .

This law is mathematically represented as follows;

F.
a α m
F where k is a constant.
This means, a = k m
Experiments have shown that the value of k =1. Hence,
F.
a= m
By cross multiplication we get F = ma
If mass is 1 kg and acceleration is 1 m/s2, then the force is 1 N. This is the definition
of 1 newton i.e 1 newton is the force that will accelerate a mass of 1 kg at the
rate of 1 m/s2.
Thus, F = ma implies that:
(i) When the resultant force acting on a body is increased, the acceleration
produced on the same body increases in the same proportion and vice versa
(when the mass is constant).
(ii) The same resultant force produces a smaller acceleration on a body of a
greater mass than when it acts on a body of a smaller mass.

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Example 4.1
A truck of mass 2.5 tones accelerate at 7.5 m/s2. Calculate the force generated by
the truck’s engine to attain this acceleration.
Solution
F = ma = 2.5 × 1 000 kg × 7.5 m/s2
= 18 750 N

Example 4.2
An object of mass 4 kg accelerates to 5 m/s2. Calculate the resultant force.
Solution
F = ma
= 4 kg × 5 m/s2
= 20 N

Example 4.3
Calculate the acceleration produced by a force of 20 N on an object of mass 300 kg.

Solution
F 20 N
a= m=
300 kg
= 0.066 7 m/s2

Example 4.4
A car of mass 900 kg is towed by a breakdown truck along a level road. The truck
accelerates at 0.6 m/s2. (Fig, 4.10). Calculate the tension in the rope.

Fig. 4.10: Breakdown truck towing a car along a level road

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Solution
Tension = resultant force using acceleration
Resultant force, F = ma
= 900 kg × 0.6 m/s2
= 540 N
Tension = 540 N

Exercise 4.2
1. (a) State Newton’s second law of motion.
(b) Use Newton’s second law of motion to derive to the equation F = ma.
(c) Define the unit of force; ‘the newton’ using F = ma
2. A trolley is pulled by three elastic cords in parallel. The acceleration is found
to be 15 m/s2. The elastic cords are then arranged in series and pulled (Fig.
4.11). If the elastic cords are stretched by exactly the same amount of force,
find the acceleration of the trolley assuming there are no frictional forces.
Elastic cords Elastic cords

(a) (b)
Trolley Trolley

Parallel End to end

Fig. 4.11: Trolley being pulled by elastic cords
3. Find the force that is needed to make a mass of:
(a) 6 kg to accelerate at 10 m/s2,
(b) 30 g to decelerate at 12 cm/s2,
(c) 8 kg to accelerate at 6 m/s2.
4. Describe an experiment to investigate how the force applied on an object is
related to the acceleration it produces. Draw a diagram that you would use,
stating the observations expected and explaining how you would use these
observations to obtain the relationship between force and acceleration.
5. Find the force that should be applied to an object of mass 8.0 kg to make it
accelerate by 20 m/s2.
6. A football of mass 500 g attains acceleration of 25 m/s2. Find the average
force exerted on the ball.
7. A force of 15 N makes a body of mass 3.0 kg to move. Calculate the average
acceleration of the body.
8. A car of mass 800 kg moving with an acceleration of 20 m/s2 crashes into a
wall. Find the average force exerted by the car.

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4.3 Newton's third law of motion

Activity 4.8 To demonstrate reaction and action act in opposite

directions

Materials:
• Skating shoes • Rigid wall
Steps
1. Put on the skating shoes and touch the brick wall with your hand (Fig. 4.12).
2. Push the wall. What happens?
3. Discuss with your partner your observations. Suggest a reason for what
happened.

Fig. 4.12: Demonstration action and reaction

In your discussion, you must have noticed that when you push a rigid wall, you
move in the opposite direction i.e the wall pushes you back. The force applied
on the wall is called action force and the one applied back by the wall is called
reaction force. Action and reaction force act in the opposite direction as shown
in Activity 4.8.

Activity 4.9 To demonstrate that action and reaction forces are

equal and act in opposite direction

Apparatus
• Two identical balance springs • A rigid support

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Steps
1. Hook one end of a spring balance A to a rigid support.
2. Pull the other end until the spring shows a reading (Fig. 4.13 (a)). Explain
what the wall could be doing at the same?
3. Repeat the activity but use a second similar spring B instead of the wall
(Fig. 4.13 (b)).
spring A
pull rigid support pull spring A spring B

pull
(b)
(a)
Fig. 4.13: Action and reaction

4. Pull the two springs until the reading on spring A is the same as before.
5. What reading is shown by spring B? Suggest a reason for this observation.

In Activity 4.9, you must have observed that the reading in spring B is the same
as in spring A. The two forces are equal in size but are in opposite direction. This
shows that when spring A is pulled to the wall, the wall also pulled the spring A
with an equal and opposite force.
In Unit 3, we defined a force as a push or a pull. In reality when one body pulls
or pushes a second body, the second body also pulls or pushes the first body
respectively with the same force. The first body exerts a force called action force
on the second body. The second body responds by exerting a force called reaction
force on to the first body.

Other examples of action and reaction

1. A book placed on a table provides the action, while the table supports the
book by providing a reaction force (Fig. 4.14).
reaction (R)

table book

Action (A)

Fig. 4.14: A book resting on a table

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2. Charged bodies show two equal but opposite forces (Fig. 4.15).

+ – + +

Fig. 4.15: Equal but opposite forces

3. Tug of war (Fig. 4.16).

Fig. 4.16: Example of action and reaction

All these observations can be summarised by what is called Newton’s

third law of motion.
It states that whenever a body exerts a force on another body, the other body
exerts an equal but opposite force on the first body.
This is sometimes stated as, to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Note
The two forces, action and reaction, act on two different objects. For example
in Fig. 4.14 the action force A acts on the table while the reaction force R acts
on the book. Consequently, the two forces, although equal and opposite, do not
cancel each other i.e. they do not produce a zero resultant force.
Consider two girls standing on trolleys and pushing each other (Fig. 4.17 (a)).
The pushes cause both girls to move away in opposite directions. Compare this
with two equal and opposite forces acting on the same body (Fig. 4.17 (b)). The
two forces cancel each other and the body remains at the same place.

FA FB

(a) Forces do not cancel each other (b) Forces cancel each other
Fig. 4.17: Action and reaction forces

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Some common experiences due to Newton’s third law of motion

Activity 4.10 To describe the applications of Newton's third law of

motion

Describe at least three other cases in real life where action and reaction are
exhibited.
You should have identified some of the following:
1. When running or walking, a person exerts a backward force on the ground.
The ground exerts a forward push on the person. This makes walking
possible.
2. When a gun is fired, the bullet travels in one direction while the gun recoils
backwards (Fig. 4.18). Although the two forces are equal and opposite, the
bullet’s velocity is greater than that of the gun.
recoils

gun bullet

Fig. 4.18: Recoiling

3. A balloon will always move in the opposite direction when the air inside it
is released. This is the principle that rockets and jet engines use. The force
(action) of the air coming out exerts an equal and opposite force (reaction)
on the balloon making it move.
4. The water sprinkler works on action and reaction principle (Fig. 4.19).

water moves out in

forward direction
(action)
sprinkler moves back
(reaction)
Fig. 4.19: Water sprinkler
The sprinkler rotates in the direction opposite to that of the water jet.

Exercise 4.3
1. For each of the following forces, describe the reaction, giving its direction
and stating where it acts.
(a) The push of a boot on a football.
(b) The push (backwards) of a swimmer on water.
(c) The pull of gravity on a mango resting on a table.

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2. State Newton’s third law of motion. Explain how this law is applied in the
propulsion of rockets.
3. Give an explanation to the following:
(a) A gun recoils when it is fired.
(b) A fireman moves backwards when a water hose he is aiming at a fire is
suddenly turned on.
4. A mini bus accelerates uniformly from rest to 30 m/s in 10 s. Find
(a) Acceleration.
(b) Force the back of a passenger of mass 60 kg would exert on the seat.
5. Explain how garden a shown in sprinkler (Fig. 4.20) works.

4.4 Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation

A story is told that one day Isaac Newton was sitting under an apple tree, and an
apple fell on his head. This led him to think hard and conclude that there must be
a force of attraction that pulled the apple to the earth. He called this force gravity.

Activity 4.11 To investigate the Newton's universal law of

gravitation

Materials
A small stone
Steps
1. Throw the stone upwards and also observe what happens. Expain your
observation.
2. Do a research from the internet and books on.
(a) The Newtons's universal law of gravitation What does it state?
(b) How are planets able to orbit one another
3. Throw the piece of wood horizontally and observe what happens to the piece
of wood. Explain your observation.
4. Do research on why planets move around the sun from books and Internet.

Newton discovered that, the gravitational force of attraction was not limited to
objects falling to the earth but it exist between any two objects in the universe
and depends on the mass of the two objects and the separation distance between
them. He summarised his observation in a law that is now referred to as Newton's
Universal Law of Gravitation.

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The law states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r as shown in

Fig 4.21
m1 m2
F The separation distance r is
from the centres of masses of
the two objects
γ
Fig 4.21: Two bodies at a distance

According to Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the force (F) of attraction

between the two objects is given by
m1m2
Fα
r2
Gm1m2
Hence, F = r2 where G is a constant called the universal gravitational
constant.
Note that the constant G is the same everywhere in the universe.
We can obtain the units for G as follows:
Gm1m2 Fr2 Nm2
F= r2 ⇒ G = m m ⇒ kg2
1 2

Alternatively we use m3s2/kg

The value of a constant, G is approximately equal to 6.673 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
Gm1m2
From the equation, F = r2 , we obtain the other quantities as follow:
Fr2
Mass of object 1, m1 =
Gm2
Fr2
Mass of object 2, m2 =
Gm1

Gm1m2
Distance between two objects, r = F

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Example 4.5
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between a student of mass 60
kg and the earth if the student is standing on the earth surface a distance of
6.4 × 106 m from the centre of the earth.(mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg,
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2)
Solution
m1 = 60 kg, m2 = 5.98 × 1024 kg, r = 6.4 × 106 m, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
Gm1m2 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2 × (60 kg) × (5.98 × 1024 kg)
F= r2 = (6.4 × 106m) 2

2393.196 × 10–11 × 1024

= 40.96 × 1012 N

= 58.4276 × 10(–11 + 24 –12)N = 584.276 N

Example 4.6
A communication satellite of mass 300 kg orbits (go round) the earth at a
height 35 000 m. Given that mass of earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg, radius of earth
= 6.4 × 106 m and G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2, find
(a) how far the satellite is from the centre of the earth?
(b) the earth's force of attraction onto the satellite.
Solution

Satellite
35 000 m

Earth
6.4 × 10 m
6

Centre of earth

Fig 4.22: A communication satellite

(a) Distance of satellite from the centre of the earth = Radius of earth + Distance
of the satellite from the surface of earth.
= 35 000 m + 6.4 × 106 m
= 35 000 m + 6 400 000 m
= 6 435 000 m or 6.435 × 106 m

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(b) To determine force of attraction between the earth and satellite

m1 = 5.97 × 1024 kg, m2 = 300 kg, r = 6.435 × 106 m, G = 6.67 × 10–11Nm2/kg2
Gm1m2 6.67 × 10–11 × 5.97 × 1024 × 3 × 102
F = = N
r2 (6.435 × 106 m)2
119.459 × 1015
= = 288.48 N
41.409225 × 1012

Example 4.7
Kampire is 28 kg and is standing 1.2 metres away from Mugisha. What is the
mass of Mugisha if a gravitational force of attraction of 3.2 × 10-8 N is acting on
each of them? (Assume G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2)
Solution
m1 = 28 kg, m2 = ?, r = 1.2 m, F = 3.2 × 10–8N, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
Gm1m2 Fr2 3.2 × 10–8 × (1.2)2
F= ⇒ m2 = = kg
r2 Gm1 6.67 × 10–11 × 28
4.608 × 10–8
= kg
186.76 × 10–11
= 0.02467 × 103 kg
= 24.67 kg

Example 4.8
What is the separation distance between a stone block of mass 20 kg and another
one of mass 35 kg if a gravitational force of attraction of 3.6 × 10-9 N acts between
them.
Solution
m1 = 20 kg, m2 = 35 kg, r = ?, F = 3.6 × 10–9 N, G = 6.67 × 10–11Nm2/kg2

Gm1m2 Gm1m2 6.67 × 10–11 × 20 × 35

F= r2 ⇒r= F = m
3.6 × 10–9

4.669 × 10–8
= m
3.6 × 10–9

m
= 12.96
= 3.6 m

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Exercise 4.4
In this exercise use: Mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg, Radius of the earth
= 6.4 × 10 6 m, Mass of the sun = 1.989 × 10 30 kg, Radius of the sun
= 6.9858 × 108 m, Distance from the sun to the earth = 1.496 × 1010 m,
Mass of the moon = 7.348 × 1022 kg, Radius of the moon = 1.7374 × 106 m,
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
1. What is the gravitational force of attraction between the earth and a car of
mass 1500 kg resting on the surface of the earth?
2. Determine the earth's force of gravitational attraction on a satellite of mass
500 kg orbiting the earth at a distance 40 000 km above the surface of the
earth.
3. If the gravitational force of attraction of the earth on the moon is
2.14 × 1020 N, what is the distance of the moon from the earth?
4. A gravitational force of attraction of 4.4 × 10–10 N exists between a cow of
mass 800 kg and a goat when both are 18 m apart. What is the mass of the
goat.
5. What is the separation distance between a man of mass 85 kg and a woman
of mass 95 kg if the gravitational force of attraction between them is
2.58 × 10–7 N.

Unit summary and new words

• Newton's first law of motion states that a body continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by some external forces to
act otherwise.
• Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object
is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely
proportional to its mass and takes place in the direction of the force. This law
is summarised as F = ma.
• Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action , there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
• Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe
attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• This law is summarised as
Gm1m2
F= r2

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Where, F = the force of attraction between the two bodies.

r = the separation distance of the two bodies.
G = the universal gravitational constant equal to 6.673 × 10-11Nm2/kg2.
m1 and m2 are the respective masses of the the two bodies.

Unit Test 4
In this unit test use: Mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg, Radius of the earth
= 6.4 × 10 6 m, Mass of the sun = 1.989 × 10 30 kg, Radius of the sun
= 6.9858 × 108 m, Distance from the sun to the earth = 1.496 × 1010 m,
Mass of the moon = 7.348 × 1022 kg, Radius of the moon = 1.7374 × 106 m,
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
1. (a) Explain why Newton’s first law is also called the law of inertia.
(b) Describe an experiment to illustrate the Newton’s first law of motion.
2. Explain why a balloon with air moves immediately the air inside is released?
3. State Newton's universal law of gravitation.
4. Akaliza is 57 kg while Mazimpaka is 62 kg. The two are standing at a distance
from each other in their class. If the gravitational force of attraction between
them is 3.21 × 10-8 N, find their separation distance.
5. What is the gravitational force of attraction between the;
(a) Sun and the earth.
(b) Earth and the moon.
6. The gravitational force between two objects of equal mass when they are
15 m apart is 1.94 × 10-8N. What is the mass of each object.
7. Two wardrobes of masses 1.6 × 102 kg and 2.3 × 102 kg exert an attraction
force of 3.4 × 10-6 N between them. What is the distance separating them?
8. What is your mass? What is the earth's gravitational force of attraction on you
when you are standing on the ground?

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UNIT 5 Centre of Gravity

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to determine the position of centre of
gravity of a body.

Unit outline
• Definition of centre of gravity and centre of mass.
• Determination of centre of gravity of regular and irregular objects.
• Effects of the position of centre of gravity on stability of objects.

Introduction
In our day to day experiences, we may have come across statements such as ‘‘that
object is not stable on the table” or “that overloaded bus is not stable on the road”.
Have you ever asked yourself what factors control the stability of an object? In
this unit, we will study one of those factors.

Activity 5.1 To locate the centre of gravity of a book

Materials: Exercise book

Steps
1. Take your exercise book and try to balance it horizontally on your finger
as shown in Fig 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: Balancing a book

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(a) What do you observe?

(b) Why do you think the book balances at only one point?
(c) What do you think is special about the point where the book balances?
2. Discuss with your colleagues your observations and thoughts in 1(a),(b)
and (c).

By going through the following discussions, you will be able to answer questions
1(a) to (c) in Activity 5.1.

5.1 Centre of gravity and centre of mass of a body

In one of his experiments, Sir Isaac Newton showed that bodies experience a force
of gravity exerted on them by the earth. This force of gravity is always directed
towards the earth’s centre and is called the weight of the body. How is this weight
distributed throughout the body? The answer to this question is found in the
following activity.
To investigate where the weight of a body acts from

Activity 5.2 To find the centre of gravity of a regular body

Materials: A table, thin rectangular card

Steps
1. Place a thin rectangular cardboard near the edge of the bench top.
2. Pull the card slowly away from the bench until it is just about to topple
over then released as shown in Fig. 5.2 (a).
3. Using a ruler, mark and draw the line AB along which the card balances.
4. Repeat the activity with the other side of the card, mark and draw the line
CD along which the card balances. The lines AB and CD intersect at a
point M (Fig. 5.2(b)).

thin rectangular card B

table pull

M
C D

A
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.2: Location of a point where the weight of the body acts

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4. Now, try to balance the card with the point M placed at the tip of your fore
finger. What do you notice. Suggest reason for this observation.

From Activity 5.2 you should have observed that the cardboard balances
horizontally at point M only. This shows that although the mass of the cardboard
is distributed over the whole body, there is a particular point, M, where the
whole weight of the cardboard appears to be concentrated. When pivoted at
this point the cardboard balances horizontally. This point, M, is called centre
of gravity of the cardboard.

The centre of gravity of a body is the point from which the whole weight
of the body appears to act.
The centre of gravity of an object is constant i.e. at the one location when a
body in a place with uniform gravitational field strength.
However, the centre of gravity of a body moves to a different location when the
body is placed in a region with non uniform gravitational field strength.
Centre of mass of an object on the other hand is the point where all the mass
of the object is concentrated.

Since the mass of an object is constant and is not affected by pull of gravity,
the location of the centre of mass of an object is constant i.e. does not change.
In places like on earth where the gravitational field strength is uniform, the
centre of mass and the centre of gravity coincide i.e. are at the same point.
However, the two centres are at different locations for the same object if the
object is placed in a place with non-uniform gravitational field strength.

5.2 Centre of gravity (c.o.g) of regular lamina

Activity 5.3
To locate the centre of gravity of a regular lamina

Materials: manila paper, ruler, pencil

Steps
1. Discuss what a lamina is.
2. Using your geometrical instruments, draw and cut from a manila paper
pieces that are exactly rectangular, square, circular and isosceles triangle.
3. Practically locate their centres of gravities by drawing.
4. Balance them at their centres of gravity on the tip of your pencil.

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In your discussion, you should have learnt that a lamina is a body whose thickness
is very small compared with the other dimensions of the body. A thin cardboard
like the one used Activity 5.2 is a lamina. The cover of a book is a lamina. The set
square or protractor in your mathematical set are all examples of laminae.
Experiments have shown that bodies with uniform cross section area and density
have their centres of gravity located at their geometrical centres. For example, a
metre rule of uniform cross-sectional area and density has its centre of gravity
located at the 50 cm mark.
Fig. 5.3(a) - (d) shows the centre of gravity (c.o.g) of rectangular, square,
triangular, and circular laminae.
c.o.g c.o.g c.o.g c.o.g

(a) rectangle (b) square (c) isosceles triangle (d) circle

Fig. 5.3: c.o.g. of regular lamina

5.3 Centre of gravity (c.o.g) of irregular lamina

Activity 5.4 To determine the centre of mass of an irregular
lamina using a plumbline

Materials: An irregular lamina, plumbline, a drawing pin

Steps
1. Make three holes P, Q and R on an irregularly shaped lamina as close as
possible to the edges and far away from each other. The holes should be
large enough to allow the lamina turn freely when supported through a
drawing pin.
2. Suspend the lamina on the clamp using the drawing pin through each hole
at a time.
3. Suspend a plumbline (a thin thread with a small weight at one end) from
the point of support, P as shown in Fig. 5.4(a), and draw the line of the
plumbline on the lamina by marking two points A and B far apart and
joining them.
4. Repeat the steps with the support Q and mark the point M where the two
lines intersect.

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5. Check the accuracy of your method by suspending the lamina at R. What

do you observe? Explain.
smooth
P support e.g
A drawing pin P
A
irregular Q
lamina R B hole M
R Q
string (plumbline) B
weight

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.4: Locating centre of mass of a lamina using a plumbline

The plumbline pass through M (Fig. 5.4 (b)). Check the results again by
balancing the lamina about point M. What do you observe?

The lamina balances horizontally at point M. Point M is the centre of gravity

of the lamina.
This activity proves that when a body is freely suspended it rests with its centre of
gravity vertically below the point of suspension.
Activity 5.5 To demonstrate how to locate the centre of gravity of
an irregular object using a straight edge
(Work in groups)
Materials: An irregular lamina, a prism
Steps
1. Balance a lamina on the edge PQ of a prism as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). Mark
the points A and B on the lamina and join them.
2. Repeat the activity for another position and note the points C and D on
the lamina. Join C and D.
knife edge lamina
A
P B Q
A M
C D
B

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5: Locating the centre of mass of a lamina using a straight edge
3. Label the point of intersection of lines AB and CD as point M.
4. Try balancing the lamina at point M on a sharp pointed support. What do
you observe? Explain.

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From Activiy 5.5, you should have observed that the lines AB and CD intersect
at M; the centre of gravity of the lamina.

5.4 Effect of position of centre of gravity on the state of

equilibrium of a body

Activity 5.6 To define and describe three states of equilibrium

Materials: Internet, reference books

Steps
1. Conduct a research from books and the internet on the meaning of
equilibrium in regard to forces acting on an object.
2. Identify the three states of equilibrium an object can be in.
3. Describe each of the three states of equilibrium.

In your discussion, you should have noted that, the state of balance of a body is
referred to as the stability of the body. Some bodies are in a more stable (balanced)
state than others. The state of balance of a body is also called its state of equilibrium.
Activities 5.7, 5.8 and 5.9 will help us distinguish between the different states of
equilibrium.

Activity 5.7 To investigate the relationship between the position

of c.o.g and stability of an object

Materials: plastic thistle funnel, bench

Steps
1. Place the funnel upright with the wider mouth resting on the bench (Fig
5.6).
2. Displace the funnel slightly upwards as shown in Fig 5.6 (b) and then
release it. What do you observe?

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C C
force F force F

G
G

A A
W

(a) (b)
Fig 5.6: To show stable state
3. Explain the behaviour of the funnel in terms of the changes in the position
of centre of gravity.

When a body is resting with its centre of gravity at the lowest point, it is very stable.
When displaced slightly; its centre of gravity is raised and when it is released,
the object falls back to it original position to keep its centre of gravity as low as
possible. This type of equilibrium is known as stable equilibrium. Thus, the funnel
in Activity 5.7 Fig. 5.6 (a) was in stable equilibrium.

Activity 5.8 To demonstrate unstable equilibrium

Materials: Plastic thistle funnel, bench

Steps
1. Place the funnel upright with the narrower mouth resting on the bench as
shown in Fig 5.7 (a).
2. Displace the funnel slightly with your finger. What do you notice?

C C force F
force F
G
G

W
funnel topples
A down

(a) (b)
Fig 5.7: To show unstable state
3. Explain the behaviour of the funnel in terms of the change in position of
its centre of gravity in this activity.
Our finances!!

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Note that we have used a plastic thistle funnel instead of a glass one. The latter
has high chances of breakings.
Any time we break a laboratory apparatus, we think of its effects on the school
finances as it has to be replaced. Sometimes we may be required to pay ourselves
hence affect the finances of our parents.

When an object is resting with its centre of gravity at a very high position from
the base support, it is unstable. When displaced slightly, it continues to fall up to
the lowest possible position in order to lower its centre of gravity. This state of
stability is known as unstable equilibrium. The funnel in Fig 5. 7(a) Activity 5.8
was in unstable equilibrium.

Activity 5.9 To demonstrate neutral equilibrium

Materials: Plastic thistle funnel, bench

Steps
1. Place the funnel horizontally as shown in Fig 5.8 (a).
2. Displace the funnel gently by tapping it with a finger. What do you observe?
table

G
G

F F

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.8: To show neutral state

3. Explain the behaviour of the funnel in terms of the change in position of

the centre of gravity when displaced slightly.

When an object is resting such that the position of its centre of gravity remains at
the same vertical position even when the object is displaces, it is said to be in neutral
equilibrium. The funnel in Fig 5.8 (a) in Activity 5.9 was in neutral equilibrium.

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Activity 5.10 To investigate the relationship between position of

centre of gravity of a body and its stability

Material: playing ground

1. Assume that he/she is a bus ( preferably the lighter student) and the other
to be heavy goods to be transported (preferably the heavy one ).
2. Let the bus carry the heavy goods on his/her shoulders from one end of
the playing ground to another. Observe what happens.
3. Let the disabled students (if any in the class) observe the stability of your
movement in step 2 and record down the observations.
4. Now, let the other student (the heavy good) be the bus and repeat step 2.
Observe and explain what happens.
5. Discuss and compare observations made in steps 2 and 4 with you partner
and report to the whole class.

Caution: Be careful you may fall down when carrying your partner and cause
injury to yourself or your partner.

From your discussion, you should have noted that when the lighter student
was carrying the heavier one, they were unstable, hence they tended to or fell
down at some point. However, when they interchanged and the heavier one
was carrying the lighter one, they walked confortable because they were stable.

Therefore, a body is more stable when its heavy part is as low as possible since
it lowers the position of the centre of gravity. If the heavy part of the body is at
high position or if the light part of the body in high position is made heavier
than the lower position, the body becomes unstable and thus likely to topple
over and can cause accident like in the case of a vehicle carrying heavy luggage
at its roof top.

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Exercise 5.1

1. Identify the centre of gravity of each of the following figures.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Fig 5.9: Various types of figures

2. Fig 5.10 shows a Bunsen burner at different states of equilibrium.

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig 5.10: Bunsen burner at different states of equilibrium

(a) Name the states in which the Bunsen burner is at in (i), (ii) and (iii).
(b) Describe each state named in (a) above.
3. With aid of a diagram, describe how you can determine the centre of gravity
of an irregular plane sheet of metal.
4. State and explain the states of equilibrium in Fig 5.11.

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Fig 5.11: A sphere

5.5 Factors affecting the stability of a body

Activity 5.11 To investigate factors that affect the stability of a
body

Steps
1. Repeat Activities 5.7 and 5.8.
2. Compare the observations in two activities and deduce one factor that
affects stability of the funnel.
3. Now, repeat Activity 5.9. What happens to the funnel when the vertical line
through the centre of gravity falls outside the base of the funnel? Deduce
one factor that affect stability of the funnel in step 1.
4. Compare the observations in Activities 5.8 and 5.9 and deduce another
factor that affects stability of the funnel.

Activities 5.7 and 5.8 show that the funnel is more stable when its c.o.g is at a
very low position and vice varsa. In addition, the activities show that the wider
the base the more stabke a body is.
Activity 5.7 further shows that the funnel becomes unstable when the vertical line
drawn through the centre of gravity falls outside the base that supports the body.

In summary, a body is more stable if:

1. the centre of gravity is as low as possible.
2. the area of the base is as large as possible, and
3. the vertical line drawn from the centre of gravity falls within its
base.

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5.6 Some applications of the position of centre of gravity

Activity 5.12 To describe the applications of the position centre of

gravity

Materials: reference books, Internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research from Internet and reference books on the applications
of position of centre of gravity.
2. In your research also find out:
(a) Why a bird toy is balances on its beak.
(b) Why it is not advisable to stand on a small boat on the surface of the
water.
(c) Why one leans to the opposite direction when carrying a load.
(d) Why the bus chasis is made heavier than the other parts of the bus.
(e) How a tight-rope walker balances himself/herself.
3. What do o you have the same explanations?
4. Have a class presentation on your findings from your research.

In your research and discussion, you should have learnt the following:
1. The balancing bird is a toy that has its centre of gravity located at the tip
of the beak. The bird balances with the its beak resting on one finger or any
other support placed underneath the beak, and the rest of the body in the
air. This is because it is designed with its centre of gravity at that point
(Fig 5.12).

Fig. 5.12: Balancing bird toy

2. People in a small boat are advised neither to stand up nor lean over the sides

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while in the boat. This is because when they stand, they rasie the position of
the centre of gravity making the boat unsatble and more likely to tip over
(See Fig 5.13).

Fig. 5.13: People in a boat

3. A person normally lean to the opposite direction when carrying heavy loads
with one hand e.g. a bucket full water. This helps to maintain the position
of the c.o.g to within the base of the person inorder to maintain stability
(See Fig 5.14)

Fig. 5.14: Leaning while carrying heavy load

4. Most buses have their cargo in compartment in the basement instead of the
roof rack in order to keep the centre of gravity of the buses as low as possible
(Fig. 5.15).

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Fig. 5.15: Buses carry their cargo below passengers’ level.
5. A tight-rope walker carries a pole to maintain stability. By swaying from side
to side, he/she ensures that the vertical line drawn from his/her centre of
gravity falls within the feet on the rope in order to maintain stability. (Fig.
5.16).
tight-rope

Fig. 5.16: A tight-rope walker carries a pole to maintain balance.

Unit summary and new words

• The centre of gravity, c.o. g, of a body is the point where the whole weight of
the body appears to act from.
• Centre of mass of an objects is the point where all the mass of the object is
concentrated.
• The centre of gravity of a regular lamina or object is at its geometric centre.
• The centre of gravity of a lamina can be found using a plumbline or by balancing
it on a knife edge.
• A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it returns to its original
position after being displaced slightly.
• A body is in unstable equilibrium if on being slightly displaced, it does not
return to its original position.
• A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium it moves to a new position but
maintains the position of the c.o.g above its base support.
• Bodies can be made more stable if their centres of gravity are made
as low as possible and the bases are made as broad as possible.

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Unit Test 5
1. Define the term centre of gravity?
2. Differentiate between centre of mass and centre of gravity.
3. Redraw the figures shown in Fig 5.17 and indicate their centres of gravity.

Fig. 5.17: Solids

4. Describe how you can determine the centre of gravity of the lamina shown
in Fig 5.18.

Fig. 5.18 Irregular shape

5. Fig. 5.19 shows a marble in three types of equilibrium. State and explain
the type of equilibrium in each case.

Fig. 5.19: Marble in three state of equilibrium
6. What is stability?
7. One vehicle which was travelling from Kigali to Butare was seen carrying
heavy goods on its roof top and some of its passengers in the vehicle were
standing. Discuss why the vehicle is likely to topple if it negotiates a corner
at high speed.

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8. Explain why a three-legged stool design is less stable than a four legged one.
9. Explain the following:
(a) The passenger of a double-decker bus are not allowed to stand on
the upper deck.
(b) A racing car is made of a heavy chasis in its lower parts.
(c) When one is alighting from a moving vehicle, it is advisable to spread
out his/her legs.

My safety

Do not stand in a moving vehicle. Let us observe traffic rules.

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UNIT 6 Work, Energy and Power (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of the unit, I should be able to analyse the process of energy
transformations and conservation.

Unit outline
• Forms of energy.
• Transformation of kinetic energy to potential energy and vice verse.
• Sources of energy.
• Different ways to conserve energy.
• Law of conservation of mechanical energy.

Introduction
Everyday, we do many types of work. We work in the offices, in the farms, in the
factories etc. To make our work easier, we use machines ranging from simple tools
to sophisticated machinery. Different machines or people do work at different
rates (known as power). The ability and the rate of doing certain amount of work
depends on how much energy is used. In this unit, we will seek to understand
these three terms i.e work, energy and power from the science point of view.

6.1 Work

Activity 6.1 Distinguish cases when work in science is done or

not

Materials: a chart showing people carrying out different activities, pieces of

chalk, pen, chair, desk.
Steps
1. Conduct a research from books on the scientific definition of work.
2. Walk from your desk to the chalkboard and write the word ‘work’ on the
chalkboard.
3. Collect any litter in your classroom.

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Be responsible
Always keep where you live clean. It is good for your health.

4. Carry your chair to the front of you classroom and sit on it.
5. Push a rigid wall of your classroom.
6. Discuss with your colleagues whether scientifically speaking work, is done
in steps 1, 2, 3 and 4. What do think is the meaning of ‘work’ ?
7. Now, look at the activities being performed by the people in Fig. 6.1.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 6.1: People performing different tasks

According to the scientific definition of work, in which of the diagrams is the

person doing work? Explain.
From your research and discussion, you should have established in science, work
is only said to have been done when an applied force moves the object through
some distance in the direction of force. Therefore in Activity 6.1, work was done
in steps 2, 3 and part of 4 (when carrying the desk). However, no work was done
when you sat on you chair without moving in step 4 and pushing the wall without
moving it in step 5.

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Similary, in Fig 6.1, work is being done in (a) and (d) only. When the girl applies
a force to a wall in (b) and even becomes exhausted, she is not doing any work
because the wall is not displaced. When the woman carries the basket on the
head, she is not doing any work. This is because she exerts an upward force on
the basket which is balanced by the weight hence there is no motion of the basket
in the direction of the applied force.

Definition of work
Work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of
the force. i.e
Work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force
W=F×d
The SI unit of work is joule.
Where 1 joule =1 newton × 1 metre
A joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton moves a body through a
distance of 1 metre.
Bigger units used are kilojoules (1 kJ) = 1 000 J
Megajoule (1 MJ) = 1 000 000 J
Note: Whenever work is done, energy is transferred.

Example 6.1
Find the work done in lifting a mass of 2 kg vertically upwards through 10 m.
(g = 10 m/s2)

Solution
To lift the mass upwards against gravity, a force equal to its own weight is exerted.
Applied force = weight = mg = 2kg × 10N/kg = 20 N
Work done = F × d = 20 N × 10 m
= 200 Nm
= 200 J

Work done in pulling an object along a horizontal surface

Activity 6.2 To determine the work done in pulling an object

along a horizontal surface

Materials: a block of wood, a spring balance, and a tape measure/metre ruler.

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1. Place the block of wood on a smooth horizontal surface.

2. Attach the spring balance on the block and pull it slowly. What do you
observe?
3. Record the force needed to pull the block of wood.
4. Measure the distance through which the block of wood has moved from
the beginning to the end (d) in metres using a tape measure/metre ruler.
5. Calculate the work done in pulling the block. What assumption did you
make? Explain.

While doing the activity, you should have observed that when the block of wood
was being pulled, the spring balance registered the force applied. Since the block
was on a smooth surface, we assume that friction force is negligible hence the
force applied is constant along the distance of motion, d.
Work done in moving the block is given by:
Work = force × distance

Example 6.2
A horizontal pulling force of 60 N is applied through a spring to a block on a frictionless
table, causing the block to move by a distance of 3 m in the direction of the force.
Find the work done by the force.

Solution
The work done = F × d = 60 N × 3 m
= 180 Nm
= 180 J

Example 6.3
A horizontal force of 75 N is applied on a body on a frictionless surface. The
body moves a horizontal distance of 9.6 m. Calculate the work done on the body.
Work = force × distance
= 75 N × 9.6 m
= 75 × 9.6 Nm
= 720 J

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Exercise 6.1
1. Explain why in trying to push a rigid wall, a person is said to be doing no
work.
2. Define the term work and state its SI unit.
3. How much work is required to lift a 2 kilogram mass to a height of 10
metres (Take g=10 m/s2).
4. A garden tractor drags a plow with a force 500 N a distance of 2 metres in
20 seconds. How much work is done?

6.2 Power

Activity 6.3 To compare the time taken to do a piece of work by a

person and a machine

Materials: writing material, stopwatch and scientific calculator.

Steps
1. By timing yourself, start solving the following problems without using
calculator:
(a) 376998 J × 276 J
(b)35264 J × 469 J
2. Repeat step 1, but now with a scientific calculator and compare the time
taken. Which one takes longer or shorter time to complete the task?
3. Now, think of a tractor and a man ploughing two square pieces of land
that measure 100 m by 100 m each. Which one do you think takes longer
or shorter time to complete the activity? Suggest a reason.
4. Discuss observations made in steps 2 and 3 with your colleagues. Tell your
group members what power is.

In your discussion, you must have noted that sometimes work is done very quickly
and sometimes very slowly. For instance, it takes a longer time to multiply the
problems without a calculator in step 1 than with a calculator in step 2. Similarly,
in step 3, a tractor will take few hours ploughing a piece of land while a man will
take more hours ploughing the same piece of land. The person and the tractor

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are doing the same work but the tractor is doing it at a faster rate than the person
does. This is because they have different power ratings.
Different machines and engines have different power ratings. Engines with bigger
power ratings are said to be powerful and operate very fast.

Definition of power
Power is the rate of doing work. i.e.

work done force × distance

Power = =
time taken time

SI units of power are Watts.

joule
1watt = 1
second
Large units used are kilowatt and megawatt.
1kilowatt = 1 000 W
1megawatt = 1 000 000 W

Example 6.4
What power is expended by a boy who lifts a 300 N block through 10 m in 10 s ?
Given data;
Force = 300 N, Distance = 10 m, Time = 10 s
Work done by the boy = F ×d = 300 ×10
= 3000 J
work 3000 J
Power = =
time 10 s
= 300 W

To estimating the power of an individual climbing a flight of stairs

Activity 6.4 To estimate the power of an individual climbing a

flight of stairs

Materials: stopwatch, weighing machine, tape measure

Steps
1. Find a set of stairs that you can safely walk and run up.

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2. Count their number, measure the vertical height of each stair and then find
the total height of the stairs in metres.
3. Let one member weigh himself/herself on a weighing machine and record
the weight down.
4. Let him/her walk then run up the stairs. Using a stopwatch, record the time
taken in seconds to walk and run up the stairs (Fig 6.2).

Fig. 6.2: Measuring one’s own power output
5. Calculate the work done in walking and running up the stairs. Let each
group member do the activity. Is the work done by different members in
walking and running up the stairs same? Discuss.
6. Calculate the power developed by each individual in walking and running
up the stairs. Which one required more power, walking or running up the flight
of stairs? Why?

Note:

(i) The disabled should be the ones to time others. Care must be taken
on the stairs.
(ii) Incase of lack of stairs, learners can perform other activities like
lifting measured weights.
From your discussion, you should have established that:
Height moved up (h) = Number of steps (n) × height of one step (x)
h = n × x
= n x

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Time taken to move height (h) = t

Work done against gravity mgh w ×h
P = = t =
time t
w×n×x
=
t
P = wnx
t
If x is in metres, w in newtons and t in seconds then power is in watts.

Example 6.5.
A girl whose mass is 60 kg can run up a flight of 35 steps each of 10 cm high in 4
seconds. Find the power of the girl. (Take g = 10 m/s2).
Force overcome (weight) = mg
= 60 × 10
= 600 N
Total distance = 10 × 35 = 350 cm = 3.5 m
Work done by the girl = F × d = 600 × 3.5
= 2100 J
work 2100 J
Power = =
time 4s

The power of the girl is 525 W

My health
Do you know that regular exercises are good for your health.

Exercise 6.2
1. A machine is able to do 30 joules of work in 6.0 seconds. What is the power
developed by the machine?
2. Mitaako is 42 kg. She takes 10 seconds to run up two flights of stairs to
a landing, a total of 5.0 metres vertically above her starting point. What
power does the girl develop during her run?
3. Student A lifts a 50 newton box from the floor to a height of 0.40 metres in
2.0 seconds. Student B lifts a 40 newton box from the floor to a height of
0.50 metres in 1.0 second. Which student has more power than the other?
4. Four machines do the amounts of work listed in Table 6.1 shown. The time
they take to do the work is also listed. Which machine develops the most
power?

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Machine Work Time

A 1 000 joules 5 sec
B 1 000 joules 10 sec
C 2 000 joules 5 sec
D 2 000 joules 10 sec
Table 6.1

6.3 Energy

Activity 6.5 To brainstorm about energy

Steps
1. What enables your body to perform various functions besides keeping
warm.
2. From your knowledge of science in primary school, define the term energy.
3. Discuss the importance of energy in our daily lives.

Energy is one of the most fundamental requirements of our universe. It moves

motorcycles, cars along roads, airplanes through air, and boats over water. It warms
and lights our homes, makes our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. A
person is able to push a wheelbarrow, a stretched catapult when released is able
to make a stone in it move, wind mills are turned by a strong wind and cooking
using electricity in a cooker. All these are possible because of energy.
Therefore, for any work to be done, energy must be provided. But what is energy?
Definition of energy
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
Work done = energy transferred
SI unit of energy is joules (J).

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Relationship between energy and work

Activity 6.6 To investigate the relationship between energy and

work

Materials: A heavy bag with books, stairs

Steps
1. Runs up a flight of stairs with a heavy bag to the top most floor of a building.
How do you feel?
2. What happens to a car that has been moving if it runs out of fuel (petrol or
diesel)? Explain.

You should have noted that you got exhausted because you did a lot of work
against gravity to carry your body and the heavy bag to the top of the building.
The work you did led to the loss of energy (chemical energy from the food) from
your body.

6.4 Forms of energy

Energy is not visible, it occupies no space and has neither mass nor any other
physical property that can describe it. However, it exists in many forms, some of
these forms include:

6.4.1 Solar energy

Activity 6.7 To investigate the effect of solar energy

Materials: plastic basin, water, convex lens, thin piece of paper

Steps
1. On a bright sunny day, fill a plastic basin with cold water and place it in
the compound where there is no shade. Dip your hand into the water after
2 hours. What do you observe?
2. Get a convex lens on the same day and put it horizontally with one surface
facing the sun and another surface facing down. Place a thin paper below
the lens. What do you observe after 30 minutes or more?
3. Discuss your observations in steps 1 and 2.

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From Activity 6.7, you should have observed that the water becomes hot in case
1 and in case 2, the paper is burnt because of the heat from the sun. These are
some of the effects of solar energy. This energy from the sun is inform of radiant
heat and light. In some countries where the sun shines throughout, large concave
mirrors have been set to collect energy from the sun by focusing its rays on special
boilers which provide power for running electric generators.

6.4.2 Sound energy

Activity. 6.8
To investigate the production of sound energy

Materials: Two pens, a stone

Steps
1. Get two pens and knock them against each other. What do you hear? Explain
to your class partner.
2. Lift a stone a metre above the ground and release it. What do you hear? Explain.
3. In what form is the energy released by the pen and the stone. Discuss with
your class partner.

From your discussion, you should have heard sound in steps 1 and 2. In each
case, kinetic energy has been converted to sound and heat energy. Sound energy
is the energy associated with the vibration or disturbance of bodies or matter.

6.4.3 Heat energy

Activity 6.9 To demonstrate heat energy

Materials: Bunsen burner/candle, matchbox, a retort stand, a nail/metallic rod

Steps
1. Light a Bunsen burner or a candle using a lighter (matchbox).
2 Clamp a nail (metallic rod) on a retort stand and bring it near the flame.
3. Carefully touch the other end of the nail after sometime. What do you feel?
Explain.

From activity 6.9, you will notice that the other end of the nail is felt to be hot
after sometime. The hotness is due to heat energy that has been transferred from
the hot part to the cold part of the nail. Therefore, heat energy only travels from
a hot object to a cooler one.

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Heat energy is a form of energy that is transferred from one body to another due
to the difference in temperature.

6.4.4 Electrical energy

Activity 6.10 To demonstrate production of light by electrical

energy

Materials: bulb, electric wire, cells (battery), switch, bulb holder and cell holder
Steps
1. Fix the battery/cells in their holders and the bulb too.
2. Connect one wire from one end of the cell holder to the bulb holder. Then
connect the same wire from the bulb holder to the switch holder and then
connect another wire from the other part/side of cell holder to the switch.
Make sure the switch is open and the cells are fixed into their holder.
3. What do you observe after the connection? Explain.
4. Complete the circuit then close the switch and observe what happens.

You should have noted that the bulb lights when the circuit is complete. Electrical
energy is the energy produced by the flow of electric charges (electrons). Work is
done when electrons move from one point to another in an electric circuit with
electrical appliances such as bulbs.

6.4.5 Nuclear energy

Activity 6.11
To find out what nuclear energy is

1. Conduct a research from internet and reference books on the meaning of

nuclear energy.
2. In your research, also find out advantages and disadvantages of nuclear
energy.
3. Compare and discuss your findings with those of other groups in your class.
You may consult your teacher for more guidance on your discussion.

In your discussion, you should have noted that nuclear energy is the energy that
results from nuclear reactions in the nucleus of an atom. It is released when the
nuclei are combined or split.

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6.4.6 Chemical energy

Activity 6.12 To investigate and demonstrate chemical energy

Materials: glass beaker, a small bowl, steel wool, white vinegar, thermometer
Steps
1. Place the steel wool in the bowl and soak it in white vinegar for a couple
of minutes.
2. Squeeze out excess vinegar and wrap the steel wool around the thermometer
in a way that you are still able to read the temperature.
3. Put the steel wool in the beaker, then place a cover with a paper or small
book on the top.
4. Record the temperature immediately, then again in a minute or so, and
again every minute for about five minutes. What did you observe?

From Activity 6.12, you should have noted that the thermometer records a
higher temperature reading. The chemical reaction of vinegar and steel wool
generates energy in form of heat. This causes temperature to rise as shown by
the thermometer.
Chemical energy is a type of energy stored in the bonds of the atoms and molecules
that make up a substance. Once chemical energy is released by a substance, it is
transferred into a new substance. Food and fuels like coal, oil, and gas are stores
of chemical energy. Fuels release their chemical energy when they are burnt in
the engine (e.g in a car engine).

6.4.7 Mechanical energy

Activity 6.13 To describe mechanical energy

Materials: pen, a piece of chalk

Steps
1. Raise a piece of chalk or pen from the ground to a position above your head
and release it to fall to the ground. What do you observe with the change
in height and the speed of the piece of chalk as it falls.
2. Throw two full pieces of chalk on the wall one at a time using different
forces or at different speeds (one should move faster and another one
slowly). Note the sound created by the piece of chalk after colliding with
the wall. Which one makes more noise after collision?

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Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion or due to
its position. It can either be kinetic energy or potential energy of both. When an
object is falling down through the air, it posses both potential energy (PE) due
to its position above the ground, and kinetic energy (KE) due to its speed as it
falls. The sum of its PE and KE is its mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy = kinetic energy + potential energy.

(a) Potential energy

Activity 6.14 To demonstrate the forms of potential energy

Materials: a catapult or a spring , a small stone.

Steps
1. Raise a small stone from the ground or any other resting position upwards
to a particular height above its resting surface. What kind of energy do you
think it attains?
2. Now, release the stone and observe what happens. Explain your observations.
3. Compress a spring to a particular size. What kind of energy do you think
it attains? Explain.
4. Release the spring and observe what happens.
5. Identify two types of potential energy from the activities.

From your discussion in activity 6.14, you should have observed that when the
stone was released it moved down to the ground. This implies that the stone had
stored energy due to its position that makes it to start moving down after it has
been released.
The energy possessed by a body (e.g. a stone) due to its position above the ground
is called gravitational potential energy.
Similarly, when the spring was released, it relaxed to a bigger size. This also implies
that the spring had stored energy due to compression.
The energy possessed by a body due to compression (e.g. a spring) or stretch (e.g
catapult) is called elastic potential energy.
Therefore, potential energy is in two forms; gravitational potential energy and
elastic potential energy.

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(i) Gravitational potential energy

From Activity 6.14, we show that bodies which are at a given height above the
ground posses gravitational potential energy. This energy depends on the position
of objects above the ground. The following activity will help us to understand how
to calculate potential energy of a body at a particular position above the ground.

Activity 6.15 To determine gravitational potential energy of a

raised object

Materials: three bricks, meter ruler, beam balance, soft board

Steps
1. Conduct research from the Internet and books on the mathematical
expression of potential energy.
2. Support the soft board on two bricks.
3. Measure the mass of the third brick by using a beam balance then place it
on the soft board.
4. Now lift the third brick to a height h1. Let your partner measure the height
h1, in metres.
5. Allow the brick to drop gently onto the soft board. Observe what happens
to the soft board.
6 . Calculate the potential energy gained by the stone using the expression of
potential energy you got from the research.
7 . Repeat the activity with the other two different heights h2 and h3.
8. Compare and discuss your observations and values of PE in the three cases and
deduce a general conclusion from your discussion.

In your discussion in activity 6.15, you should have noted that if a stone is lifted
upwards through a height h; and placed on a table (Fig 6.3), work is done against
gravity.

F
h

mg

Fig. 6.3: Potential energy depends on height, h.

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The work done to overcome gravity is equal to the gravitational potential energy
gained by the stone.
But work done = F×h ; F = mg
∴ work done = mg × h
But, potential energy = work done.
Therefore: P.E = mgh

Example 6.6

A crane is used to lift a body of mass 30 kg through a vertical distance of 6.0 m.

(a) How much work is done on the body?
(b) What is the P.E stored in the body?
(c) Comment on the two answers.

Solution
(a) Work done = F × d = mg × d = 30 × 10 × 6 = 300 × 6 = 1 800 J
(b) P.E = mgh = 300 × 6 = 1 800 J
(c) The work done against gravity is stored as P.E in the body.

Caution

A stone dropped from the roof of a building will cause more pain if it
falls on someone’s foot than when the same stone falls from a table.
This is because the one on the roof has more gravitation potential
energy because it is at a greater height (position) above the ground.

(ii) Elastic potential energy

In Activity 6.14, we saw that a stretched catapult or compressed (Fig. 6.4(a)) has
energy stored inform of elastic potential energy. When the stretched spring catapult
is released it releases the energy that can be used to do work e.g. to throw a stone.

Fig. 6.4: A compressed and a stretched spring

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We will learn more about elastic potential energy and how to determine it in
Senior 2.

(b) Kinetic energy

Activity 6.16
To demonstrate kinetic energy

Material: trolley, table

Steps
1. Place a trolley on the table and give it a slight push. Observe what happens
to it. Explain your observations.
2. Now, observe any moving objects or things around you. Which energy do you
think they possess when they are in motion?

From your discussion in activity 6.16, you should have observed that the trolley
starts to move once given a slight push. It possess energy as it moves. The energy
which is possessed by a moving object due to its speed is called kinetic energy (KE).
Examples of objects that posses KE include moving air, rotating windmills, falling
water, rotating turbines and a moving stone. In general, any moving body possesses
energy called kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of a moving body is given by:
1
Kinetic energy = mv2 , where m and v are the mass and velocity of the
2
body respectively.

Excercise 6.3
1. Define the term energy.
2. State and explain briefly six forms of energy.
3. Differentiate between:
(a) Potential energy and kinetic energy.
(b) Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.
4. A brick of mass 0.5 kg is lifted through a distance of 100 m to the top of
a building. Calculate the potentials energy attained by the brick.

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6.5 Sources of energy

Activity 6.17 To identify and name sources of energy

Materials: Internet, reference books, a stream of water or a water tap

Steps
1. Tell your group members the meaning of the terms ‘source’ and ‘energy
source’.
2. Now, think of plants, animals, vehicles and so on. Where do you think their
energy comes from? What of electricity used in your school and at home,
where does it come from?

From your discussion in activity 6.17, you should have learnt that the word
‘source’ means the beginning of something e.g. the stream begins from the
mountain or hills around your school.

Hey!!

Are you aware that cutting down trees will lead to the loss of our forest
in our country and consequently the loss of water sources? Let us
protect our water sources by planting more trees.

You should have also established that the energy source is a system which produces
energy in a certain way. For instance, a hydroelectric station uses the motion of
the water of the river to turn the turbines and thus producing electricity.
There are two kinds of energy sources;
1. Primary sources.
2. Secondary sources.

Primary sources of energy

Activity 6.18 To identify primary sources of energy

Materials: reference books

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Steps
1. Conduct a research from the Internet and reference books on primary
sources of energy.
2. In your research find out:
(a) The types of primary sources of energy.
(b) The generation of energy from each source.

From your research and discussion in activity 6.18, you should have established
the following that Primary Sources are from sources which can be used directly
as they occur in the natural environment. They include.
1. Flowing water
2. Nuclear
3. Sun
4. Wind
5. Geothermal ( interior of the earth)
6. Fuels
7. Minerals
8. Biomass (living thing and their waste materials
• Water

(a) Flowing water - the flowing water from dams rotate turbines at the bottom
of the dam which turn the generator resulting in generation of electricity.
This water is kept behind a dam (reservoir) and released at a controlled
rate downwards where it meets the turbines and turns them. An example is
Ntaruka dam on river Burera in Butaro Rwanda.
(b) Waves - energy from water waves (generated by winds) is also used in
generating electricity using sea wave converters. An example is pelamis wave
energy converter, a technology that uses the motion of ocean surface waves
to create electricity.

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• Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is created through reactions that involve the splitting or merging
of the atoms of nuclei together. The process of splitting of large atoms such as
those of uranium into smaller atoms is called fission. Fusion on the other hand,
is the combining of two smaller atoms such as hydrogen or helium to produce a
heavier atom. All these reactions release heat which is turned into electricity in
nuclear power plants (Fig 6.5). An atomic bomb derives its energy from these
kinds of reactions.

Fig 6.5: Nuclear plant

• The sun
The sun is the biggest source of energy and has played an important role in shaping
our life on earth since the dawn of time.
The sun gives off radiant energy in form of electromagnetic waves. The light energy
(visible spectrum) part of the spectrum can be converted directly into electricity in
a single process using the photovoltaic (PV) cell otherwise known as the solar cell.
The solar thermal energy is used for heating swimming pools, heating water for
domestic use (solar heater) and heating of building. Solar thermal electricity
generation is where the sun’s rays are used to heat a fluid for the production of
high pressure and high temperature steam. The steam is in turn converted into
mechanical energy in a turbine to generate electricity.

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(a) Solar panel (b) Solar heater

Fig. 6.6: Solar panel and solar heater

• Wind

Wind is caused by the sun heating the earth unevenly. The air is heated differently
causing hotter air to expand rise, and the colder one to condense and sink. This
results to the movement of air and hence formation of wind.
Modern wind turbines placed on the top of steel tubular towers harness the
natural wind in our atmosphere and convert it into mechanical energy and then
to electricity.
Wind mills (Fig. 6.7) are also be used to pump water from the underground and
do some other work.

Fig 6.7: Wind mills

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• Geothermal energy

Geothermal gradient is the difference in temperature between the core (interior)

of the earth (planet) and its surface brings about conduction of heat from the
core to the surface. The earth’s internal heat is generated from radioactive decay
and continual heat loss from the earth’s formation.
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing to heal some
diseases as in some cultures. Geothermal energy is also used to generate electricity
at geothermal power stations where heat is used to heat water to get steam which
in turn is used to turn the turbines to generate electricity.

Fig. 6.8: Geothermal power station

• Thermal energy

Thermal energy is the internal energy in a system by virtue of its temperature. It

is defined as the average translational kinetic energy possessed by free particles
in a system of free particles in a thermodynamic equilibrium. It can also include
the potential energy of a system’s particle which may be an electron or an atom.
Thermal (heat) energy is transferred of heat across the system boundaries.Thermal
energy is important in our daily life, for example in warming the house, cooking,
heating the water and drying the washed clothes.

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• Biogas

Activity 6.19 To conduct research on how to produce biogas

Materials: bio-digester
Make a trip to a farm with biogas plant and take turn to ask about working of
biodigester

Biomass is the total mass of organic matter in plant or animal. It is used to generate
energy e.g. through burning to give heat energy.
When bacteria acts on biomass, a gas called biogas is produced which is flammable
hence is used as fuel to produce heat. It is a mixture of 65% methane and 35%
carbondioxide.
A biogas plant or digester collects and directs the gas through pipes to the kitchen
for cooking in a house or to a generator where electricity is produced.
Fig. 6.9 shows a biogas plant. Biogas pipe

Biogas Storage Tank

Biogas inlet Biogas outlet

Biogas Digester

Fig. 6.9: Biogas plant

• Fuels
Fuels are substances which produce heat when burnt in the presence of oxygen.
They include kerosene, diesel, biogas, are sources of energy in homes, industries.
In the process of combustion, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into
heat energy that is converted to other forms as desired.

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• Chemical energy
Chemical energy is stored in the chemical bonds of atoms and molecules. It can
only be seen when it is released in a chemical reaction. When chemical energy
is released, from a substance, the substance is entirely changed into an entirely
different substance.
Some substances that store and release chemical energy are;
(i) Electrolytes – the chemical reactions in an electrolyte in the batteries produce
electricity.
(ii) Petroleum – petroleum is made of molecules containing carbon and
hydrogen. In vapor form, its natural gas and in liquid form, it is crude oil.
Energy from petroleum is used to drive vehicles and to produce electricity.
Examples include jet fuel, gasoline and electricity.
(iii) Wood – dry wood acts as a store of chemical energy. This chemical energy
is released when wood burns and it’s converted into heat and light energy.
(iv) Food – the chemical energy in food is released while the food is being
digested. As the bonds between the atoms of the food break, new substances
are created and chemical energy is given out.
Warning

Subjecting a battery to abuse or conditions for which it was never
designed can result in uncontrolled and dangerous failure of the battery.
This may include explosion, fire and the emission of toxic fumes. Keep
batteries well out of reach of children.
Button batteries are small and can be found in toys, calculators, remote
controls, watches.

• Light energy
The potential of light to perform work is called light energy. It is formed through
chemical radiation and mechanical means. It is a form of energy produced by
hot bodies and travels in a straight line. It’s the only form of energy that we can
see directly (visible light). It can be converted like sunlight energy is used during
photosynthesis by planets to create chemical energy. UV lights are often used by
forensic scientists to see details that are not seen by unaided eyes.

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Secondary sources of energy

Activity 6.20 To identify secondary sources of energy

Materials: reference books, Internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research from the internet and reference books on secondary
sources of energy.
2. In your research, find out what secondary sources of energy are and the
types.

In your discussion in activity 6.20, you should have established that secondary
sources are energy sources that are generated from primary sources. For instance,
electricity is a secondary source because it is generated for example from solar
energy using solar panels or from flowing water using the turbines to generate
hydroelectricity.
Other secondary sources of energy include; petroleum products, manufactured
solid fuels, gases, heat and bio fuel.

6.6 Renewable and non renewable sources of energy

Activity 6.21 To distinguish between renewable and non-

renewable sources of energy

Materials: matchbox, reference books

Steps
1. Take one matchstick from the matchbox and light it.
2. Leave it to burn for few second and then put it off.
3. Use the same matchstick and try to lit it again. Observe and explain what
happens.
4. From the knowledge of sources of energy, what do you think renewable
and non-renewable sources are?
5. Discuss your observation in steps 2 and 3 with your class partner.
6. Now, conduct a research from internet and reference book on renewable
and non renewable energy source.
7. Compare and discuss your findings with other groups in your class.

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Hey!!! Be safe
Always be careful with fire. It can cause massive damage which can
results to loss of properties and lives.

From your discussion in Activity 6.21, you should have noted that the burnt
matchstick cannot be used again for the same purpose. Similarly, there are energy
sources that cannot be used again once used to generate energy. They are called
non renewable sources while those that can be used again without exhausting
them are called renewable resources.
Renewable energy sources
A renewable energy source is an energy source which can’t be depleted/exhausted.
They exist infinitely i.e. never run out. They are renewed by natural processes.
Examples include;
(i) Sun (iii) Geothermal
(ii) Wind (iv) Trees
However, some like trees they can also be depleted, like trees and animals if used
too much more than the natural process can renew them. So it’s advisable to take
precaution while using them, that is, they should be conserved.
Non-renewable energy sources
These are sources which can be depleted because they exists in fixed quantities. So
they will run out one day. Examples are coal, crude oil, natural gas, and uranium.
Fossil fuels like coal, crude oil, natural gas are mainly made up of carbon. They
are usually found in one location because they are made through the same process
and material. Millions of years ago dead sea organisms, plants, and animals
settled on the ocean floor and in porous rocks. With time, sand, sediments and
impermeable rock settle on the dead organic matter, as the matter continue to
decay forming coal, oil and natural gas. Earth movements and rock shifts creates
spaces that force these energy sources to collect at well-defined areas. With the
help of technology, engineers are able to drill down into the sea bed to mine these
sources and harness the energy stored in them.

6.7 Environmental effects of the use of energy sources

Activity 6.22 To investigate the environmental effects of the

use of energy sources

Matereials: reference books, Internet

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Steps
1. Conduct a research from the Internet and reference books on environmental
effects of the use of energy sources.
2. In your research, identify the effects and suggest the measure to be taken
to ensure safe use of those resources.
3. Record down your findings from your discussion and report to the whole class
through your secretary.

In Activity 6.22, you should have learnt that, there is no such thing as a completely
“clean” energy source. All energy sources have atleast an effect to the environment.
Some energy sources have a greater impact than others. Energy is mostly lost into
the environment in form of heat and sound.
The following are some of the effects of use of the energy sources to the
environment:
• air and water pollution • deforestation
• climate change and global warming. • land degradation

(a) Air and water pollution

Fossil fuels e.g petroleum, diesel are used in factories. Very harmful by-products
may be released to the atmosphere or water bodies. Carbon monoxides, sulphur
dioxide and carbon dioxide may be released to the atmosphere causing air pollution
that may harm living things that depend on air. When human beings inhale some
of the polluted air, they can develop respiratory diseases. The wastes disposed to
the water bodies can cause death of living things in the water. It also make the
water unsafe for human consumption.
Factories and industries operators are encouraged to use bio-fuels which are less
harmful to the environment. Most factories are trying to clean up the waste so as
to reduce the environmental pollution.

(b) Climate change and global warming

Most energy sources e.g fossil fuels, coal etc, when used as sources of energy,
produce wastes such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and mercury which are
the greenhouse gases. The accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere make the
temperatures to be higher than the normal. This is referred to as global warming.
Sometimes, these gases interfere with the climate causing very high temperature
in the atmosphere, acidified rains, frequent droughts, floods etc. This results to
climate change.

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The greenhouse gases e.g. excess carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc destroy the
ozone layer exposing living things to dangerous emissions from the sun e.g. UV
rays.
Release of these harmful gases into the atmosphere is a global problem and very
many environmental agencies are encouraging on the proper disposal of these
wastes.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNICED) lead
Nations to sign a joint treaties to pursuire of economic development in ways that
would protect the earth’s environment and non renewable resources but it is still
a problem up to now.

(c) Deforestation
Using firewood and charcoal in most African countries lead to loss of biodiversity
and erosion due to loss of forest cover. These may lead to deforestation i.e. the
reduction of forest cover. Of great concern is that Africa is losing forest twice as fast
as the rest of the world.
Human beings are encouraged to use green energy that is renewable and have
less effect to the environment.
With your help we can support projects that help to train and educate forest
communities so that they can use forests in a sustinable manner and protect their
livelihoods for years.

(d) Land degradation

Land degradation is the process in which the value of bio-physical environment is
affected by human – induced activity on the land. It is caused by over-cutting of
vegetation e.g. forest, and woodland, for firewood and disposing factory wastes
to the soil that may contaminate the soil. Use of non-biodegradable sources of
energy is encouraged.
Let’s adopt the use of biogas in cooking, energy saving stoves and reduce the use
of firewood to the possible level and amount of smoke generated reducing the
impact of indoor air pollution. This will reduce environmental impacts.

Exercise 6.4
1. Differentiate between energy and power.
2. In groups of two, identify any three primary sources of energy and hold a
discussion on their:
(a) definition and origin.
(b)importance to us and our country.

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3. Choose any renewable energy resource. Brainstorm on two to three jobs

opportunities available in that field.
4. Distinguish between the terms renewable resource and non-renewable
resources.
5. Give one example of a body with potential energy due to its state.

6.8 Energy transformations

Activity 6.23 To investigate energy transformation

Materials: an electric heater, radio, water in a basin.

Steps
1. Place the electric heater in the basin with water and connect it to the socket.
2. Put on the switch. Observe and explain what happens after a couple of
minutes. Suggest the types of energy involved in this case.
3. Now, disconnect the heater and connect the radio to the socket.
4. Turn the radio on and suggest the types of energy involved.
5. Repeat the activity by connecting wires, battery, switch and bulb. Observe
and explain what happens when you make simple circuit and the switch is
closed.
6. Discuss the meaning of energy transformation and give five examples of
energy transformation.
7. What the name given to devices such as the radio, heater, battery, bulb etc.
that converts energy from one form to another.
8. Discuss other forms of energy transformation and show with diagrams how
energy is transformed from one form to another on the chalkboard.

Hey!!! Be safe

Don’t touch water while an electrical heater is on, you may get an
electrical shock.

From your discussion, you should have observed that the water in the basin boils.
Electrical energy has been converted to heat energy which boils the water. When
the radio was connect to the socket and turned on, electrical energy is converted
to sound energy.

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In step 5, when the wires are connected, the bulb is seen to give off light when
you close the switch. This is because chemical energy in the battery has been
converted to electrical energy which is then changed to light energy in the bulb
and some part to heat energy.
Therefore, energy in many of its forms may be used in its natural process or to
provide some services to society such as heating, refrigeration, or performing
mechanical work to operate machines. This is possible because energy can be
changed from one form to another. This process of changing of energy from one
form to another is called energy transformation. A device that converts energy
from one form to another is known as a transducer.
Fig 6.10 is a chart that shows some examples of energy transformation in our
day to day activities.

Nuclear
Nuclear reactor

Heat
Chemical
n
ctio
rea

u ple
co
ar
is

o at
Electrolys

cle

rm he
he ic
Dry cell

ctr
Nu

T
Ele
Sound

ker
dspea phon
e
Lou Micro
am
Ste ne
i
Electrical eng ion
bing rat
Rub ess Vib
c
pro
Gen
erat
Elec or
tric tric
Elec mot
or
ell Mechanical
r c
Sola

Light

Fig. 6.10: A flow chart of energy transformation

Let us consider a few examples of energy transformation:

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1. Hammering a nail
Heat

Chemical energy Potential energy

in our bodies of hammer K.E

Sound
Fig. 6.11: Energy transportation
2. Lighting a bulb using a battery
Radiant heat

Chemical energy
Electrical energy
in the battery

Light energy
Fig. 6.12: Energy transformation
3. Hydroelectric power

Potential Kinetic energy K.E of Electrical

energy of water of falling water rotation of energy
in the water turbines
reservour

Heat and sound

Fig. 6.13: Potential energy and its transformation

Other examples of energy transfomers.

Wind turbines use wind energy to transform it into electricity.
Energy from food (chemical energy) can be transformed in energy to play and run.
A solar cell/ panel convert radiant energy of sunlight to electrical energy that
can be used to give off lightning a bulb or to power a computer
The sun gives the grass thermal energy which helps it to grow by transforming
the energy into chemical energy using photosynthesis. Animals eat grass and help
them to grow and have power to run.
A microphone changes electric energy to sound energy and so on.

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One other example of energy transformations occurs when lightning strike. If

it hits a tree, it’s electrical energy will be changed to heat and thermal energy.
The tree will become hot and can even burn as a result of electric discharge, it
can split and the leaves dry.

Exercise 6.5
1. Table 6.2 shows how energy is converted from form A to form B and the
devices concerned. Complete the table.

Form A Form B Device

Electrical Sound Loudspeakers
Electrical Kinetic _
_ Electrical Photocell
Sound Electrical _
_ Electrical Thermocouple
_ _ Heater
Table 6.2: Forms of energy

2. Describe the energy changes that occurs in the following processes.

(a) When you lift a brick to a certain height.
(b) When you lift a brick and let it slide down a rough slope until it
reaches the surface of the slope.
3. Describe the forms of energy shown in Fig 6.14.

Fig. 6.14: Forms of energy

4. Name the changes in energy that take place when a torch is switched on.
5. Name the energy changes that take place when lighting a match box.

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6.9 Law of conservation of energy

Activity 6.24
To demonstrate the law of conservation of energy

Materials: a ball
Steps
1. Hold a football at a height of 1 m above the ground. What type of energy
does the ball posses at that position?
2. Release the ball to start falling freely to the ground. What type of energies
does the ball posses while falling?
3. What type of energy does the ball posses while just about to touch the
ground.
4. Ignoring air resistance, compare the amount of energy possesed by the ball
in step 1 and 3. What can you conclude?

When the ball was stationary at a point 1 m above the ground in Activity 6.24, it
possed P.E only. When released the P.E starts being converted to K.E hence the
ball dropped. When it was just about to touch the ground, all the P.E had been
converted to K.E hence by ignoring air resistance,
Initial P.E = final K.E
We say that energy has been conserved.
This is summarised in the law of conservation of energy.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed
but is simply converted from one form into another.

Energy can be inter-converted among many forms, mechanical, chemical, nuclear,

electric, and others but the total amount of it remains constant.
For instance, in boiling water using a kettle, electrical energy drawn from the
power source flows into the heating element of the kettle. As the current flows
through the element, the element rapidly heats up, so the electrical energy is
converted to heat energy that is passed to the cold water surrounding it. After a
couple of minutes, the water boils and (if the power source remains in the water)
it starts to turn into steam. Most of the electrical energy supplied into the kettle
is converted to heat energy in the water though some is used to provide latent
heat of evaporation (the heat needed to turn a liquid into a gas without a change
in temperature).
If you add up the total energy supplied by the power source and the total energy
gained by the water, you should find they are almost the same.The minor difference
would be due to energy loss in other forms.

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Why aren’t they exactly equal?

It’s simply because we don’t have a closed system. Some of the energy from the
power source is converted to sound and wasted (kettles can be quit noisy). The
kettles also give off some heat to their surrounding so that’s also wasted energy.
Another example is a flying ball, that hits a window plane in a house, shattering
the glass. The energy from the ball was transferred to the glass making it shatter
into pieces and fly in various directions.

6.10 The law of conservation of mechanical energy

Activity 6.25 To verify the law of conservation of mechanical
energy

Materials: A smooth metallic hemispherical bowl, a ball bearing

Steps
1. Place the hemispherical bowl on the bench in a stable position. Mark at
point A on the inside surface of the bowl at point A on the inside surface
of the bowl
2. Place the ball bearing at point A and release it to slide downwards freely
along the inside surface of the bowl as shown in Fig. 6.15.

E
A
h D
B
C

Fig. 6.15: A ball bearing sliding oscillating in a bowl

3. Mark point B where the ball rises to on the opposite side in the bowl.
4. Compare the vertical height of points A and E. What do you notice?
5. Repeat the activity with point A at a lower vertical height.
6. What type of energy does the ball bearing posses at points A, B, C, D and
E.
7. Compare and comment on the total amount of energy possessed by the
ball bearing points A, B, C, D and E.
8. Make a conclusion based on your observation in step 7.

From your research and discussion in activity 6.25, you should have learnt that
the law of conservation of mechanical energy states that

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The total mechanical energy (sum of potential energy and kinetic energy) in a
closed system will remain constant/same.
A closed system is one where there are no external dissipative forces (like friction,
air resistance) which would bring about loss of energy.
The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy anywhere during the motion
must be equal to the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy anywhere else
in the motion.

To demonstrate the law of conservation of mechanical energy

(a) A swinging pendulum

Activity 6.26 To demonstrate the law of conservation of M.E

using a swinging pendulum

Materials: a bob, string

Steps
1. Tie a string to the bob and fix it to a rigid object.( See Fig. 6.16).
2. Pull the bob to the right or left side at an angle and then release it. Observe
the movement of the bob.
3. Draw a diagram for the motion of the pendulum and discuss with your
class the energy changes at various points e.g. A, B, C, D and E shown in
Fig. 6.16.

A E
B D
C
Fig. 6.16: A swinging pendulum

From the above activity 6.26, you should have noticed that the bob will attain a
maximum potential energy due to its height above the ground at point A she have
minimum kinetic energy because it is at rest.
When it swings after letting it go, it will start loosing potential energy as it gain

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kinetic energy at point B because of its motion. As it passes through the lowest
point point C, its potential energy is minimum kinetic energy will be maximum.
Because of its kinetic energy, it swings up to the other side and now its kinetic
energy starts decreases as, potential energy increases at point D until when it
reaches the maximum point E where it stops moving momentarily. At that point,
it has maximum potential energy but minimum kinetic energy.
At all positions, the total mechanical energy is constant (conserved). That is
kinetic energy + potential energy = constant. Therefore, mechanical energy has
been conserved.

(b) A body thrown upwards

Activity 6.27 To demonstrate the law of conservation of M.E

using a ball thrown upwards

Materials: tennis ball

Steps
1. Throw a tennis ball upwards. Observe the movement up to the maximum
(highest) point.
2. Now, drop the ball from a high point e.g from top of the building or a cliff
(see Fig 6.16).
3. Sketch its motion on a paper at three different intervals, starting from the
lowest when thrown upwards or from highest when dropped from a cliff.
4. Indicate the forms of energy at each stage.

In your discussion, you should have learnt that when a body (e.g. a ball) is thrown
up vertically, it has maximum speed, (maximum kinetic energy) at the starting
point.
The ball moves up with a reducing speed because of the force of gravity acting on
it downwards until it reaches the maximum point/ height where it stops moving
momentarily and it falls back.
At maximum height, it has a maximum potential energy and minimum kinetic
energy because the body is not moving. So the kinetic energy at the bottom is all
turned into potential energy at the maximum point (Fig 6.17).

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P.Emax K.E = 0

P.E = K.E
cliff

object P.E = 0
K.Emax
ground

Fig. 6.17: Sketch of a ball thrown upwards

The ball is under free fall because it is only being acted upon by the force of
gravity. Initially the ball has maximum potential energy and no kinetic energy.
As it falls down, its potential energy keeps on reducing as its position above the
ground reduces but its kinetic energy is increasing because it speeds up as it falls
downwards.
The kinetic energy at the ground level is equal to the potential energy at the top
of the wall. Hence mechanical energy is conserved.

Exercise 6.6
1. A pendulum bob swings as shown in the diagram. Fig 6.18

Pendulum bob

Start

Fig 6.18: A pendulum swinging

At which position (s) is:
(a) the kinetic energy of the pendulum bob least.
(b) the potential energy of the pendulum bob most.
(c) the kinetic energy of the pendulum bob the most.
(d) the potential energy of the pendulum bob the least.

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2. State the following laws:

(a) law of conservation of energy
(b) law of conservation of mechanical energy.
3. Describe how mechanical energy is conserved.

6.11 Ways of conserving energy

Activity 6.28 To do research about conservation of energy and

identify ways of conserving energy

Materials: internet, reference book

1. Conduct a research from Internet and reference books on ways of conserving
energy.
2. In your research, identify different ways of conserving energy and find out
what energy efficiency is.

From your research and discussion in activity 6.28, you should have established
that energy conservation is the act of saving energy by reducing the length of use.
In other words, to conserve energy, you need to cut back on your usage.
For example, driving your car fewer miles per week, turning your thermostat
down a degree or two in the winter time and unplugging your computer or home
appliance when they are not in use. All these ways reduce the amount of energy
you use by doing without or using less fuel or electricity. It can help reduce the
monthly heating and electricity bills and save money at the gas pump. You also
reduce the demand of fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas. Less burning of fuels
means lower emissions of carbon dioxide, the primary contributor of to global
warming and other pollutants.
Other examples include:
(i) Clean or replace air filters of cars as recommended. Energy is lost when air
conditioners and hot air furnaces have to work harder to draw air through
dirty filters. So save money by replacing old air filters with new (standard)
ones which will take less electricity.
(ii) Select the most energy efficient models when you replace the old appliances.
Look for the energy star label because the product saves energy and prevents
pollution.

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(iii) Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators accounts for about 20% of
the house hold electricity costs. You can use a thermometer to set it at a
temperature close to 37ºC and your freezer as close as 3.
(iv) Buy energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs for the lights you use most.
Although they cost more, they save money in the long run because they
only use a quarter the energy used by ordinary incandescent lamps and
lasting 8-12 times longer.
(v) Reduce the amount of waste you produce by buying minimally packaged
goods, choosing reusable products over disposable ones, and recycling. Use
30% to 50% less paper products, 33% less glass and 90% less aluminum.
(vi) People who live in colder areas should super insulate your walls and ceiling.
It can save your the electricity of heating or fire wood costs.
(vii) Plant shade trees and paint your house a light colour if you live in a hot
country or dark colour if it is a cold country.
If we do not conserve energy, it will be exhausted and we will have nothing to
use. Energy conservation is also important when in managing climate change.
Currently erratic climates and climatic changes are the greatest threats that we
are facing today. Hence it is important to conserve energy.

6.12 Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency is the act of saving energy but keeping the same level of service.
For example, if you turn off the lights when you are leaving a room, that’s energy
conservation, if you replace an efficient incandescent light bulb with a more
efficient compact fluorescent bulb, you are practicing energy efficiency.
Energy efficiency uses advances in sciences and technology to provide services
and products that require the use of less energy.

Exercise 6.7

1. (a) Demonstrate how mechanical energy is conserved.

(b) What is energy efficiency?
2. By identifying practical activities in our daily lives, discuss how you can
conserve energy.

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Project work 1
Energy saving charcoal burner
In most developing countries, wood is the most important source of energy mainly
for cooking. The amount of wood consumed depends on the climate, culture and
availability. Most people use open, three stone fireplaces for cooking.The fireplaces
are often dirty, dangerous and inefficient. The smoke and soot settles on utensils,
walls, ceiling and people. The smoke produced in fireplaces irritates people posing
danger to health. The fireplaces have been found to be about 10-15% efficient.
In view of the above, energy saving stoves have been designed. Most of these stoves
use charcoal. Charcoal is preferred to wood in urban areas because of its portability,
convenience and cleanliness. In designing energy saving stoves, one should try
to minimise energy losses to the surrounding. One of the many advantages of a
charcoal stove, is that the rate of charcoal burning can be controlled.

Materials

Metal sheets and clay

Construction

Cut the metal sheet into a circular sheet (Fig. 6.19(a)). The radius AO will depend on
the size of the stove required. Mark arc AB which represents the circumference of the
mouth of the charcoal burner. Draw AO and OB. Draw arc CD. The radius OD will
depend on the area of the base on which the charcoal is to rest. Cut the section ACDB.

Assembly

Fold the plate ACDB in a shape of a cone as shown in Fig. 6.19(b). Rivet the sides AC
and BD together.
Repeat the procedure to construct the lower compartment. But this time make AC and
DB shorter.

A B A, B
C D

O
C, D
(a) Circular metal sheet (b) Upper compartment

Fig. 6.19: Making the upper compartment of an energy saving charcoal burner
Bring the two compartment together and join them by riveting Fig. 6.20(a). Cut off a
small section of the lower compartment and construct a gate. Mould clay in such a shape
that it fits into the upper compartment. Make the air holes while the clay is still wet.
Allow the clay to dry. Construct the stands for holding the cooking pot. A complete stove

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should look like the one shown in Fig. 6.19(b).

Base with air inlet holes

Clay

Metal

Gate Gate

(a) Upper and lower compartment joined (b) Complete charcoal burner

Fig. 6.20(a): Upper and lower compartments joined to make a complete charcoal burner
Larger stove can be made by cutting the sheet as shown in Fig. 6.21.

or O
A B
C D
C D
A B
Fig. 6.21: Larger jikos

Project work 2
Solar heater

Solar energy can be trapped with the help of solar heater and utilized to heat water.
The most common type of solar water heater incorporates a flat-plate solar collector
and a storage tank. The tank is positioned above the collector. Water from the tank is
circulated through the collector and back to the tank by means of convectional currents
caused by the heated water.

Construction of a solar heater

Suggested materials

A 20 litre jerry can container, plastic pipes, cellophane paper, half open 20 litre jerry
can, black paint or smoke soot and a wire mesh.

Assembly
Heat collector

Paint the plastic pipes black. Use a wire mesh and curve the plastic pipes as shown
in Fig. 6.22. The size of the wire mesh should be able to fit into an open 20 litre jerry
can container.

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1 2 Pipes

Strings to tie the pipes

onto the wire mesh

Frame work

Half open jerry can

Fig. 6.22: Heat collector

Heat exchanger

Use another 20 litre jerry can (Fig. 6.23) and open at the top to allow the pipes to
enter and then seal it using the same material and a hot object. The hot object will
make the materials to fuse together. Make provisions for water to enter and leave the
heat exchanger when required.
1
Hot water

Water gains
energy

Pipes

Cold
water

2
Fig. 6.23: Heat exchanger

Join pipe 1 of the heater collector to pipe 1 of the heat exchanger. Do the same with
pipe 2. Make sure the collector is inclined at a certain angle to allow water from the
heat exchanger to flow freely. (Fig. 6.24).
Cover the heat collector with a cellophane paper.

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Hot water

Heat exchanger
Hot water
rises
Cold water

Transparent Pump
plastic paper
Cold water

Stand
θ
Heat collector

Fig 6.24: Solar heater

How to use
Fill the pipes of the heat collector with water and expose them to the sun. Allow water
from a reservoir to fill the heat exchanger.

Unit summary and new words

• Work is the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force.
• A joule is the work done when a force of one newton acts on a body and
makes it to move a distance of one metre in the direction of the force.
• When work is done on an object, energy is transferred. Work is said to be
done if a force acts on a body and makes it move (get displaced) in the
direction of the force
• Energy is the ability to do work.
• Moving objects have kinetic energy that depends on the mass of the body
and the velocity.
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position. It
depends on the objects height above the ground.
• The total amount of kinetic energy and potential energy in a system is the
mechanical energy of the system. Mechanical energy = KE + PE.
• Falling, swinging, and projectile motion all involve transformations between
kinetic and potential energy.

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• According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be created

or destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another.
• Energy is converted changes from one form to another by transducers such
as light bulbs, hair driers. For example, a hair drier converts electrical energy
into thermal energy, kinetic energy and sound energy.
• Fuel is a substance which when burnt produces heat.

Unit Test 6
1. Define the term power and give its SI unit.
2. A motor raised a block of mass 72 kg through a vertical height of 2.5 m in
28 s. Calculate the:
(a) work done on the block.
(b) useful power supplied by the motor.
3. A person of mass 40 kg runs up a flight of 50 stairs each of height 20 cm
in 5 s. Calculate:
(a) the work done.
(b) the average power of the person.
(c) explain why the energy the person uses to climb up is greater than
the calculated work done.
4. A runner of mass 65 kg runs up a steep slope rising through a vertical height
of 40 m in 65 s. Find the power that his muscles must develop in order to
do so.
5. A fork-lift truck raises a 400 kg box through a height of 2.3 m. The case is
then moved horizontally by the truck at 3.0 m/s onto the loading platform
of a lorry.
(a) What minimum upward force should the truck exert on the box?
(b) How much P.E. is gained by the box?
(c) Calculate the K.E of the box while being moved horizontally.
(d) What happens to the K.E once the truck stops?
6. A stone falls vertically through a distance of 20 m. If the mass of the stone
is 3.0 kg,
(a) Sketch a graph of work done by the gravity against distance.
(b) Find the power of the gravitational pull.

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7. Mugisha climps 16 m rope in 20 s. If his mass is 60 kg, find the average

power he developed.
8. A car is doing work at a rate of 8.0 × 104 W. Calculate the thrust of the wheels
on the ground if the car moves with a constant velocity of 30 m/s.
9. Uwimbabazi took 55.0 s to climb a staircase to a height of 14.0 m. If her
mass is 40 kg, find:
(a) How much force did she exert in getting to the that level?
(b) Her power?
10. In Fig. 6.25 three positions of a monkey swinging from a branch of a tree
are shown.

A C
B

Fig. 6.25: A monkey swinging

(a) What kind of energy does the monkey have at each position?
(b) What happens to the energy when the monkey is midway between A
and C?
(c) In which positions does the monkey have the least energy? What name
is given to this type of energy?
11. A device which converts one form of energy to another is called a
transducer. Name one transducer in each of the cases energy transformation
given below.
(a) Heat to kinetic energy (b) Electrical to light
(c) Sound to electrical (d) Potential energy to kinetic energy
(e) Chemical to electrical

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12. Discuss the energy transformations in Fig. 6.26.

Fig. 6.26: A boy jumping

13. (a) State the law of conservation of energy.

(b) Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
Give two examples of each.
(c) Explain the energy transformation in a hydroelectric power station.

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UNIT 7 Simple machines (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to analyse relationship between energy,
work and power for simple machines.

Unit outline
• Definition of simple machine.
• Examples of simple machine (lever, pulley, wedge and axle, inclined plane,
screw).
• Working principal of simple machines.
• Machine work out and friction in the machine.
• Mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of a machine.
• Determination of output of simple machine (efficiency).
• Experiment to determine efficiency of simple machines.

Introduction
In everyday life, people perform various tasks in order to improve their standard
of life, environment, quality of health, and understanding of natural phenomena in
order to exploit and be in terms with them. Some of the tasks people do include;
drawing of water from a well using a windless, construction of houses using timber,
nail and harmer, loading and unloading of good into the ships for export, joining
of timber and metal using screws, splitting of firewood using a wedge, digging a
garden in preparation for planting, lifting heavy objects into tracks. The devices
that help us to perform work easily are called machines.
Machines can either be simple or compound. In this unit we are going to learn,
understand and apply the principles behind simple machines.

7.1 Definition of simple machines

Activity 7.1 To appreciate the definition and importance of a
machine

Materials: closed soda bottle, a bottle opener

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Steps
1. Try to open a soda bottle with your hand. What do you notice?
2. Now try opening the same bottle using an opener. Which of the two tasks
is easier and why.
3. Based on your observation in steps 1 and 2, define a simple machine.

A machine is a mechanical device or a system of devices that is used to make

work easier. For example in loading an oil drum onto a truck, it is easier to roll it
up an inclined plane (Fig. 7.1(a)) than lifting it up onto the truck (Fig. 7.1(b)).

(a) Rolling up a drum into a truck (b) Lifting up a drum into a truck
Fig. 7.1: Machines make our work easier

A machine may be defined as any mechanical device that facilitates a force applied at
one point to overcome another force at a different point in the system. Examples of simple
machines include lever, pulley, wedge, wheel and axle, inclined plane, and screws.
A simple machine is a machine that is made up of only one type of machine.
Examples of simple machines are the screw, lever, inclined plane, pulley, wheel
and axel and gears.
A compound machine is made up of more than one simple machines working
together to perform a particular task with ease. An example of a compound machine
is the car engine.The car engine consist of pulley, belts, gears, wheel and axel, pistons
and other simple machines working together to bring about the movement of the car.
In mechanical machines, the force that is applied is called the effort (E) and the
force the machine must overcome is called the load (L). Notice that both the load
and effort are forces which act on the machine.

7.2 Terms used in machines

Activity 7.2 To explain terms used in machines

Materials: Internet, reference books

Steps
1. Conduct a research from the Internet or reference books on the terms used
to describe the ability of machines to do work.

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2. In your research, find out what mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and
efficiency of machine are and their equations.
3. Present your findings to the whole class on the chalkboard.

From Activity 7.2, you should have established the following:

Mechanical advantage (M.A) of machines
Machines helps to overcome a large load by applying a small effort i.e. the
machines magnify the force applied. The number of times a machine magnifies the
effort is called the mechanical advantage (MA) of a machine. In other words, the
mechanical advantage of any machine is the number of times the load is greater
than the effort.
The mechanical advantage is therefore defined as the ratio of load to the effort. It
describes how the applied force compares with the load to be moved. A machine
with a mechanical advantage (M.A) of 1 does not change the force applied on
it. A machine with a M.A of 2 can double your force, so you have to apply only
half the force needed.
force applied by the machine to do the work (Load)
Mechanical advantage =
force applied to the machine by the operator (Effort)

load (N)
∴ Mechanical advantage (M.A) =
effort (N)
Since mechanical advantage is a ratio, it has no units.
Velocity ratio (V.R) of a machine
Velocity ratio of a machine is the ratio of the velocity of the effort to the velocity of
the load.
velocity of the effort
Velocity ratio (V.R) =
velocity of the load

displacement of efforts
time
=
displacement of load
time
Since the effort and the load move for the same time,
displacement of effort effort distance
Velocity ratio (V.R) = or
displacement of load load distance
Velocity ratio has no units

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Efficiency of machines
For a perfect machine, the work done on the machine by the effort is equal to
the work done by the machine on the load. However, there is no such a machine
because some energy is wasted in overcoming friction and in moving the moveable
parts of the machine. Hence, more energy is put into the machine than what is
output by it. Thus,
Work input = Useful work done + Wasted work done
To describe the actual performance of a machine we use the term efficiency.
Efficiency tells us what percentage of the work put into a machine is returned as
useful work.

The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of its energy output to its energy input.
useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
energy input
or
useful work output load × distance moved by load
efficiency = × 100% = × 100%
work input effort × distance moved by effort
load distance load is moved
= × × 100%
effort distance moved by effort
1
= M.A × × 100%
V.R

M.A
Efficiency = × 100%
V.R

Example 7.1
A machine whose velocity ratio is 8 is used to lift a load of 300 N. The effort required
is 60 N.
(a) What is the mechanical advantage of the machine
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the machine
Solution
load 300 N
(a) Mechanical advantage = = =5
effort 60 N
M.A 5
(b) Efficiency = × 100%
V.R 8
= 62.5%

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Example 7.2
An effort of 250 N raises a load of 900 N through 5 m in a machine. If the effort
moves through 25 m, find
(a) the useful work done in raising the load
(b) the work done by the effort
(c) the efficiency of the machine
Solution
(a) Useful work done in raising the load
= load × distance moved by load
= (900 × 5) = 4 500 J
(b) Work done by the effort
= effort × distance moved by effort
= 250 × 25 = 6 250 J
work output
(c) Efficiency = work input × 100%

4 500 J
= × 100 %
6 250 J
= 72%

Example 7.3
Calculate the efficiency of a machine if 8 000 J of work is done on the machine to lift
a mass of 120 kg through a vertical height of 5 m.
Solution
Work done in lifting the load = 1 200 × 5 = 6 000 J
Work input = 8 000 J
work output
Efficiency = × 100%
work input
6 000 J
= × 100%
8 000 J
= 75%

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7.3 Types of simple machines

Activity 7.3 To identify types of simple machines

Steps
1. Brainstorm with your partner how simple machines are classified.
2. Now, access the internet and reference books and do a research on
classification of simple machines.
3. Discuss your findings with others in your class.

Simple machines may be classified into two groups i.e. force multiplier and distance
or speed multipliers. Force multipliers are those that allow a small effort to move
a large load e.g. levers. Distance or speed multipliers are those that allow a small
movement of the effort to produce a large movement of the load e.g. fishing rod,
bicycle gear etc. Let us consider some simple machines and show how they operate.

7.3.1 Levers

Activity 7.4 To demonstrate the working of levels

Materials: a nail, claw hammer, piece of cloth, a pair of scissors, groundnut, pliers.
Part 1
Steps
1. Drive a long iron nail into a piece of timber.
2. Try to remove the nail from the timber using your fingers. What do you
notice? Explain.
3. Repeat step 2 but use a claw hammer instead of your fingers.What happens?

Part 2
Steps
1. Take a piece of cloth and try to cut it into two pieces using your hand.What
happens? Explain.
2. Repeat step 1 but use a pair of scissors instead of hands. What happens?
Explain.

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Part 3
Steps
1. Take a groundnut and try to crash it between your finger. Explain what
happens.
2. Repeat the above but use a nut cracker. What do you observe? Explain.

In activity 7.4, you must have observed that it is difficult to perform the tasks
using your fingers. However, using the simple machine, the work becomes easier.
These types of machines are called levers.
Levers are simple machines that apply the principle of moments. A lever consists of a
rigid bar capable of rotating about a fixed point called the pivot. The effort arm is
the perpendicular distance from pivot to the line of action of effort (See Fig. 7.5).
There are classes of levers. The difference between these types depends on the
position of the pivot (fulcrum) with respect to the load and the effort.
Class 1. The pivot in between the load and the effort. Examples (Fig. 7.2).
Load Pivot
Pivot
Effort
Effort Load

(a) Crowbar (b) Scissors

Effort
Load Pivot

Load Effort
Pivot

(c) Claw hammer (d) Pliers

Fig. 7.2: Pivot between the load and the effort

Class 2. Load between effort and pivot. Examples (Fig. 7.3).
Load
Load
Pivot
Effort

Pivot

Effort

(a) Wheelbarrow (b) Bottle opener

Fig. 7.3: Load between efforts and pivots

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 Mechanics

Class 3. Effort between load and pivot. Examples (Fig. 7.4).

Effort
Load
Effort
Pivot
Load
Pivot Effort
(b) Fishing rod (c) Tweezers
Fig. 7.4: Efforts between load and pivots

Mechanical advantage of levers

Consider a lever with the pivot between the load and the effort (Fig. 7.5).
load arm Pivot
effort arm
x
y
L
E
Fig. 7.5: Mechanical advantage for levers.

Taking moment about the pivot

load × load arm = effort × effort arm

load = effort arm , But load = mechanical advantage

effort load arm effort

y
Mechanical Advantage = effort arm =
load arm x
This also applies to the other types of levers
Since effort arm is usually greater than load arms, levers have mechanical
advantage greater than 1.
Velocity ratio for levers
Consider three types of levers in which the load and the effort have moved a distance
d L and d E respectively (Fig. 7.6).

y x
B x y
dL x
C D C x A D C y D A
A dE E dL dE
L y dE dL
F B F

L F B

Fig. 7.6: Determination of velocity ratio of levers

E

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 Mechanics

Triangles ABC and DFC are similar triangles.

d y
V.R = E =
dL x

In Fig. 7.6(a) and (b), y is greater than x. The velocity ratio is therefore greater
than 1. However in (c), y is less than x, and therefore the velocity ratio is less
than 1. Cases (a) and (b) are examples of force multipliers. All force multipliers
have M.A and V.R greater than 1. Case (c) is an example of distance multiplier
in which both the velocity ratio and mechanical advantage are less than 1.

Example 7.4
A lever has a velocity ratio of 4. When an effort of 150 N is applied, a force of 450 N
is lifted. Find (a) mechanical advantage (b) efficiency of the lever.
Solution
load 450 N
(a) Mechanical advantage = = = 3.0
effort 150 N
3
(b) Efficiency = M.A x 100% = × 100%
V.R 4
= 75%

Example 7.5
A worker uses a crow bar 2.0 m long to lift a rock weighing 750 N (Fig. 7.7).

m
750 N (2 – x) 250 N

x
Fig. 7.7: Crow bar

(a) Calculate the position of the pivot in order to apply an effort of 250 N.
(b) Find the (i) velocity ratio (ii) mechanical advantage and
(iii) efficiency of the lever.
(c) What assumptions have you made?
Solution
effort distance
(a) Applying the principle of moments (b) (i) velocity ratio =
load distance
750x = 250(2 – x)
1.5
750x = 500 – 250x =
0.5
1 000x = 500 =3
x = 0.5 m from the end with 750 N.

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 Mechanics

750
(ii) mechanical advantage = =3
250
M.A 3
(iii) efficiency = × 100% = × 100% = 100%
V.R 3
(c) We have assumed that there is no friction and that the crowbar is weightless

Exercise 7.1
1. A machine requires 6 000 J of energy to lift a mass of 55 kg through a
vertical distance of 8 m. Calculate its efficiency.
2. A machine of efficiency 75% lifts a mass of 90 kg through a vertical distance
of 3 m. Find the work required to operate the machine.
3. A machine used to lift a load to the top of a building under construction
has a velocity ratio of 6. Calculate its efficiency if an effort of 1 200 N is
required to raise a load of 6 000 N. Find the energy wasted when a load
of 700 N is lifted through a distance of 3 m.
4. Define the following terms as applied to levers:
(a) mechanical advantage (b) velocity ratio
5. Find the velocity ratio of the levers shown in Fig. 7.8.

85 cm

cm
15

Load
Fig. 7.8: Levers

7.3.2 Inclined plane

Activity 7.5 To determine the work done on trolley when pulled
on a flat surface and on an inclined plane

Materials: a wooden trolley, a spring balance, tape measure, a trolley, a cardboard,

reference books, Internet.
Steps
1. Attach screw e.g. onto a wooden block. Place a the block on a smooth
horizontal surface.
2. Pull the wooden block with a spring balance to make the block move with
constant speed (Fig. 7.9). Record the force reading on the spring balance
(Fig. 7.9(a)).

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 Mechanics

(a) Pulling the block on a horizontal surface

(b) Lifting the block vertically upwards through (h)

(c) Moving the block along the slope through s

Fig 7.9: Determination of work done
3. Measure the height (h) of a table above the floor using a tape measure.
Calculate the amount of work done when the trolley is lifted from the floor
to the top of table (Fig. 7.9(b)).
4. Incline a wooden plank against the edge of the table.
5. Measure the force needed to pull the trolley up along inclined plane at a
constant speed up to the top of the table (Fig. 7.9(c)).
6. Measure the distance (s) moved by the trolley along the inclined plane.
7. Determine the work done on the trolley when it is pulled up the inclined
plane.
8. Which of the three ways it was easier to lift the trolley?
9. Analyse what force balanced the force applied as the block was being pulled
across the table.

An inclined plane is a ramp or sloping surface that enables a load to be raised more
easily using a smaller effort than when it is raised vertically upwards. It usually
consists of a long plank inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal (Fig. 7.10). It is
thus easier to take a heavy load from A to C by dragging along the plank than
lifting it upwards from B to C.

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 Mechanics

)
t (E
Ef for
d h

θ
A B
Fig. 7.10: Inclined plane

Velocity ratio of an inclined plane

distance moved by effort (d)

Velocity ratio (V.R) =
distance moved by load (h)
Mechanical advantage (M.A) of an inclined plane

If the inclined plane is perfectly smooth (no friction), then the work done on load
is equal to the work done by effort
Work on load = Work done by effort

load × h
= effort × d
load
= d
effort h

d
Hence mechanical advantage =
h
d
The ratio for an inclined plane is always greater than 1, hence its mechanical
h
advantage is greater than 1. In practice, mechanical advantage is usually less than
the calculated values due to frictional force.

To show how the length of an inclined plane affects mechanical advantage

Activity 7.6 To investigate how the length of an inclined plane

affects mechanical advantage
Materials: A trolley, inclined plane, masses
Steps
1. Measure the mass of a trolley. Place it on an inclined plane of length l,
(Fig. 7.11). Add slotted masses until the trolley just begins to move up
the plane.

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 Mechanics

2. Record the values of the load, effort and the length l of the inclined plane.
3. Repeat the activity with inclined planes of different lengths. Make sure the
height, h, and the load are kept constant.

Pulley Trolley (load)

Wire

Friction compensated
slope of length l
h l

Slotted
mass

Effort = mg

Fig. 7.11: How the length of inclined plane affects the mechanical advantage.

4. Record your results in Table 7.1. What happens to the applied effort when
the length of the inclined plane is increased?

Effort E (N) Length, l Mechanical advantage = L

E

Table 7.1: Effort, length and ME values

We observe from the activity that as the length, l is increased, the effort applied is
decreased.
Work done on the load = load × distance moved by the load
= L × h
Work done on the effort = effort × distance moved by the effort
= E×l
But the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the effort i.e.
El = L h
Lh mgh
∴ E = = since L = mg
l l
1
But mgh is a constant: ∴ Eα .
l
Therefore a small effort travels a long distance to overcome a large load.

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 Mechanics

7.3.3 Screws and bolts

Activity 7.7
To investigate the work of screw and bolt

Materials: a screw, bolt, soft wood, a screw driver

Steps
1. Take a taping screw and count the number of threads it has.
2. Use a screw driver to drive the screw into a soft wood. Once it reaches the
end, remove it from the wood.
3. Feel the threads with your fingers.
4. Measure the depth of the hole made by the screw.
5. Measure the total length of all the threads.
6. Compare the length of the threads with the depth of the hole.
7. Count the number of threads.
8. Determine the distance between two consecutive threads (Suggest the
name given to this distance).
9. How many revolution of the screw head makes when the threads disappears
completely into the wood?
10. Repeat the above steps using a bolt and a nut Fig 7.12.

Fig 7.12(a) shows a screw, bolt and nut.

Top view
Nut Bolt

Pitch
Bolt
Screw

Fig. 7.12 (a): Screws, bolts and nut

The distance between the two successive threads is called pitch. When the screw
is turned through one revolution by a force applied at the screw head, the lower
end moves up or down through a distance equal to its pitch. The working of screws
and bolts is based on the principle of an inclined plane.

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 Mechanics

Velocity ratio for a bolt

As the bolt is turned through one revolution, the screw moves one pitch up or
down. The effort turns through a circle of radius R as the load is raised or lowered
through a distance equivalent to one pitch (Fig. 7.13).
Effort
R
velocity ratio = distance moved by effort
distance moved by load
pitch
(p)
circumference of a circle, R 2πR
= = p
pitch (p)
Fig. 7.13: Velocity
V.R =
2πR ratio for a bolt
p
The effect of friction on mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and
efficiency
From activity 7.7 you noticed that the threads felt warm after being driven into
the wood. This means some of the work done was wasted as heat due to friction.
The mechanical advantage of a machine depends on the frictional forces present,
since part of the effort has to be used to overcome friction. However, the velocity
ratio does not depend on friction but rather on the geometry of the moving parts of
the machine. Consequently a reduction of mechanical advantage by friction reduces
the efficiency of a machine.

7.3.4 The wheel and axle

Activity 7.8
To demonstrate action of wheel and axle

Materials: cylindrical rod, y-shaped branches, a stone with string tied to it.
Steps
1. Construct a wheel and axle using locally available materials as shown in Fig.
7.14
Cylindrical rod Tree branch
A B

Fig 7.14: A wheel and axle

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 Mechanics

2. Turn the cylindrical rod at A to raise the stone. What do you realise?
3. Repeat turning the cylindrical rod but this time by turning at C. What do
you realise? Explain.
4. Compare the energy needed to turn the cylindrical rod in the two cases.
5. Which feature of the setup represent the wheel and axle?
6. View the setup from B and draw the wheel, axle, load and effort.
7. Using various loads, find the force which in each case will just raise the
load. Record your results in tabular form as shown in Table 7.2.

Load Effort M.A

Table 7.2:Values of load, efforts and N.A

Fig 7.15 shows simplified examples of wheel and axle.

r
•
R effort

wheel
axle

(a) (b)
load
load

effort effort

load (c)

Fig 7.15: Simple wheel and axle

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 Mechanics

The wheel has a large diameter while the axle has a small diameter. The wheel
and axle are firmly joined together and turn together on same axis. The effort
is applied to the handle in the wheel. When the effort is applied, the axle turns,
winding the load rope on the axle and consequently raising the load.
distance moved by effort 2p × radius of wheel(R)
Velocity ratio = =
distance moved by load 2p × radius of axle (r)
M.A may be obtained by taking moment
Load × radius of axle = effort × radius of wheel
Load radius of wheel R
M.A = = =
Effort radius of axle r

Exercise 7.2
1. Give an example of a lever with a mechanical advantage less than 1. What
is the real advantage of using such a machine?
2. Describe an experiment to determine the velocity ratio of a lever whose
pivot is between the load and the effort.
3. An effort of 50 N is applied to drive a screw whose handle moves
through a circle of radius 14 cm. The pitch of the screw thread is
2 mm. Calculate the:
(a) velocity ratio of the screw.
(b) load raised if the efficiency is 30%.

7.3.5 Pulleys
Activity 7.9 To demonstrate the action of a pulley

Materials: Reference books, Internet, a flag post

Steps
1. Conduct a research from the Internet and reference books on the working
of pulleys and their application.
2. In your research, find out the types of pulleys and how to determine their
velocity ratio.
3. Now, identify a flag post in the school compound. Suggest the kind of
pulley it is.
4. Compare and discuss your findings with other groups in your class.
5. Let one of the group members present your findings to the whole class.

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 Mechanics

A pulley is usually a grooved wheel or rim. Pulleys are used to change the direction
of a force and make work easy. Let us consider three types of pulleys i.e. single
fixed, single movable and block and tackle.
(a) Single fixed pulley
Fig. 7.16 shows a single fixed pulley being used to lift a load. This type of pulley
has a fixed support which does not move with either the load or the effort. The
tension in the rope is the same throughout. Therefore the load is equal to the effort
if there is no loss of energy. The mechanical advantage is therefore 1. The only
advantage we get using such a machine is convenience and ease of raising the load.

Bucket

Load
(water) Effort
Fig. 7.16: Single fixed pulley

Since some energy is wasted due to friction and in lifting the weight of the rope,
the mechanical advantage is slightly less than 1. The load moves the same distance
as the effort and therefore the velocity ratio of a single fixed pulley is 1. Examples
of real life applications of a single fixed pulley are as shown in Fig. 7.17.

(b) Raising bricks

(a) Raising a flag (c) Raising water from a well

Fig. 7.17: Examples of single fixed pulley

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 Mechanics

My health
Ensure you have covered the well/borehole in our homes after use.
Its water may be polluted or even cause death due to accidents.

The single moving pulley

Fig.7.18 shows a single movable pulley. A movable pulley is a pulley-wheel
which hangs in a loop of a rope. A simple movable pulley may be used alone or
combined with a single fixed pull. The total force supporting the load is given
by the tension, T, plus effort, E, but since the pulley is moving up, the tension is
equal to the effort.
Therefore, the upwards force is equal to twice the effort (2E). Hence the load is
equal to twice the effort (2E).
load 2E Tension T Effort E
Mechanical advantage = = = 2
effort E
However, since we also have to lift the pulley, the
mechanical advantage will be slightly less than 2.
Experiments show that the effort moves twice the
distance moved by the load. Therefore,
Load L
Distance moved by effort
velocity ratio = =2 Fig. 7. 18: A single movable
Distance moved by load pulley

A block and tackle

A block and tackle consists of two pulley sets. One set is fixed and the other is
allowed to move. The pulleys are usually assembled side by side in a block or frame
on the same axle as shown in Fig. 7.19 (a). The pulleys and the ropes are called the
tackle. To be able to see clearly how the ropes are wound, the pulleys are usually
drawn below each other as shown in Fig. 7.19 (b).

E
E Upper fixed
Block and pulley block
tackle side
by side
Lower moving
pulley block

(a) Pulley put side by side (b) Pulley drawn below each other
Fig. 7.19: Block and tackle systems.

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 Mechanics

To determine the velocity ratio of a block and tackle

Activity 7.10 To determine velocity ratio of a block and tackle

Materials: A block and tackle pulley system, a load, a metre rule

Steps
1. Set up a block and tackle system with two pulleys in the lower block and
two pulleys in the upper block as shown in Fig. 7.19 (b).
2. Count the number of sections of string supporting the lower block. Raise
the load by any given length, l, by pulling the effort downwards. Measure
the distance, e, moved by the effort. Record the result in a table. (Table
7.3).
3. Repeat the activity by increasing the distance moved by the effort.
4. Plot a graph of e, against, l (Fig. 7.20). Determine the gradient of the graph.

Distance moved by effort (e) cm Distance moved by load l cm

10
20
30
40

Table 7.3: Distance by effort and distane by land

5. Compare the value of the gradient obtained with the number of sections of
supporting strings. What do you notice? Explain.

From Activity 7.10, it should have observed that the distance moved by the effort
1
is distance moved by the load.
4
The graph of effort against the load is as shown in Fig 7.20

∆e

∆l

l (cm)
Fig. 7.20: Graph of the effort against the load.

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 Mechanics

The gradient ∆e which is the velocity ratio is found to be 4. When the value of
∆l
the gradient is compared with the number of sections of string supporting the
lower block, we note that they are the same i.e also 4.

Tip: The velocity ratio of a pulley system is equal to the number of strings sections
supporting the load.
Precaution: The weight of the block in the lower section of the system has to be
considered as this increases the load to be lifted.

Activity 7.11 To determine the mechanical advantage of a block

and tackle
(Work in groups)
Materials: A block and tackle pulley, a load
Steps
1. Assemble the apparatus as in Fig. 7.19 shown in Activity 7.10 and connect
a spring balance on the effort string. For a given load, pull the string on
the effort string until the load just begins to rise steadily.
2. Repeat the activity with other values of load.
3. Record the values of the effort in a table (Table 7.4).

L
L E
E

L
Table 7.4: Values of load (L), effort (E) and
E

4. For each set of load and effort, calculate the mechanical advantage. Plot a
graph of mechanical advantage against the load (Fig. 7.21). Comment on
the shape of the graph.

230
 Mechanics

Fig 7.21 shows a graph of mechanical advantage against the load.

M.A

Load N
Fig. 7.21: Graph of mechanical advantage against the load

As the load increases, the mechanical advantage also increases. When the load is less
than the weight of the lower pulley block, most of the effort is used to overcome the
frictional forces at the axle and the weight of the lower pulley block. That is, the effort
does useless work.
However, when the load is larger than the weight of the lower block, the effort is used
to lift the load. This shows that the machine is more efficient when lifting a load that is
greater than the weight of the lower block. Using the value of the velocity ratio obtained
in Activity 7.11, calculate the efficiency of the pulley system. Plot a graph of efficiency
against load (Fig. 7.22).

Efficiency
(%)

Load (N)
Fig. 7.22: The graph of efficiency against load

The efficiency of the system improves with larger loads.

Example 7.6
For each of the pulley systems shown in Fig. 7.23, calculate:
(i) velocity ratio
(ii) mechanical advantage
(iii) efficiency

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 Mechanics

Solution
(a) (i) velocity ratio = 2 (number of
sections of string supporting the 60 N
lower pulley) 150 N
(ii) mechanical advantage
200 N
= 150 N

= 4 = 1.33
3
4 1
(iii) efficiency = × × 100% 200 N
3 2 (a)
210 N
(b)
= 66.6% Fig. 7.23: Pulley system
(b) (i) velocity ratio = 5
(ii) mechanical advantage (iii) efficiency = 3.5 × 100%
5
load 3.5
= effort = × 100%
5
210 N = 70%
= 60 N = 3.5

Example 7.7
Draw a diagram of a single string block and tackle system with a velocity ratio of 6.
Calculate its efficiency if an effort of 1 500 N is required to raise a load of 5 000 N.

Solution

See Fig. 7.24

Effort
1 500 N velocity ratio = 6
5 000 N 10
mechanical advantage = 1 500 N = 3

M.A 10 1
efficiency = × 100% = 3 × 6 × 100%
V.R
Load
5 000 N = 55.5%
Fig. 7.24: Block Tackle pulley system

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 Mechanics

Example 7.8
A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If its efficiency is 75%.
Find the
(a) mechanical advantage.
(b) load that can be lifted with an effort of 500 N.
(c) work done if the load is lifted through a vertical distance of 4.0 m.
(d) average rate of working if the work is done in 2 minutes.

Solution
M.A load
(a) efficiency =× 100% (b) MA =
V.R effort
M.A load
75 = × 100% 3=
4 500
mechanical advantage = 3
Load = 1 500 N
(c) work = force × distance in the (d) Rate of doing work = Power
direction of force
work done
= 1 500 × 4 Power =
time
= 6 000 J
6 000
= = 50 W
120

Exercise 7.3
1. (a) Draw a system of pulleys with two pulleys in the lower and upper block.
(b) Describe how you would find experimentally its mechanical advantage.
2. Fig. 7.25 shows a pulley system.
Find;
(a) the velocity ratio of the pulley system.
Effort
(b) the mechanical advantage, if the system
is 80% efficient.
(c) the effort.
(d) the work done by the effort in lifting the
load through a distance of 0.7 m. 180 N
Load
(e) how much energy is wasted.
Fig. 7.25: Pulleys system

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 Mechanics

3. A pulley system has a velocity ratio of 3. Calculate the effort required to

lift a load of 600 N, if the system is 75% efficient.
4. A pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. In this system, an effort of 68 N
would just raise a load of 217 N. Find the efficiency of this system.

Unit summary and new words

• A machine is a device that makes work easier.
• Mechanical advantage (M.A) is defined as the ratio of load to effort.
load
• Mechanical advantage = .
effort
The mechanical advantage of a machine depends on loss of energy of the
moving parts of a machine. Mechanical advantage is a ratio of similar
quantities hence it has no units.
• Velocity ratio (V.R) is defined as the ratio of distance the effort moves to
that moved by the load.
Distance moved by the effort
Velocity ratio = Distance moved by the load .

Velocity ratio is a ratio of similar quantities hence it has no units.

• Theoretical value of velocity ratio may be obtained from the dimensions of

the machine e.g. in pulleys–number of the sections of string supporting
the load.

Machine VR

1
Inclined plane sin θ
2πr
Screw pitch, P,

Radius of wheel, R = R
Wheel and axle Radius of axle, r r

Table 7.5: Expressions for velocity ratio of various machinery

work output mechanical advantage
• Efficiency = × 100% = × 100%
work input velocity ratio

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 Mechanics

Unit Test 7
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Power of a machine (b) Efficiency
(c) Mechanical advantage (M.A) (d) Velocity ratio (V.R)
2. A farmer draws water from a well using the machine shown in Fig. 7.26.
The weight of the bucket and water is 150 N. The force, F exerted by the
farmer is 170 N. The bucket and its content is raised through a height of 15
m.
(a) What is the name given to such a
machine?
(b) Why is the force, F, larger than the
weight of the bucket and water? Effort
(c) What distance does the farmer pull the
rope? 150N
(d) How much work is done on the bucket
and water?
(e) What kind of energy is gained by the Fig. 7.26: A simple pulley system
bucket?
(f) How much work is done by the farmer?
(g) Where does the energy used by the farmer come from?
(h) Show with a flow diagram the energy conversion in lifting the water
from the well.
3. A factory worker lifts up a bag of cement of mass 50 kg, carries it horizontally
then up a ramp of length 6.0 m onto a pick-up and finally drops the bag
of cement on the pick-up (Fig. 7.27).

Fig. 7.27: Worker lifting cement on the pick-up

(a) Explain the energy changes in the various stages of the movement
of the worker.
(b) During which stages is the worker doing work on the bag of cement.

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 Mechanics

(c) If the worker has a mass of 60 kg and the ramp is 1.5 m high, find the
(i) velocity ratio.
(ii) efficiency of the inclined plane if the mechanical advantage is 3.
4. Fig. 7.28 shows the cross-section of a wheel and axle of radius 6.5 cm
and 1.5 cm respectively used to lift a load. Calculate the efficiency of the
machine.

Effort
50 N

Load
150 N

Fig. 7.28: Wheel and axle

5. A student wanted to put 10 boxes of salt at the top of

the platform using an inclined plane (Fig. 7.29). plat form
If the resistance due to friction is 10 N, calculate
B
(a) the work done in moving the box m 3.0 m
10 boxes. 7.5

(b) the efficiency of this A C

arrangement. W = 40.0 N ground
(c) the effort required to raise Fig. 7.29: A crane
one box to the platform.
6. A crane just lifts 9 940 N when an effort of 116 N is applied. The efficiency
of the crane is 75%. Find its:
(a) mechanical advantage
(b) velocity ratio
7. Fig. 7.30 shows a pulley system. An effort of 113 N is required to lift a load
of 180 N.
(a) What distance does the effort
move when the load moves 1 m?
113 N
(b) Find the work done by the effort.
(c) Find the work done on the load.
(d) Calculate the efficiency of the 180 N
system. Fig 7.30 A pulley system

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 Mechanics

8. The Fig. 7.31 shows a single fixed pulley.

Calculate its:
(a) V.R
(b) Efficiency 20 000 N
15 000 N

Fig 7.31: Single fixed pulley

9. In the system shown in Fig. 7.32, the

winding machine exerts a force of
2.0 x 104 N
2.0 × 104 N in order to lift a load of
Winding
3.2 × 104 N. machine
(a) What is the velocity ratio?
(b) Calculate the M.A.
(c) Find the efficiency. 3.2 × 104 N
Fig. 7.32: A winding crane

10. Fig. 7.33 shows a pulley system.

(a) What is the velocity ratio of the system?
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the system. Effort
150 N
(c) Show the direction of the force on the string.
11. A block and tackle pulley system has five pulleys. It is
used to raise a load through a height of 20 m with an
effort of 100 N. It is 80% efficient.
Load
(a) Is the end of the string attached to the upper or 400 N
lower block of pulleys if the upper block has three
pulleys? Show it in a diagram. Fig. 7.33: A block and
tackle pulley
(b) State the velocity ratio of the system.
(c) Calculate the load raised.
(d) Find the work done by the effort.
(e) Find the energy wasted.
12. A man pulls a hand cart with a force of 1 000 N through a distance of 100
m in 100 s. Determine the power developed.

237
 Kinetic Theory and States
UNIT 8 of Matter

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to relate physical properties of solids,
liquids and gases to temperature.

Unit outline
• Simple kinetic theory.
• Physical properties of solids.
• Physical properties of liquids.
• Physical properties of gases.
• Applications of physical properties.
• Recognision of physical properties of matter.

Introduction
In our daily life we interact with solids, liquids and gases. We see them behaving in
certain ways under particular conditions. But what are they exactly made of and
what makes them behave in such ways? In this unit we will study the particulate
nature of solids, liquids and gases and their behaviour when heated. This is usually
referred to as the kinetic theory of matter.

8.1 Matter and its composition

Activity 8.1 To describe matter

From your knowledge of science at the primary level:

1. Discuss with your class partner 10 things that surround you.
2. Verify whether these objects have a specific mass and occupy space.
3. What common scientific name should be given to those objects since both
have mass and occupy space?

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As you learnt in your primary science, matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. Anything around us is matter, e.g. cup, a plate, a wall, milk, air, banana and
so on. But what is matter made up of? Activity 8.2 will help us to understand this.

Activity 8.2 To investigate composition of matter

Materials: a piece of chalk

Steps
1. Get a piece of chalk. Break it into two halves.
2. Continue breaking until when the breaking can’t continue any further.
What do you notice about the initial piece of chalk and the final particle
in terms of size?
3. Discuss your observations in step 2 with your colleagues.
4. Discuss with your colleague what you think an element, compound and mixture
are.

From Activity 8.2, we observe that matter is made of tiny particles. The smallest
particle of mater that can’t be broken down further is called an atom. An atom is
the smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Warning

Talking of tiny particles/things that have a great impact, the HIV/AIDS

virus for instance, is a very tiny infectious virus that has killed over 25
million people since the beginning of the epidemic in the early 1980s.
Currently, over 33.4 million people in the world are infected with HIV
or have AIDS, meaning they are in the final stage of the HIV disease.
There is NO CURE for HIV or AIDS. That means prevention is the
most important step in protecting your health. SAY NO TO SEX
BEFORE MARRIAGE.

Matter can be made of particles (atoms) of the same kind or a mixture of particles
of different kind. Matter made of same kind of particles is called an element, while
that made up of different kinds of particles can be a mixture or a compound.
An element is a substance which cannot be split into a simpler substance. In other
words, all the atoms in a substance have the same identity that substance is called
an element e.g. copper, graphite in pencil (carbon).

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A compound is a substance made of two or more elements combined together

in a fixed proportion. E.g. water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen, table salt is
made of sodium chloride, chalk is made up of calcium carbonate, that is, calcium,
oxygen, and carbon.
Mixtures is a material made up of two or more substances that can easily be
separated by physical means. e.g. pizza.

8.2 Physical properties of matter

Matter can be in the form of solids, liquids and gasses and can be classified based
on its chemical property and physical properties that have been tested and have
been observed.
Some physical properties are only known through experimentation, while others
are visible to the unaided eyes.

Activity 8.3 To differentiate between physical and chemical

properties of matter

Materials: piece of dry wood, bunsen burner, match box, magnet and a rail,
piece of paper
Steps
1. Bring a magnet near a piece of wood then to the nail. What do you observe?
Take it away. Do the wood and nail change in any way?
2. Light a match stick or a bunsen burner and burn either the paper or a piece
of dry wood to ashes. After that, check if the ash still the same as wood (If
they have the same composition). What can be done to the ash to turn it
back into wood or piece of paper?

You observed that the composition of the piece of wood and nail does not change
after being brought near the magnet. Such a property that is observed on matter
and it does not change its composition is called a physical property.
A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed or measured without
changing the composition of the sample.
For example copper is a solid metal at room temperature, with a high melting
point of about 1083ºC. It is shiny, bendable, and orange-brownish in colour. It
can be stretched into a wire or flattened into a very thin sheet of metal. All these
are physical properties because they do not change into anything else when these
properties are observed. Similarly, passing electricity through copper will not
change it into another substance.

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A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that is only altered

through a chemical reaction and results into a substance of different composition
and internal structure. In the same activity, you observed that when the piece of
wood was burned, the chemical composition change hence it become ash. This
is an example of a chemical property.

In Activity 8.4, we noticed that the spheres of different sizes have different masses.
i.e mass depend on the size (quantity) of the substance. Such a quantity like mass
is called an intensive property. We also noted that density of water is the same
irrespective of the magnitude of volume or mass. Such a quantity like density is
called an extensive quantity.
(i) Intensive property; it is a characteristic of matter that does not depend
on the amount of matter being measured. They are the same even if it is
for one gram or a 1000 kg of the substance. e.g. colour, odour, density,
conductivity, hardness etc.
(ii) Extensive property; is any characteristic of matter that depends on the
amount of matter being measured e.g. mass, weight, volume and length.

In activity 8.5, you should have observed that the magnet attracts iron filings to
itself thus separating them from the sand. This is possible because of the attraction
property between a magnet and magnetic material.

Applications of properties of materials

Some of the applications of properties of materials include:
1. Ductile materials like copper can be drawn into wires which conduct heat
and electricity quickly. That’s why it is used in power cords.
2. Gold can be recast into sheets as thin as 0.1 µm. This property of gold
makes it useful for decorating picture frames and other objects. Gold that
has been recast in this way is called a gold leaf.
3. The element with the highest melting point is tungsten metal which melts
at 3695 K (3422ºC, 6192ºF) making it excellent for use as a filament in
light bulbs.
4. The property of elasticity gives objects the ability to ‘bounce back’ hence
withstand impact without breaking. Examples are netball, and football,
and car tyres.
5. Magnets easily separates iron filings from sand and can be explained by
Activity 8.5.

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Eercise 8.1
1. What is matter?
2. Senior 1 students, Akaliza and Gasimba, were discussing the difference
between physical and chemical properties of matter after carrying out
activities on each of them. How does a physical property of matter differ
from a chemical one?
3. Define the following terms:
(i) an element (ii) a compound
4. Differentiate between intensive and extensive properties of matter and give
two examples of each.

8.3 Introduction to kinetic theory

Activity 8.4 To demonstrate motion of matter using purple crystals of

potassium permanganate, water and a bunsen burner

Materials: two beakers, purple crystals of potassium permanganate, water a

bunsen burner and a perfume.
Steps
1. Get a beaker and pour in water up to more than half its height and leave
it to settle.
2. Get the crystals of potassium permanganate and drop them into the water
in the beaker. What do you observe? Explain your observation.
3. Repeat step 2 but this time heat the beaker gently. Compare your
observations with that in step 2.
4. Stand in one corner of the classroom with a perfume and spray (release
the spray). What is observed by other pupils in the opposite corner after a
few seconds? Explain.
5. Discuss your observations in steps 2, 4 and 5 and state the kinetic theory of
matter.

In Activity 8.4 step 2, the purple colour is seen to spread throughout the water
and when heat is supplied, the colour spreads very first. In step 5, the scent of the
perfume is smelt because the particles of the perfume have moved from one point
to the other. This shows us that matter is made of particles that are constantly
moving. If matter were not moving, then we would only see a clump of colour
as there would be nothing that could move about and mix with the water. The

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movement of these tiny particles is summed up in a model called the kinetic

theory of matter.

The kinetic theory of matter

The word kinetic is derived from the Greek word “kineo” which means “I move”.
Particles in substance are in constant motion; they posses kinetic energy, which
is the energy due to movement. Therefore, kinetic theory of matter states that
matter is made up of tiny discrete individual particles that are continuously in
random motion. It says that the materials particles have greater kinetic energy
and are moving faster at higher temperatures.
When a fast moving particle collides with a slower moving particle, it transfers
some of its energy to the latter, increasing the speed of that particle. If that particle
collides with another particle that is moving faster, its speed will be increased
even more. But if it hits by a slow moving particle, then it will speed up the third
particle.
The theory explains how particles are packed in solids, liquids or gasses; the
attractive forces between them; and the effect of temperature on them. The
arrangement of particles of matter and the way they move determines the state
of a substance, i.e. whether to be in solid, liquid or gaseous state.

Note!
One important fact explained by the kinetic theory is that the average
molecular kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of
the material. A such, temperature is a measure of the average internal
kinetic energy of an object.

8.4 Physical properties of solids

Arrangement of particles in a solid

Activity 8.5 To investigate physical properties of solids

Materials: Internet, reference books, marbles and a transparent square bowl

Steps
1. Access the Internet or reference books and do a research on the physical
properties of solids and their application.
2. Now, put as many marbles into a transparent square bowl as you can.
Incline the bowl a bit.
3. Continue adding more marbles into the bowl as many as possible.

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4. Cover the bowl with a lid and note the pattern (arrangement) of marbles
inside it.
5. Draw the arrangement of the particles.
6. Fill the bow fully with the marble and cover it tightly with a lid. Try to shake
the bowl while pressing the lid firmly. Explain the effect on their pattern
and the movement to your partner.

The pattern of marbles in Activity 8.5 illustrates the arrangement of particles in

a solid. This is shown by the diagram in Fig. 8.1.

molecule

vibration of atoms
Fig 8.1 Arrangement of particles in solids

The particles in a solid are so tightly packed making them difficult to move. Solids
have strong intermolecular forces in between the particles making them particles
to be closely packed in fixed positions (rigidity).
Therefore, solids have a definite shape and volume. They are rigid and
incompressible. They have the highest density compared to liquids and gases.
A large force is needed to change the size and shape of a solid. Also, for a solid to
melt into a liquid, it requires a lot of heat energy since the cohesive forces between
the particles are strong.
Kinetic theory of solids

Particles or molecules in a solid are continuously vibrating in a fixed or mean

position.When a solid is heated, the heat energy absorbed by the particles increases
the kinetic energy; this makes the particles to vibrate more vigorously but in their
fixed positions.
Increase in heat energy increases the kinetic energy in the particles and weakens
the cohesive forces between the molecules up to a point when the intermolecular
forces are weak to allow the matter to flow. This point is referred to as melting.
The process of a solid changing into a liquid is called melting.

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Some physical properties of solids include

• Malleability: is a measure of solid’s ability to be reshaped into other shapes
else like thin sheets. Aluminum is a highly malleable metal. Aluminum foil
and cans are two good examples of how manufacturers take advantage of the
malleability of aluminum.
• Tensile strength: is the measure of how much pulling, or tension a material
can withstand before breaking. It is an important property of fibers, as
it determines the strength of ropes and fabrics. It is also crucial to the
manufacture of cables and girders used to support bridges.
• Conductivity: solids have wide range of electrical conductivities (the easiness
with which heat and electricity to go through it).
On the basis of conductivity the solid can be classified as:
(i) Conductors are good conductor of electricity. Examples are metals.
(ii) Insulators- have very low conductivity. Examples are wood, plastics,
sulphur, rubber.
(iii) Semiconductors- their conductivity is in between conductors and
insulators.
• Elasticity: this is the ability of a material to regain its original size and shape
when the stretching force has been removed. If you pull a rubber band, its
shape changes. If you let it go, the rubber band returns to its original shape.
This property also gives objects the ability to bounce and withstand impact
without breaking.
• Hardness: is a measure of a solid’s resistance to breakage. Diamond is the
hardest natural substance found on earth. Geologists sometimes classify rocks
based on hardness.
• Density: is the mass per unit volume of the substance. The density of a
homogeneous material is the same no matter how large or small the samples
of material.
The density gives an indication of how tightly packed the atoms or molecules
are. For instance, lead has many atoms very tightly packed together. This gives
it a very high density of 11300 kg/m3.
Samples of heterogeneous mixtures may not necessarily have the same density.

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8.5 Physical properties of liquids

Activity 8.6 To investigate physical properties of liquids

Materials: Water in a beaker, bunsen burner, chalk dust

Steps
1. Put the chalk dust on the surface of the water in the beaker. Observe and
explain the motion of the chalk particles.
2. Now, start heating the water to boil. Observe and explain the motion of the
chalk particles.
3. Draw the arrangement of particles in liquids.

In Activity 8.6 the chalk dust particles are seen moving in random manner. Tiny
invisible water molecules, moving in different directions with different speeds,
collide with the chalk dust particles and force them to move. This activity suggests
that the invisible, tiny molecules of water are in a constant random motion.
As seen in activity, the liquid molecules move freely, unlike the molecules in a
solid. The distance between the molecules is slightly greater than the distance
between molecules of a solid. The molecules of a liquid are loosely packed unlike
those of the solid (Fig. 8.2).

molecules

Fig 8.2: Arrangement of particles in liquids

Though solids have a definite volume, they have no definite shape. The force of
attraction between the molecules is lower than the force of attraction between
the molecules of a solid.
Though liquids have definate size (volume), they have no particular shape. They
take the shape of the container.
When the temperature increases, liquid molecules acquire more kinetic energy and
hence move faster. This increase in kinetic energy of liquid molecules weakens the
intermolecular forces between the particles. A further increase in kinetic energy

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makes the molecules to escape through the surface of the liquid. i.e., change into
steam or gaseous state. The process of a liquid changing into the gaseous state is
called evaporation/boiling.

The following are some physical properties of liquids:

(a) Viscosity

Activity 8.7 To demonstrate viscosity in liquids

Materials: house hold liquids (water, honey, oil, milk, paraffin), a sphere such as a
steel ball, 100 ml graduated cylinders, ruler, stopwatch.
Steps

1. Measure equal amounts of water, honey, oil, milk and paraffin and pour
them into different the graduated cylinders.
2. Measure and record the depth of the liquids in the cylinders.
3. Place the sphere on the surface of water. Using a stopwatch, measure and
record how long it takes for it to travel to the bottom of the liquid.
4. Remove the sphere and repeat step 3, two times for the same liquid. What
do you observe?
5. Rinse and dry the sphere.
6. Repeat steps 3,4 and 5 for the rest of the liquids. What do you observe?
Explain your observation.
7. Tabulate your result in a table form as one shown in Table 8.1.
Substance Trial Depth of liquid (cm) Time (s) Speed (s)

Table 8.1: Table of results

From Activity 8.7, you should have noted that the sphere travelled at different
speeds in different liquids. The sphere moved fastest in water and lowest in honey.
This shows that, water has the lowest viscosity than other liquids since it offers
minimum resistance to the movement of the sphere through it. Honey has the
highest viscosity than the other liquids.

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(a) Solubility

Activity 8.8 To dissolve some salt in water

Materials: A beaker, table salt, water, stirrer

Steps
1. Put some crystals of table salt in a beaker
2. Pour some water in the beaker
3. Stir the mixture for sometime.
(a)What happens to the salt crystals?
(b)What name is used to describe this process.

The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that will dissolve
in a given amount of solvent. Some substances are soluble while others are not.
Examples of soluble substances are sugar, salt while insoluble substances are
stones, metals, and sand.

(b) Evaporation

Activity 8.9 To observe evaporation of liquids

Materials: Methylated spirit

Steps
Pour some drops of methylated spirit onto the back of your palm.
(a) What do you feel? Suggest reason.
(b) What happens to the drops of the liquid after some time?
(c) What name is given to this process?

Evaporation is the process of changing from liquid to gas. Evaporation at a liquid’s

surface can take place at a wide range of temperatures.

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(c) Boiling point

Activity 8.10 To investigate boiling of water

Materials: Beaker, water, source of heat, tripod stand, wire guaze, stirrer,
thermometer
Steps
1. Put some water into the beaker. Dip the stirrer and thermometer into the
beaker. Record the temperature. Stirrer
2. Place the beaker and its content onto Beaker
the stand and place the source of heat
below it as shown in Fig. 8.3. Thermometer
3. Continue heating the water as you Water
observe the change in temperature.
4. The temperature reaches a point when
the water will start boiling violently.
Record the temperature. What is the Heat
name of this process? Fig 8.3: Boiling water

During this process is there a change in the temperature of the water? Try
explaining what is happening to the molecules of water during this process

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas when the
saturated vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the external atmospheric pressure
under one atmosphere. At this point, the liquid changes to gases state at constant
temperature.

Application of some physical properties of a liquid

Activity 8.11 To separate a mixture of sand and salt

Materials: sand, salt, water, source of heat, a beaker made of hard glass
Steps
1. Mix the sand and salt together.
2. Add water to the mixture and stir. Allow the sand to settle at the bottom of
the beaker.
3. Filter out the sand (sand is removed by by filtration because it doesn’t
dissolve in water).

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3. Boil the solution in the beaker to allow the water evaporate away leaving
saturated solution.
4. Allow the saturated solution to cool. This will make crystals start to grow
which can be collected and allowed to dry.

In Activity 8.11, we have applied the solubility property of salt to separate it from
sand.
1. In general, to separate a liquid from an insoluble solids, filtration is done.
The solid remains in the filter paper and the liquid goes through the paper
into the beaker. There are two basic purposes of filtration: either to obtain
the solid material suspended in the liquid, or to purify the liquid in which the
solid is suspended. One of the common application is in sewage treatment. In
this process the solid waste is filtered out and liquid water is treated before
it is released to the rivers.
2. To separate and collect a liquid from a solution, the solution is heated in a
flask until it boils. The vapour produced is passed through a condenser where
it is cooled and condenses to a liquid. The pure liquid (distillate) is collected
in a beaker. Distilled water, purchased for drinking and other purposes, is
just one of the most common applications of the distillation process.

Warning

Always drink boiled or treated water to avoid being infected by diseases

like typhoid.

8.6 Physical properties of gases

Activity 8.12
To investigate the physical properties of gases

Materials: three marbles, transparent dish, a lid, reference books, Internet

Steps
1. Access the internet and reference books and do a research on the physical
properties of gases. Discuss your findings with other groups in your class.
2. Now, put three marbles in a transparent dish. Try as much as you can to
move them further away from one another.
3. Cover the dish with a lid. Shake the dish. What do you observe in the
movement of the marbles? Explain.

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In Activity 8.12, you observed that marbles moved very freely in all directions
about in the dish. This is similar to the behaviour of particles in a gas.
In gases, the intermolecular forces are so weak to be considered. Weak
intermolecular forces only exist upon collision. A gas has no definite shape and
volume, so they fill the container of any size and shape completely.

Activity 8.16 To demonstrate that gases occupies space

Materials: polythene bag ( plastic bag), a straw, cello tape, heavy book.
Steps
1. In groups of five, pick one plastic bag (polythene bag) and insert a straw
into it. Leave part of the straw to protrude from the bag and then seal it
with cello tape.
2. Place it on the table and then place a heavy book on it.
3. In turns, blow into the bag. What do you observe? Explain your observation.
4. Discuss the arrangement of gas particles and sketch the diagram to show
them.

CAUTION

The material making up, plastic bags (polythene bags) determine, how
easily it can be recycled. Some plastics can take years to decompose.
But some companies and stores have begun using different types of
biodegradable bags to avoid environmental pollution. If poorly disposed
plastic pollutes the environment and can easily to ingested by livestock
and wild animals.

From Activity 8.13, you observed that the polythene paper bulged when you
blew air into it. This is because the number of gas molecules increased in the bag
as one blew into it. This demonstrate that gases occupy space. Fig 8.4 shows the
arrangement of gas particles.

Fig. 8.4 Arrangement of gas particles

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The distance between the molecules is large (see Fig 8.4) and the force of attraction
between the molecules is very small (almost negligible). These molecules move
about freely in all directions colliding with each other and with the walls of the
container. The movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to
a region of lower concentration is called diffusion.
Gases can diffuse into each other rapidly, this is because gases are light (less dense)
compared to solid and liquid and that gas particles are smaller.
Gases are compressible (they can be squeezed) into a small volume, like in a car
tyres and bicycle tyres when pumped. This is because they have spaces in between
them (Fig 8.4).
8.2 Exercises

1. Copy and complete the table below by writing Yes or No in the empty spaces.
Physical property Solids Liquids Gases
Can flow
Definite Volume
Can expand to fill available
space
Definite shape
Can be compressed easily
2. Name these changes of state:
a. From liquid to a solid
b. From gas to solid
c. From solid to liquid
d. From a liquid to a gas
3. For each of the following, state whether they are true or false when a liquid is
heated:
a) its molecule move at the same speed
b) evaporation takes place throughout the liquid
c) boiling occurs at all temperatures
4. Explain why it is easier to compress a gas than a liquid
5. Draw diagram showing the arrangement of particles in solids, in liquids and
in gases

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Unit summary and new words

• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
• Kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of of tiny particles that are in
constant motion.
• Matter can be classified into three states: solids, liquids and gases.
• A gas has neither size nor shape. Its molecules are free to move randomly.
• Solids have definite size and shape. The molecules of solids are closely packed hence
they just vibrate to and fro about their fixed positions.
• Liquids molecules move freely inside the liquid. Liquids take the shape of the
container vessels and the.
• Melting is the process by which a solid is converted to a liquid at a constant
temperature.
• Viscosity is a measure of how much a fluid resists movement of objects through it.
• Malleability is the measure of solid’s ability to be reshaped into something else like
thin sheets.
• Brittleness is the tendency of a material to break under stress.
• Ductile materials like copper can be drawn out into wires which are used in
transmitting electricity.
• Gases are compressible because they have spaces in between them.

Unit Test 8
1. Explain why the density of a gas is much less than that of a solid or a liquid.
2. Draw a diagram to show how one air molecule moves in a closed container.
3. Explain why it is easier to compress a gas than a liquid or a solid?
4. State one similarity between particles of a liquid and those of a gas.
5. Describe the difference between solids, liquids, and gases in terms of the
arrangement of the molecules throughout the bulk of the material.
6. Explain why tyres burst when left outside during hot weather?
7. According to the kinetic theory, what is temperature?
8. State and explain two applications of physical properties of solids, liquids and
gases and show how they have improved our lives.
9. Define the following terms:
a) Malleability
b) Viscosity
c) Mixture
d) Ductility
10. Explain how ductility of some solid materials is important to a wire making
company.

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UNIT 9 Heat and Temperature

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain principle of thermometry and
compare different temperature scales.

Unit outline
• Heat as a form of energy.
• Different between heat and temperature.
• Temperature scales.
• Types of thermometers.
• Measurement of temperature of substances.
• Thermal equilibrium.
• Functioning of thermometers.
• Liquid for thermometers.
• Temperature conversion.
• Effect of solutes on boiling points of liquids.

Introduction
Heat and temperature pervade our lives. Just think about it. We give attention to
hotness and coldness in deciding what to eat or drinking and what to wear during
the day or at night.
Our bodies are highly sensitive to hot and cold environments. We learn very early
in life through the school of pain that we shouldn't touch a hot pot on the stove
or a hot lamp. In the same school, we learnt that we should be careful about
mouthing or tasting hot foods. We also learnt how to use our hands to feel the
heat that emanates from such foods and how to blow gently on them to help cool
the food down.
In this unit, we are going to learn more about temperature and how to measure
it using different instruments.

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9.1 Heat as a form of energy

Activity 9.1 To demonstrate effect of hot water on ice

Materials: ice, a bowl, hot water

Steps
1. Put some ice in a bowl.
2. Feel the bowl with the palm of your hand.
3. Pour hot water into the bowl containing ice.
4. Wait for sometime and again feel the container. What can you conclude?
5. Suggest what temperature and heat energy are and suggest an instrument
used to measure temperature .
6. Present your findings to the whole class.

Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body at high temperature to a body
at low temperature. The SI unit of heat is the joule (J). Temperature is the degree
of hotness or coldness of a body or a place. In Activity 9.1, the fact that the bowl
feels warmer, means that temperature has increased. This suggests that ice and
bowl have gained heat energy. Temperature is measured using a device called
thermometer while heat is measured using thermol imaging (infra-red) instrument.

9.2 Heat and temperature

To investigate the difference between heat and temperature

Activity 9.2 To investigate the difference between heat and

temperature

Materials: Cooking oil, two identical test tubes, two identical thermometers, a
beaker, a stirrer

Steps
1. Take equivalent masses of water and cooking oil in two identical test tubes
fitted with two identical thermometers.
2. Place these test tubes in a large beaker containing water (See Fig. 9.1).

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thermometers

oil

water water bath

bunsen stirrer
burner

Fig. 9.1: A set up to investigate the difference between heat and temperature

3. Note the initial temperature of both water and oil in the tubes. Heat the water
in the beaker and make sure that the heat is distributed uniformly by stirring
the water.
4. After sometime, note the temperature of water and oil in the tubes. Are the
two temperatures the same? Explain.

From Activity 9.2, you should have observed that the temperature of water is
lower than that of oil.
When the tubes are heated for the same time, i.e. the same heat energy passes
from the burner to the tubes, both oil and water gain equal amount of heat
energy but are at different temperatures.
Therefore, two substances can have equal heat energy supplied but be at different
temperatures.

9.3 Temperature scales

Activity 9.3 To observe temperature scales

Materials: Internet, reference books

Steps
1. Conduct a research from the Internet, books and any other relevant reading
materials on:
(a) The different types of temperature scales.
(b) How the scales are graduated.

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(c) Maximum and minimum temperature values on the scale and how they
are called.

A temperature scale is a range of values for measuring the degree of hotness

or coldness referred to as temperature. Temperature is commonly expressed in
degrees celsius (also called degrees centigrade) using the celsius scale. However, the
SI unit for temperature is the kelvin(K) which is measured using the kelvin scale.
This is the unit that is used in scientific work. Other temperature scales include,
Fahrenheit and Reaumur. Let us discuss each of these scales in details.

(a) The celsius scale

This scale uses the degree celsius (°C) as the unit of measuring temperature. Two
values in this scale are fixed such that the temperature at which pure ice melts
is 0°C and boiling point of pure water is 100°C (under standard atmospheric
pressure of 101 325 Pa).
These two fixed points are called the lower and upper fixed points of the celsius scale
respectively. The region between these two points on the scale(called fundamental
interval) is graduated into 100 equally spaced temperature marks (Fig 9.2).
Temperatures below 0°C have negative (–) values.

1000C Upper

00C Lower
Fig 9.2: Celsius scale

(b) The kelvin scale

This scale uses kelvin (K) as the unit of measuring temperature. The scale uses
the absolute zero (-273°C) as its reference point. Thus, 0 K on kelvin scale is
equivalent to –273ºC on the celsius scale. It is worth noting that a temperature
change of 1 K is equal in size to a change of 1ºC.

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(c) Fahrenheit
This scale uses degree Fahrenheit (°F) as the unit of measuring temperature. Two
values in this scale are fixed such that the temperature at which water freezes
into ice is defined as 32°F and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212°F.
The two have a 180°F separation (under standard atmospheric process) Fig. 9.3
shows a Fahrenheit scale.
2120F Upper fixed point

Fundamental intervals

320F Lower fixed point

Fig. 9.3: Fahrenheit scale

(d) Reaumur Scale

This scale uses the degree Rankine (0°Re). In this scale, lower fixed point is the
freezing of water (0°Re) and upper fixed point in the boiling of water 80°Re.

Comparative table of temperature scales

From the table we should conclude that

Note
• The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide at -40
• The relationship above will help us in conversion of temperature scales from
one another.

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 Thermal Physics

Conversion of temperature from one scale to another

Activity 9.4 To convert from one temperature scale to another

Materials: internet, reference books

Steps
1. Conduct a research from internet, reference books and any other relevant
reading materials on the following.
(a) How temperature is converted from:
(i) Celsius to Kelvin scale.
(ii) Celsius to Fahrenheit scale.
(iii) Fahrenheit to Kelvin.
(iv) Reaumur to Fahrenheit.
(v) Fahrenheit to Reaumur.
(b) Note down the formula of converting temperature from one scale to
the other in each case in 1 (a).
2. By use of examples, present to the class on how to convert temperature from
one scale to the other.

In your discussion in activity 9.4, you should have established the following:

(i) Relationship between Celsius and Kelvin scale

To convert temperature from degree Celsius (°c) to Kelvin temperature (K), we
add 273 to degrees temperature i.e.
Temperature in K = temperature in ºC + 273
T(K) = (ɵθ + 273)K
To convert kelvin (K) temperature to degrees celsius (°C) temperature, we subtract
273 from kelvin temperature i.e.
Temperature in ºC = temperature in K – 273
T(ºC) = (T(K) – 273)ºC
Fig. 9.4 shows a summary of the relationship between Kelvin scale and Celsius
scales.
Celsius scale
–273ºC –173ºC 0ºC 100ºC xºC (y –273)ºC
Kelvin scale
0K 100K 273K 373K (273 + x)K yK
Fig. 9.4: Relationship between Kelvin and Celcius scale

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 Thermal Physics

In this case; x is any value of temperature in degrees celcius and y is any value of
temperature in Kelvin.

N.B: The lower fixed point (ice point) is the temperature of pure melting ice
at normal atmosphere measure. The upper fixed point (steam point) is the
temperature of pure boiling water at normal atmosphere pressure.

Example 9.1
What is the lower fixed point (L.F.P) in Kelvin?
Solution

Lower fixed point is 0ºC. To convert ºC to kelvin, add 273.

Therefore, L.F.P = (0ºC + 273)K = 273 K.

Example 9.2
Express the room temperature of 27ºC in Kelvin.
Solution
To convert ºC to kelvin, add 273.
Therefore, room temperature is (27 + 273)K = 300 K.

Example 9.3
Convert 327 K to degrees celsius.
Solution

To convert kelvin to degrees celsius, subtract 273.

Therefore, 327 K = (327 – 273) ºC = 54ºC.

(b) Relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit

5
To convert Fahrenheit into Celsius, we subtract 32 and then multiply by i.e
9
5
T(ºC) = [T(ºF) – 32] ×
9

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 Thermal Physics

Example 9.4
Convert 42 Fahrenheit to Celsius scale.
solution
5 5
T(ºC) = [T(ºF) – 32] ×
= (42-32) ×
9 9
50
=
9
= 5.56oC

9
To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, we multiply by then add 32 i.e.
5
9
T(ºF) = T(ºC) × + 32
5

Example 9.5
Convert 37 degree Celsius to degree Fahrenheit.
Solution
9 9
T(ºF) = T(ºC) × + 32 = [37 × ] + 32
5 5
= 98.6 oF

(c) Relationship between Fahrenheit and Kelvin

5
To convert Fahrenheit to Kelvin, we add 459.67 then multiply by i.e.
9
5
T(K) = (T(ºF) + 459.67) ×
9

Example 9.6
Convert 22 degree Fahrenheit to Kelvin.
Solution
5
T(K) = (T(ºF) + 459.67) ×
9
5
= (22 +459.67) ×
9
5
= 481.67 ×
9
= 267.59 K

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 Thermal Physics

(d) Kelvin to Fahrenheit

9
To convert Kelvin to Farhrenheit, we multiply by then subtract 459.67. i.e
5
 9
T 0F =  T()× − 459.67
()  K 5
5
T()
= T 0F + 459.67
K
9  () 

Example 9.7
Convert 302 Kelvin to Fahrenheit scale.
Solution
9
T(ºF) = T(K) × - 459.67
5
9
= 302 × - 459.67
5
= 543.6 - 459.67
= 83.93 oF

(e) Relationship between Fahrenheit and Reaumur

To convert Fahrenheit to Reaumur, we add 459.67 i.e
4
T 0R
= T 0F − 32
() 9  () 

Example 9.8
Convert 35-degree Fahrenheit to degree Reaumur
Solution
4
( ) 9(
T=
0
Re
0
F − 32)

4
= (35− 32)
9
4
= ×3
9
= 1.33 0 R

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 Thermal Physics

(f) Reaumur to Fahrenheit

Reaumur to Fahrenheit, we use the formula below:
9 0
=T 0F
() 4 ()
Re + 32

Example 9.9
Convert 503 degree Reaumur to degree Fahrenheit
Solution
9
() 4 ()
T 0F
= 0
Re + 32

9
=( × 503) + 32
4
= 1131.75+ 32
= 1163.750F

(g) Convert from Celsius to Reaumur and vice versa

 4
T= Re) 
T 0C × 
(
0
 () 5

Example 9.10

Convert 1000 C to degree Reaumur

Solution
 4 4
T 0 Re =  T 0C ×  = 100 × = 800 Re
( )  () 5 5

(h) Convert Reaumur to Celsius

 5
T 0C  T 0 Re × 
=
()  ( ) 4

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 Thermal Physics

Example 9.11
convert 1050 Re to Celsius
Solution
 5 5
T 0C =  T 0 Re ×  = 105× = 131.250 C
()  ( ) 4 4

() ( )
4
T 0 Re = T()
5 K
− 273 ×

(j)To convert Kelvin to Reaumur

Example 9.12
Convert 35 K to degree Reaumur
Solution

() ( )
4
T 0 Re = T()
5 K
− 273 ×

4
= (
35 − 273)
=−183.4 0 Re
5

(k) Convert Reaumur to Kelvin

5
=T() T 0 Re  + 273
K
4 ()
 

Example 9.13

Convert 450 R to degree Kelvin

Solution
5
T()
K
= (
45)
+ 273= 329.25 K
4

Note:

5 0 5
°F = 1°R = C= K
9 9
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide at -40.

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 Thermal Physics

Exercise 9.1
1. Differentiate between heat and temperature. State their SI units.
2. Describe an experiment to differentiate between heat and temperature.
3. Name two fundamental intervals in a temperature scale.
4. Convert each of the following into kelvin scale.
(a) 34 °C (b) -371 °C (c) 17 °C
5. Convert each of the following into degrees celsius.
(a) 314 K (b) -6 K (c) 273 K (d) 45 K
6. Convert each quantities in question 4 and 5 into:
(a) Degree Fahrenheit.
(b) Degree Reaumur.

9.4 Thermal equilibrium

Activity 9.5 To investigate thermal equilibrium

Materials: source of heat, cold water, two beakers, thermometer

Steps
1. Pour cold water into a beaker and place it on a source of heat for 30 min
then measure the temperature T1.
2. Put some cold water in another beaker and measure its temperature T2.
3. Mix the warm water and cold water into one of the beaker and stir well.
4. After stirring, measure the temperature T3 of the mixture. In what state is
the mixture after stirring?
5. What is the final value of temperature?

Thermal equilibrium is the state achieved when two regions or substances that
are in thermal contact no longer transfer heat between them. Therefore, two
substances in thermal equilibrium are at the same temperature. For example,
when measuring the human body temperature, heat energy is transferred from the
human body to the liquid inside the thermometer until the two (i.e. human body
and thermometer) have the same temperature e.g. 370C in thermal equilibrium.

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 Thermal Physics

9.5 Measurement of temperature

We learnt that temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object. It is
measured using an instrument called thermometer.
In the construction of a thermometer, a thermometric substance is choosen first.
Then, a temperature scale is defined by means of two fixed points; lower and upper.

Thermometric substances

Activity 9.6 To define and discuss thermometric substances

Materials: Reference books, Internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research from Internet and reference books on thermometric
substances.
2. In your research find out:
(a) Some of the common thermometric substances used in thermometers.
(b) Advantages and disadvantage of using each of the thermometric substances
identified in (a) above.

From Activity 9.6, you should have established that there are different
thermometric substances used in different thermometers.Their properties changes
uniformly with temperature.

Thermometric properties
Some important characteristics of thermometric substances are:
1. The property should remain constant, if temperature is constant.
2. The property should change uniformly with change in temperature.
3. The property should change uniformly for every 1ºC change in temperature.
4. The property should acquire thermal equilibrium as quickly as possible,
when temperature measurements are needed.
5. The property should cover a wide range of temperatures (should not freeze
or boil at normal temperatures).
6. The property should be able to register the rapid changing temperature.
7. The property should have a large change even if the change in temperature
is small.

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 Thermal Physics

8. The property should be such that the temperature can be taken easily without
waiting for a long time.
Some of the common thermometric substances used in thermometers include
mercury and alcohol..

Mercy as a thermometric liquid

Advantages of using mercury as a thermometric substance
1. Mercury is a shiny and opaque liquid. The position of the mercury meniscus
is seen easily and readings taken without strain.
2. Mercury does not wet glass. Hence it does not stick to the sides of the
capillary tube.
3. Mercury has a large increase in volume for 1ºC rise in temperature.
4. Mercury expands uniformly. Its volume changes by equal amounts for equal
change in temperature.
5. Mercury has a high boiling point of 357ºC.
6. Mercury has the ability to transfer heat energy easily. The whole mass of
mercury in the bulb attains the temperature of the substance in which the
bulb is placed easily.

Disadvantages of mercury as a thermometric substance

1. Usually, it is only the bulb which is in contact with the body when taking
the temperature. A large portion of the stem is not in contact with the body.
2. There is a change in internal pressure due to the different positions of the
thermometer. The reading of the mercury level is low when the tube is
vertical as compared to the reading in the horizontal position.
3. Mercury takes sometime to contract to the original volume. The same
thermometer cannot be used to measure a low temperature soon after a
high temperature.
4. There may be non-uniformity in the capillary bore of the tube.
5. This thermometer is not suitable to measure temperatures below –39ºC.

Alcohol as a thermometric liquid

Advantages of using alcohol as a thermometric substance

1. Alcohol has a very low freezing point of –114ºC hence its suitable in
thermometers to record very low temperatures.

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 Thermal Physics

2. Alcohol can be coloured brightly (by adding a dye, generally red dye). This
makes it clearly visible through glass.
3. Alcohol has a uniform expansion and contraction than mercury.
4. Alcohol is a good thermal conductor; it is also cheap and easily available.

Disadvantages of using alcohol as a thermometric substance

1. Alcohol sticks to the walls of the glass thus wetting it. This makes it difficult
to read the temperature accurately.
2. Alcohol has a low boiling point of 78ºC, therefore it cannot be used to measure
high temperature.

9.6 Types of thermometers

Activity 9.7 To identify different types of thermometers

Materials: Reference books, Internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research from internet or reference books on types of
thermometers.
2. In your research, identify the main features of each thermometer, how it is
calibrated and how it is used to measure temperature of a body or a place.

There are various types of thermometers in use. The liquid-in-glass

thermometer is the most common one. Others include electrical, digital and
gas thermometers. The main difference between them is in the property of
the thermometric substance. In this level we shall discuss liquid-in-glass
thermometers only.
Liquid-in-glass thermometers

Activity 9.8 To observe the working of mercury and alcohol in

glass thermometers

Materials: Mercury and alcohol - in- glass thermometers, hot water in a beaker

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 Thermal Physics

Steps
1. Hold the thermometers provided to you and note down the following:
(a) The range of their scales.
(b) Minimum and maximum values on the scales.
(c) Some features of the thermometers and suggest some precautions to
be taken when constructing it.
(d) Note the kind of the liquids used.
2. Now, place it in hot water and measure the temperature of the water. Record
down your result.
3. Suggest how the thermometer is used.

In your discussion, you should have noted that a liquid-in-glass thermometer

uses either mercury or coloured alcohol as the thermometric substance. They
include laboratory (i.e mercury-in-glass and alcohol-in-glass) thermometers,
clinic thermometer and six's maximum and minimum thermometer.

Mercury-in-glass thermometer

This thermometer consists of a thin walled bulb, containing mercury and a thin
capillary tube (bore) of uniform cross-sectional area. There is a space above
mercury thread which is usually evacuated to avoid excess of pressure being
developed when mercury expands (Fig. 9.5).

thin glass wall thin capillary tube

bulb

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ˚C

mercury in a bulb
Fig. 9.5: Mercury-in-glass thermometer

Some important precautions are taken in the construction of this type of

thermometer include:
(a) The walls of the bulb should be thin. This is to ensure that the mercury can
be heated easily.
(b) The quantity of mercury in the bulb should be small so that the mercury
takes little time to warm up.

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 Thermal Physics

(c) The thin capillary tube should be of uniform cross-section so that the
mercury level changes uniformly along its length.
The example of mercury in glass thermometer is a laboratory thermometer. When using
it, check its initial reading (room temperature) and ensure that its bulb is in contact with
the substance whose temperature is to be measured.

Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
The alcohol-in-glass thermometer uses coloured alcohol instead of mercury.
Volume of alcohol changes uniformly and easily when heated. The change in
volume of alcohol is about six times more than that of mercury for the same
change in temperature.
The range of temperatures that can be measured with this thermometer is limited,
as alcohol boils at 78ºC. However this thermometer is ideal for measuring low
temperatures since alcohol freezes at –114ºC .

Using a laboratory thermometer

Before using a laboratory thermometer, you should note its initial reading (i.e
room temperature reading) and while measuring temperature, ensure that its bulb
is always in contact with the substance whose temperature is to be measured.
Avoid direct heating of the bulb.

Clinical thermometer

Activity 9.9 To observe the working of a clinical thermometer

Material: Clinical thermometer

Steps
1. Hold the thermometer provided to you and note the following:
(a) the range of the scale.
(b) minimum and maximum values on the scale.
(c) features of the thermometer.
2. Now, note the reading of the thermometer and place it in your armpit for
a couple of minutes.
3. While still in the armpit, note the reading where the liquid becomes steady.
What is the value? Record it down.

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 Thermal Physics

A clinical thermometer is designed for measuring the human body temperature.

It consists of a thin walled bulb containing mercury. The capillary bore is very
narrow and of uniform diameter.
This thermometer has a narrow constriction in the tube just above the bulb. The
thermometer has a limited range from about 35ºC to about 43ºC (Fig. 9.6).

bulb narrow capillary bore

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 ˚C

constriction
Fig. 9.6: Clinical thermometer

Working of a clinical thermometer

When the thermometer is in contact with a human body, mercury in the bulb
expands. It forces its way through the constriction to the narrow bore. When the
thermometer is removed from the body, the mercury in the bulb cools down and
contracts. The mercury thread is broken at the constriction (Fig. 9.7). Hence the
mercury in the tube stays back. The reading of the thermometer on the stem can
be taken without any hurry. After use, the mercury in the tube can be forced
through the constriction back to the bulb by flicking the thermometer vigorously.
The normal human body temperature is 36.9ºC.

Constriction Constriction

Fig.4.6:
Fig. 9.7:Constriction
Constriction of
of a clinical thermometer
clinical thermometer

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 Thermal Physics

The Six’s minimum and maximum thermometer

Activity 9.10 To demonstrate the working of the six's thermometer

Materials: reference books, internet

Steps
1. Conduct a research on six’s minimum and maximum thermometer.
2. In your research found out:
(a) how it is calibrated.
(b) the range of scales.
(c) the minimum and maximum values on each scale.
(d) the liquids used in the six's thermometer.

Six's maximum and minimum thermometer is used to measure the maximum and
minimum temperature of a place during a day. It was invented by a physicist called
John Six. The thermometer consists of a U-shaped tube connected to two bulbs.
The U-tube contains mercury. The two bulbs contain alcohol, which occupies the
full volume of one of the bulbs. The other bulb has a space above alcohol. There
are two indices fitted with light fine springs (Fig. 9.8).
When temperature rises, alcohol occupying the full volume of bulb A, expands
and forces mercury in the U-tube to rise on the right hand side. Mercury, in turn,
pushes the index I2 upwards. The maximum temperature can be noted from the
lower end of index I2.
air and alcohol vapour
bulb A
bulb B
alcohol 90

min max
60
–
30
index I2

0
30
h

index I1 30
0

mercury
30
–
60

Fig. 9.8: Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer

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 Thermal Physics

When the temperature falls, alcohol in bulb A contracts. Due to the pressure
difference in the two arms of the U-tube, mercury level will rise on the left hand
side of the U-tube pushing the index I1 upwards. The index I2 on the right hand
side is left behind (held by the fine spring) to register the maximum temperature.
The lower end of index I1, touching the mercury meniscus gives the minimum
temperature.
The two steel indices can be reset with the help of a magnet.

Exercises
1. What are the advantages of alcohol thermometer over mercury thermometer?
2. Compare a clinical thermometer and a laboratory thermometer.

9.7 Calibration of thermometers

To calibrate a mercury thermometer

Activity 9.11 To demonstrate how to calibrate a mercury thermometer

(a) Lower fixed point

Materials: Thermometer, ice, stand and clamp, bunsen burner, beaker
Steps
1. Immerse the bulb completely inside a beaker containing pure melting ice
as shown in Fig. 9.9 (a). What do you observe? Explain.
2. Wait for sufficient time for the mercury to attain the temperature of the
melting ice (Fig. 9.9 (b).
3. When there is no more change in the level of mercury, mark its position
on the stem. Suggest the name given to the marked position.
The point marked is the lower fixed point. Mark it as 0ºC. Note that the melting point
of ice is exactly 0ºC (mm Hg) at standard atmospheric pressure (760 millimetres
of mercury).

(a) Pure ice at 0ºC (b) Pure melting ice at 0ºC

Fig. 9.9: Calibrating the lower fixed point

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 Thermal Physics

(b) Upper fixed point

Steps
1. Expose the bulb to steam just above the boiling water as shown in Fig. 9.10.

Fig. 9.10: Calibrating the upper fixed point

2. Give it time for the mercury to attain the temperatureG of the steam.
3. When there is no more change in the level of mercury, mark its position on the
stem.

The point marked is the upper fixed point. Mark it as 100ºC. The temperature of
steam is exactly 100ºC at standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg).

Thermometers are calibrated by identifying the fixed points. The fixed points will
help in determining the highest and the lowest values a thermometer can measure.
Fixed point is a single temperature at which a particular physical event always takes
place.
There are two types of fixed points namely: upper fixed point and lower fixed point.
The upper fixed point (steam point) is the temperature of steam above pure boiling
water at normal atmospheric pressure. It takes place at 100°C at sea level.
The lower fixed point (ice point) is the temperature of a pure melting ice at normal
atmospheric pressure. It takes place at 0°C. The different between the lower fixed
point and upper fixed point is called the fundamental interval.
The distance between the two fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts. The scale
obtained is called the centigrade scale, and the thermometer is known as the centigrade
thermometer. Each division on the scale is one degree centigrade (1ºC).
Thermometers may be used to measure unknown temperature as shown below.
The stem of thermometer is y cm long between the upper and lower fixed points. The
mercury thread is x cm above the lower fixed point at the unknown temperature θ.

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 Thermal Physics

Therefore, θ = x × 100°C
y
Where θ is the temperature in °C.

Example 9.10
Fig. 9.11, not drawn to scale, shows a mercury-in-glass thermometer where the mercury
level stands at 1 cm mark in the tube at 0˚C.
(a) Calculate the temperature when the mercury level stands at 7.5 cm mark.
(b) Find the mercury level in the thermometer when the temperature is
61ºC
100˚C 16 cm

x=? 7.5 cm

0˚C 1 cm
0 cm

Fig. 9.11: Thermometer

Fig. 4.4
Solution
(a) The distance between the two fixed points i s 16.0 – 1.0 = 15.0 cm.
This distance represents a temperature change of (100 – 0) = 100˚C.
Let (7.5 – 1.0) cm represent a temperature x ºC
15 cm represents 100ºC or θ = x × 100°C
y
1 cm represents 100ºC
15 = 6.5 × 100°C
15
∴ 6.5 cm represents x = 100 × 6.5
15 = 43.3ºC
= 43.3 ºC
∴ The temperature reading is 43.3 ºC
(a) 100ºC is represented by 15 cm
1ºC represents 15 cm
100
61ºC is represented by 15 × 61 cm = 9.15
100
Level of mercury = 9.15 cm + 1.0 cm
= 10.15 cm

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 Thermal Physics

Exercise 9.2

1. Describe how a clinical thermometer works.

2. Briefly explain the meaning of:
(a) Lower fixed point.
(b) Upper fixed point.
3. State two properties of thermometric liquids.
4. A thread of mercury in the bore of a thermometer has a length of 9 cm
when the temperature is 15°C. When the temperature rises to 101°C, the
length increases to 20 cm. Find:
(a) The length when the temperature is 75°C.
(b) The temperature when the length is 12 cm.

9.8 Melting and Boiling point of substances

To determine the melting point of substances

Activity 9.12 To determine the melting point of ice

Materials: A 500 g of pure ice, a copper calorimeter, source of electric power

Steps
1. Take 500g of pure crushed ice at about –10ºC.
2. Put the ice in a well insulated copper container as shown in Figure 9.12.
3. Record the initial temperature of the ice. Close the switch S and start the stopwatch
at the same time.
To power supply

Thermometer
Cardboard lid

Felt lagging

Ice
Copper container
Heater

Fig. 9.12: Heating ice – melting process.

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 Thermal Physics

4. Record the temperature of ice at 30 seconds intervals until the temperature

of the container is about 10 ºC. Record your result as shown in Table 6.1.
Time(s) 0 30 60 90 120 140 160 180 200
Temp. ( c)
0

Table 9.1: Relationship between temperature and time

What happens to the amount of ice as heating continues?
5. Plot a graph of temperature against time. Explain the shape of the graph.
6. From the graph determine the melting point of ice.

From Activity 9.12, you should have observed the following:

• The temperature rises steadily during the first few seconds.
• The temperature remain constant for sometime.
• Then the temperature starts rising again.
Fig. 9.13 shows the graph of temperature against time.
10 D
Water from melted ice
Temperature (°C)

0 Melting ice Time (s)

B or freezing C

Solid ice

–
10 A

Fig. 9.13: A graph of temperature against time for melting ice

The graph shows that:

1. The temperature of ice rises steadily from –10 ºC to 0 ºC. During this time,
along AB, the ice remains as solid.
2. At 0 ºC, along the line BC, the temperature remains constant for a period of
time. During this period, the ice is observed to be melting. At C all the ice
has melted and it becomes water.
3. After all the ice has melted, the temperature of water starts rising again as
seen along the line CD of the graph.
4. From 00 C, the temperature of ice at 00 C starts to drop steadily.
If pressure remains unchanged, a solid substance melts or freezes at a specific
temperature. Similarly the liquid freeze at the same temperature. This temperature
is called the melting point or freezing point of a substance. The melting point of
pure ice is 00 C and the freezing point of pure water is also 00 C under standard
atmospheric pressure.

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 Thermal Physics

Boiling point
To determine the heating curve for pure water

Activity 9.13 To determine the heating curve of pure water

Materials:
• Round bottom flask • Tripod stand • Thermometer
• An L - shaped delivery tube • Source of heat • Stop watch
• Pure water
Steps
1. Take some pure water at room temperature in a glass heating flask and
insert a thermometer as shown in the Fig. 9.14.
Steam escape tube
Steam
Thermometer

Cork

Round bottomed
flask

Pure water

Tripod

Heat

Fig 9.14: Heating pure water

2. Note the initial temperature of the water. What happens to the temperature
of water in the initial stages?
3. Heat the water steadily and note the temperature at regular intervals of
time. What happens to the mass of water as boiling continues?
4. Continue heating for about 2 to 3 minutes even after the steam is seen to
escape from the steam escape tube.What is the temperature when the steam
is seen to escape from the escape tube? Suggest the meaning of boiling?
5. Record your result in a tabular form as shown in Table 6.9.
Time(s) 0 30 60 90 120 140 160 180
Temp. (0c)
Table 9.2: Relationship between temperature and time

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 Thermal Physics

6. Plot a graph of temperature against time. Write down your observation from the
graph. Determine the boiling point of water from the graph.

From Activity 9.13, you must have observed the following:

• The temperature of water rises steadily.
• Then, temperature remains constant for sometime.
• Finally, the temperature rises again.
Boiling is a process in which a liquid is changes to vapour at a constant temperature.
Fig. 9.15 shows the graph for the boiling process of water.

D
Vapour
Vapourising water
100
C
Temperature / °C

B
Condensation
75
Water
50

Room 25
temperature A

0
Time/s

Fig. 9.15: Vaporisation of water

The graph shows that:

1. The temperature of water rises steadily from room temperature. During this
time, along AB, water remains as liquid.
2. At 100ºC, along the line BC, the temperature remains constant for a period
of time. During this period, water is observed to be boiling. At C all the water
has turned into water vapour.
3. After water has turned into vapour, the temperature of vapour rises again as
seen along the line CD of the graph.
If pressure remains unchanged, a liquid substance always boils at a fixed
temperature. This temperature is called the boiling point of the liquid. The boiling
point of pure water is 100 ºC under standard atmospheric pressure.

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 Thermal Physics

To determine the boiling point of methylated spirit

Activity 9.14 To determine the boiling point of methylated spirit

Materials: column flask, thermometer, methyl spirit, water bath, anti- bumping
granules, glass rods, glass wool, Bunsen burner
Safety measures
• Methyl spirit is highly flammable, care must be taken when handling it.
Let your teacher guide you in all steps of this activity.
• Ensure that all glassware is securely clamped.
Steps
1. Set-up the micro-fractional column as shown in Fig. 9.16.
P
a
st
e
ur
Pasteur
pipe t
te pipette

Small bits of
Glass
G lawool
ssw o
o
l
glass
sm a rod
llb i
tso
f
g
l
as
sr
od

Anti-bumping Methylated
M ethylate
spirit
dsp ir i
t
A nti-bump
i
ng
granules
gran u l
es

Fig. 9.16: Micro-fractional column

2. Place about 10 cm3 of the methylated spirit into the small conical flask and
add some anti-bumping granules.
3. Place the set-up in a water bath. Suggest a reason for this.
4. Wait for boiling and allow time for attaining thermal equilibrium.
5. Using thermometer, determine the boiling point of the liquid collected
at the top part of the micro column. What do you get?. This is the boiling
point of methylated spirit?

In Activity 9.4, you should have learnt that the water bath is necessary for even
distribution of heat.You must have also discovered that the boiling point of methyl
spirit is about 64.60C.

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 Thermal Physics

To determine the melting point of candle wax

Activity 9.15 To determine the melting point of a candle wax

Materials: Bunsen burner, wax, goggles, stopwatch, thermometer, tripod stand

Steps
1. Obtain and wear goggles.

CAUTION
With the Bunsen burner on and a beaker of boiling water on your
ring stand, there are changes to be hurt here.

2. Obtain a test tube with the thermometer frozen into the wax. Lower it into
a beaker of cold tap water.(Fig.9.17)

Stirrer
Thermoneter

Test tube
Beaker
candle wax
Hot water

Molten candle wax

(a) Heating candle wax (b) Cooling napthalene

Fig. 9.17: Heating and cooling candle wax

3. Start recording temperature every 30 seconds on the melting data table.
4. Have your teacher come by to light your Bunsen burner (goggles must be
on). Make sure the Bunsen burner flame is just touching the wire mesh.
You must record temperatures every 30 s.
5. Wait for the wax to melt, and then record temperatures for a full 3 minutes
past the point when the wax is completely melted. (Completely melted
means clear and transparent).
6. Turn off your Bunsen burner, and call your teacher over to lower the hot
water. Clamp everything securely on the ring stand like your teacher shows
you.
7. Start collecting data in the freezing table for every 30 s as shown in Table
9.3.

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 Thermal Physics

Time (s) Temp (oC)

0.00
0.30
0.60
0.90
0.120
0.150
0.180
Table 9.3: Freezing table

8. Draw a cooling curve of temperature against time.

9. Identify and label on your graph the melting point/freezing point of candle wax.

If a graph of temperature (0C) against time t (s) is drawn, we have Fig. 9.18.

80

A
70
Temperature (°C)

B C
60

50
D
40

time t (s)

Fig. 9.18: Cooling curve for candle wax

Kinetic theory of matter may be used to explain the cooling curve for candle wax.
1. The curve AB represents the candle wax in liquid state. The temperature
falls as the liquid is above the temperature of the surroundings. As a result
the molecules lose both their kinetic and potential energies. This results in a
decrease in speed of the molecules and they come close together.
2. The straight line section of the graph (BC) represents the mixture of candle
wax in liquid and solid states. At B it is mainly in the liquid state and at C is
mainly in the solid state. As its temperature is still above the temperature of
the surroundings, heat is given out, but at a constant temperature. Candle
wax melts at 640C
3. The curve CD represents candle wax in solid as it continues to cool since its
temperature is still above room temperature.

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 Thermal Physics

9.9 Effect of a solute on the boiling point of liquids

Activity 9.16 To determine the effect of salt on the boiling point of

water.

a. Put some salt water into the beaker. Dip the stirrer and thermometer into
the beaker. Record the temperature using a 1100 C thermometer.

b. Place the beaker and its content onto the stand and place the source of heat
below it as shown in figure below:

c. Continue heating salt water as you observe the change in temperature.

d. The temperature reaches a point when the water will start boiling violently.
Record the temperature three times after 30 seconds of intervals.

e. Compare your three readings. What do you notice? What is the name of this
process?

From Activity 9.16, you must have noted that the value at which salt water boils
is higher than that of pure water i.e. more than 100 oC.
We can therefore conclude that solute increases the boiling point of liquids.

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 Thermal Physics

Excercise 9.3

1. Define boiling and melting points of a substance?

2. Describe experiments on how to determine the boiling and melting points
of pure water and wax respectively.
3. Explain how solutes affect the boiling point of liquids.

Unit summary and new words

• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is also defined
the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
• The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
• A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature of a body.
• Liquid-in-glass thermometers commonly use mercury or alcohol as their
thermometric substance.
• Clinical thermometer is special type of liquid-in-glass thermometer used to
measure the temperature of a human body.
• Lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice at 0ºC at standard
atmospheric pressure.
• Upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water at 100ºC
at standard atmospheric pressure.
• Different thermometers use thermometric substances of different properties.
• Absolute zero is the temperature at which gases appears to have zero volume.
• Temperature in kelvin = (temperature in ºC + 273).
Temperature in ºC = (temperature in K – 273).
• Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body of high temperature to
a body of low temperature. The SI unit of heat is joules (J).
• The lower fixed value and upper fixed value of a Fahrenheit scale are
32 oC and 212 oC respectively.
• To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, we subtract 32 and then multiply by 5
9
i.e. oC= (oF-32) × 5
9
• To convert Reaumur to Fahrenheit,
= T 0F
9
T ()
() 4 ( 0 R)
+ 32

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 Thermal Physics

Unit Test 9
1. Define temperature and state its unit.
2. Name four temperature scales and state their fixed points.
3. Explain how one can make a liquid-in-glass thermometer which is sensitive
to a small change of temperature.
4. The normal human body temperature is 37ºC. What is the temperature in
Kelvin?
5 Convert each of the following into Fahrenheit.
(a) 273 K (b) 373 K
(c) 100 K (d) 0 K
6. Which of the following statements is NOT true for a clinical thermometer?
It is desirable that a clinical thermometer should;
A. have a very small range
B. be very sensitive
C. take time to acquire its maximum reading
D. retain the reading until shaken
7. What is a thermometer? Name two types of thermometers.
8. Explain the meaning of the following terms: upper fixed point, ice point,
steam point.
9. State three characteristics of a good thermometric substance.
10. State the two special features of a clinical thermometer and explain their
roles.
11. State one advantage of an alcohol-in-glass thermometer as compared to
mercury-in-glass thermometer.
12. A faulty thermometer has its fixed points marked 5˚C and 95˚C. What is
the correct temperature in ˚C when this thermometer reads 59˚C?

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 Thermal Physics

13. Estimate the room temperature and express it in kelvin.

14. The length of a mercury thread is recorded in three situations: length in
melting ice = 20 mm, length in steam = 170 mm and length in liquid
X = 50 mm. What is the temperature of liquid X?
15. A thermometer reads 2ºC in pure melting ice and 103ºC in steam. What
is the error when the temperature rise is calculated?
16. Explain how you can use a liquid in thermometer to determine the boiling
point of water.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

UNIT 10 Magnetism

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to differentiate between magnetic and
non-magnetic materials.

Unit Outline
• Definition of a magnet.
• Magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
• The poles of bar magnet.
• Test for magnetism.
• Types of magnets.

Introduction
The people of Magnesia in Asia Minor observed that certain kinds of naturally
occurring iron ores possessed an iron-attracting property. The ore was discovered
near the city of Magnesia and hence it was named as Magnetite. Huge lumps
of magnetite were often called lodestone meaning “ leading” stone or natural
magnet. Chemically lodestone consists of iron oxide.
Dr.William Gilbert (1540-1603) did a lot of work with the natural magnets. He
published a book called De magnete in 1600 in which he gave an account of his
research into the magnets and their properties. In one of his works he concluded
that the earth was itself magnetic and that is why compasses point to the north
of the earth.

10.1 Definition of a magnet

Activity 10.1
To identify magnets

Materials: Cooking stick, steel nail, a bar magnet, a spanner, a cork

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Steps
1. Identify a magnet from the materials provided (see Fig. 10.1) and suggest a
reason why you think the material you have identified is a magnet.

(a) `(b) (c)

(d) (e)
Fig. 10.1: Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

2. Suggest what a magnet is.

From Activity 10.1, you observed that Fig. 10.1 (d) is a magnet. A magnet is a
piece of metal with either natural or induced properties of attracting another metal objects
e.g. steel. It can repel also another magnetic.The common type of a magnet used in
school laboratory is a bar magnet (Fig. 10.1 (d)). We shall learn about types of
magnets later.

10.2 Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

Materials may be classified according to their magnetic properties. There are those
that are attracted by magnets and others that are not.

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To identify magnetic and non-magnetic substances

Activity 10.2
To identify magnetic and non-magnetic substances

Materials: Iron and steel nails, bar magnet, copper metal, cobalt, wood, zinc,
glass rods
Steps
1. Place some iron nails on the table. Bring a bar magnet close to the iron
nails and observe what happens. Explain your observations.
2. Repeat the activity with other material such as copper, cobalt, steel, sulphur,
brass, wood, cork, nickel, plastic, pens, wax, zinc, glass rods, carbon,
aluminium, paper, chalk etc.
3. Record your observations in tabular form as shown in Table 10.1.

Substances attracted by a Substances not attracted by a

bar magnet bar magnet
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

Table 10.1: Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

4. Discuss your observations in step 3 and suggest the name given to substances
that are attracted by a magnet and those that are not.

The results from Table 10.1 shows that some materials are attracted by the bar
magnet while others are not.
The materials which are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials while
those which are not attracted are called non-magnetic materials. The magnetic
materials that are strongly attracted by a magnet are called ferromagnetic materials.
These include nickel, iron, cobalt and steel.
Materials that are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic materials.
Examples of non-magnetic materials include copper, brass, aluminium, wood, cork,
plastic etc.
When metals are mixed together, they form alloys. Some alloys are ferromagnetic
materials. An example is Al-ni-co which composed of aluminium (Al), nickel
(Ni) and cobalt (Co) hence the name Al-ni-co. Another example of alloys which
are those composed of nickel, iron, copper, chromium or titanium; they are also
ferromagnetic.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

10.3 Properties of magnets

(a) Polarity property of magnets

Activity 10.3 To identify the poles of a magnet

Materials: A bar magnet, iron filing in a container

Steps
1. Dip a bar magnet into the container with iron filings.
2. Remove the magnet from the container. What happens to it? Explain your
observation.
3. Suggest the name given to the ends of a magnet.

From Activity 10.3, you must have noted that the iron filings were attracted by a
bar magnet. Most iron filings remained clustered around the ends of the magnet
as shown in Fig. 10.2.
Bar magnet

Iron filings

Iron filings

Fig. 10.2: Distribution of iron filings around a bar magnet.

The ends of a magnet where the attraction is strongest are known as the magnetic
poles. Magnetic poles are the places in a magnet where the total attractive force
seems to be concentrated. A straight line drawn passing through these ends is
called the magnetic axis of the magnet (see Fig. 10.3).
Magnetic pole

is
ne tic ax
Mag

Magnetic pole

Fig. 10.3: Magnetic poles and magnetic axis of a bar magnet.

A bar magnet has the strongest attraction at the poles.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

(b) Directional property of a magnet

Activity 10.4 To observe the directional properly of a magnet

Materials: A bar magnet, 1 metre long thread

Steps
1. Suspend a bar magnet freely at its centre by a length of a cotton thread
from a support (Fig. 10.4 (a)). Make sure there are no steel or iron objects
near the magnet.

tic
Magnetic meridian Magne
S S ax is
N N

(a)
ne
N-S li
Fig. 10.4: A freely suspended magnet.

2. Displace the magnet slightly so that it swings in a horizontal plane.

3. Note the direction in which the magnet finally comes to rest. Suggest a
reason why it rests in that direction.
4. Repeat the activity at different places and note the resting direction of the
magnet. What do you observe? Explain.

In Activity 10.4, you observed that the bar magnet swings to and fro and finally
rests in a north-south (N-S) direction of the earth.
The magnet comes to rest with its axis in a vertical plane called the magnetic
meridian (Fig. 10.4 (b)) i.e. a bar magnet rests in a north-south direction.
The pole that points towards the north pole of the earth is called the north seeking
pole or simply the north pole (N). The other pole is called the south seeking pole or
south pole (S).

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 Electricity and Magnetism

To identify the poles of a magnet by colour

Activity 10.5
To identify the poles of a magnet by colour
(Work in groups)
Materials: A bar magnet, 1 metre long thread
Steps
1. Repeat Activity 10.4.
2. Place a compass at a place far away from the suspended bar magnet.
Compare the direction shown by the compass and that of the suspended
bar magnet.
3. Note the pole of the suspended bar magnet that is pointing in the same
direction as north pole or south pole of the magnetic compass. Deduce the
poles of the magnet.

From Activity 10.5, you noted that the pole that points in the direction of the
north of the compass is the north pole and the other pole is the south pole.
In order to easily identify the poles of a magnet, the ends are usually painted in
different colours. For example, the N-pole is painted red while the S-pole is painted
blue or white Fig 10.5 (a). In other cases the whole bar is painted blue with a red
dot or spot on one end to identify the north pole. (See Fig. 10.5 (b)).

Red Blue Red Blue

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.5: Colours used to identify poles of a bar magnet

Hey!!
Do you know that the blue colour in our national flag symbolises
happiness and peace? Let us always live happily with one another and
keep peace in our beautiful country.

10.4 Test for magnetism

Basic law of magnetism

Activity 10.6
To establish the basic law of magnetism

Materials: Two bar magnets, cotton thread.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Steps
1. Suspend a bar magnet using a light cotton thread with its north and south
pole clearly marked.
2. Bring a S-pole of a second bar magnet slowly towards the S-pole of the
suspended magnet. Observe what happens (Fig. 10.6(a)).
3. Repeat the activity using the S-pole of the suspended magnet and the N-pole
of the second magnet (Fig. 10.6 (b)).

repulsion
attraction
S
S
N
N
N S

S
N

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.6: Action of magnets on each other.

4. Repeat using the other poles and record your observation in a tabular form
as shown in table 10.2.
Poles of suspended magnet Pole of second magnet Observation
South South _______________
South North _______________
North South _______________
North North _______________

Table 10.2: Test for magnetism

From Activity 10.6, you must have discovered that a north pole attracts a south
pole, a north pole repels a north pole and a south pole repels a south pole.
Therefore, unlike poles attract each other while like poles repel each other. This is called
the basic law of magnetism.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Testing the polarity of magnets using the basic law of magnetism

Activity 10.7 To test for polarity of magnets using the basic law of
magnetism

Materials: A nail, two bar magnets, a cotton thread

Steps
1. Freely suspend a bar magnet as shown in Fig. 10.7.
2. Bring one pole of the magnet close to a nail placed on a table. What do
you observe? Explain.

cotton thread

nail
S
N

Fig. 10.7: Testing the polarity of a magnet.

3. Repeat with the other pole close to the nail and record your observations.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using a second bar magnet instead of the nail. What
do you observe? Discuss your observations.

From Activity 10.7, you must have observed the following:

1. There is attraction when the south or north pole of the suspended magnet is
brought near the nail.
2. When the second bar magnet is used, there is attraction with one pole and
repulsion with the other pole.
Therefore, there is always attraction between a magnet and a magnetic material
and also between the unlike poles of magnets. But there is repulsion only between
two like poles of magnets.
Repulsion is therefore, the only sure way of testing for polarity of a magnet.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

10.5 Types of magnets

Activity 10.8
To magnetise a piece of iron nail

Materials: A piece of soft iron nail (about 3 inches), about 1 m of thin coated
copper wire, a fresh size D dry cell, iron filing, cello tape.
Steps
1. Leave about 15 cm of wire loose at one end and wrap part of the remaining
section of the wire around the nail.
2. Cut the wire (if needed) but ensure that there is at least 15 cm of wire loose
on the other end too.
3. Remove about 2 cm of the plastic coating from each end of the wire. Attach
one end of the wire to terminal of the dry cell, and the other end of the
wire to the other terminal of the battery using a cello tape (Fig 10.8). Be
careful though, the wire might get very hot!

Fig. 10. 8: Magnetising a piece of iron nail

4. Bring one end of the nail near the iron filings.What do you observe? Explain.
5. Disconnect one end of the wire from the dry cell. What happens to the iron
filings? Explain.
6. Repeat the activity by replacing soft iron nail with a steel nail and increase
current by adding more new dry cells to the circuit. What do you observe?

From Activity 10.8, you must have noted that the soft iron nail attracts the iron
filings only when the circuit is complete i.e., when electric current is flowing
through the wire.This shows that the iron nail has become a magnet. This kind of
a magnet which is made by passing current through a coil is called an electromagnet.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

When the circuit is disconnected, no current will flow in the wire, hence the iron
nail does not attract the iron filings. The electromagnet is a temporary magnet.
When the steel nail was used instead of iron nail and current was increased, the
iron filing did not fall off after being attracted and the circuit disconnected. Hence,
the steel nail has become a permanent magnet.
Therefore,there are two basic types of magnets; permanent and temporary
magnets.

(a) Permanent magnets

Activity 10.9 To compare magnetism retention of different

permanent magnets

Materials: Dry cell, iron feelings, cello tape, steel nail, 1 m thin coated copper wire
Steps
Repeat steps 1 to 5 of activity 10.8 using a steel nail and iron each at a time.
Explain your observation.

In Activity 10.9, you should have observed that the steel nail retained its magnetism
for a longer time. Permanent magnets are those magnets that retain magnetic
properties for a long time. They are made from hard magnetic materials e.g
steel. An example of naturally occurring permanent magnet is lodestone, which
is composed of a mineral called magnetite.
Other permanent magnets are made from mixing magnetic materials (such
a mixture is known as an alloy). Examples of alloys commonly used to make
permanent magnets are Al-ni-cos i.e iron alloys containing aluminium, nickel,
and cobalt. Steel which is mixture of carbon and iron and materials containing
rare-earth elements like samarium, neodymium or ferrites (an oxide of iron).
Permanent magnets can be made into any shape to fit the usage. They can be made
into round bars, rectangles, horse-shoes, donuts, rings, disks and other custom
shapes. Fig 10.9 shows some permanent magnets named according to their shapes.
N S

N S

(a) A bar magnet (b) U-shaped magnet

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 Electricity and Magnetism

N S S

(c) Horse-shoe magnet (d) A ring magnet

Fig. 10.9: Shapes of permanent magnets.

Fig 10.10 shows a ceramic or magnadur magnet. The poles of ceramic magnet are
at its faces (Fig. 10.10). These types of magnets are stronger than other magnets
of comparable size. They are greyish/black in colour. Magnadur magnets consist
of basically iron oxide and barium oxide.

south pole north pole

Fig. 10.10: Ceramic magnet (magnadur).

Uses of permanent magnets

Permanent magnets are used to lift heavy loads in industries. They handle loads
with extreme easiness in the minimum area.This makes them efficient because
they always operate from the top without compressing or deforming the load.
Note:

Note: A permanent magnet system for lifting loads is safe since it is

not affected by any electrical power failure. Therefore, no battery or
generator backup system is required.

Other uses of permanent magnets include:

1. Removing of iron pieces from the eyes of patients in hospitals.
2. Setting of six’s maximum and minimum thermometer in weather stations.
3. To show the direction as in compass needles for navigation.
4. Magnetic tapes use permanent magnets in audio and video recorders.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

(b) Temporary magnets

Activity 10.10 To investigate magnetic property of a temporary mag-

net

Materials: Dry cell, iron feelings, cellotape, iron nail, 1m thin coated copper wire
Steps
Repeat step 1 to 5 of Activity 10.8 using an iron and observe what happens.
Explain your observation.

From Activity 10.10, you should have established that temporary magnets are
those magnets which act as magnets only when there is a flow of electric current
or a presence of a permanent magnet. They loose magnetism when the permanent
magnet is removed or electric current is cut off. Some may retain weak magnetic
properties. They are made using soft magnetic materials like soft iron, iron-silicon
alloys and iron-nickel alloys. An example of temporary magnet is an electromagnet.
A simple electromagnet is made by winding a wire carrying current round a soft
magnetic material and then connecting the wire in a simple circuit.
Uses of temporary magnets
Electromagnets are used in motors, loud speakers, telephone, earphones and
among other devices.

Exercise 10.1

1. Explain the meaning of the following terms:

(a) a magnet.
(b) a magnetic substance/material.
(c) a non-magnetic material.
(d) a ferro-magnetic material.
2. Group the following materials into magnetic and non-magnetic materials:
Zinc, paper, aluminium, graphite, steel and plastic.
N
3. Explain how you can identify the polarity of a
magnet whose poles are not marked? bar magnet

4. Two steel pins were attracted by a magnet. When a

south pole was brought in between the two pins, the S
pins moved further away, as shown in Fig. 10.11. pins
Explain why the pins moved apart. Fig. 10.11: Steel pins
attracted to bar magnet

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 Electricity and Magnetism

10.6 Magnetic field pattern around a magnet

Activity 10.11 To investigate the existence of magnetic field around a

magnet

Materials: 2 bar magnets, a magnetic compass

Steps
1. Place a bar magnet on a table.
2. Pass the magnetic compass over the bar magnet and observe what happens.
Explain your observation.
3. Now, move the magnetic compass along the sides of the bar magnet. What
did you observe? Discuss your observation to your class partner.

In Activity 10.11, you should have observed that in steps 2 and 3 when the
magnetic compass was placed near the bar magnet, its direction changes. This
shows that there is a magnetic effect in the region around the magnet. In this
region, there exist magnetic force of attraction and repulsion. This space or region
is called magnetic field, and is represented by the lines of force called magnetic
field lines. These field lines forms a pattern called magnetic field pattern.
Drawing magnetic field pattern round a magnet

Activity 10.12 To investigate magnetic field pattern around a magnet

using iron filings

Materials: 2 bar magnets, U-shaped magnet, iron filings , stiff paper

Steps
1. Place a smooth stiff paper on top of a bar magnet.
2. Sprinkle iron filing onto the stiff paper. What do you observe? Explain your
observation to your class partner.
3. Tap the paper gently and draw the pattern displayed by the iron filings.
4. Repeat the activity with north poles of two bar magnets close together and
then south to north poles. Observe and draw the pattern displayed by iron
filings.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 3 by using a U-shaped magnet.
6. Compare and discuss your patterns with other pairs in your class before
presenting your finding to the whole class.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

In Activity 10.12, you observed that the iron filings are attracted by the magnet,
since there is a magnetic effect in the region around the magnet. The pattern
displayed by the iron filings represents the magnetic lines of force.
Fig.10.12 shows the photograph and magnetic field lines of the iron filings
arrangement around a bar magnet. Note that the lines do not cross each other.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.12: Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

When the two north poles or north and south pole are placed close to each other
and the steps 1 to 3 repeated, the pattern displayed is as shown in Fig 10.13(a)
and (b) respectively.

N N S N S N

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.13: Magnetic field patterns

Note that magnetic field lines originate from the north pole of a magnet
to the south pole.

In step 5 of Activity 10.12, the pattern displayed

when the U-shaped magnet was used is as shown in
Fig. 10.14.

Fig. 10.14: Magnetic field patterns

of U-shaped magnet

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Unit summary and new words

• A magnet is a piece of metal with either natural or induced properties of
attracting other metal objects.
• Materials which are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials while
those which are not attracted are called non-magnetic materials.
• The ends of a magnet where the attraction is strongest are known as the
magnetic poles. There are two types of poles. North pole and south pole.
• Unlike poles attract each other while like poles repel each other. This is
called the basic law of magnetism or the first law of magnetism.
• Repulsion is the only sure way of testing for polarity of a magnet.
• The space or region around a magnet is called magnetic field. It is represented
by the lines of force called magnetic field lines.

Unit Test 10
1. State two properties of a magnet.
2. State the basic law of magnetism.
3. Name four types of magnets according to shapes.
4. Describe an experiment to explain the existence of magnetic poles.
5. Explain what would happens to a U-shaped magnet if it is freely suspended
as shown in Fig. 10.15.
6. What is the main difference between a ceramic magnet and a bar magnet?
7. You have been provided with the following;
(a) a rod labelled S, which is a magnetic material.
(b) a rod labelled N, which is a non-magnetic material.
Explain how you would identify them.
N S
8. The magnets shown in Fig. 10.16, pole B attracts pole
P and pole Q attracts pole X. If pole Y is South pole:. Fig. 10.15: U-shaped magnet

A B P Q X Y

Fig. 10.16: Bar magnet

(a) What is the polarity of P?
(b) What would happen if the following poles are brought close together:
(i) pole B and X (ii) pole A and pole Q
(iii) pole B and pole Y
(c) Draw a magnetic field pattern when pole B and P are placed near each
other.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

UNIT 11 Electrostatics (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain charging of materials and
distribution of electric charges on conductors.

Unit outline
• Types of electrostatic charge and SI unit of charge.
• Method of charging bodies.
• Laws of electrostatic charge and Coulomb’s law.
• Insulators and conductors.
• Electric field and electric potential.
• Distribution of electric charges on metallic conductors.
• Application of electrostatic charges.

Introduction
You may have observed the following phenomena:
1. Sometimes one can get a shock when getting out of a car or touching the
metal knob of the door.
2. Dust particles stick to a window pane when the pane is wiped with a dry
cloth on a dry day.
3. A metal chain is usually attached to the trucks carrying petrol or other
inflammable materials.
You might have also experienced crackles and sparks that accompany taking off
clothes made of materials like nylon, polyster.
These and many more experiences are as a result of electrostatic phenomena. The
physics behind these observations will be clear after going through this unit.

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11.1 Types of electrostatic charges

Activity 11.1 To observe the attraction between water particles and

charged rod

Materials: A small stream of water and a polythene strip or a comb.

Steps
1. Take the polythene strip or the comb near to a stream of water flowing from a
tap. What do you observe? Explain.
2. Now, rub the polythene strip or the comb against your hair or cloth.
3. Slowly bring the polythene strip or the comb near the water stream. What do
you observe? Explain your observations to your class members.
4. Now, brainstorm with your class members the different types of electrostatic
charges.

In activity 11.1, you should have observed that nothing happens when the comb
was brought near the stream of water at first. When rubbed through hair, and
brought near the stream, the water bends towards the comb (Fig. 11.1).

Polythene strip or comb

Fig. 11.1: Stream of water attracted to a polythene strip or comb

This happens because the water is attracted towards the charged polythenes
strip or comb.
When the polythene strip or the comb is rubbed against hair/cloth, it acquires the
attractive property. The charged polythene strip attracts the thin stream of water.
The charged polythene strip or the comb can also attract bits of paper, tiny pieces
of cloth, etc. Many substances such as glass, plastic, ebonite and perspex when
rubbed with silk, rubber, fur, cotton wool or cat skin acquire the attractive property.
The charges developed on the materials are at rest and cannot move. We therefore,
call them static charges. The study of static charges is called electrostatics. There are
two types of static charges: positive charges and negative charges. Scientists like
Benjamin Franklin, and Charles Coulomb contributed a lot to the development
of this branch of physics.

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11.2 Origin of charges

Activity 11.2 To demonstrate attraction between a balloon and a wall

Materials: A balloon, Internet, reference books

Steps
1. Take a balloon and fill it with air.
2. Take it near to a wall and try to stick it. What do you see? Explain your
observations to your class partner.
3. Now, rub this balloon through your hair.
4. Try to stick it to the wall again. What do you observe now? Explain.
5. Discuss your observations in steps 2 and 4 with your colleagues in class.
6. Conduct a research from reference books and Internet on the origin of
charges.
7. In your research, find out:
(a) structure and composition of an atom. Sketch the structure.
(b) the definition and SI unit of charge.

In activity 11.2, you must have observed that the balloon doesn’t stick to the wall
in the first step. However, after it was rubbed against the hair, it stuck to the wall.
In general, when a material of one kind is rubbed with some other material, both
materials get charged by friction. Where do the charges come from? A simple idea
of the structure of an atom will enable us to understand the mechanism of charging.
In Unit 8, we learnt that matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. For a
long time, scientists thought that the atoms were the smallest building blocks of
matter and that they could not be subdivided further. However, in 1897, a new
particle smaller than an atom was discovered. It was called electron. Later, other
particles called protons and neutrons were discovered. Today we have a better picture
of the atom than in 19th century.
An atom is made up of two parts: a central core called the nucleus, and outer
orbits where electrons go round the nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons closely and tightly packed (Fig. 11.2). The electrons are extremely light
compared to protons and neutrons. They carry a negative charge. Protons carry
a positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. The number of protons and electrons
in an atom are equal and hence an atom is electrically neutral.

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proton
electron
+
neutron
nucleus
orbit of an electron

Fig. 11.2: Structure of an atom

Therefore, a charge can be defined as a characteristic of matter that express the extent
to which it has more or fewer electrons than protons and vice versa.
The SI unit of quantity of charge is the coulomb (C), named after a famous scientist
called Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806).
The knowledge we have learnt about protons and electrons in an atom is used to
explain how a body is charged.
We conclude that there are two types of static charges: positive charges and negative
charges.

11.3 Methods of charging bodies

(a) Charging by friction method

Activity 11.3 To charge a body by friction

Materials: A pen made of plastic material and some small pieces of paper or tissue
Steps
1. Take a pen near to small pieces of paper or tissue. What do you observe?
Explain.
2. Now, rub the pen on your hair and take it near to the small pieces of paper
or tissue. What do you observe in this case? Explain your observation.
3. Place the pen near to your arm and observe how your hair on your arms
behave. Why do you think the hair behaved the way it does ?
4. Discuss your observations and thoughts in steps 1, 2 and 3 to your colleagues
in class.
In activity 11.3, you should have observed that, nothing happens when the pen
was brought near the small pieces of paper in the first step. However, in the second
step, the pen attracted pieces of paper when it was rubbed against the hair. This
is because it got charged i.e gained charges that are opposite to that on pieces of
paper.
When the charged pen was brought near the hair of your hand, the hair was seen
bending to the opposite side. This is because of the repulsion force between the
charged pen and hair. This indicates that the two (charged pen and hair) have
similar charges on them.
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In general, when two materials are rubbed against each other, the heat energy
developed due to friction, can move some of those loosely held electrons from one
material and transfer them to the other i.e. the electrons may be rubbed off from one
material to the other because in some materials, the electrons are not tightly bound
to the nucleus.
Materials like polythene gain electrons from flannel cloth (cotton wool) when
rubbed and become negatively charged. Flannel cloth loses electrons and becomes
positively charged (Fig. 11.3).

polythene polythene rod

strip being
rubbed
flannel cloth against flannel
flannel cloth
cloth
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11.3: Rubbing polythene against flannel cloth

Materials like glass lose electrons when rubbed with silk cloth or far and become
positively charged. The silk material gains electrons and becomes negatively
charged (Fig. 11.4).

glass rod being

rubbed with silk cloth glass rod

silk cloth silk cloth

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.4: Rubbing glass against silk cloth

A body is said to be negatively charged if it has an excess or surplus of electrons. It is said

to be positively charged if it has a deficiency or shortage of electrons.
It is important to note the following points when materials are charged by friction
method:
• The excess negative charges on one body is equal to the excess positive
charges on the other. No new charges have been created.
• During the rubbing process, some materials always acquire the same kind
of charge whereas some materials may acquire either negative or positive
charges.

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• The quantity of charge produced in some cases may be small and in some
cases the charges may escape before they are detected.
A dry atmosphere and a clean dry state of the body Polythene
are essential for holding the electrical charges. Ebonite
Metals
Experiments shows that the nature of charge on a rubbed Silk
substance depends upon the nature of the rubbing material. Flannel or wool
From experience, physicists have classified the substances Glass
in a particular order. The list in Table 11.1 shows such a Fur
classification where the substance higher in the list acquires
a negative charge while the lower one acquires a positive Table 11.1: Classification
charge. The table only covers some commonly used of substances
substances.

Example 11.1
Polythene is rubbed with wool. What charge does:
(a) polythene acquire?
(b) wool acquire?
Solution
(a) Polythene acquires negative charge because polythene is higher in the list
than wool.
(b) Wool acquires a positive charge.

Example 11.2
Glass is rubbed with silk. What charges do the two materials acquire?
Solution
Glass is lower in the list than silk. Therefore, glass acquires positive charge while silk
acquires a negative charge.

(b) Charging by induction method

Activity 11.4 To charge a body by induction method

Materials
• Insulated uncharged metal sphere • Glass rod
• Conducting wire • Polythene rod

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Steps
1. Rub a glass rod with silk cloth. What type of charges does it acquire?
2. Bring the charged glass rod close to but not touching the insulated
uncharged metal sphere (Fig. 11.5 (a)).
conductor conducting
wire
free electron
charged
glass rod

insulator

(a) (b)
charged
polythene
rod

(c) (d)
Fig. 11.5: Charging a conductor by induction method
3. Touch the metal sphere with a conducting wire on the opposite side and
connect the wire to the ground (Fig. 11.5 (b)). What do we call this process?
4. While holding the glass rod near the space, withdraw the conducting wire
first then the glass rod (Fig. 11.5 (c)).
5. Bring charged polythene and glass rods in turns close but not touching the
sphere (Fig 11.5 (d). Observe and explain what happens.
6. Touch the conductor and repeat step 5 above.
7. Discuss your observations and report your findings to the whole class.

From your discussion, you should have established that the glass rod becomes
positively charged when rubbed against silk cloth. When the rod was brought
near the insulated conductor, the negative charges on the the conductor were
attracted while the positive ones were repelled (Fig. 11.5(a))The process is called
electrostatic induction.
When the sphere was earthed (connected to the ground with the wire) the negative

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charges moved from the earth into the sphere and neutralised the positive charges
on the sphere (Fig. 11.5 (b)).
When the rod was removed, the negative charges redistributed themselves
uniformly on the surface of the conductor (Fig. 11.5 (c)).
In step 5, you should have established that the conductor has been charged.
The charge on the conductor is opposite to that of the charged glass rod. This is
because it attracts the glass rod (positively charged) and it repels the polythene
rod (negatively charged). On touching the conductor after it had been charged
(step 6), it got discharged (negative charges on it moved to the ground) hence
could not attract nor repel the charged rods again.
This method of charging objects is called induction method. The charge acquired
by the conductor being charged is opposite to that of the charging rod.

(c) Contact (conduction) method

Activity 11.5
To charge a body by contact method

Steps
1. Using the same materials used in Activity 11.4 (b), bring a charged glass
rod in contact with uncharged conductor and observe what happens
(Fig. 11.6(a)).
2. Remove the charged glass rod (Fig. 11.6 (b)).
3. Bring the charged glass rod and polythene rod in turns close to the
conductor and observe what happens. (Fig 11.6(c)).
4. Have a discussion on your observation in steps 1 and 3. Note down your
findings.
5. Have a class presentation on your findings.
charged rod

uncharged
conductor

insulated stand

(a) (b)

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charged charged
polythene glass rod
rod

(c)
Fig. 11.6: Charging by contact method

In Activity 11.5, you should have observed that the conductor is attracted by the
polythene rod and repelled by the glass rod.
When a positively charged glass rod is brought in contact to the conductor, it neutralizes
the negative charges on the conductor and repel the positive charge away from the
side of the glass rod (Fig. 11.6(a)).
When the positively charged glass rod is removed (contact broken), the positive
charges on the conductor repel each other and spread throughout its body, hence the
conductor becomes positively charged.
The positively charged conductor repel the glass rod and attracts polythene rod when
they are brought close to it one at a time.
Therefore, the conductor becomes charged by contact method. The charge on the ball
is the same as the charge on the charged glass rod (charging rod).

(d) Separation method

Activity 11.6
To charge a body by separation method

Materials
• Two metal spheres (A and B) • Polythene rod
Steps
1. Place two metal spheres on insulating stands in contact with each other
(Fig. 11.7 (a)).
2. Bring a charged polythene rod close but not touching sphere A
(Fig. 11.7(b)).
3. Move sphere B away while holding the charged polythene rod in position
so as to break the contact (Fig. 11.7(c)).
4. Remove the polythene rod (Fig. 11.7(d))

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5. Test the two spheres (A and B) using the negatively charged polythene rod
and observe what happens.
6. Hold a discussion on your observations in step 5.

sphere B
A B A

insulated
stand

(a) (b)

A B A B

(c) (d)
Fig. 11.7: Charging by separation method

In Activity 11.6 before,the polythene rod was brought near spheres (Fig. 11.7(a)),
the positive and negative charges were balanced in each sphere hence the spheres
were uncharged (neutral).
When the polythene was brought closer to the two spheres, charge separation
occur i.e. negative charges from both spheres were repelled to sphere B and
positive charges from both spheres were attracted to sphere A.When the spheres
were separated, positive charges remained in sphere A and negative charges in
sphere B. When the charged polythene rod was removed, the charges distributed
themselves uniformly on the sphere. A negatively charged rod would be attracted
by sphere A and repelled by sphere B.

From Activity 11.6, we conclude that:

• The two spheres have become charged by separation.
• It can be seen from Figure 11.7(c) that sphere A has acquired a charge opposite
to that of the charging rod while sphere B has acquired a charge similar to that of
charging rod.

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11.4 The law of electrostatics

Activity 11.7 To investigate the electrostatic force between two

negatively charged rods

Materials: An ebonite rod, silk, a thread, polythene rod

Steps
1. Rub an ebonite rod with silk and suspend the rod with a stirrup (support)
and thread.
2. Bring a charged polythene rod near one end of the ebonite rod and observe
what happens (Fig. 11.8).
3. Discuss with your partner the observations in case 2.

motion
charged ebonite rod

charged stirrup (support)

polythene rod

Fig. 11.8: Charged polythene repels charged ebonite rod

In activity 11.7, you must have observed that the charged polythene rod repels the
charged ebonite rod. This shows that there is a force of repulsion between the two
rods with the same charges.
Therefore, two materials repels each other if they have same charges.

Activity 11.8 To show the electrostatic force between two positively

charged rods

Materials: Two glass rods, a silk cloth, a thread

Steps
1. Rub two glass rods with a silk cloth vigorously and suspend them with
stirrups and thread.

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2. Bring the two suspended rods close to each other and observe what happens
(Fig. 11.9).
3. Discuss the observations you made in case 2 and 3 and deduce a general
law of electrostatic.

front view
motion

motion

Fig. 11.9: Like charges repel

In activity 11.8, you should have observed that the two positively charged glass
rods move away from each other. This shows that the glass rods repelled each other.
Therefore, like charges or similar charges repel each other.

Activity 11.9 To investigate the electrostatic force between unlike

charges

Steps
1. Repeat Activity 11.7 by taking a charged glass rod near one end of the
suspended charged ebonite rod and observe what happens this time (Fig.
11.9).
2. Discuss your observations in case 1 with your colleague.

charged ebonite rod

charged glass

motion

Fig. 11.9: A charged glass rod attracts a charged ebonite rod

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In your discussion, you should have noted that the charged glass rod attracts the
charged ebonite rod.
This activity show that the charges on polythene and glass are unlike. Hence, we
conclude that unlike charges attract each other.

From Activities 11.7, 11.8 and 11.9 we can conclude that:

• Unlike charges attract each other.
• Like charges repel each other.
This is summarised in the basic law of electrostatics that states that like charges repel
and unlike charges attract.

Activity 11.10 To confirm that a body is charged

Materials: Glass rod, ebonite rod, silk, thread, pieces of papers, polythene rod
Steps

1. Rub both the glass and ebonite rods with a silk cloth.
2. Bring each rod at a time to near the pieces of paper. What do you observe?
3. Suspend one rod with a string and bring the other one close to it. What do
you observe?
4. Suspend the glass rod and ebonite rod with a stirrup (support) and thread.
5. Charge a polythene rod by rubbing it with silk, pass it over the pieces of
paper and bring it near the suspended ebonite rod and then to the glass
rod. What do you observe?
6. Discuss you observations in steps 2, 3 and 5 with your partner and then report to
the whole class.

In Acivity 11.10, you should have observed that both the ebonite and glass rods
attracted the pieces of paper because they were charged. They attracted each other
because they were oppositely charged by friction. i.e negatively and positively
respectively.

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When the negatively charged polythene rod attracted pieces of papers and the
positively charged glass rod but, repelled the ebonite.
From this Activity it is clear that:
• Attraction occurs when a charged body is brought either near an uncharged
body or near an oppositely charged object.
• Repulsion only occurs between two like charged bodies.
• Uncharged bodies are not repelled by charged bodies.
This why repulsion, is the best test to confirm that a body is charged.

11.5 Coulomb’s law

Activity 11.11 To research on Coulomb’s law

Materials: Internet, reference books

Steps
1. Access the Internet and reference books and do a research on Coulomb’s
law. What does it state?

The summary from Activities 11.12 and 11.13 actually leads to coulomb’s law.
The law was first developed by a French physicist called Charles Augustin de
Coulomb and it states that:
Two electrically charged bodies experience an attractive or repulsive force F, which
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance(d) between them and directly
proportional to the product of their electric charges Q1 and Q2, that is:
1
Fα
d2
F α Q1. Q2
Q1 .Q2
Fα
d2
Removing the proportionality sign, we introduce in a constant k
Therefore, force becomes
Q1 .Q2
F=k d2

Where, the constant, k = 1 and is equal to 8.988 × 109 Nm2c–2. A covenient
4πε

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value of 9 × 109 Nm2c–2 is sometimes used for charges in free space.

Force is in newtons(N), the charges in coulombs(C) and distance (d) in metres
(m).
Coulomb (C) can also be expressed as:
1 coulomb = 10-6 micro coulombs
1 coulomb = 10-9 nano coulombs

11.6 Factors affecting the magnitude of the force between two

charged objects
Activity 11.12 To determine the effect of the quantity of charge on the
magnitude of the force between two charged particles

Materials: Two identical polythene rods A and B, one perspex rod C, two clamps
and stands.
Steps
1. Charge polythene rod A strongly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth and
suspend it on a stand Fig. 11.12 (a).
2. Charge polythene rod B lightly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth and
suspend it on a stand Fig. 11.12 (b).
3. Charge perspex rod C strongly by rubbing it with a piece of dry cloth. Bring
the charged perspex rod in turns near the suspended polythene rods A and
B. Compare the magnitudes of the force of attraction in both cases. What
do you observe?

Rod B
Rod A

Rod C Rod C

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.12: Effect of magnitude of a force

In Activity 11.12, you should have observed that there is a strong force of attraction
between rods A and C than between rods B and C.
Therefore, the electrostatic force between two charged objects depends on the
quantity of the charge on the two objects. The greater the quantities of charge on the
two objects, the greater the force between them.

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Activity 11.13 To determine the effect of the separation distance on

magnitude of the force between two charged objects

Steps
1. Use the set-up in Fig 11.12 (a) to carry out this activity.
2. Bring the charged perspex rod C very close to the suspended charged
polythene rod A. Observe the strength of the force of attraction between
the two rods (Fig 11.13(a)).
3. Bring the charged Perspex C near the suspended charged polythene rod
A, a distance far than in step 2 (See Fig 11.13(b)). Observe the strength
of the force of attraction between the two rods. What do you notice?
charged charged
polythene rod A polythene rod
A
perspex rod C perspex rod C

motion motion

(a) Charges close (b) Charges
far apart
Fig. 11.13: Effect of separation distances on the magnitude of force
4. Hold a discussion on your observations and summarise your discussion by
pointing out the effect of separation distance on the magnitude of a force
between two charged objects.
5. Give a report to the whole classs on your findings.

In Activity 11.13, you should have observed that there is a stronger force of attraction
between rods A and C when the separation distance between them is short and vice
versa.
Therefore, electrostatic force between two charged objects depends on the separation
distance between the two charged objects. The greater the distance, the smaller the
force and vice versa.

We can summarise from the Activities 11.12 and 11.13 above that the magnitude of
the force between two charged objects depends on:
• The quantity of charge – the greater the quantity of charge, the greater the
force between the two objects.
• The distance of separation – the greater the distance, the smaller the force.

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Exercise 11.1
1. State two types of charges.
2. State the basic law of electrostatics.
3. State the SI unit of charge.
4. Mary rubbed a pen (biro) with a handkerchief and held it near a stream
of water running slowly from a tap. She observed that the stream of water
curved and followed the movement of the charged pen. When she touched
the water with the pen, the curving stopped. Explain these observations.

Example 11.3
Suppose two point charges each with a charge of +1.0 C are separated by a distance
of 1m. Determine the magnitude of the electrostatic force between them. Is the
force attractive or repulsive? (k = 9 × 109 Nm2c–2).
Data given
Q1 = +1.0 C, Q2 = +1.0 C, d = 1 m
Q1 .Q2 9 ×109 × 1.0 × 1.0
Since, F = k = then,
d2 12
F = 9 × 109 N. The force is repulsive since it is from two similar charges.

11.7 Conductors and insulators

Activity 11.14 To differentiate between conductors and insulators

Materials: a metal sphere, insulating stand, glass rod, cotton cloth, stand and
clamp copper wire, stick, fingers, paper strip, nail, plastic strip.
Steps
1. Suspend the glass rod with a string on the clamp. Charge the rod positively by
rubbing it with the cloth.

2. Place the metal sphere on the insulating stand and charge it positively by rubbing
it with the cloth.
3. Bring the metal sphere near the suspended charged glass rod and observe what
happens to the rod (Fig 11.14 (a).

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5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 several times, each time holding a different material (copper
wire, stick, papers tick and so on), and using it to touch the surface of the charged
metal sphere. Note down the observation in each case.
6. Group the materials that lead to the same observation. How many categories
of materials do you get based on the observations. Suggest the names of the
categories.

In Activity 11.14, you should have observed that the positively charged metal
sphere repelled the suspended positively charged glass rod before being touched
with any of the materials. When the charged sphere was touched with the hand
negative charges moved from the ground through your body and finger to the
sphere neutralizing it. Therefore, the sphere could not repel the suspended rod.
This shows that the human body is a good conductor of charge.
Similarly, when the charged sphere was touched with the copper wire, and nail,
it also got discharged and could not repel the suspended rod. This shows that the
copper wire, and nail are good conductors of charge.
However, when the charged sphere was touched with the stick, paper strip and
plastic strip, it still repelled the suspended rod meaning that it was not discharged.
This shows that negative charges were not able to flow through these materials
to the metal sphere. Thus, the stick, paper strip and plastic strip are insulators.
Let us now discuss conductors and insulators in details.
Conductors
These are materials which allow the flow of charges (electrons) through them.
They are made of atoms whose outer electrons in the atoms loosely bound and
free to move through the material. Some examples include; copper, aluminium,
gold, silver, water, aqueous solutions of salts and graphite. Human body, and living trees
are also conductors.
If a charged conductor is touched with another object, the conductor can transfer
its charge to that object.The transfer of charge between objects occurs more readily
if the second object is made of the same material as the conductor.
Insulator
They are materials which do not allow free flow of electric charges (electrons)
from within them. Examples include most non-metals glass, porcelain, plastic, dry
air, paper, rubber, styrofoam, mica and so on.
If charges are transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charges
will remain at the initial location of charging.
Insulators play a critical role in real life. For example, conductors e.g electric
cables are usually covered with insulators to protect us from electric shock.

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11.5 Electric field and electric potential

Activity 11.15 To demonstrate the existence of an electric field
around a charged object

Materials: A pen, pieces of paper, reference books and internet

Steps
1. Rub a pen using a silk cloth or hair a number of times.
2. Lower the pen gradually until when it comes very close to pieces of papers.
What do you observe when the pen is at ifferent heights from the papers?
Explain you observations to your group members.
3. Discuss your observations with your colleagues in class.
4. Now, conduct a research from reference books and Internet on:
(a) What electric field lines are and sketch them in your exercise book.
(b) electric field strength.
(c) electric potential.
5. Compare and discuss your findings with your colleagues in your class.

In Activity 11.15, you should have observed that the pen did not attract the pieces
of paper when it was very far from them, but it attracted them when it was at
the region near them. The region around a charge where the electrostatic force
attraction or repulsion is experienced is called an electric field.
The electric field around a charged object is represented by lines showing the
direction in which the electrostatic forces act. These lines of force are called electric
field lines as shown in Fig. 11.11

Fig. 11.11: Electric field lines

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The electric fields move away from a positive point charge and into the negative point
charge.
Electric field strength (E) is defined as the force per unit charge. It’s given as;
F
E= Q

Where Q is the charge, and F is the force acting on the charge. Its SI units are
N
C
or NC-1.

The concentration of field lines in a magnetic field is an indication of electric field

strength. The more close the field lines are the stronger the electric field strength.
Electric potential (V) is defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point. It is given as:
1 Q
V= .
4πε d
Where Q is the charge moved, d is the distance moved, ε is the permitivity of
the medium which separates two charges. The material can be a vacuum or an
insulator. The material with a high permittivity is one which reduces appreciably
the force between two charges.

11.9 Distribution of charges on metallic conductors

Activity 11.16 To investigate the distribution of charges on metallic
conductors

Materials: A spherical conductor, a sharp pointed conductor, a gold leaf

electroscope, a proof plane, Internet, reference books
Part I

Steps
1. Conduct a research from internet and reference books on how charges
are distributed on a conductor.
2. In your research, also find out:
(a) What a proof plane is and its uses.
(b) The meaning of the charge density.
3. Compare and discuss your findings in step 1 and 2 with other groups in
your class.

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Part II
Steps
1. Charge the spherical, oval and sharp pointed conductors by any one of the
methods of charging described earlier.
2. Press the proof plane into contact with various places on the surface of the
conductors each at a time at, and then transfer the charge to the gold leaf
electroscope. What do you observe on the divergence of the gold leaf?

A proof plane is a small metal plane supported by an insulating handle. It is used to

transfer a small fraction of electric charge on the body to the gold leaf electroscope.
In part II of Activity 11.16, you should have noted that when the proof plane
was placed on the various points on the surface of the spherical conductor, the
divergence of the leaf was the same. This shows that charge is distributed uniformly
on the surface of a spherical conductor (Fig. 11.25)
However, for the sharp pointed conductor, the greatest divergence was obtained
when the proof plane transfered charges from the sharp pointed end of the object.
This shows that charge is highly concentrated at places where the surface is
sharply curved or pointed. This is particularly noticeable at the end point of the
pear-shaped conductor.

Proof plane
Insulated
handle ++ + +
++ +
+ +
Metal + +
+ +
Charged disc +
+
sphere + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
++ +
+ + +
Insulated
stand

(a) (b)
Fig 11.22: Distribution of charges on a sphere

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Proof plane

Pear-shaped conductor
+ + + + + + + +
+ + ++
++
+ +
++
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
+

Insulated stand

(c) (d)

Fig. 11.15: Distribution of charges on a pear-shaped conductor

The quantity of charge per unit area of the surface of a conductor is known as
charge density.

11.10 The law of conservation of charge

Activity 11.17 To do research on the law of conservation of charge

Materials: Polythene rod, dry cloth, pieces of paper.

Steps
1. Rub a polythene rod with a dry cloth.
2. Bring the rod near small pieces of paper. What happens?
3. What charge does the rod posses?
4. During the charging process, what do you think happened to the particles
of the cloth?
5. What conclusion can you make about charge as depicted by charging
process?

In activity 11.17, the cloth acquired a charge and of equal magnitude but opposite
to that acquired by the rod. This shows that if an object (or part of the object)
gains a charge, another object must have lost the charge. The net charge of an
isolated system remains constant.
The law of conservation of charge simply states that electric charge can neither be
destroyed nor created.

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Charge can only be transferred from object to object, but it cannot be created
or destroyed.
Other examples involving conservation of charge
1. If you rub a comb through your hair, it will become negatively charged.
The only way for this to happen is for your hair to also become positively
charged. So if the comb’s charge becomes -1μC the charge in your hair
must become +1μC .
2. Rubbing a rubber rod with animal fur. The system is made up of rubber
rod and fur. At first the total charge of the system is zero (that is each
object has equal numbers of electrons and protons in their atoms) before
rubbing. When rubbed, the rubber rod acquires negative charges by gaining
electrons from the fur, leaving the fur becomes positively charged. So the
total charge of the system is zero.
Note; the only way to change the net charge of a system is to bring in a charge
from elsewhere or remove the charge from the system.
For instance, two identical metal spheres are charged, sphere A has a net charge
of +7 C sphere B has -3 C. The spheres are brought together, allowed to touch
and then separated. What is the net charge on each sphere now?
When the spheres are touched the net charge (+4 C) will spread out evenly over
the two spheres, each sphere will have a net charge of +2C on separation.

Exercise 11.2
1. What is meant by ‘charging by induction’?
2. Three metallic spheres A, B and C are mounted on insulated stands. Sphere
A is positively charged. Using illustrations, describe how you can use the
positively charged sphere A, to charge both spheres B and C negatively at
once by induction.
3. Explain how a charged body attracts a neutral material.
4. (a) State four differences between charging by induction and charging by
contact.
(b) State and explain two ways of discharging a charged plate.
(c) Describe how to charge two conductors positively by induction.
5. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons with
separate charges of +3.5 × 10-8 C and -2.9 × 10-8 C when separated a distance
of 0.65 m.
6. Two balloons with charges of +3.37μC and -8.2μC attract each other with
a force of 0.0626 N. Determine the distance between the two balloons.

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7. A balloon with a charge of 4μC is held a distance of 0.7 m from the second
balloon with the same charge. Calculate the magnitude of the repulsive force.
8. Fig. 11.24 shows a model of a lady’s head having nylon hair. When the hair
is charged by combing with a dry plastic comb,
it spreads out as shown.
(a) Explain the appearance of the hair.
(b) State the factors that affect the
magnitude of the force between two
charges.
9. Draw and show how charges are distributed on
the surfaces of the metallic conductors with the
Fig. 11.16
following shapes.
(a) Spherical (b) Triangular
(c) circular (d) Oval shaped

11.11 Effects and applications of electrostatics

Activity 11.18 To investigate real life effects of electrostatics

Materials: Two mirrors, a dry cloth, wet cloth, chalk dust

Steps
1. Rub the first mirror with a dry cloth for some time.
2. Rub the second mirror with a wet cloth.
3. Sprinkle both mirrors with very fine chalk dust and observe what happens
to the particle.
4. Where does the dust/ chalk stick so much? Explain your observation.

In Activity 11.18, you should have observed that when the mirror was rubbed
within a dry cloth, it got charged by friction hence attracted the chalk dust
particles. This is why most window glasses are usually dusty. The following are
some other effects of electrostatics:

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1. One gets a shock on touching the metal knob of the door of a car while
getting out of the car. Electric charges build up on the surface of a car due to
friction with the road as well as with the air molecules. When the metal knob
is touched, charges flow from the knob to the earth through the person. The
discharging of the charges on the surface of the car through the person gives
a shock. If a metal chain is attached to the car on the outside, the charges
can pass easily to the earth and the charges cannot build up.
It is for this reason that metal chains are attached to a petrol tanker. If large
charges are allowed to pile up on the tanker, even a small spark produced
can cause a fire and the tanker can explode.
2. When a mirror is cleaned with a dry cloth, both the mirror and the cloth get
charged due to friction. The charged mirror acquires the attractive property.
Dust, thin hair or fluffs can therefore stick to the mirror.
3. Cars are painted using a spray gun. The car is usually earthed and the paint
droplets coming out of the spray gun are given a positive charge. The car
attracts these charged droplets of paint uniformly.
4. Dust and smoke particles are extracted from the inside of the chimney
by electrostatic attraction. This reduces the air pollution which is a health
hazard.
5. Electrostatic induction is used in the photocopying machines.
6. Though rubber is an insulator, special materials called conductive rubber
is used to make aeroplane tyres. The conductive rubber tyres reduce the
risk of an explosion during refuelling the aircraft. When the metal sprout of
the fuel pipe touches the petrol tank sparks can be produced leading to an
explosion.

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Unit summary and new words

• A charge is a characteristic of matter that express the extent to which it
has more or fewer electrons than protons and vice versa.
• Materials can be charged by rubbing. The charge acquired can be positive
or negative.
• A body acquires a negative charges if it gains electrons from the substance
with which it is rubbed. The body that looses electrons become positively
charged.
• The law of electrostatic states that like charges repel and unlike charges
attract.
• Coulomb’s law states that two electrically charged bodies experience
an attractive or repulsive force F which is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance d between them and proportional to the product
of charges Q1 and Q2 i.e
Q1 .Q2
F=k where k is constant.
d2
• SI unit of charge is coulomb (C).
• A gold leaf electroscope is used to:
- detect and distinguish charges.
- test insulating or conducting properties of a material
- test for the sign of a charge in a body
• The law of conservation of charge states that charges can neither be created
nor destroyed but can only be redistributed in a body in the presence of
another charged body.
• Charges are mostly concentrated at places where the surface is sharply
curved or pointed.
• All substances can be classified as either conductors or insulators of
electricity. Conductors allow electrons to flow through them freely, but
insulators do not.

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Unit Test 11
1. When do we say that a body is negatively charged?
2. (a) What is meant by ‘charging by contact’?
(b) What is earthing?
(c) What happens during earthing if an object is:
(i) negatively charged?
(ii) positively charged?
(d) Why is it not possible to charge a metal rod held in the hand by rubbing
with a cloth?
3. A plastic rod is rubbed with a dry cloth and becomes positively charged.
Explain why the rod become positively charged?
4. A glass rod is rubbed with silk. Explain how both the silk and the rod
acquire charges.
5. What does the study of electrostatics deal with?
6. What is an electroscope?
7. State the law of electrostatic. Explain the law with a suitable example.
8. Two balloons inflated with air are tied with strings and held 1 metre apart.
Both the balloons are rubbed with fur. Why do the balloons move apart when
brought close together?
9. When a charged rod is held close to a metal sphere placed on an insulated
stand, the charge distribution on the sphere is as shown in Fig. 11.27

metal sphere

charged rod

stand
Fig. 11.17:Charge distribution on a sphere

(a) What is the sign of charge on the rod?

(b) Describe a simple method to charge the rod.

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(c) Explain why the far side of the metal sphere has a positive charge.
(d) What happens to the charges on the metal sphere, if the charged rod
is moved away from the sphere?
10. A container with dry chalk powder
is covered with a clean glass plate. glass plate

The top surface of the plate is

rubbed with a piece of fur (Fig. container with
11.28). chalk powder

State and explain the effects of:

Fig. 11.18: Container with dry chalk powder
(a) Rubbing the lid with fur.
(b) Touching the lid with a finger
after sometime.
11. A negatively charged polythene rod is placed on the pan of a balance. State
and explain what happens to the
balance reading if another charged
polythene rod is brought closer to
polythene rod
the first (Fig. 11.29).
12. Copy the following diagrams and balance
show the distribution of charges
on the conductor BC placed on an Fig. 11.19: A beam balance
insulated stand. I is a charged rod
close to the end B (Fig. 11.30).
I
I
B C
B C touch the end
C with your
finger

(a) (b)
I
B C
B C
remove I
remove your
finger

(c) (d)
Fig. 11.20: Conductor BC placed on insulated stand

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13. Copy the following diagrams and show the charge on each metal sphere
placed on insulated stands (Fig. 11.31).
A B A B
charged
rod

insulated stand
(a) Two spheres touching each other (b) Sphere B is moved away from A

A B

(c) The charged rod is removed

Fig. 11.21: Spheres A and B
14. What are conductors and insulators? Give three examples of each.
15. Why are metal chains attached to the trucks carrying petrol or other
inflammable materials?
16. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons that are
charged with opposite type of charge but the same quantity of the charge.
The charge on the balloon is 7.0 × 10-7 C and they are separated by a
distance of 0.50 m.
17. Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity of charge;
- 6 . 2 5 n C . t h e y a r e h e l d a p a r t at a s e p a r at i o n d i s t a n c e o f
6 1 . 7 c m . D eter m ine the m a gn it u d e of t he elect r ical force.

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UNIT 12 Current Electricity (I)

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain the different effects of electricity
and the safety precautions to observe while using electricity.

Unit Outline
• Simple electric circuit and its components.
• Electric current.
• Electric potential difference.
• Measurement of current and voltage.
• Ohm's law.
• Electrical energy and power.
• Effect of electric current.
• Safety precautions to observe when handling electrical applications.

Introduction
One of the most convinient types of energy is electrical energy. It has played a vital
part in making our lives easier. We use electrical energy in lighting, heating and
operating devices like television sets, radios, telephones, computers and electrical
train. In this unit, we shall take a closer look at current electricity and find out
its effects and safety precautions to be taken while using it.

12.1 Simple electric circuit and its components

Activity 12.1 To set up a simple electric circuit

Materials
• Switch • Dry cell • Bulb in a bulb holder
• Cell holder • Two connecting wires

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Steps

1. Place a dry cell in a cell holder.

2. Connect one end of the connecting wire to one of the terminals of the cell
holder. Screw the bulb in the bulb holder.
3. Connect the other free end of the wire from the dry cell to the bulb holder
(Fig. 12.1).

4. Use the second wire to connect the other end of the dry cell to the bulb
through a switch (Fig. 12.1).

Circuit
1.5 V cell

Bulb

Fig. 12.1: A simple electric circuit diagram showing actual components

5. Close and open the switch in turn. What happens to the bulb? Explain your
observation.

From Activity 12.1, you must have observed that when the switch is closed, the
bulb lights.
The cell provides electrical energy needed to light the bulb. The bulb converts
electrical energy into light and heat energy. A cell is a kind of a ‘pump’ which
provides electrical energy needed to drive charges along a complete path formed
by the wire through the bulb switch and back again to the cell. This complete
path along which the charges flow is called electric circuit.
When the switch is open, the bulb does not light. This is called an open circuit.
When the bulb lights the circuit is called closed circuit.

Electric circuit components and their symbols

In electric circuit diagrams, we represent the actual components with symbols.
Table 12.1 shows some of the components, their symbols and definition that are
used in electric circuit diagrams.

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Name of component Symbol Definition

Cell
+ – Small source of electric energy.

+ –
Battery Large source of electric energy.

Power supply D.C mains.

Open switch Breaks the circuit.
Closed switch Completes the circuits.
Wires joined Junctions.
Wires that joins two or more
Connecting wires
components in an electric circuit.
Convert electric energy to heat and
Lamp/bulb
light.

Ammeter A Measures electric current.

Voltmeter V Measures p.d and voltage.

Table 12.1: Circuit components and their symbols

The simple electric circuit in Fig. 12.1 can be drawn using symbols as shown in
Fig. 12.2.
Cell
+ –

Switch

Bulb Connecting wires

Fig. 12.2: Simple electric circuit diagram using symbols

12.2 Simple cells and batteries

Activity 12.2 To make a simple cell with improvised material

Materials
• Lemon • Zinc plate or rod
• Copper plate or rod • Connecting wires with clips
• Milliameter or galvanometer • Knife

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Steps
1. Cut two small slits on the skin of the lemon.
2. Push the copper and zinc plates into the slits. Make sure the plates do not
touch each other.
3. Connect each plate to the milliameter using connecting wires as shown in
Fig. 12.3.

Fig. 12.3: Simple cell circuit of a lemon

Observe what happens to the pointer of the milliameter. Suggest a reason for
your observation.

The set up of the lemon, the metal plates and connecting wires make up a simple
electric cell that generates some electric current. The electric current produced
makes the pointer of the milliameter to deflect.

The working of a simple cell

Activity 12.3 will help us to understand how a simple cell works.

Activity 12.3 To investigate the working of a simple cell

Materials
• Zinc plate • Copper plate
• Dilute sulphuric acid • A bulb
• Connecting wires

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Steps
1. Dip the zinc and copper plates into a beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid
as shown in Fig. 12.4.
Electron
+

zinc electrode copper

electrode

Electrolyte e

Fig. 12.4: Working of a simple cell

2. Connect the two plates to a bulb and observe what happens to the bulb
immediately it is connected.
3. Suggest how a simple cell works.

In Activity 12.3, you must have observed that when the bulb is connected, it lights
brightly before diming down slowly after sometime.
A simple electric cell consists of two different metal plates called electrodes and
a conducting liquid called electrolyte. In activity 12.3, the zinc and copper plates
are the electrodes while sulphuric acid is the electrolyte. When the two plates
are dipped in the electrolyte and then connected through a wire, the electrolyte
creates a negative charge in the zinc plate. The electrons move from the zinc plate
through the wire and bulb to the copper plate.The electric current produced by
the flow of electrons makes the bulb to light.
An example of an enhanced simple cell is the dry Leclanche cell that we use in
our torches, radios and cameras. Fig 12.5 shows an example of a dry cell.

Fig. 12.5: A dry cell

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A battery

Activity 12.4
To demonstrate how a battery works

Materials
• Two lemons • Two zinc plates or rod
• Two copper plates or rod • Connecting wires with clips
• Milliameter or galvanometer • Knife

Steps
1. Repeat Activity 12.2 and observe the extent of the milliameter pointer.
2. Now connect another one lemon in series with the first one as shown in Fig.
12.6. Observe the extent of the milliameter pointer.

Fig 12.6: Two simple cells connected in series

3. Compare the deflection of the pointer when two lemon simple cells are used
in step 2 and when one was used in step 1. What do you notice? Draw a
conclusion for this observation.

When two or more simple electric cells are connected in series (positive terminal
to negative terminal), they constitute a battery. The electric current produced by
the battery is more than that produced by one cell.
An example of a practical battery is a car battery shown in Fig. 12.7.

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Fig. 12.7: A car battery

Fig. 12.8 shows the symbol for a battery in a circuit as used in a circuit diagram.
+ –

Fig. 12.8: Battery symbol

Exercise 12.1

1. Define the term electric circuit.

2. Draw a diagram for a simple circuit.
3. What is an open circuit?
4. Draw a labelled diagram of a simple cell.
5. The following are some symbols of electric components.
, A , , ,

Fig. 12.9: Symbols of electric components

(a) Name the electric components represented by these symbol.

(b) Using these symbols, draw a simple circuit diagram.

12.3 Electric current

Activity 12.5 To demonstrate the flow of charge in a circuit

Materials
• Straw • Beaker with water

Steps
1. Make a rectangular shape using a straw as shown in Fig. 12.10

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. 12.10: Rectangular shaped straw

2. Pour some water to one opening of the straw and rise it slightly. What do you
observe? Explain.
3. Using the analogue of water in step 2, discuss in your group how electric
charges flow in an electric circuit.

Be responsible

Avoid misusing water. Without water there is no life.

From step 2 in Activity 12.5, you should have observed that water come out from
the other opening of the straw because the water is flowing through it. Similarly
electric charges flow through an electric circuit.
In an electric circuit, bulbs light because charges (electrons) flow through them.
The rate of flow of charges from one point to the other in an electric circuit is
called an electric current. i.e

Quantity of charge (Q)

Current (I) =
Time (t)
Q
I= t

The unit of quantity of charge is the coulomb, C. The unit of time is the second (s).
Then the unit of current, I, is the coulomb per second (C/s). 1 coulomb per second
is also called 1 ampere (A). The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A).

Direction of the flow of electric current

The direction of the flow of electric current is usually shown by an arrow in an
electric circuit (Fig. 12.11). Conventionally, it is from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of a cell through the connecting wire. However electrons move
from the negative to positive terminal.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

+ –

Conventional
direction Flow of electrons
of current

Fig. 12.11: Conventional direction of electric current and electron flow

Example 12.1
Calculate the amount of charge that passes through a point in a circuit in 3
seconds, if the current in the circuit is 0.5 A.

Solution
Charges Q = It
= 0.5 A × 3 s = 1.5 C

Example 12.2
How long would it take for a charge of 1.2 C to flow when a current of 0.01 A is
flowing in a circuit?
Solution
From Q = It, we make, t, the subject of the formular
Q 1.2 C
t= = 0.01A = 120 seconds or 2 minutes
I

Example 12.3
Find the amount of current passing through a lamp, if 600 Coulomb of charge
flows through it in 4 minutes.

Solution
Q = It. We make, I, the subject of the formula.
Q 600 C
I= = (4 × 60)s = 2.5 A
t

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Measurement of electric current

Activity 12.6 To measure electric current

Materials
• Digital ammeter • Analogue ammeter
Steps
1. Study the instruments given to you. What is the name of the instrument?
2. Note the range of their scales.
3. Suggest what the apparatus is used for.

In your discussion, you should have identified the instruments as ammeters. They
are used to measure electric current in a complete electric circuit. Fig. 12.12(a)
shows an analogue multiammeter. It has two positive terminals and one negative
terminal. Fig. 12.12 (b) shows a digital ammeter.
0 – 5A
(Upper scale)

0 – 1A
(Lower scale)

0 – 200 mA

(a) An analogue ammeter (b) A digital ammeter

Fig 12.12: Ammeters

An analogue ammeter may have more than one scale (Fig. 12.12(a)). The
magnitude of the current determines the scale to be used.
Smaller currents are measured in milliamperes (mA) and microamperes ( A).
1
1 mA = 1 000 A = 1 10-3 A, 1 A = 1 10-6 A.
Fig. 12.13 shows the symbol of an ammeter.

Fig 12.13: Symbol for an ammeter

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How to use an ammeter to measure current in a circuit

Activity 12.7 How to connect and use an ammeter to measure

current in a circuit

Materials
• An ammeter • A bulb • Connecting wire
• A switch • A dry cell
Steps
1. Discuss in your group, how an ammeter is connected in an electric circuit.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 12.14.
+ –

ammeter A

Fig. 12.14: An ammeter connected along the path of an electric current

3. Close the switch and observe what happens to both the bulb and the pointer of
the analogue ammeter. In case of the digital ammeter, observe what happens to
the display on the screen?). Suggest a reason for this.
4. Repeat the activity but connect the ammeter to the right of the bulb as shown
in Fig. 12.15. Observe what happens to the bulb and the ammeter reading.
Explain your observations to others.
+ –

A
Fig. 12.15: An ammeter connected to the right of the bulb

5. Brainstorm on how to read the magnitude of current from an analogue

ammeter.

You should have established that an ammeter is connected in series with the circuit
components through which current is to be measured. In step 1, the bulb lights
and the ammeter records some reading. The same is observed when the bulb and
ammeter are interchanged in the circuit, i.e same brightness and same ammeter
reading. This shows that an ammeter consumes negliglible electric current.

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Reading an analogue ammeter

Activity 12.8 How to read an analogue ammeter

1. Repeat Activity 12.7 by connecting the ammeter scale in Fig. 12.12(a) to the
negative terminal of the power source leading to the negative terminal of the
ammeter (referred to as the common terminal (usually black) and positive
terminal leading to the 1 A or 5 A terminal positive terminal (usually red or
brown in colour) depending on the amount of current to be measured. What
do you observe?
2. Sketch in your exercise book the range of the scales used. What does one
division represent?
3. Discuss with your members how to read the magnitude of current from an
analogue ammeter.

Fig 12.16 shows the scale on an analogue ammeter that measures current in the
range 0 – 1 A, or 0 – 5 A.
0.5
0.4
0.6

0.7

0.3 2
3
0.8
4
0.2

1 0.9
0.1

A
0 5 1.0
0
P

com 1A 5A

wires connected
Fig. 12.16: An ammeter with a scale range of 0 – 1 A, 0 – 5 A

When connected to the 1 A terminal, the upper scale running from 0 - 1 A should
be used.
We determine the current represented by each smallest division on the upper scale
as follows:
5 divisions correspond to ........... 0.1 A
0.1A
1 division corresponds to .................................. = 0.02 A
5
In Fig. 12.16, the pointer is on the second mark after the 0.7 mark, hence the
ammeter reading is:
0.7 A + (2 divisions × 0.02 A) = 0.7A + 0.04 A = 0.74 A

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Example 12.4
What is the reading shown by the pointer in Fig. 12.17, if the full scale range is:
(a) 0–100 mA?
(b) 0–250 mA?
– 1 2 + 3 +
– 250 mA 100 mA

40 60

100 150
20

80
20
50

0
mA

100
0

250
0

Fig. 12.17: Ammeter reading scale

Solution
(a) Full scale deflection = 100 mA. (Use the upper scale)
The pointer is at 69th division.
The reading is 69 mA.
(b) Full scale deflection = 250 mA. (Use the lower scale)
The pointer is between 170th and 180th divisions. There are 4 divisions of the
upper scale corresponding to 10 mA in the lower scale.
∴ 1 division represents 2.5 mA.
Reading = 170 mA + 2.5 mA = 172.5 mA.
The reading is 172.5 mA.

Exercise 12.2

1. Define an electric current and state its SI unit.

2. A car battery circulates charge round a circuit for 5 minutes. If the current
is held at 15 A, what quantity of charge passes through the wire?
3. A charge of 40 coulombs flows through a point on a conducting wire in 15s.
Calculate the current flowing in the conductor.
4. Calculate the number of electrons which carry a charge of 1 C. (charge of
an electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C).

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 Electricity and Magnetism

5. If a charge of 1.5 C passes through a point in a circuit in 0.5 s, calculate the

current in the circuit.
6. If the current in a circuit is 2 A, calculate:
(a) the charge that passes through a point in the circuit in 0.6 s,
(b) the number of electrons possive + through the point per second.
7. What is the reading shown in the ammeter below?

3.25
0 – 300 A
Ammeter

Fig. 12.18: A digital ammeter

12.4 Potential difference (p.d)

Activity 12.9 To define potential difference and identify its SI unit

Materials
• Reference books
• Internet
Steps

1. Conduct a research from internet and reference books on potential difference,

be guided by the following questions:
(a) What is potential difference?
(b) What is the SI unit of potential difference?
(c) Define a volt.

We can use a water model to explain potential difference (p.d). This model
consists of a water pump, water and pipes as shown in Fig. 12.19 (a).
Fig. 12.19 (b) shows an electric circuit which can be compared with the water
model.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

When the pump is on, water is lifted to point A. At this point water has the
maximum potential energy. This potential energy drives the water down the
inclined pipe. On reaching point B, the water has lost all the potential energy it
had. The pump then provides the water with the necessary energy to climb up to A
again. The water therefore flows round the water circuit as long as the pump is on.
A

Potential
Difference difference or
in height h voltage I

Pump +
B

(a) (b)

Fig. 12.19: (a) A water model and (b) An electric circuit

In the electric circuit, the electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
battery. The battery lifts the electrons up through an electrical height. This
electrical height is called a potential. The positive and the negative terminals
have a difference in potential. This difference in potential or potential difference
(p.d) is the one responsible for driving the electric current round the circuit. In
the water model, the difference in the height causes water current. If there are
no differences in the water levels, as in ponds, water would not flow. Similarly, in
electrical circuits the absence of a potential difference results in no electric current.
Potential difference is defined as the work done in moving one coulomb of charge
from one point to the other in an electrical circuit. The SI unit of potential
difference is the volt (V).

work done (joule)

Volt = charge (coulombs)

The potential difference is also known as the voltage.

The volt
In Fig. 12.20 (a), points A and B are at a potential difference of one volt if the
work done in moving one coulomb from A to B is one joule. 1 volt is therefore
defined as the energy needed to move one coulomb of charge from one point to
another. The voltage between the terminals of a cell indicates the energy supplied
to each coulomb of charge in the circuit. For example, a battery with a potential
difference of 6 V supplies 6 joules of energy to each coulomb of charge in the
circuit. This energy is then converted into other forms of energy like light and
heat in bulbs ( Fig. 12.20(b)).

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Negligible energy is lost in

connecting wire
A B 6V

6 joules given to each

coulomb
p.d
1 volt

(a)
4 joules per coulomb 2 joules per coulomb

(b)
Fig. 12.20: Energy carried by a coulomb of charge

Measurement of voltage
Activity 12.10 To measure voltage using a voltmeter

Materials
• Digital and analogue voltmeters
Steps
1. Study the instruments given to you. What is the name of the instruments?
Write down its symbols in your exercise book.
2. Note down the range of its scales .
3. Discuss the use of the apparatus and how they are connected in an electric
circuit.

In Activity 12.10, you should have identified the instruments as a voltmeters. Fig.
12.21(a) and (b) shows an analogue and digital voltmeter respectively. Fig 12.12
(c) shows the symbol for a voltmeter. A voltmeter is used to measure voltage across
a device in an electric circuit.

(a) (b)

Digital voltmeter
Analogue Voltmeter

(c) V
A symbol for a voltmeter

Fig. 12.21: Voltmeters

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 Electricity and Magnetism

The positive terminal of voltmeter is connected to the wire from the positive
terminal of the cells and the negative terminal to the wire leading to negative
terminal. A voltmeter is always parallel to the device whose voltage is to be
measured. (See Fig. 12.23).
+–
+ –
Resistor
V1

+ – + V2 –
V
Voltmeter Connecting a voltmeter in an electric circuit
Fig. 12.23: Connecting a voltmeter in a circuit

Voltmeters have uniform scales calibrated in volts or millivolts. The most used
scales have a range of 0 – 5 V and 0 – 1.5 V. Fig. 12.22 shows a scale of a voltmeter.

Scale
1 2 0.5 1

mA mV
1.5
0
3

Fig. 12.22: Voltmeter scale

The voltmeter scale is read in the same way as the ammeter.

Note:

• If the pointer of an ammeter or voltmeter moves in an anticlockwise

direction, then interchange the wires on the terminals.

Exercise 12.3
1. Define the term potential difference and state its SI units.
2. Name the instrument used to measure voltage.
3. Define a volt.
4. In a circuit, 5 joules are used to drive 2 coulombs of charge across a bulb in
a simple circuit. Find the potential difference across the bulb?
5. Name the instrument used to measure potential difference.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

6. Two cells, A and B connected in parallel are in series with a bulb as shown
in Fig. 12.24.
A

Fig. 12.24: Circuit with parallel cells

Copy the diagram and show where the:

(a) ammeter should be connected in order to measure the current through
cell A.
(b) voltmeter should be connected to measure the potential difference
across both the bulb and cell B.
7. Fig. 12.25 shows a dual scale of voltmeter.
40 60

100 150 80
20

20
50

V
0

100
0

250
0

Pointer
Fig. 12.25: Dual scale of a voltmeter
(a) What is the reading shown by the pointer in Fig. 12.25, if the range is:
(i) 0 – 100 mV (ii) 0 – 250 mV
(iii) 0 – 2.5 V (iv) 0 – 0.1 V
(v) 0 – 10 V (vi) 0 – 25 V
(b) Why are different ranges used in ammeters and voltmeters?

12.5 Ohm's law

Activity 12.11 To observe the variation of current (I) with change in
potential difference (V) across a conductor

Materials
• Nichrome wire, ammeter, variable resistor, switch, cells, voltimeter
Steps
1. Using the nichrome wire, make a coil of many turns as possible.
2. Connect the set-up as shown in Fig. 12.26.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

V
Fig. 12.26: Circuit to verify Ohm’s law

3. Varry the potential difference (V) across the wire by adjusting the variable
resistor. Observe what happens and answer the following questions.
(a) What happens to the current reading when the potential difference is
increased?
(b) What happens to the current reading when the potential difference is
reduced.
(c) Using your observation in (a) and (b) summarise the relationship
between (I) and (V).

You should have observed that as the potential difference (V) across the wire is
increased the current also increases and vice versa. This observation is summarised
by Ohm's law.

Ohm's law states that the current (I) flowing in a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference (V) across it, if the temperature and other physical
quantities of the conductor remains constant i.e. V α I ⇒ V = I .
R

The following activity will help us to verify Ohm's law.

To verify Ohm's law

Activity 12.12 To verify Ohm's law

Materials
• dry cells, cell holder • 100 cm of nichrome wire
• Variable resistor • connecting wires
• ammeter • voltmeter and a switch

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Steps
1. Using the nichrome wire, make a coil of
many turns as possible.
A
2. Connect the set-up as shown in Fig. 12.27.
3. Close the switch and adjust the variables
resistor so that the p.d across the conductor
reads 0.5 V. Record the corresponding V
value of current as indicated by the Fig. 12.27: Circuit to verify Ohm’s law
ammeter.
4. Increase the voltage across the conductor in steps of 0.5 V, each time noting
and recording the corresponding values of the current through the conductor.
Record your results in a tabular form as shown in Table 12.2.
p.d across the conductor (V)
Current through the conductor (A)
Table 12.2: Relationship between p.d and current

5. Draw a graph of p.d against current, I.

6. Determine the gradient/slope of the graph at different points. What do you
notice? Discuss.
7. Suggest the relationship between voltage across the conductor and current
through it.

The results show that as the potential difference across the conductor increases,
the current through the wire also increases.
The graph of V against I is a straight line passing through the origin (Fig. 12.28).

p.d V
(V)

Gradient = V = constant
I

0
Current I (A) Current l (A)
Fig. Fig.
12.28: Graph
5.13: Graphofofp.d. (V)) against
p.d (V currentI (I)
against current

The graph in Fig. 12.28 shows that the current is directly proportional to the
applied potential difference, i.e., I ∝ V or say V ∝ I. The gradient of the graph is
also constant.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Gradient = ∆V = Constant
∆I
V
∴ = Constant
I
Thus, Ohm's law is verified.
This constant is the resistance (R) of the conductor, i.e

V = R
I
V = IR
Resistance (R) is the ratio of potential difference (V), across the ends of a conductor
to the current (I), passing through it. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

From V = IR, then R = V and I = V

I R
The equation V = IR is the mathematical expression of Ohm's law named after a
famous physicist George Simon Ohm. He was the first scientist to establish the
relationship between current and potential difference.
Example 12.5
The voltage and current through a device in a circuit are 2 V and 0.02 A
respectively. Calculate the resistance of the device.

Solution
Voltage
Resistance = Current
2V
R = V = 0.02 A = 100
I

Example 12.6
A resistor rated 10 allows a current of 2 A to flow through it in a simple circuit.
The resistor is replaced with another one of 30 . Calculate the amount of current
passing the 30 resistor if the source of voltage is the same.
Solution
In the first case
V = I1 × R1 = 2 A × 10 = 20 V
The voltage is the same in the second case,
20 V
V = I2R2 ⇒ I2 = 30 = 0.6667 A

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Example 12.7
A current flows through a coil of wire of resistance 80 Ω when it is connected to
the terminals of a battery. If the potential difference is 60 V, find the value of the
current.
Solution
R = 80 Ω, V = 60 V
From Ohm’s law,
V 60 V
I = R = 80 Ω = 0.75 A

Exercise 12.4
1. State Ohm’s law.
2. A p.d of 12 V is required to drive a current of 1.5 A to flow through a filament.
Find the resistance of the filament.
3. A resistor of value 20 Ω allows a current of 0.3 A to pass through. Calculate
the voltage across the resistor.
4. Fig. 12.29 is an ohmmeter connected in a circuit.

0.6 A
nichrome wire

R = 10 Ω
Fig. 12.29 A diagram of a circuit

If the switch is closed, find the voltage across the nichrome wire.

12.6 Electrical energy and power

Electrical energy

Activity 12.13 To describe energy transformation involving

electrical energy

Steps
1. Suggest energy transformation in an electrical circuit with:

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 Electricity and Magnetism

(a) A heater (b) A bulb and battery

(c) A bicycle dynamo
2. Do a presentation on the chalkboard to the rest of the students on how
energy is converted from one form to the other.
3. In your representation, identify electric energy and how it is converted to
other forms of energy.
4. Now, suggest what electrical energy is.

From your discussion, you should have established the following:

Electrical energy is the energy that drives in charge through a circuit. The following
are some energy transformations involving electrical energy.
1. A circuit with a heater.
Electrical energy Heat energy
2. A circuit with a bulb and battery.
Light energy (bulb)
Chemical energy Electrical energy
(battery) (wire)
Heat energy (bulb)
3. Bicycles dynamo.
Heat energy
Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Light energy

Electrical energy equation

Activity 12.14
To establish the formula for calculating electrical energy

Consider a current, I, flowing through a conductor of resistance, R, if there is a

potential difference, V, between the ends of the conductor (Fig. 12.30).
I R

V
Fig. 12.30: Current (I) passes through resistance,

Using this information, how to derive the following electrical energy equations
V2t
E = VIt, E = I2Rt and E = ?
R

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In your discussion, you should have noted that potential difference is the work
done per unit charge to drive it through the current, i.e
Work done (W)
Potential difference, V =
charge (Q)
W
V= or W = VQ ........... (i)
Q
Where; W is the electrical work that is converted into heat energy E.
But current is the rate of flow of charges i.e.
charge (Q) Q
Current, I, = , in symbols, I =
time t t
Q = It ................................ (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain.
E = VQ = V(It)
The SI unit for electrical energy is the joule (J).
Alternative equations for finding electrical energy, E are obtained by replacing V
or I in the equation, E = VIt as shown below:
From ohm’s law V = IR
Substituting for V in equation E = VIt, we get,
E = (IR)It
∴ Electrical energy, E = I2Rt
V
Also, from ohm’s law I =
R
Substituting for I in equation E = VIt, we get
E = V(V/R)t
V2t
∴ Electrical energy, E =
R

Example 12.8
A current of 2.0 A is passed through a resistor of 20 Ω for 1.0 hour. Calculate the
electrical energy converted into heat energy in the resistor.
Solution
Electrical energy E = I2Rt = (2.0)2 × 20 × (1 × 60 × 60)
= 288 000 J
= 2.88 × 105 J

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Example 12.9
An electric iron consumes 2.592 MJ of energy in 1 hour when connected to the
mains power supply of 240 V. Calculate the current through the filament in the
electric iron.
Solution
Energy consumed VIt = 2.592 MJ = 2.592 × 106 J
= 2 592 000 J
∴ 240 × I × (1 × 60 × 60) = 2 592 000
∴ current, I = 3 A
The current through the filament is 3 A.

Electric power

Activity 12.15 To establish the formula for calculating electrical

power
Materials
• Stopwatch • Immersion heater • Water in a bucket
Steps
1. Observe and record the voltage rating of the heater.
2. Connect the immersion heater to the socket.
3. Immerse the heater in the bucket.
4. Put the switch on and start the stopwatch immediately.
5. Note and record the time the water takes to boil.
6. Simplify the expression to get the expression for electric power in various
quantities. Establish an expression relating electric power energy and time.

When the heater was immersed in Activity 12.15, the electrical energy was
converted to heat energy that makes water to boil. The rate at which electrical
energy is converted to heat energy is called electrical power.
Therefore, for an electrical device,
VIt
Power, P = electrical energy transformed = t = VI
time
The SI unit of power is Watts (W).
The other common unit used is kilowatts 1KW = 1000W
Alternative, equations for finding power P are obtained as follows:
Electrical energy E
Power = i.e P = t
time

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 Electricity and Magnetism

I2Rt
but E = I2Rt ⇒ P = ∴ P = I2R
t
V2t V2t V2
Also E = ⇒P= ∴P=
R R×t R

Example 12.10
A torch bulb is labelled 2.5 V, 0.3 A. Calculate the power of the bulb.
Solution
Electrical power, P = VI = 2.5V × 0.3 A = 0.75 W
The power of the bulb is 0.75 W.

Example 12.11
An electric bulb is labelled ‘40 W, 240 V’. Calculate:
(a) the resistance of the filament used in the bulb.
(b) the current through the filament when the bulb works normally.

Solution
(a) Labelling of the bulb is ‘40 W, 240 V’ (b) P = I2R
P = VI ⇒ I2 = P = 40
V R 1440
=V
2
= V
R R
V 2
240 2 I= 40
R= = = 1 440 Ω 1440
P 40
The resistance of the filament = 1 440 Ω = 0.167 A

Example 12.12
In 5 seconds, an electric iron takes 10 000 joules of energy from the main supply.
What is its power:
(a) in Watts? (b) in Kilowatts?

Solution
energy 10 000
(a) Power = = = 2 000 W
time 5
(b) 1 000 W = 1 kW (Kilowatt)
2 000 W = 2 kW

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Example 12.13
What is the power dissipated in a 6 Ω resistor when the current through it is?
(a) 2A (b) 4A

Solution
(a) P = I2R = 22 × 6 = 24 W (b) P = I2R = 42 × 6 = 96 W

Example 12.14
A 3 kW immersion heater is used to heat water. Calculate the electrical energy
converted into heat energy in 40 minutes.

Solution
Electrical energy (E) = Electrical power (P) × time (t)
= (3 × 1 000) × (40 × 60) J
= 7 200 000 J
= 7.2 × 106 J
= 7.2 MJ

! Conserve energy to save on consumption costs. Use energy saving

bulbs and switch off the lights during the day to conserve electrical
energy.

Exercise 12.5
1. How much electric energy in joules does a 150 watts lamp convert to heat
and light energy in:
(a) 15 seconds
(b) 5 seconds
(c) 1 min
2. Define electrical power as used in electrical circuit.
3. Calculate the (a) current through (b) resistance of the filament of
(a) a bulb rated at 240 V, 60 W.
(b) an electric kettle rated at 2 kW, 240 V.
4. (a) A washing machine is marked 240 V, 3 kW. What does this mean?
(b) Calculate the electrical energy consumed by this machine in 1 hour.

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5. (a) Which bulb in Fig. 12.31 is the brightest?

Explain your answer.
(b) Both the bulbs in Fig. 12.31 are dimmer
compared to the normal brightness,
when each bulb is connected in turn to
Fig. 12.31: An electric circuit
the same power supply. Why?
6. A 2 kW immersion water heater is switched on for 3 hours. Calculate the
amount of heat energy given off by the heater.
7. If an electric heater consumes a current of 4 A when connected to a 240 V
supply, what is its power.
8. How much current flows through a bulb rated 150 W when a potential
difference of 240 V is supplied to the bulb when operating normally?

12.7 Earth wire, switch and fuses

Earth wire

Activity 12.16 To investigate the importance of an earth wire

Materials
• A 3-pin plug • Screwdriver
Steps
1. Take a closer look at a 3-pin plug. Try to identify the parts can you see.
2. Using a screwdriver, open the 3-pin plug. Note down colours of each wire
from the cable.
3. Give a reason why different colours are used.
4. Which colour represents the Earth wire? Explain.
5. Discuss how the earth wire is connected and its importance.
6. Give examples of electrical appliances with 3-pin plug.
7. Present your findings to the whole class through your group secretary.

In Activity 12.16, you should have observed that one pin is longer than the other
two. The longer pin is called the earth pin while the other two are live pin and
neutral pin. The earth pin is longer than live and neutral so that it is connected
to an electrical circuit first then live and neutral pins later.
Most modern electrical appliances like the electrical iron, kettle, toaster, electric
geyser, immersion heater, refrigerator and hot plates are supplied with a 3-pin
plug, while some systems like television set, record players, hair-blow dryer, key

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 Electricity and Magnetism

boards have only 2-pin plugs. A 3-pin plug has its three pins, usually marked with
letters L, N and E standing for live, neutral and earth respectively (Fig.12.32 (a)
and (b)).
Earth wire
E
(green/yellow) Earth pin
Fuse
L
Neutral wire Neutral pin
(blue)

Live wire Live pin

Case clip
(brown)
Cable with 3 wires
(a) Inside view (b) Side view
Fig. 12.32: A 3-pin plug

The three wires of a cable in the 3-pin plug are distinctively coloured to denote the
live, neutral and earth wires. The basic idea of using different colours is to easily
identify the wires so that correct connections are made with care. The present
international convention is brown for live, blue for neutral and green with yellow
stripes for earth.
Earth connection
The earth wire connects the metal case of an appliance (e.g. an electric iron) to
the ground and prevents it from becoming live, if a fault develops. If, for example,
the cable insulation wears out due to the heating effect of the current, there are
chances that a few fine strands of the bare live wire could touch the metal case.
When such a fault occurs, a current flows through the live wire and the earth wire
in series. The fuse in the live wire will blow and cut off the power supply. If on
the other hand, there was no earth wire connection, a person touching the metal
case would get an electric shock.
In appliances like television set, record player etc; the outer case is not metallic
and hence 2-pin plugs are sufficient. It is dangerous to use the 2-pin plug with
any appliance which has out metal case.
In a socket for 3-pin plug, the holes for the live and the
neutral pins are usually closed by an insulating material
called a ‘blind’ (Fig. 12.33). This is a safety measure,
especially to children who like to play with nearly everything
and might cause short circuiting by putting in wires in the
socket.The ‘blinds’ are opened by the longer earth pin of the
3-pin plug. The moment the earth pin touches and opens
the socket, any leakage current through the metal case will Fig. 12.33: A socket
straightaway be earthed hence making the appliance safe.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Short circuits

Activity 12.17 To find out what happens if bare over head live
eletrical cables touch each other

Discuss what happens when bare overhead electrical cables with electrical current
touch each other.

If a few strands of the fine bare live wire those of neutral wire touch by chance, a
large current can flow between the live and the neutral wires of the supply cables.
This is due to the fact that current tends to take the path of least resistance. This
is called the short-circuiting of the appliance.
On such occasions, the fuse usually blows off. Otherwise if no fuse is in use, the
‘sparking’ produced by the large current might burn the cable and there are risks
of fire being produced.

! Live wire is dangerous if handled carelessly. It can give electrical

shock.

Switch and circuit breaker

Activity 12.18 To establish how a switch works
(Work in groups)
Material
• A switch
Steps
1. Identify the electrical component provided and tell your members its
functions.
2. How is it connected in a circuit? Give a reason.
3. Compare and discuss your findings with others in class.

In Activity 12.18 you should have identified the component as a switch. A switch
is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interupting the
current or diverting it from one conductor to another. A switch should be fitted
in the live wire in an electric circuit, so that when the switch is off, the high
voltage is disconnected from the appliance. This prevents electrical shocks and
fire outbreaks incase of electrical faults.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

A special automatic switch known as a circuit breaker is also fitted in the live wire
of a house wiring circuit. It automatically goes off when the current in the circuit
exceeds a given value when the circuit is overloaded hence disconnects the circuit.

! Save energy
Switch off lights when not using them. There are cost implications
incurred if left on.

Fuses

Activity 12.19 To establish how a fuse works

Materials
• Fuses of different values

Steps
1. Identify the power rating different types of fuses provided.
2. In your own words, tell your group members what a fuse is.
3. Discuss the importance of a fuse in an electrical appliances and suggest what
is likely to happen to appliances without the fuse.
4. Suggest to your members the value of power and voltage in an electrical
appliance e.g 3000 W, 240 V and let them choose a fuse to be used.

A fuse is a short thin piece of wire of low melting point. The wire melts as soon
as the current through it exceeds its rated value. Fuses are usually fitted in all
electrical circuits to prevent dangerous flow of a large current due to overloading
of an electrical circuit or any other electrical faulty.
A melted or ‘blown’ off fuse stops the current and protects the electrical appliance
and therefore the house against the risk of fire caused by the heat. Just like the
switch, the fuse should be fitted in the live wire.
The fuse used should be of a value just higher than the normal current required by
the appliance. The common standard values of available fuses are 2 A, 5 A and 13
A, although 1 A, 3 A, 7 A and 10 A fuses are also made. If the value of power and
voltage of an electrical appliance is given as ‘2 000 W, 250 V’, the required current
through it is 8 A. The correct fuse to protect the appliance is 10 A. Similarly, if
the required current for an appliance is 4 A, the correct fuse to be used is 5 A.

! Stay safe!!
Always put off the main switch first incase of a fire outbreak caused
by electrical faulty.

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12.8 Effects of an electric current

(a) Heating effects of an electric current

Activity 12.20 To show the heating effect of an electric current

Materials
• 2 immersion heaters of different sizes • Stopwatch
• Thermometer • A small bucket
• Cold water • Battery
• Switch and connecting wires • Variable resistor
Steps
1. Dip an immersion heater into water in a bucket and switch on the power
supply (Fig. 12.34).

Thermometer

Immersion heater

Cold water
Bucket

Fig. 12.34: A setup to demonstrate heating effect

2. After a couple of minutes, switch off the power supply and slightly touch the
water in the bucket. What do you feel? Discuss.
3. Measure the temperature of the water using thermometer and record it down.

In Activity 12.20, you should have observed that water becomes warm after
sometimes. The electrical energy has been converted into heat energy.
Scientists have done numerous activities to help in the advancement of the
relationships between electric current and heat. For instance, James Joule observed
that electric current flowing through a conductor causes the temperature of the
conductor and the surrounding to rise as observed in Activities 12.20.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

We can therefore conclude that an electric current has a heating effect on a substance.
But what are the factors that affect the heating effect of an electric current?
Factors affecting heating effect of an electric current

Activity 12.21 To find out the factors affecting the heating effect of an
electric current

1. Repeat Activity 12.20 by:

(a) Increasing the amount of current (i.e reducing resistance using variables
resistor) through the same coil for the same amount of time. Note down
the temperature of the water. Compare with the reading obtained in
Activity 12.20. What do you notice? Discuss.
(b) Passing the same amount of current through different coils of different
resistance (lengths). Record down your observation.
(c) Passing the same amount of current through the same coil for different time
intervals such as 30 seconds, 60 seconds or 5 minutes. What do you notice?
2. From your observations made in 1(a), (b) and (c) suggest the factors that
affect heating effect of an electric current.

You should have established that the heating effect of an electric current is affected
by the following:
1. Amount of current.
2. Resistance of a conductor/substance.
3. Time for which the current flows.

Joule’s Law of Heating

Joule’s law is a mathematical description of the rate at which resistance in a
circuit converts electric energy into heat energy.
The English physicist James Prescott discovered that the amount of heat per
second that develops in a current-carrying conductor is proportional to the
electrical resistance of the wire and the square of the current.
The heat that is generated because of the current flow in an electric wire is
described in Joules. The mathematical expression of Joule’s law is as explained
below.
The joule’s law shows the relationship between heat produced by flowing electric
current through a conductor.
Q = I2 R t
Where,

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 Electricity and Magnetism

• Q indicates the amount of heat

• I show electric current
• R is the amount of electric resistance in the conductor
• t denotes time
• The amount of generated heat is proportional to the wire’s electrical
resistance when the current in the circuit and the flow of current is not
changed.
• The amount of generated heat in a conductor carrying current is
proportional to the square of the current flow through the circuit when the
electrical resistance and current supply is constant.
• The amount of heat produced because of the current flow is proportional
to the time of flow when the resistance and current flow is kept constant.

Example
1.Calculate the heat energy produced in resistance of 5 Ω when 3 A current
flows through it for 2 minutes.
Solution
The amount of heat produced by the conductor is given by the formula:
Q = I2 R t
Substituting the values in the above equation we get
Q = 32× 5 × 2 × 60 = 5400 J
2. A heater of resistance 300 Ω is connected to the main supply for 30 mins. If
10 A current flows through the filament of the heater then what is the heat
produced in the heater?
The amount of heat produced by the heater is calculated as follows:
Q=I2Rt
substituting the values in the equation, we get
Q = 102 × 300 × 30 × 60 = 54000000 J or 54 MJ.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Applications of heating effect of an electrical current

Activity 12.22 To investigate the application of heating effect of an

electrical current

Materials
• Iron box, cloth (hankie) socket, water
Steps
1. Plug the iron box into the socket. After 2 minutes, sprinkle little water on to
the bottom (metalic part). What do you observe? Explain.
2. Pass the iron box on top of cloth once folded. What do you observe?

Common household electrical appliances like electric kettle, laundry iron, heater,
hotplate, toaster, roaster etc. which convert electrical energy into heat are all
constructed essentially in the same way. In all the cases, the heating elements are
made from a metal like nichrome. This is an alloy of nickel and chromium which
is not easily oxidised when it turns red hot. The nichrome wire is made into a
coil and wound round substances like porcelain ceramic which are heat resistant
and non conductors.
The heating element in a radiant electric heater is red hot at about 900ºC and
the radiation emitted by the heater is directed into the room by polished metal
reflectors (Fig. 12.35 (a) and (b)).
Polished
To power metal reflector
supply

Heating element

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.35: A radiation room heater

In an electric iron, when a current flows through the heating element, the heat
energy developed is conducted to the heavy metal base and the temperature of the
metal base increases. This heat energy is used to press clothes. An electric iron also
incorporates a thermostat (a device containing a bimetallic strip) which is used
for regulating the temperatures of the hot plate. Fig. 12.36 (a) shows the labelled
parts of an electric iron while Fig. 12.36 (b) shows a commercial electric iron.

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Thermostat
Iron
Heating Brass
element

To power
Metal base supply

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.36: An electric iron

In an electric kettle (Fig. 12.37(a) and (b)), the heat energy developed in the
heating element is used to heat water. The temperature of water rises in a
comparatively shorter time as compared to water being heated using burning
charcoal or firewood.

To power
supply
Water

Heating
element

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.37: An electric kettle

The latter releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere which has a bad effect
on the environment.

Cutting trees for charcoal and firewood leads to deforestation which

may lead to desertification.

Exercise 12.6
1. A bulb rated 200 W is used for 12 hours. Calculate the energy it consumed
in kWh.
2. Name any four devices that have electric heating elements.
3. If energy costs 182 FRW per unit and the energy saving bulbs are used on average,
for 5 hours per day, what will the annual saving be if the bulb is rated 5 kWh?
4. State the international colour conventions for the live (line), neutral and
earth leads of a 3-core flex.
5. Define a fuse and state its function in an electrical circuit.
6. Sketch and name a 3-pin plug.
7. Explain why the earth connection is important.
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(b) Magnetic effects of an electric current

Activity 12.23 To demonstrate the magnetic effect of an electric current

Materials
Insulated copper wire, soft iron core, source of
current, switch, 3 nails
A
Steps
Fig. 12.38: Insulated copper wire
1. Wind several turns of insulated copper wire
around a core made of soft iron (Fig. 12.38). This turns make up a solenoid.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the solenoid wound around the soft
iron core, and connect the solenoid to the circuit using the bare end as shown
in Fig. 12.38.
3. Switch on the current through the switch bring the other nails near or
touching the solenoid. What do you observe?

In Activity 12.23, you should have observed that the solenoid attracts the nail
when the current is on. In 1819, Oersted observed that the direction of a compass
needle near a current-carrying conductor changed immediately the current was
switched off. He also observed that the direction on the compass needle depended
on the relative position of the compass from the current-carrying wire, and the
direction of the current.
From Oesterd experiment it was discovered that there exists a relationship between
an electric current and magnetism. The interaction between the two fields is
known as electromagnetism.

Applications of magnetic affect of an electric current

The magnetic effect of an electric current has many applications e.g in
electromagnets, loudspeaker, ammeter, voltmeter, electric motors etc. We will
learn in details each of the applications in our next levels. Fig. 12.44 (a), (b) and
(c) shows an ammeter, a motor and loudspeaker.

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(a) Ammeter (b) Motor (c) Loudspeaker

Fig. 12.44: Applications of magnetic effects of an electric current

Exercise 12.7
1. Explain why a magnetic compass deflect when brought near a conductor
carrying current.
2. Give any three applications of electromagnetic effect

(c) Chemical effects of an electric current

To investigate chemical effects of an electric current

Activity 12.24 To investigate chemical effect of an electric curent

Materials
• A 250 ml beaker • Two carbon rods
• A battery • Water
Steps
1. Put some pure water in a beaker. Dip two carbon rods into the water. What
is the name of the two rods dipped in water?
2. Connect one of the carbon rod to the negative terminal of a battery. Connect
the other carbon rod to the positive terminal of the same battery as in Fig.
12.46.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Electrodes
+

carbon plate
carbon rod

water e

Fig. 12.46: electrolysis of water

3. Connect a light bulb and a switch. Close the switch and note what happens to
the bulb.
4. Add a few drops of diluted sulphuric acid to the pure water and repeat the activity.
5. Repeat the activity with other liquid/solution e.g. copper sulphate solution,
common salt solution and record your observations.

In Activity 12.24, you should have observed that with pure water, the bulb did
not light. However, with a few drops of sulphuric acid, the bulb lights.
Sulphuric acid helps to break water molecules into ions. Water with a few drops
of sulphuric acid is known as acidulated water. These ions produce the electrons
that flow in the circuit hence the bulb light. The rod or plates that are dipped in
solution to direct the current are called electrodes. The electrode connected to
the positive terminal of the battery is known as the anode and that connected to
the negative terminal is called cathode.
A close observation at the surface of the electrodes in contact with the electrolytes
shows that chemical actions occur. The chemical changes in a liquid due to flow
of an electric current is called electrolysis. Not all liquids allow electric current
to pass through them. It is only those liquids which are at least partly dissociate
into oppositely charged ions that allow current to pass through them. Such liquids
are called electrolytes. Solution of many inorganic chemical compounds (e.g.
sulphuric acid, copper sulphate, common salt) etc are examples of electrolytes.

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To investigate the chemical effect of an electric current through copper

sulphate solution with copper electrode

Activity 12.25 To investigate the chemical effect of an electric current

Materials
• Copper sulphate solution • Copper electrodes
• A 250 ml beaker • A variable resistor
• An ammeter • measuring balance
Steps
1. Measure the mass of copper electrodes provided. Note it down.
2. Set the apparatus as shown in Fig. 12.47.
d.c
+ –
A
power supply
variable
resistor

Copper anode Copper cathode

Copper Sulphate
solution

Fig. 12.41: Copper electrodes immersed in Copper Sulphate solution

3. Adjust the variable resistor such that a current of 0.5 A passes through the
copper sulphate solution.
4. Allow the electric current to flow for about 30 minutes. Remove copper
cathode and anode from the solution, and observe what happens to their
surfaces. Reweigh them.
5. Compare the mass in steps 1 and 4. What do you notice?
6. Discuss the applications of chemical effect of an electric current.
7. Carry out a research from the Internet and reference books to compare your
findings from the discussion in case 6.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

In Activity 12.29, you should have observed that the copper cathode electrode
that was dipped in the copper sulphate solution was covered with a bright fresh
deposit of copper. The cathode showed an increase in mass and the anode showed
a decrease in its mass. The increase and decrease in mass at the cathode and
anode respectively is equal. The colour of the copper sulphate solution remain
unchanged. The net effect is that copper is dissolved off the anode and deposited
on the cathode, with the electrolyte remaining unchanged.

12.9 Applications of chemical effect of an electric current

(a) Electroplating is mainly used in depositing a layer of material on a metal
surface e.g. chromium to achieve a desired property. For instance, protection
against corrosion and aesthetic qualities. It is also used to build up thickness
on undersized parts.
For example, chromium plating is done on bath taps, car bumpers, bicycle
handlebars, towel rails. Chromium does not corrode and resists scratches and
wear. It can be polished to give a bright attractive appearance. Silver plated
items are also common to find in our daily use. Cutlery and jewellery items
are often silver plated to have the appearance of silver but be less expensive.
(b) Electrolysis is used to manufacture pure metals such as pure copper
commercially from compound solutions. This method is covered in details in
Chemistry.
(c) Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in radio receivers i.e the capacitor is
made by the electroysis of annonium borate.

Electrical hazards and safety measures

Activity 12.36 To identify electrical hazards and safety measures

Materials
• Internet • Reference books
Steps
1. Conduct a research from internet and reference books on common electrical
hazards in places such as homes, schools, industries and offices.
2. In your research, identify some of the safety measures to be taken to prevent
or during the occurrence of electrical hazards.

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In your discussion, you should have established that hazards are situations that
pose a threat to life, health, property or environment.
The following are some common electrical hazards in our homes, offices and
factories.
• Poor wiring and defective electric wires can lead to electric shock and fires.
• Water outlets being close to electric outlets can cause electric shock when it
gets in contact with live wires.
• Pouring water on electrical fire. This can lead to electric shock.
• Overloading the outlets may lead to overheating and electrical fire.
• Use of long extension cords which can cause tripping or accident.
• Touching electrical appliances with wet hands leading to shocks.
• Broken sockets and electrical appliances leading to electrical shock and
sometimes fire.

Safety measures
Every electricity user should observe safety measures when using electricity and
electrical appliances. The following are some of the electrical safety measures.
• Do not touch naked electric cables with bare hands to avoid electric shock.
• Always pay attention to the warning signals given out by your appliances. For
instance, if a circuit breaker repeatedly trips, you should confirm the problem.
• Use the right size circuit breakers and fuses to avoid overloading.
• Ensure that potentially dangerous electrical devices or naked wires are out of
reach of children.
• You should avoid cube taps and other outlet-stretching devices.
• Always replace broken plugs and naked wires.
• Use the correct appliances in a socket to avoid overload.

12.10 Project work

Making a simple cell from locally available materials
Suggested materials
Citrus fruit, potatoes or onion to provide the electrolyte, zinc plates from old dry
cells, thick copper wire.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Assembly
• Assemble the apparatus as shown in Fig. 12.48.

copper zinc plate

wire

citrus fruit

Fig. 12.42: A symbol cell

• Pierce through the skin and insert the two electrodes. The current from this
cell is very small. Try and connect a number of them in series and see whether
a small bulb can be lit.

Unit summary and new words

• Electric circuit is a complete path through which charge flow.
• An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current.
• A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential difference (p.d.).
• Potential difference (V) is the work done in moving a unit charge between two
points in a closed circuit.
• Potential difference (p.d.) = work done per unit charge.
work done (in joules) W
p.d. (V) = i.e. V = Q
charge (in coulombs)
Its SI unit is the volt (1 volt = joule per coulomb 1 J/C)
• Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.
charge, Q
Current, I = time, t
• Whenever an electric current passes through a conductor, electrical energy is
converted to other forms of energy e.g. heat, light.
• Heating effect by current depends on the;
– current passing through conductor.
– resistance of the conductor.
– time for which current flows.
• Electrical energy dissipated in a conductor in a time t, is given by:
E = VIt = Pt
• Power is the rate at which work is done.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Electrical power is given by:

V
P = VI also I=
R
V V2
but V = I2R Hence, P = V × =
R R
P = I2R
• Energy in kilowatt is calculated as:
Energy (kWh) = kW × hours
• Most electrical appliances are manufactured to be used on the same main
supply, but have different power outputs.
• SI unit of energy is the joule and SI unit of power is the watt.
• We use a tungsten coil as the heating element in an electric bulb.
• Effects of an electric current include:
– heating effect
– magnetic effect
– chemical effects
• The magnetic field around current-carring conductor has the following
characteristics:
– they are circular.
– they are strongest close to the wire.
– increasing the current increases the strength of the fields.
• Electric current causes chemical break down of solutions when passed through
them.
• Primary cells cannot be recharged while secondary cells are rechargeable.
• Electric cells provide energy to drive an electric current in a circuit.
• Secondary cells can last for a long time if they are well maintained.

Unit Test 12
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Electrical circuit.
(b) Electric current.
(c) Potential difference.
2. A charge of 200 coulombs flows through a lamp in 10 minutes. Determine
the current flowing the lamp.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

3. Find the amount of charge that will pass through a certain point in a circuit,
if 5 mA flows through the point for 6 hours.
4. Fig. 12.49 shows two circuit diagrams.

V V

Bulb Bulb
(a) Open circuit (b) Closed circuit
Fig. 12.49: An electric circuit

What type of voltage is measured when:

(a) the switch is open.
(b) the switch is closed.
5. With the aid of a diagram, describe how conventional current and electrons
flow in an electric circuit.
6. A current of 0.12 A flows in a circuit for 9 minutes. How much charge passes
through a given point in the circuit?
7. 1 800 coulombs of charge are passing through a point in an electric circuit
in 15 minutes. Determine the amount of electric current in the circuit.
8. What instrument is used to measure electric current? How is it connected in
a circuit?
9. Identify the instruments in Fig. 12.50 and state the reading on them in SI units.

– + + – + +
1.5 A 3.0 A – 100 mA 250 mA

0.5 40 60
1

1 150
2 100
20

80
20
50

A mA
1.5
0

100
0

250
0

Fig. 12.50: Electrical instruments

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 Electricity and Magnetism

10. Which of the following is not an effect of an electric current?

(a) heating effect (b) magnetic effect
(c) growing effect (d) chemical effect
11. Heat produced by a conductor carrying current depends on the
following except ____________.
(a) the colour of the material
(b) the amount of current
(c) the resistance of the conductor
(d) time for which the current flows
12. State two characteristics of the magnetic field around a conductor-carrying
current.
13. Suggest suitable fuse to be used with an appliance rated 9 A?
(a) 15 A (b) 10 A
(c) 7 A (d) 3 A
14. Describe energy transformation when lights are switched on at the main
switch.
15. What do you understand by the terms 'heating effect'?
16. Starting from electrical work done W = VIt, show that electrical power (P)
V2
generated in a conductor is given by , where the symbols have the usual
R
meaning.
1
17. A current of 6 A is passed through a resistor of 30 Ω m for 1 2 hours.
Calculate the electrical energy converted into heat energy in the resistor.
18. State four household electrical appliances where electrical energy is converted
into heat energy.
19. The filament of a bulb is made of tungsten as the heating element, explain
why tungsten is a suitable material for the filament?
20. Electrical heaters are said to be environmentally friendlier than the heating
devices which use firewood or charcoal. Explain this statement.
21. Highlight five electrical hazards in our homes and suggest the appropriate
measures that can be taken.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

22. Which of the bulb in the circuits shown in Fig. 12.51 will light if the switch
is closed? Explain your answer.
+ –

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.51: Bulbs in a circuit

23. Which materials are used in the construction of a simple cell?

24. Explain why the current in a simple cell decreases rapidly when in use.
Describe how to minimise this decrease in current.
25. Describe a project to make a simple battery.

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UNIT 13 Rectilinear Propagation of Light

Key Unit Competence

By the end of this unit, I should be able to explain the nature of light, rectilinear
propagation of light and reflection at plane surface.

Unit Outline
• Different sources of light.
• Rays and beams.
• Classifications of materials as transparent, translucent and opaque.
• Experiments on light propagation.
• Rectilinear propagation of light.
• Types of reflection.
• Formation of shadows and eclipses.
• Lunar and solar eclipses.
• Law of reflection.
• Characteristics of images formed in mirrors.
• Ray diagrams and numbers of images formed in inclined mirrors.
• Pinhole camera, image formation and magnification.

Introduction
Most of us are familiar with the biblical story of creation. It tells us that the first
thing God created was light by uttering “let there be light” and the story says that
immediately there was light. We experience 12 hours of day light and darkness
everyday. The former is very pleasant to all of us but the latter is not very pleasant.
So what is this light that is so precious to us all? Throughout history different
theories have been developed on the nature of light. Some great scientists have
argued that light is a stream of tiny particles while others have argued that it is a
wave. In this unit, we will learn about the nature of light and how it travels.

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13.1 Nature and source of light

13.1.1 Nature of light

Activity 13.1 To find out the meaning of light and its sources

Out of your interaction with light, discuss in your group:

1. What light is and how it travels.
2. Sources of light and give examples.
3. Sources that produce their own light and those that depend on the light
produced by other sources.

Light is a form of energy. It enables us to see the surrounding objects. Light itself
is not visible but its effect is felt by the eye. For example, the track of light entering
a room cannot be seen; but the track becomes visible, if some dust particles are
present in the room. In a cinema theatre, light from the projector to the screen is
visible due to the dust or smoke moving through the path of light.
Light is actually a form of energy in a wave form. It travels at a speed of
approximately 300 000 000 m/s or 3 × 108 m/s.
13.2 Sources of light
In your research in Activity 13.1, you should have discovered that there are two
sources of light: luminous and non-luminous sources.
(a) Luminous sources of light
These are sources (objects) that emit( give out) their own light.
Examples of non-living luminous objects are sun, stars, fire, candle flame and
electric bulb.
Examples of living things that are luminous objects are fireflies and glow worm.
(b) Non-luminous sources of light
These are objects that do not emit (give out) their own light. We get to see these
objects when they reflect the light falling on them from luminous source onto
our eyes.
The moon is a good example of a non-living thing that is non-luminous source
of light. Others are a wall and a car. Examples of a living things that are non-
luminous sources are trees and animals.

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Fig 13.1 shows how the moon reflects light from the sun to the earth.

Moon

Sun Rubber ball

Earth

Fig. 13.1: How the moon reflects light to Earth

13.2 Rays and beams

Activity 13.2 To demonstrate the difference between a ray and a

beam

Materials
• A torch • A small tin open on one side • Nail
• Hammer • Dark room
Steps
1. Make several small holes at the closed end of the tin using the nail and
hammer.
2. Go into a dark room with the container. Switch on the torch and foas its
light inside the tin. What do you observe?
3. With the help of this activity, suggest what rays and beams are? Suggest types
of beams of light.

In activity 13.2, you should have observed that when the stream of light from the
torch was focused into the container, the beam of light was split into rays to pass
through different holes of the container. But what is a ray? A ray of light is the path
along which light travels in a medium. In diagram, a ray of light is represented with
a straight line and an arrow pointing from the source to the destination of light
as shown in Fig 13.2

Fig 13.2 : Ray of light

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A beam of light is a collection or group of light rays. There are three types of
beam of light rays:
(a) Parallel beam: consists of rays that are parallel to one another (Fig. 13.3).

Fig. 13.3: Parallel beam

(b) Convergent beam: consists of rays of light that meet at a point i.e converge
(Fig. 13.4).

Fig. 13.4: Convergent beam

(c) Divergent beam: consists of rays of light originating from a point source and
diverge(spread) to different directions (Fig 13.5)

Fig. 13.5: Divergent beam

13.3 Transparent, translucent and opaque materials

To find out what transparent, translucent and opaque materials are

Activity 13.3 To differentiate between transparent, translucent and

opaque objects

Materials
• Reference books • Internet • Oil
• Piece of paper • Glass window plane • A cardboard
Steps
1. Look through the glass window pane of your classroom or any of your school
building. Do you see through it?

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2. Smear some cooking oil or fat on a piece of paper. Look through the oiled
piece of paper and the cardboard in turn. Do you see through each of them?
What are such materials called.
3. Conduct research from books and the internet on what transparent,
translucent and opaque materials are.
4. In your research, identify four examples of each.

From activity 13.2 should have identified three types of materials with regard to
their ability to allow light to pass through them
Transparent materials – These are materials that allow all the light falling on
them to pass through them freely. Therefore, we are able to see clearly through
these materials.
Examples of transparent materials are air, water and clear glass.
Translucent materials – These are materials that allow some light falling on them
to pass through. The light get scattered as it passes through. Therefore, objects
on the other side of such materials appear blurred and cannot be seen clearly.
Examples of translucent materials are frosted glass, oiled paper, wax paper, ice,
tinted windows and some plastics.
Opaque materials – These are materials that do not allow light to pass through.
When light strikes an opaque object, none of it passes through.Therefore, we cannot
see through such materials.When light falls on these materials, much of it is reflected
away by the objects some while of it absorbed and converted to heat energy.
Examples of opaque materials are rocks, wood, soil, metals and exercise book.

13.4 Rectilinear propagation of light

Activity 13.4 To investigate how light travels

Material
• A huge tree
Steps
1. Stand at a distance infront of a huge tree.
2. Hold your finger close to and infront of one of your eyes.

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3. Close the other eye and try to look at the tree. Can you see the tree? Suggest
a reason for your observation.

The tree in Activity 13.4 cannot be seen. This property of light will become clear
to you after doing Activity 13.5.

Activity 13.5 To verify rectilinear propagation of light

Materials
• Soft board • Plasticine
• A plane mirror • White sheet of paper
Steps
1. Take three cardboards P, Q and R of equal sizes mounted on wooden stands
(Fig. 13.3).
2. Make small holes on the cardboards at the same height and also at equal
distances from the edges on each cardboards.
3. Place the cardboards on a flat surface (bench) and pass a thread through the
holes to ensure they lie on a straight line.
4. Remove the string without disturbing the setup of the three cardboards.
5. Place a lit candle infront of the hole in cardboard P and view from the the
hole in R as shown in Fig. 13.6. What do you see? Explain.
cardboard
P Q R
burning hole eye
candle

bench
Fig. 13.6: Investigating how light travels

6. Disorganise the arrangement by moving cardboard Q slightly to one side. Try

viewing the candle from the hole in cardboard R. Record your observation.
7. What conclusion can you make about the alignment of the three holes and
the manner in which the light travels?

In Activity 13.5, you should have observed that when the holes are aligned, light
from the candle is seen through the three holes in a straight line. When the holes
are not aligned, the light is not seen.

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The observations in Activity 13.4 and 13.5 suggests that light travels in a straight
line.
Scientists use the word "rectilinear" instead of the phrase "in straight lines" and
"propagated" in place of "travel". Instead of stating that light travels in a straight
line, we can say that light has the property of rectilinear propagation.

13.5 Formation of shadows and eclipses

Shadows

Activity 13.6 To demonstrate how shadows are formed

Materials
• A white screen
• A candle
• 2 cardboard with a large and narrow opening
• A tennis ball
Steps
1. You must have seen a shadow of yourself or any other object when standing
in the sun. Based on that experience suggest to your partner the possible
answers to the following questions:
(a) What is a shadow?
(b) How is a shadow formed?
(c) Share your thoughts with the rest of your class in a class discussion.
2. Now, place a burning candle infront a narrow opening cardboard and
the white screen behind the cardboard. Place the tennis ball between the
cardboard and screen and observe the shadow cast on the screen. Sketch it.
3. Repeat step 2 using a cardboard that has a wide hole.
4. Identify the total and partial darkness from your drawing. Suggest appropriate
names for them.
5. Draw and label the diagrams on how the shadows were formed on the
chalkboard.

In activity 13.6, you should have established that a shadow is a partial or total
darkness cast by an object blocking the direct rays of light.

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Formation of shadows with a point source of light

A narrow opening through a cardboard forms a point source of light, when
illuminated with light. An opaque object PQ, placed between opening L and a
white screen, obstructs rays of light (Fig. 13.7).

S
Q umbra
L

burning P
candle R
white screen

Fig. 13.7: Shadow formation using a point source of light

The area between the lines PR and QS receives no light at all. A shadow of PQ is
cast on the screen. The area between R and S is in complete darkness. The region
of complete darkness is called umbra (latin term meaning shadow).

Formation of shadows with an extended source of light

A large opening through cardboard forms an extended source of light when
illuminated with light. An opaque object PQ placed between EL and a white
screen obstructs light rays (Fig. 13.8).

L V
penumbra
Q S
umbra

R
P
T white screen
E

Fig. 13.8: An extended source of light

The region RS on the screen is in complete darkness. The region RT and SV

are in partial darkness because light comes from only one part of the extended
source. This region of partial darkness is called penumbra (latin term meaning
almost shadow).

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Eclipses
Activity 13.7 To find out how different types of eclipses are formed

Materials
• Reference books • Internet • Earth globe
• Rubber ball • Source of light (torch)
Steps
1. At least once in your lifetime you may have experienced an eclipse (partial
darkness) during day time. Tell your partner your experience and what you
think or understand causes that to happen after some years.
2. Now, conduct a research from books and the internet on eclipses.
3. In your research, find out the types of eclipses and suggest a reason why the
sun looks like a very bright ring during the occurrence of one of the eclipses.
4. Draw on the chalkboard the formation each type of eclipse and label it.
5. Using your diagrams, demonstrate the formation each type using a source of
light (torch), earth globe and rubber.

An important example of the formation of shadows is the occurrence of eclipses.

The term eclipse means that light is blocked or cut off from region of observation.
Let us discuss two types of eclipses namely solar and lunar eclipses.
(a) Solar eclipse
When the moon, revolving around the earth, comes in between the sun and the
earth, the shadow of the moon is formed on the earth. This is called the solar
eclipse or the eclipse of the sun. Depending on the position of the moon, some
parts of the earth lie in the region of umbra and some in the region of penumbra.
Total eclipse occurs in the regions of umbra and partial eclipse in the regions of
penumbra (Fig. 13.9).
penumbra
path of the moon

umbra

sun earth
moon
penumbra
Fig. 13.9: The solar eclipse

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(b) Lunar eclipse

The moon is a non-luminous object. It can only be seen when light from the sun
falls on it. When we look at the moon, we see only the shape of the lighted portion.
When the earth comes in between the sun and the moon, lunar eclipse (eclipse
of the moon) occurs. Depending on the position of the moon, a total eclipse or
partial eclipse of the moon will occur. Total eclipse will occur if the moon is in
the region of umbra. Partial eclipse will occur if any part of the moon is in the
region of penumbra (Fig. 13.10).
penumbra

moon

earth
sun
penumbra umbra
Fig. 13.10: The lunar eclipse

Demonstration to show solar and lunar eclipses

In Fig. 13.11(a) and (b) shows setups to demonstrate solar and lunar eclipses
formation respectively. In both setups, the source of light represents the sun and
the rubber ball represents the moon revolving around the earth (globe).

light
source earth
globe

rubber ball
(a) Solar eclipse

light rubber
source ball

earth globe

(b) Lunar eclipse

Fig. 13.11: Demonstration of solar and linar eclipses formation

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Exercise 13.1

1. What is light?
2. (a) What do scientists mean by the phrase rectilinear propagation of light?
(b) Suggest a simple experiment to illustrate this property of light.
3. Explain the meaning of the following terms:
(a) A non-luminous object. (b) An opaque object.
(c) A ray and a beam of light. (d) A shadow.
4. With a simple well labelled diagram, distinguish between the terms umbra
and penumbra.
5. Describe with well labelled diagrams the formation of (a) the total solar
eclipse and (b) annular eclipse.
6. Fig 13.12 shows the formation of the eclipse of the sun.
B

sun earth
moon
A
Fig. 13.12: An eclipse of the sun

(a) What type of shadow is formed at:

(i) A (ii) B
(b) Draw the appearance of the sun at points:
(i) A (ii) B
7. Classify the following materials as either transparent, transluscent or opaque:
distilled water, tainted car window and your book’s cover.

13.6 Pinhole camera

Activity 13.8
To demonstrate the working of a pinhole camera

Materials
• Reference books • Internet
• Pinhole camera

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Steps
1. Conduct a research from the internet and books on the working of a pinhole
camera.
2. In your research, find out
(a) the characteristics of images formed by a pinhole camera.
(b) the magnification of a pinhole camera.
3. Now, go outside your classroom. Let one of you stand at a reasonable distance
from the rest of the group members.
4. Let another member of your group observe the image of the member standing
at a distance with a pinhole camera. Let the two members interchange their
roles.
5. Explain what will happen to the images formed by the pinhole camera if its
pinhole is enlarged.
6. Repeat the activity in pairs until every group member gets the opportunity
to view the image of at least one group member with the pinhole camera.
Note: The group member with visual challenges (if any) should stand at a
distance and the ones without such challenges view his/her image. Not the
other way round.
7. Discuss the characteristics of the image formed by the pinhole camera,
guided by the following questions:
(a) Is the image inverted or erect?
(b) Is the image virtual or real?
(c) How does the image size compare with that of the object?

A pinhole camera consists of a box with a pinhole on one side and a translucent
screen on the opposite side. Light rays from an object, pass through the pinhole
and form an image on the screen (Fig. 13.13).
translucent screen

object
pinhole

image light-proof
box

Fig. 13.13: Image formed on a pinhole camera

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A pinhole camera has a large depth of field or a large depth of focus.

This means that objects, both far and near from the camera form focussed images
on the screen. A lens camera has a limited depth of focus as seen in the photograph
in Fig. 13.14. Whereas the frog is in focus, the other details in the background
are out of focus.

Fig. 13.14: A picture taken with limited field of focus in lens

Hey!!
Are you aware that any kind of water pollution for instance, releasing
untreated sewage into water bodies, oil spillage from ships e.t.c will
result to death of aquatic animals e.g frogs and plants? Always let us
avoid polluting our water bodies for the survival of beautiful plants
and different species of animals in our country.

If the pinhole is made larger, the image becomes blurred (out of focus), bigger
and brighter due to overlapping of many rays (Fig. 13.15). A large pinhole of
a pinhole camera is like having several pinholes put together. The overlapping
images form a bigger but blurred image. A large hole allows more light hence a
brighter image.

image
object

large hole

Fig. 13.15: Formation of blurred image due to a large pinhole

Characteristics of the image formed by a pinhole camera

1. The image formed is real. A real image is an image that can be formed on a
screen. An image that cannot be formed on a screen is called a virtual image.
2. The image is inverted i.e upside down.
3. The image is magnified i.e bigger than the object.

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Magnification produced by a pinhole camera

The term magnification refers to how big or small the image is compared to the
object. Magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height
of the object.
height of the image (IM)
Magnification (m) =
height of the object (OB)

IM
m =
OB
Sometimes it becomes difficult to measure the height of the image or the height
of the object accurately. In such cases, magnification can be calculated in terms
of object and image distances. For example, consider a pinhole camera far from
a tree and another one near a tree (Fig. 13.16).
u B
I

M
O
v
(a) Pinhole camera far from a tree

u B
I

M
O
v
(b) Pinhole camera near a tree

Fig. 13.16: Image formed on a pinhole camera

The height of the image in Fig. 13.16(a) is smaller compared to the height of the
image in Fig. 13.16(b). This is because the distance of the tree from the camera
in (a) is more than the distance from the camera in (b). When the object distance
is decreased, magnification increases.
Using the symbols, u, for the object distance (distance between the object and
the pinhole) and, v, for the image distance (distance between the image and the
pinhole), magnification is defined as the ratio of the distance of the image from the
pinhole to the distance of the object from the pinhole i.e

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distance of the image from the pinhole (v)

Magnification (m) =
distance of the object from the pinhole (u)
v
m=
u
Combining the two equations, we can write the formula for magnification as
IM v
m= =
OB u

Example 13.1
A pinhole camera of length 20 cm is used to view the image of a tree of height
12 m which is 40 m away from the pinhole. Calculate the height of the image of
the tree obtained on the screen.

Solution
height of the image image distance
Magnification, m = height of the object =
object distance
IM 0.20 m
∴ m = OB =
40 m
0.20 m
∴ IM =
12 m 40 m
0.20 m
IM = 12 m × = 0.06 m = 6 cm
40 m
∴The height of the image of the tree is 6 cm.

Example 13.2
If the pinhole camera, in Example 13.1 is moved by 10 m towards the tree, what
will be the height of the tree on the screen?

Solution
Now the object distance has decreased by 10 m. Therefore the new object distance,
u = 30 m
v
Magnification m = IM =
OB u

IM 0.20m
∴ =
12 m 30m

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0.20 m
IM = 12 m ×
30 m
IM = 0.08 m = 8 cm
∴ The height of the image is 8 cm.

Exercise 13.2
1. What is a pinhole camera?
2. Explain with a well labelled diagram how a simple pinhole camera works.
Describe the nature of the image formed.
3. The distance of the object from the pinhole is increased. Discuss how this
change affects the brightness, sharpness and the size of the image formed.
4. State and explain the effect on the image formed in a pinhole camera if:
(a) the hole is made larger.
(b) the length of the box is increased.
5. A pinhole camera is used to take the photograph of a person who is 4 m away
from the pinhole. If the length of the box used is 18 cm and the height of the
image of the person is 9 cm, calculate the:
(a) magnification produced by the pinhole camera.
(b) height of the person.
6. A tree 18 m high is observed with a pinhole camera that is placed 40 m away.
If the camera is 20 cm long, find the height of the image formed.
7. The length of a pinhole camera is 10 cm. It forms an image of linear
magnification of 0.2. Find the position of the object.
8. State three characteristics of the image formed by a pinhole camera.

13.7 Reflection of light at plane surfaces

Activity 13.9
To demonstrate reflection of light at plane mirror

Materials: Plane mirror, iron sheets

1. Let your partner hold a plane mirror facing the sun. Stand infront of the
mirror and look at it from a distance. What do you observe? Explain.
2. Now, look towards new iron sheet erected on the roof of a building. What do
you see? Explain.
3. Use your experience in steps 1 and 2 to describe what reflection of light is.

Your eyes must have at one time been overwhelmed by the bright sunlight
reflected by a mirror or very new iron sheets on a roof.

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Reflection is the bouncing off of light as it strikes a surface. The ray coming from
the source is called incident ray. The ray moving away from the reflecting
surface is called reflected ray. (Fig. 13.17)

Incident ray Reflected ray

Fig 13.17: A reflection of light

Types of reflections

Activity 13.10 To differentiate between types of reflection

Materials
• Mirror and a paper
Steps
1. Look through the mirror , what do you observe? Do you see your image?
2. Look through the paper, what do you observe? Do you see your image?

In Step 1 in Activity 13.10, you saw your image because the mirror is smooth
hence regular reflection takes place.You did not see your image in a paper because
rays of light are scattered by the paper because it is rough
There are two types of reflection; regular and diffuse (irregular) reflections.
When light is reflected by a plane or a smooth surface, the reflection is regular i.e
parallel incident rays are reflected parallel to each other. When reflection occurs at
a rough surface, it is called diffuse reflection i.e incident parallel rays are reflected
in random directions. Fig 13.18 shows the two types of reflections.
parallel beam scattered
parallel beam parallel of light reflected rays
of light reflected beam

(a) A regular reflection (b) A diffuse reflection

Fig. 13.18 : Reflection of light on different surfaces

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Terms used to describe reflection of light on plane mirrors

Activity 13.11
To observe and describe rays on a plane mirror

Materials
• Plane mirror • Cardboard • Ray box

Steps
1. Take a plane mirror provided to you, and observe its parts.
2. Now, place the plane mirror vertically on a cardboard and illuminate the
shinny surface with a ray box.What do you observe? Explain your observation?
3. Sketch the diagram and identify; angle of incident, the normal, reflected ray
and angle of reflection.
4. Discuss your findings with others in class.

A thin glass plate coated with silver on one side and a protective layer on the other
side is called a plane mirror (Fig. 13.19).
silvered surface

thin glass
silver coating plate
protective layer

(a) Front view (b) Rear view

Fig. 13.19: A plane mirror

Fig. 13.20 shows a ray of light AB striking the plane mirror at B and bouncing
off to C. The ray AB is called incident ray and the ray BC is called reflected
ray. A line drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the point where
the incident ray and the reflected ray meet is called the normal (BN). The angle
between the incident ray and the normal (∠ABN) is called the angle of incidence
(∠i). The angle between the reflected ray and the normal (∠CBN) is called the
angle of reflection (∠r).

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plane mirror

board B

i r

incident ray
reflected ray
A N C
normal

Fig. 13.20: Reflection on a mirror

To verify the laws of reflection using optical pins

Activity 13.12
To verify the laws of reflection using optical pins

Materials
• A soft board • White sheet of paper
• A plane mirror • Drawing pin
• Plasticine • 4 optical pins
• Protractor • A ray box

Steps
1. Draw a line PM on a white sheet of paper. Fix the white sheet on a soft-
board with drawing pins.
2. Using some plasticine, set up a plane mirror vertically with its plane
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and the silvered surface on the line
PM (Fig. 13.21(a)).
3. Stick two optical pins O1 and O2, called the object pins, vertically into the
softboard, about 6 or 7 cm apart.
4. Keeping the eye along the plane of the paper and in a convenient position,
look into the mirror. The images of the two pins are seen. These images
appear to be at the rear of the mirror (Fig. 13.21(a)).
5. Move your head to and fro slowly until in one particular position, the images
of the two pins lie in a straight line.
6. Fix a third pin, I1, called the image pin, such that this pin and the images of
the first two pins lie along the same straight line.

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7. Repeat the procedure with the fourth pin I2, so that the image pins I1 and I2
and the images of O1 and O2 lie along the same straight line.
8. Using a sharp pencil, mark the positions of the four pins with a small circle
and remove the pins and the mirror.
9. Join the points O2 and O1 to meet the line PM. Similarly join the points I2
and I1 to meet the line PM. These lines meet at a point B on the line PM.
10. At B, draw a line BN perpendicular to PM. Measure the angle of incidence
(∠i) and the angle of reflection (∠r) (Fig. 13.21(b)).
images of O1 and O2

softboard
P M P B M
plane mirror i
O1 O1 r I1
line PM
O2 white sheet I2
of paper O2
A C

eye N

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.21: Laws of reflection of light using optical pins

11. Repeat the experiment for three different angles of incidence and record
the four readings in a table as shown in Table 13.1. What is the relationship
between these two angles?

Angle of incidence, i (º) Angle of reflection, r (º)

Table 13.1: Angle of incidence and reflection

To verify the laws of reflection using a ray box

Activity 13.13 To demonstrate and verify the law of reflection using a

ray box
(Group work)
Steps
1. Using the same materials used in Activity 13.8, direct light from a narrow
opening of a ray box on a plane mirror placed over a white sheet of paper in
a semi-dark room. What do you see?

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2. Mark two points, O1 and O2, one near the plane mirror and the other very
close to the opening in the light box. Observe the path of the reflected ray
and mark the points I1 and I2, as shown.
3. Remove the ray box and join the points O2 and O1 to the line PM. Similarly
join points I2 and I1, to meet line PM. These lines meet at point B on line
PM. At B draw a line BN perpendicular to line PM.
4. Measure the angle of incidence (∠ i) and the angle of reflection(∠ r).
5. Repeat the experiment for three different angles of incidence and record
your readings in a table similar to Table 8.1. What is the relationship between
these two angles?

In Activities 13.12 and 13.13, you must have observe that the light is reflected as
a thin beam as shown in Fig. 13.22.
B
P M
O1 I1
i r

O2
I2
ray box
N

Fig. 13.22: Laws of reflection of light using a ray box

The angle i is equal to angle r, Q2 Q1 joined to the mirror meets lines I1I2 at B.
Line NB represents the normal ray to the mirror at B.
The observations also show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal,
all lie in the plane of the paper.
The observations are in Activity 13.12 and 13.13 summed up into laws of reflection
as follows.

Laws of reflection
The laws of reflection of light state that:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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13.6 Image formation by a plane mirror

Activity 13.14 To observe the characteristics of images formed by a

plane mirror

Material
• Plane mirror (Big size)

Steps
1. Stand infront of a plane mirror from its reflecting surface. What do you
observe? Discuss.
2. List the characteristics of your image formed by the mirror, guided by the
following questions:
(a) How does your distance from the mirror compare to that of your image
from the mirror?
(b) How does your size compare to that of your image?
(c) Swing your right hand. Which hand does your image appear to swing?
Repeat with your left hand.
(d) Can you put a screen behind the mirror for your image to be formed
there?
(e) Is your image upright or upside down?
3. Now place different objects infront of the plane mirror and analyse their
images guided by the questions in step 2.
4. Sketch a diagram to show image formation by a plane mirror.
5. Deduce the general characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror.

Image formation for a point object

We need a minimum of two incident rays from a point object to the mirror in
order to locate the position of the image using a plane mirror. The reflected rays
from the plane mirror, when produced backwards appear to meet at a point. This
is the position of the image. The image is virtual as it only appears to be there and
it cannot be projected on a screen (Fig. 13.23).

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virtual image
I

IM
plane mirror
M
OM
O
point object
Fig. 13.23: Image of a point object

Measure the perpendicular distance (OM) from the point object O to the mirror
and the perpendicular distance (IM) from the position of the virtual image I to
the mirror. The image distance from the mirror is equal to the object distance from the
mirror, OM = IM
Image formation for an extended object
Place an extended object in front of a vertical plane mirror and observe the image
formed (Fig. 13.24). Is the image upright or inverted? What is the size of the image?
The image is erect and the size of the image is the same as the size of the object.

image
object
mirror

Fig. 13.24: Image of an extended object

Fig. 13.25 shows a ray diagram showing the image of an extended object.
M
I

P M

B
eye
Fig. 13.25: Image formed on a plane mirror

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Lateral inversion
Fig. 13.26 shows the image of a sign board in a mirror as seen by a person keeping
the eye at E. The eye sees the letter P in the signboard on the left hand side, but
the image of the letter P in the mirror is on the right hand side.
The left hand side of the object becomes the right hand side of the image. We say
the image is laterally inverted.

object • image
E

Fig. 13.26: Lateral inversion

Look at yourself in a plane mirror. If your shirt or blouse pocket is on the left
side, your image appears to have a pocket on the right hand side. However, the
image is upright and of the same size.

From the above observations, we can summarise the characteristics of images

formed by plane mirrors as follows:
1. The size of the image is equal to the size of the object.
2. The image is erect or upright.
3. The image is virtual i.e cannot be focused on the screen.
4. The distance of the image behind the mirror is equal to the distance of the
object in front of the mirror.
5. The image is laterally inverted.

Example 13.3
What is the angle of reflection in each of the following figures (Fig. 13.27(a) and
(b))?

90˚
30˚

(a) (b)
Fig. 13.27: Incident rays

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Solution
In Fig. 13.27(a), the angle of reflection = 30˚
In Fig. 13.27(b), the incident ray is along the normal. Therefore the angle of
incidence = 0˚. Hence the angle of reflection = 0˚. The ray is bounced back along
the normal.

Example 13.4
Explain with the aid of a ray diagram, how the image of a point object O is seen
by the eye (Fig. 13.28(a)).
I virtual image

IM
plane mirror Y
X
OM
object
eye
O O
(a) (b)
Fig 13.28: Observing how object is reflected by a plane mirror

Solution
In order to see the image, the reflected rays must reach the eye. The image
distance behind the mirror is equal to the object distance from the mirror
(IM = OM). Hence fix the position of the image first and then draw the two
reflected rays from I to reach the eye of the observer. Finally draw the two incident
rays OX and OY (Fig. 13.28(b)). Produce the reflected rays back to meet at I.

Example 13.5
Gasore stood infront of a plane (Fig. 13.29). Use suitable rays to show how he
may see his full image in the mirror.

plane
mirror

Fig. 13.29: A person standing infront of a plane mirror

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Solution
First fix the images of the head and the toe, say M and I, at equal distances
from the mirror. The reflected rays from M and I must reach the eyes of Gasore.
Therefore, first draw the reflected rays from M and I to reach the eyes. Draw the
incident rays HX and TY. Hence, he can see his full image, IM, in the portion of
the mirror XY.
M X H

I T
Fig. 13.30: To show how image of a person is reflected a plane mirror

Note
Measure XY and the length of the person TH in Fig. 13.30.
The height of the mirror needed XY is always half the height of a person.

Example 13.6
The ray OA is incident on mirror M1 as shown in Fig. 13.31. Draw a second
plane mirror M2 positioned such that the ray OA reflected by mirror M1 is again
reflected by the second mirror M2 so as to reach the eye of the observer.

M1

45˚ A
O
mirror

eye E

Fig. 13.31: An incident ray

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Solution

∠i = 45˚, hence ∠r = 45˚. AB is the reflected ray (Fig. 13.32(a)) and it has to be
reflected by the second mirror in order to reach the eye. From the eye draw a line
to meet the reflected ray AB at C (Fig. 13.32(b)). At C draw a line CN such that
it divides ∠ACE into 2 equal parts (Fig. 13.32(c)). Draw a line CM2 at C such
that it is perpendicular to the line CN (Fig. 13.32(d). This line M2C represents
the position of the second mirror M2 so that the reflected ray can reach the eye.
M1 M1

A A

45˚ 45˚ O
O

C
B E
E

B
(a) (b)

M1

O
45˚ O
N 45˚
C C

E E M2
M2 B B

(c) (d)
Fig. 13.32: A path taken by light rays when reflected

Exercise 13.3
1. (a) Define the terms: angle of incidence, angle of reflection, and the normal ray.
(b) What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection?
2. Fig. 13.33 shows a plane mirror on which the angle of incidence is 30˚.

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30˚

Fig. 13.33: An incident ray at an angle of 30º

(a) What is the angle of reflection?

(b) If the angle of incidence is increased to 40˚, with the aid of a sketch
diagram, show that the angle between the two reflected rays is 10˚.
3. State the laws of reflection. Suggest a simple experiment to prove that the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
4. Show the appearance of a print FG as seen in a plane mirror (Fig. 13.34).

plane mirror

Fig. 13.34: A plane mirror

5. Draw a diagram to show how the eye of a person sees the image of a point
object, formed by a plane mirror.
6. A ray of light AB is incident on a mirror M1 at an angle of 30˚ as shown in
Fig. 13.35. Copy and complete the diagram to show the path of ray AB after
reflection from mirror M2 and hence calculate the angle of reflection from
the mirror M2.
A

M1 30˚

120˚

M2
Fig. 13.35:A path taken by light rays when striking a mirror

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7. The ray OA is incident on mirror M1 as shown in Fig. 13.36. Draw a second

mirror M2 positioned such that the ray OA reflected by mirror M1 is again
reflected by the second mirror M2 so as to reach the eye of the observer.
O
mirror, M1

60˚ A

Fig. 13.36: An incident ray striking a mirror

Numbers of images formed by a plane mirrors at an angle

Parallel plane mirrors

Activity 13.15 To investigate the images formed by parallel plane

mirror

Materials
• 2 plane mirrors • Small object (e.g a small bulb)
Steps
1. Place two plane mirrors standing parallel to each other on a bench with the
reflecting surfaces facing each other.
2. Place a small object on the bench between the two mirrors.
3. In turns, let each one of you in the group try to count the number of images
formed for that object. What number do you get?
4. Try sketching how the images are formed by the two parallel mirrors.
5. Suggest where the concept being investigated in the activity is applied in real
life.

From Activity 13.15, you should have noted that when a bright point object O (e.g.
a small bulb of a torch light) is placed between two parallel mirrors M1 and M2
(Fig. 13.37), I1 is the image formed by the mirror M1 and I2 is the image formed
by the mirror M2. I1 (a virtual image) acts as an object in front of the mirror M2
and an image I1.2 is formed behind M2. I1.2 acts as an object in front of the mirror
M1 and an image I1.2.1 is formed behind M1.

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M1 M2

I1.2.1 I1 O I2 I1.2
Fig. 13.37: Parallel mirrors

The image I1.2.1 acts as an object in front of the mirror M2 and forms another
image and so on. In this way, the number of images formed is infinite (countless).
But the images become dimmer as the distance travelled keep increasing with
each reflection. It should be noted that the images of I2 are not considered in the
construction above.
This principle of multiple reflections is used in beauty parlours, tailor and barber
shops, etc.
Plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 90º

Activity 13.16 To find out the number of images formed by two plane
mirror placed 900 to each other

Materials
• 2 plane mirror • An objects (e.g a stone)
Steps
1. Draw two lines which are perpendicular to each other i.e at 90º.
2. Place two mirrors along the two lines to touch each other at point of
intersection of the lines.
3. Place an object between the two mirrors as shown in Fig 13.38.
4. Look through the two mirrors and count the number of images formed.
What number do you see?
M1

Object

M2
Fig. 13.38: Two perpendicular mirrors

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O is a bright point object placed between two plane mirrors M1 and M2 as shown
in Fig. 13.39. I1 is the first image formed by M1. I2 is the second image formed
by M2.

M2
I2 O

M1

I3 I1

Fig. 13.39: Mirrors inclined at an angle of 90˚

The virtual image of I1 in front of the image mirror M2 forms an image I3 behind
the image of mirror M2. Similarly the virtual image I2 in front of the image of
mirror M1 forms an image behind the image mirror M1, which coincides with the
image I3. Hence three images are formed.
Two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 60˚

Activity 13.17 To observe the images formation by two plane mirrors

inclined at an angle of 600

Materials
• 2 plane mirrors • An object (e.g a stone)
Steps
1. Draw two lines which are at angle of 60º to each other.
2. Place two mirrors along the two lines to touch one another at point of
intersection of the line (Fig. 13.40).
3. Place an object between the two mirrors and count the numbers of images
formed. What number do you get?

Object

60º

Fig. 13.40: Two mirrors inclined at an angle of 60º

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4. Now, discuss with your partner Activities 13.17 and 13.18 and deduce a
general formula for calculating the number of images formed when two
plane mirrors are inclined at an angle.

O is a bright point object placed between the two plane mirrors M1 and M2 inclined
at an angle of 60º as shown in fig. 13.41. Image I1 is formed by M1. Image I2 is
the second image formed by M2.
The virtual image I1 (in front of M2) forms an image I3 behind M2. Similarly I2 (in
front of M1) forms an image I4 behind M1. I3 forms an image I5 due to reflection
at M1 and I4 forms an image due to reflection at M2, which coincides with I5.
Hence 5 images are formed.
I3

I5 I2

M2

I4 O

M1
I1
Fig. 13.41: Mirrors inclined at an angle of 60˚

The formula to calculate the number of images formed, n, when two

mirrors are inclined at an angle θ.
When angle θ is 90˚, the number of images formed , n, is 3. i.e.
360˚
n= –1=3
90˚
When the angle θ is 60˚, the number of images formed, n, is 5 i.e.
360˚
n= –1=5
60˚
In general if the angle between 2 mirrors is θ, the number of images formed is,
n, is given by.
360˚
n= –1
θ
13.9 Applications of reflection at plane surfaces
Activity 13.18 To find out the applications of reflection at plane
surfaces
Materials
• Reference books • Internet

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Steps
1. Conduct a research from internet and reference books on the applications of
reflection at plane surface.
2. In your research, identify the devices in which reflection is applied and how
they work.
3. Note down the key points from your research.

From Activity 13.18, you may have established that reflection of light is applied
in the working of a periscope among other devices:
Periscope
A periscope is a device which enables us to see over the top of an obstruction (e.g.
a wall). As shown in Fig. 13.42, a periscope uses two plane mirrors kept parallel to
each other and the polished surfaces facing each other. Each plane mirror makes
an angle of 45˚ with the horizontal. Light from the object OB is turned through
90˚ at each mirror and reaches the eye.
The final image produced IM is virtual, erect and the same size as the object.
The lateral inversion produced by the two plane mirrors cancel out each other.
horizontal 1 B
45˚ object
2 O

1 wall
2
1
M
image
2 45˚
I
horizontal
Fig. 13.42: A periscope

Exercise 13.4

1. (a) What is a periscope?

(c) State the size and nature of the image formed by a periscope.
2. Draw a simple ray diagram to show the working of a periscope.

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3. (a) Two plane mirrors are kept inclined to each other. Calculate the number
of images formed for the following angles of inclination
(i) 120° (ii) 90°
(iii) 60° (iv) 30°
(b) Which of the above set up is used in the construction of a kaleidoscope?
4. A bright point object O is placed between two parallel plane mirrors M1 and
M2 as shown in Fig. 13.43. (not drawn to scale).

mirror M2
mirror M1

I1 1 cm I2
4 cm
Fig. 13.43: Reflection of an object by parallel plane mirrors

For the object O, mirror M1 forms a virtual image I1 behind the mirror M1. I2 is
the image of O in the mirror M2. Show that the image of I2 due to the mirror M1
is 6 cm behind the image I1.

13.10 Project work

Construction of pinhole camera

Suggested materials
An old cardboard shoe-box or a carton of size 40 cm × 15 cm × 12 cm, a sewing
needle or a paper pin, grease proof paper, tracing paper or frosted glass, black
paint and brush or black paper (optional), a black cloth big enough to cover the
box and the head of the viewer (optional).
Assembly
• If black paint is available, paint the inside of the box black or stick black
paper inside. Pierce a small hole with the tip of a needle or pin on one side.
Cut a small opening on the opposite side and paste a grease proof paper or a
tracing paper (any translucent material will be sufficient).

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How to use the assembled model

• Place the box so that the pin hole faces a bright object, say a building on a
sunny day (or a candle in a semi dark room) . View the translucent screen
(Fig. 13.44).
• Cover the box and the head of the viewer with a black cloth to cut off any
stray light entering the box or falling on the translucent screen.

Fig. 13.44: A pinhole camera

Construction of a periscope

Working model
Materials needed
Retort stands, boss and clamp, small pieces of wood or old erasers to hold the mirrors
firmly without breaking, candle.
Assembly
• Set up the two mirrors at an angle of 45˚, with the horizontal and the silvered
surfaces facing each other as shown and look for the image (Fig. 13.45).
M1

M2

Fig. 13.45: A model periscope

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Project: Construction of a periscope

Suggested materials
A narrow long cardboard box (e.g. tennis ball/ shuttle cock containers) or a carton
of cardboard of size 40 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm, two plane mirrors (5 cm × 5 cm),
adhesive tapes, a razor blade or a pair of scissors.
Assembly
• Insert the two mirrors, one at the top and the other at the bottom at an
angle of 45˚ to the line joining the mirrors (mirror adjustments can be
made later when the image is viewed). Cut suitable openings near each
mirror (Fig. 13.46).
M1

hole A
hole B
M2

Fig. 13.46: A periscope

How to use the constructed periscope

A candle is held near the opening A and the image is seen through the opening B.

Unit summary and new words

• Light is a form of energy in wave form.
• Light helps us to see objects.
• Light travels in a straight line. This property of light is called the rectilinear
propagation of light.
• A substance through which light can pass through is a medium.
• A shadow is a region where light does not reach.
• Formation of shadows and pinhole cameras are direct evidences for the
rectilinear propagation of light.
height of the image image distance
• Magnification (m) = = object distance
height of the object

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• A plane mirror bounces light back into the same medium. The angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• A plane mirror forms an image of the same size as the object. The image is
erect and laterally inverted. The distance of the image from the mirror is the
same as the distance of the object from the mirror.
• Periscopes use the properties of light reflected in plane mirrors.

Unit Test 13
1. Uwamahoro stood before a plane mirror in their house. Her image was
upright. Which row shows the correct characteristics of the image formed
by the plane mirror?

Laterally inverted Magnified Virtual

1. No Yes Yes
2. Yes Yes Yes
3. Yes No Yes
4. Yes No No
Table 13.2

2. What is meant by reflection of light?

3. State the laws of reflection.
4. The diagram in Fig. 13.47 shows a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror.
What is the angle of reflection?
Normal

30º

Fig. 13.47: A reflected ray

5. Calculate the number of images formed when two plane mirrors are inclined
at:
(a) 30º (b) 150º
(c) 75º (d) 45º

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6. A ray of light strikes a plane mirror as shown in Fig. 13.48. Copy the diagram
and draw the path of the reflected ray. Mark clearly any two angles which are
equal.

30˚

Fig. 13.48: A ray striking a mirror at 30º

7. Draw the reflected ray of light for the incident ray shown in Fig. 13.49. Now
draw a second mirror like the first mirror arranged so that the reflected ray is
again reflected. The reflected ray should be parallel to the original path but
in the opposite direction.

Fig. 13.49: A ray striking a mirror

8. A triangular object ABC is on one side of a vertical mirror (Fig. 13.50).

Draw the image formed by the mirror.
B

Fig. 13.50: A triangular object infront of a mirror

9. Fig. 13.51 shows the path of light PQRS in a simple optical fibre which
undergoes reflection. Calculate the angle between the rays PQ and RS.

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Q R
80˚ 80˚

P
S

Fig. 13.51: A path taken by a light ray

10. Distinguish between solar and lunar eclipses.

11. (a) Describe a project on how to make a periscope.
(b) Explain how a captain uses a periscope to see oncoming ship.
12. Draw rays from the object OB to show the image formed by a pinhole camera
on a screen (Fig. 13.52). Is the image upright or inverted? Is the image real
or virtual?

screen
O

Fig. 13.52: Object infront of a pinhole camera

13. State and explain the effect on the image formed in a pinhole camera if:
(a) The object distance is decreased.
(b) The length of the box used is decreased.
14. A pinhole camera forms an image of size 10 cm. The object is 5 m tall and
10 m away from the pinhole. Calculate the length of the pinhole camera.
15. Describe how a kaleidoscope works.

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 GLOSSARY

• Derived quantities –are quantities that are expressed in terms of fundamental

quantities.
• Instantaneous speed –is the speed at any given instant in a body’ motion.
• Average speed – is the total distance covered by a body over the total time.
• Upthrust- the upward force that a liquid or gas exerts on a body immersed in
it.
• Inertia –is the state of reluctance of a body a change to its state of motion.
• State of equilibrium- is the state of balance of a body.
• Centre of gravity - is the point where the whole weight of a body appear to act
from.
• An element - is a substance which cannot be split into a simpler substance.
• Ductility -the ability of a substance to be drawn into the wire (stretched into
a wire).
• Elasticity-is the tendency of a material to return to its original size and shape
after a tensional or compressional force acting on it is withdrawn.
• Kinetic theory of matter - is the theory that states that matter is made up of
tiny discrete individual particles that are continuously in random motion.
• Melting - is the process by which a solid is changes to a liquid at a constant
temperature.
• Viscosity - is a measure of how much a fluid resists movement of an object
through it.
• A magnet - is piece of metal with either natural or induced properties of
attracting another metal objects or another magnet.
• Magnetic poles - the points in a magnet where the force attraction or repulsion
is strongest.
• A magnetic field - is the region around the magnet where magnetic effect is
experienced.
• Electrostatic- study of static charges.
• A charge - a characteristic of matter that expresses the extent to which it has
more or fewer electrons than protons and vice versa.
• Electric field strength - the force per unit charge.
• Electric potential -is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from
infinity to that point.

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• Charge density is the quantity of charge per unit area of a surface of a
conductor.
• Earthing- is the process of connecting a charged body to the ground in order
to channel the negative charges to/from the ground.
• Conductors- materials that allow charges (electrons) to pass through them.
• Insulators- materials that do not allow the charges (electrons) to pass through
them easily.
• Electrodes-aconductor through which electricity enters or leaves an object,
substance, or region.
• Electrolytes - are solutions that are good conductors of electric current charge.
• Electric current. The rate of flow of charges from one point to the other in an
electric circuit.
• Electrolysis - is the process through which chemical changes takes place in a
liquid due to the flow of electric current is through them
• A beam of light - a collection or group of light rays.
• Translucent materials– These are materials that partially allow the light falling
on them to pass through them.
• Magnification - is how big or how small the image is compared to the object.
• Umbra- is the region of complete darkness.
• Penumbra- is the region of partial darkness.

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