Modernizing The Academic Teaching and Research Environment: Jorge Marx Gómez Sulaiman Mouselli Editors

Progress in IS
Jorge Marx Gómez

Sulaiman Mouselli Editors
Modernizing the
Academic Teaching
and Research
Environment
Methodologies and Cases in Business
Research
Progress in IS
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10440
Jorge Marx Gómez Sulaiman Mouselli
•
Editors
Modernizing the Academic

Teaching and Research
Environment
Methodologies and Cases in Business
Research
123
Editors
Jorge Marx Gómez Sulaiman Mouselli
Department of Computing Science Department of Banking and Finance
University of Oldenburg Arab International University
Oldenburg Damascus
Germany Syrian Arab Republic
ISSN 2196-8705 ISSN 2196-8713 (electronic)

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Preface
In recent years, the value of publications and research activities have grown sig-
nificantly, attracting momentous attention from both academics and higher educa-
tion institutions. Numerous books have been published on research methodologies
that range from highly theoretical and conceptual definitions to deep statistical
models of the latest research approaches in business. Why, one might ask, should
one read—let alone write—another book on the subject?
This book “Research Methodologies” presents the work package WP 6.2. The
overall objective of (WP) 6 was the establishment of the center knowledge
resources within MATRE (Modernizing Academic Teaching & Research
Environment in Business & Economics at Lebanon and Syria) project. This latter is
funded by the European Commission under the TEMPUS IV—Sixth call for
Proposals; Project Number is: (544001-TEMPUS-1-2013-1-DE-TEMPUS-JPHES).
Therefore, the first motivation for this book is derived from MATRE project and
shows how academic and collaborative researchers are putting many pieces of
research puzzle together to provide an exceptional support tool and an enjoyable
piece of reading.
This manuscript provides a rich source of knowledge on research methodologies
and explores the experiences of primary teachers and researchers from different
countries and disciplines, different backgrounds from different cultures, working in
an international environment and collaborating together to develop key ideas and
guidelines in the field of academic research. The result of studies of five countries
(Spain, Germany, Lithuania, Syria, and Lebanon) participating in the MATRE
project has created what makes the book unique in the context of other similar
books or all books in the research area.
Thus, the distinguished feature of this book, which the reader will quickly
recognize, is the wealth of experience brought by the contributors of different
chapters of this book. Moreover, many topics that have been covered are rarely
addressed in other books or articles as unique topics. Those features make the book
a must-read book and should be recommended for all young business researchers.
v
vi Preface
This book provides an elementary overview of skills each researcher in the field
should acquire to produce sound peace of research. The purpose of this book is not
to survey the latest developments in research methods, since it requires updating at
rates far exceeding the publication cycles of books. Rather, the aim of this book is
to constitute a valuable manual for early researchers who need to grasp the intri-
cacies of research process while avoiding biases and mistakes usually uninten-
tionally make.
Likewise, one of the main objectives of this book is to assist researchers, irre-
spective of their discipline, in developing the most suitable methodology for their
research studies. As the title suggests, this textbook provides cases and examples
from Business and Economics research in Lebanon and Syria to support and clarify
discussion and arguments.
This book consists of twelve chapters, well organized in a coherent manner.
Chapter “Research Methodology: An Introduction” is an introduction to the
research methodology. Chapter “Planning the Research” covers key aspects of
planning the research. Chapter “Basic Research Methods” presents the basic
methods of research. Chapter “Research Topic Identification” highlights the main
tasks that the researcher needs to undertake in order to identify the research topic.
Different measurement and scaling techniques have been consistently described in
Chapter “Measurement and Measurement Scales”. Chapter “Common Biases in
Business Research” presents the common biases in business research, their con-
sequences, and their proposed treatment methods. Chapter “Research Ethics” deals
with the ethics in research. Chapter “Thinking Out of the Box. Non-typical
Research Methods in Business” describes some of non-typical research methods in
business. Chapter “Research Skills for Business Researchers” introduces the
research skills for business researchers. Chapter “Surveys and Questionnaires”
examines the survey questionnaire as an instrument of primary data collection in
business research. Chapter “Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism in Some
Higher Education Institutions in Syria?” tackles the causes of plagiarisms in some
higher education institutions in Syria. In Chapter “The Case of MATRE
Questionnaire for Academics: Measurement Scales, Lessons and Questions
Reformulation”, a case study has been presented to examine the design and
application of self-administered questionnaire methodology.
The book has benefited from the active coordination of the University of
Oldenburg and the blended cooperation of all MATRE partners and members of the
project network who met in Alicante, Oldenburg, Vilnius, and Lebanon over a
two-year period.
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the
European Commission, the source of inspiration, who strives toward the modern-
ization of education and research in higher education at Lebanon and Syria.
Especially, we would like to express our gratitude for excellent work done by the
project officer Dr.-Ing. Tariq Mahmoud. We are grateful and appreciate all what
Tariq have done in order to make this book real.
Preface vii
Also, we would like to thank all the members of the MATRE network who
contributed to the first edition of the current book. We would like to thank Viktor
Dmitriyev and Christian Osorio from the Carl von Ossietzky University of
Oldenburg, as well as Dr. Marie K. Aboujaoude and Khalil Feghali from Lebanese
University who helped to compile this book.
It is our hope that this integrated view of research methodologies will inspire our
readers and make their research an enjoyable journey. Since research is a contin-
uous learning process, we can confidently say that a revised edition of this book
might appear in the future.
Oldenburg, Germany Jorge Marx Gómez

Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic Sulaiman Mouselli
Contents
Research Methodology: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Vida Davidavičienė
Planning the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Marie Karim Aboujaoude, Khalil Feghali and Charbel Kfouri
Basic Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Jurgita Raudeliūnienė
Research Topic Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Tariq Mahmoud, Viktor Dmitriyev and Oana Madalina Driha
Measurement and Measurement Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Serene Dalati
Common Biases in Business Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Sulaiman Mouselli and Hiba Massoud
Research Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Maya Azoury, Bassem Kaissi and Latifa Attieh
Thinking Out of the Box. Non-typical Research Methods
in Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Kinaz Al Aytouni and Kinan M. Naddeh
Research Skills for Business Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Bayan Khalifa
Surveys and Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Serene Dalati and Jorge Marx Gómez
ix
x Contents
Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism in Some Higher Education

Institutions in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Victoria Khnouf
The Case of MATRE Questionnaire for Academics: Measurement
Scales, Lessons and Questions Reformulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Serene Dalati
Research Methodology: An Introduction
Vida Davidavičienė
1 The Nature of Research
The challenges of society are difficult to solve, as there are no sources or authorities
who can provide us with a solution, especially when changes are so fast. Growing
complexity of our civilization means that in the social sciences, at least, new problems
develop more rapidly than the old ones already solved. Since a problem is a doubtful
case or a difficult question of solution or settlement, it is necessary to understand the
relevant facts in order to solve the problem. No reduction in vagueness can be made
until the problem has been carefully defined and broken down into specific questions
or sub problems. In all aspects of life—social, economic, educational, political, and
business—there is increasing emphasis upon research to give for a researcher factual
data, which is necessary to solve problems or to understand phenomena.
The term ‘research’ comes from the French word ‘recherché’ that means to sur-
vey. Research is defined in different sources. Subsequently, some definitions will be
presented.
According to Saunders et al. (2012) the research is something that people
undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their
knowledge [1].
Research—studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experi-
mentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or
revised theories or laws [2].
According to Bryman and Bell (2015) research is a careful inquiry or examination
to discover new information or relationships and to expand and to verify existing
knowledge [3].
It is the manipulation of things, concepts, or symbols and it has the purpose of
generalizing, extending, correcting or verifying knowledge, whether that knowledge
aids in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. A mechanic or physician
V. Davidavičienė (B)
Department of Business Technologies and Enterpreneurship, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, Saulėtekio al 11, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
e-mail: vida.davidaviciene@vgtu.lt
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1
J. Marx Gómez and S. Mouselli (eds.), Modernizing the Academic Teaching and Research
Environment, Progress in IS, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74173-4_1
2 V. Davidavičienė
is a researcher only when he attempts to generalize all about the topic he emphasized
in, on one or more characteristics of research that others have minimized, but the
general nature of the activity is not in dispute.
Bennett’s (1991) definition presented in Veal (2015) defines “research as a sys-
tematic, careful inquiry of examination to discover new information or relationships
and expend/verify existing knowledge for some specific purpose” [4].
Research discussed in this chapter will be “social science” rather than “natural
science” oriented. There are many differences in experimental conditions between
these two fields, principally because of the extreme difficulty in running a “control”
experiment for purposes of comparison when the research topic is in a social science
field.
Progress in research has been accelerated by the discovery and development of
methodological procedures making the process more rigorous, discriminating, and
dependable. The information and communication technologies (ICT) enable to col-
lect data and detect relationships more rapidly that it is possible to carry on investi-
gations that would have been too costly and too time consuming only a decade ago.
Methodological developments have been enhanced by researchers’ dedicated belief
that unbiased study of all relevant facts is the best way to solve many problems.
It must be admitted that the word “research” is abused in common speech in that
it frequently is used to mean “looking up” something in a standard reference book
and not the acquisition of new knowledge.
1.1 Scientific Research
Scientific research may be defined simply as the systematic and refined use of spe-
cialized tools and procedures to obtain a more adequate solution to a problem than
would be possible by less discriminating means [5].
“Scientific research is research that conduct with the rules and conventions of
science. The means that it is based logic, reason, and the systematic examination
of evidence. Ideally, within scientific model it should be possible for research to be
replicated by the same or different researchers and for similar conclusions to emerge.
Scientific research should also contribute to a cumulative body of knowledge about
a field or topic” [4].
Scientific research starts with a problem, collects facts, which are critically anal-
ysed, and reaches decisions based on actual evidence. It may well involve tentative
hypotheses and, on occasion, experimentation. It evolves from a genuine desire to
know rather than from a wish to prove a point of view. As far as possible, it stresses
a quantitative approach, seeking to know not only what, but also how much; mea-
surement is therefore an important aspect of scientific research.
Philosophers have frequently discussed the procedures involved in initiating an
inquiry. All agree that initially the investigator should clear his mind of traditional
viewpoints, but there are numerous differences of opinion as to what the next steps
Research Methodology: An Introduction 3
are. It could be presented six steps of the scientific research which are analogous to
the thinking process [1–4, 6–16]:
1. A felt need. This may be considered as the occurrence of some felt difficulty in
adaptation of means to a desired end, in identifying the character of an object, or
in explaining an unexpected event.
2. The problem. Once one is aware of some questions or problems or difficulties,
the next step is to define it in terms of a problem statement.
3. The hypothesis. The third step is stating a possible solution for the problem. The
solution may be based upon a hunch, a guess, an inference or a theory.
4. Collection of data as evidence. The fourth step is the collection of data, informa-
tion, or evidence to bear out the implications of a hypothesis.
5. Concluding belief. On the basis of the evidence the idea is corroborated or rejected
and a concluding belief is formulated through the experimental analysis of the
hypothesis.
6. General value of the conclusion. After a solution has been found to work, there
is a mental “looking forward”, the general purpose of which is to appraise this
new solution in the light of future needs. This is the answer to the question, “So
what?” that is often raised at the end of many research efforts.
The point of view expressed in this text is that good research methodology must
reflect good thinking, and that these steps in the thinking process might well serve
as procedural guides in the development and execution of research investigations.
Most sources suggest understanding research processes as multi-stage processes,
the number of stages varies. One of such presented below.
Steps in General Research Methodology. In other words, (formulation) there are
six steps in the development of a research project which have general applicability:
1. Selection of the topic or problem for investigation.
2. Definition and differentiation of specific aspects of the topic.
3. The framing of working hypotheses to facilitate the preparation of a logical study
design.
4. Collection of pertinent data.
5. Analysis and interpretation of the data.
6. Written report of the research study.
Another example could be—(1) reviewing literature, (2) designing research method-
ology, (3) collecting data, (4) analysing research results, and (5) writing report.
Theoretical Framework for Research. Basic to good scientific research is a theory
which serves as a point of departure for the successful investigation of a problem. In
this respect a theory is a tool of science since it may be used to define the kinds of data
to be analysed; it provides a guide to the way in which data are to be systematized,
classified, or interrelated; it often points out new facts; and it often identifies areas in
which our present knowledge is unsubstantiated or lacking entirely. In its simplest
form a theory may be nothing more than a guess, a conjecture, a speculation, or
an idea. A more complicated theory may be a summation of facts which have been
accumulated in a given subject, an analysis of a set of facts in their ideal relationships
to one another, a set of general or abstract principles, or a more or less plausible

general principle offered to explain phenomena.
As more and more facts relevant to a theory are gathered, tentative generalizations
can be made from them. These generalizations are usually referred to as a set of pos-
tulates. Deducing from a set of postulates one formulates a hypothesis—a statement
capable of being tested and thereby verified or rejected.
When researchers seek first to secure their facts and then draw conclusions, they
have reached the stage of hypothesis and experimentation, a stage which may lead to
a fifth and more precise stage if the information involved is capable of being reduced
to quantitative terms. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its
validity. It may seem contrary to, or in accord with, common sense. It may prove to
be correct or incorrect. In any event, however, it leads to an empirical test. Whatever
the outcome, the hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some
kind can be forthcoming. It is an example of the organized scepticism of science,
the refusal to accept any statement without empirical verification. Every worthwhile
theory, then permits the formulation of additional hypotheses. These, when tested,
are either proved or disproved and in turn constitute further tests of the original
theory. In either case they may be of use to existing theory and make the formulation
of still other hypotheses possible.
The development of quantitative research has been comparatively recent in the
social science areas which are of interest to business. Much of the credit is due to
census information, which is becoming increasingly detailed and describes many
aspects of our economy. Among other sources of quantitative data are the national
income accounting system, sales tax returns, employment, and corporation account-
ing records that are much more complete and reasonably comparable because of the
income tax. Most of these data have been collected by government agencies.
These various stages are not clearly separated from each other; it has already been
noted that scientific research may be interwoven with speculation and argumentation
because the facts that have been ascertained must be interpreted. It is impossible
to avoid value judgments in dealing with the interpretation of facts, because facts
discovered are of no use unless they are applied to human problems. This necessitates
criteria and assumptions, the choice and acceptance of which may bring us to a
situation having some similarities to the authority and tradition stage.
It should be noted that many theories are stated vaguely, do not specify the vari-
ables and conditions involved, and give inadequate cues as to what is to be measured,
they do not form an adequate basis for research. Theories of a complicated and com-
plex nature usually involve variables which we cannot measure or evaluate because
instruments adequate for this are lacking at present.
The more productive researches, as carried on by graduate students and reported
in theses and dissertations, have referred to somewhat limited phenomena and have
been stated in fairly simple terms.
1.2 Business and Management Research
Because of the great strides that are being made in the natural sciences due to research,
we are inclined to associate the term research with physics, chemistry, biology, and
other laboratory disciplines. However, research (or scientific investigation, as it is
frequently called) is of equal importance to the social sciences, the humanities, and
applied fields. Our society is so strongly business oriented that virtually every aspect
of our environment impinges upon business management; and, therefore, research
in all fields is relevant to business administration. Such research might involve the
social, political, and economic framework within which business now operates and
has operated in the past; incentives and satisfactions that do or do not arise from
work—a broad topic that includes labour relations, industrial sociology, and indus-
trial psychology; those aspects of production that have to do with work flow, plant
layout, and the host of internal operations necessary to keep the firm operating suc-
cessfully; and the already well-established fields of market and accounting research.
Business and management research deals with social science, because it usually
related to people or groups of people and their behaviour, which is challenging
because of changes in environment and hardly predictable fluctuations of research
object (people) mood, reactions etc.
Using Saunders et al. (2012) definition, Business and Management research can
be defined as understanding systematic research to find out things about business
and management [1]. Most business research is conducted either within a firm by
private research organizations and trade associations, or in colleges and universities.
Research within a firm may be under the immediate direction of top management,
although such research is likely to be sporadic and to deal only with immediate
problems. According to Veal (2005) “the primary activity of a manager involves
coordinating and facilitating the management of people and resources in an orga-
nization” [4]. Anyway, it can be understood in much more complex way. Longer-
range studies are often conducted by full-time researchers who submit their reports to
the sales manager, or the head of some other functional department. Private research
organizations and trade associations frequently have the facilities and personnel to
conduct highly specialized studies. Finally, business research conducted in colleges
and universities is important: some is conducted independently by the faculty, much
is carried on by graduate students writing doctoral dissertations, and some is con-
ducted directly by university bureaus of business and economic research. Here can
emphasized knowledge from different disciplines be used in management research
in order to gain new insights, which is impossible to identify when doing research in
each of them separately [1]. Another aspect which is important—that all ideas usually
related to practice, and if speak on scientific research in business and management
fields—it should be related to theory and practice.
Managers need to be competent in investigative approaches to decision making
and problem-solving. The research process, while being the means of advancing
knowledge, also serves as disciplined and systematic procedure of help in solving
managerial problems. The research sequence could be compared to the decision-
making part of a broader problem-solving cycle. Many managers are probably

involved in research without identifying it as such. The traditional tasks of man-
agement are usually defined in terms of planning, coordinating, and controlling and
so on. Research is rarely mentioned in the same breath as management unless it is
in the context of management education [17].
Business managers increasingly rely upon research, in part, because the newer
generation is better trained and more sophisticated in the use of statistics and other
research tools. Another result of this training is, that a growing number of business
managers watch closely the results of research activities conducted in colleges and
universities.
1.2.1 Managers as Action Researchers
Management is often regarded as synonymous with action. Managers spend the

majority of their time making or implementing decisions through the use of verbal
interventions. It seems particularly relevant, therefore, that managers can be seen as
action researchers in their own organizations. Action research is a form of organi-
zational development that involves a process of systematic data collection, reflec-
tion and action planning. In essence, action research entails some form of planned
intervention in a situation by an organizational agent, for example a manager or an
external consultant. The effects of this intervention are subsequently monitored in
some way and critically evaluated to see if the chosen course of action has produced
the expected outcomes. The difference between action research and just managing
is one of awareness and rigorous application of methods. The argument is that man-
agers can make more effective interventions by knowing more about the research
options available to them, as well as about the theoretical assumptions on which they
are based.
Theory has an important function in this process. It may be useful to differentiate
its uses in two ways; in terms of our being theory-dependent and theory-laden. As
decision-makers, we are:
– Theory-dependent, because we create, apply and evaluate theories all the time. We
act on speculation and explanations of phenomena, often in unconscious ways;
– Theory-laden, because our observations are influenced by our prior theories and
values. These values, together with our knowledge of theories, influence what we
see and the value we attach to what we see.
1.2.2 Managers as Ethnographers
As well as action researchers, managers may also be regarded as organizational

ethnographers. Ethnography is the art and science of describing a group or culture.
It could be to compare the task of an ethnographer to that of an investigative reporter
who interviews people, records events, and makes some kind of judgement about the
events that have been reported. The difference is that ethnographers concern them-
selves with routines of everyday life rather than the unusual [17]. Ethnography is in
essence anthropology, and involves using techniques such as participant observation
in a mainly inductive and naturalistic way. The concepts and practices of ethnogra-
phy are particularly relevant if we accept the view of managers as a subculture that
is a social collectively whose members share a set of implicit and explicit meanings
acquired through innumerable communicative exchanges.
Every cultural pattern and every single act of social behaviour involves commu-
nication in either an explicit or implicit sense [18]. An ethnographer attempts to
explore this implicit sense by examining the use of signs, myth and language, and
any possible contradictions between the implicit and explicit messages which are
conveyed to organizational members via the “vehicles” of signs, myth and language.
Another aim of the ethnographer may be to explore the ways in which we are
controlled or impelled to act as a result of the myths that surround us. You may think
of the word “myth” as odd in this context, believing it to be more appropriate to
studies of ancient Greece and Rome. Myth is the complex system of images and
beliefs which a society constructs in order to sustain and authenticate its sense of
its own being: i.e. the very fabric of its system of meaning. In this light it becomes
apparent that myths are a common, everyday phenomenon.
We also internalize reality as an objective phenomenon through the medium of
language that constitutes the most important content and the most important instru-
ment of socialization. Reality is created through language. Language, whilst often
regarded as neutral, can actually be regarded as a potent political device. In this
sense, political refers to the degree to which we are influenced, through linguistic
expression, to accept particular perspectives on a person, issue or event.
If we have no wider theoretical or experiential reference points by which to anal-
yse everyday situation, then we are more likely to accept them as common sense
and beyond question. If, however, we begin to address such concepts as power and
symbolism, gender and power relationships, or we have external knowledge from
other cultures that offers us other examples of social organization, then we begin
to locate our perceptions and experiences in a wider framework. Knowledge offers
us the capability to widen our perspectives on life and sometimes we may begin to
question what we have previously regarded as normal.
Ethnography emphasizes the idea of the researcher as theory-builder, not just
theory-consumer. We are all theory-builders, but theory has come to be defined in
such narrow terms that we come to see ourselves as practical people who have little
time to theory.
In summary, theory often carries pejorative connotations for many managers. Our
actions are theory dependent; we are all theory-builders whether we recognize it or
not. And we are all theory-laden; we carry with us a set of assumptions about life,
and we make sense of situations in certain ways. Our actions may be determined
by theories we may not even realize we hold. We have argued that our way of
seeing the world may be determined by our assumptions regarding the nature of
reality, knowledge and human nature. All of these can determine our methodology
when making sense of ourselves, our role, and our interactions with others, our
organization, and the wider environment.
Research is a fundamentally important, yet understated, element of the manage-
ment decision-making process. In order to improve decision-making skills, managers
cannot afford to regard research as the exclusive domain of students or academics.
1.3 Kinds of Research Investigations
Research study investigations are classified under four general categories, namely:
library, life and physical science, social, and technological research.
Library research is a kind of research that is conducted primarily using written
materials most commonly located in large libraries, World Wide Web and in vir-
tual scientific databases. It is concerned with the seeking out of significant facts and
interpretations from the past and from the extensive data and statistical information
about contemporary life that frequently found in government documents, profes-
sional journals, and similar sources. Studies concerned with the evolution of theories
and research into possible cause and effect relationships are likely to rely heavily on
the use of library material. Library research that is worthy of the name necessitates
generalizations and conclusions not previously appreciated.
Life and physical science research is, for the most part, empirical. It tends to utilize
laboratories more than libraries, and the resulting reports are often shorter than those
based on written sources. Although organizations are involved in laboratory research
that may affect business operations, their findings do not normally have immediate
relevance to management. Therefore, little business research is of this kind.
Social research is defined here to include research in both the social sciences
and the humanities. It is devoted to a study of mankind in his social environment
and is concerned with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, insti-
tutions, and ethics. This definition should be construed broadly enough to include
research in such fields as foreign languages, philosophy, religion, etc. Social research
is becoming increasingly important in business.
Technological or applied research consists largely of the application of the previ-
ously listed kinds of research to the immediate needs of business or industry. Much
of the research conducted by business firms—aside from “scientific” research—is
technological.
Speaking about Business and management research specifics of discovery or find-
ing out, explanation, evaluation and judging leads to three types of research [4]:
– Descriptive—finding out, describing what is (like census of population, and sur-
veys of households expenditure, to monitor social and economic change);
– Exploratory—explaining patterns, relationships and trends, to establish causality
(using to predict demand, sales, impact, etc.);
– Evaluative—evaluation of policies, strategies, programs and practices.
1.4 Stages in the Development of Research
The history of intellectual development has been characterized by forward spurts

followed by plateaus of complacency. Throughout history man has evolved var-
ious approaches for answering perplexing problems about life. Even as early as
Aristotle research findings and empirical knowledge were being used in the physi-
cal and biological sciences. Research in the social sciences developed much more
slowly, probably because the social sciences deal not only with topics which are less
amenable to objective determination, but also because problems in the social sci-
ences often involve strong vested interests that tend to make investigations proceed
in an emotional atmosphere. Nevertheless, the research approach to problem solving
has, in most disciplines, been preceded by three other approaches: (1) trial and error,
(2) authority and tradition, and (3) speculation and argumentation.
Trial and Error. During the infancy of a science, observations are for the most
part casual and qualitative—the sun rises, beats down strongly at midday, and sets;
the moon grows from a crescent to full and then diminishes. In this first stage, man
does not have logical explanations for all of the observed relationships composing
a science, and he “muddles” along, trying one thing after another, until he finds an
acceptable solution. As the process of sifting out those methods and procedures that
do not produce satisfactory results continues, a few principles gradually emerge.
Hence, sheer trial and error may be considered the first stage in the development of
a science.
Authority and Tradition. In the second stage, “leaders” of the past are quoted.
Often they were partly or completely wrong, but their opinions were stated with
such assurance and force that they eventually became hallowed as a traditional view.
The development of the natural sciences has involved many clashes with tradition:
the names of Galileo and Darwin are associated with especially bitter crossing of
swords. Many propositions of religion and social action claim support from some
sacred text, tradition, or tribunal whose decision on such questions is vested with
finality. Political, economic, and educational questions are frequently determined by
appeals to such authorities. People may rely on tradition if they lack the time or
training to settle particular problems, and in some societies certain traditions and
authorities are considered so infallible that external force may be invoked to give
sanction to their decisions.
Speculation and Argumentation. In the third stage the authorities are frequently
doubted and solutions of fact are sought through debate. This is the stage of philoso-
phizing, or speculation and argumentation. The Wealth of Nations, written by Adam
Smith and published in 1776 [19], was the first popular questioning of the mer-
cantilist philosophy which was the traditional approach to international economic
relationships (and which is by no means dead in the mid-twentieth century). This
book did much to stimulate the speculation in the field of economic policy that has
continued to the present time.
As soon as basic data are available in substantial quantity, speculation, instead
of being based on a priori reasoning exclusively, becomes modified by empirical
material. The more empirical material there is the closer speculation becomes tied
to reality.
Other sources suggest to divide research to pure, applied, and practice types [9].
Pure research. Results are oriented to academic audience, usually disseminated
via scientific literature sources such as books, articles, conference papers, etc.
Applied research. Mostly it is application of knowledge for solving particular
problems.
Action research. This approach suggested by Rapport in 1970 presented in
Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, and Jackson (2012) “Action research aims to contribute
both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and
to the goals of social science by joining collaboration within a mutually accepted
ethical framework” [9].
2 The Meaning of Theory
2.1 Research Methodology
Method can be described as a set of tools and techniques for finding something out,
or for reducing levels of uncertainty. According to Saunders (2012) method is the
technique and procedures used to obtain and analyse research data, including for
example questionnaires, observation, interviews, and statistical and non-statistical
techniques [1]. Methodology addresses the philosophy of method in addressing such
questions as “is this the most appropriate technique?”, “how valid are my findings?”,
“can the findings be extrapolated to other situations?” and so on [17]. According
to Saunders (2012) it is theory of how research should be undertaken, including
the theoretical and philosophical assumptions upon which research is based and the
implications of these for the method or methods adopted [1].
The Scientific method found in the work of Zikmund et al. (2012) is the use of a
set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting theoretical statements
about events and for predicting events yet unknown [16]. There is no consensus
concerning exact procedures for the scientific method, but most discussions of the
scientific method include references to “empirical testability”. Empirical means that
something is verifiable by observation, experimentation, or experience. The process
of empirical verification cannot be divorced from the process of theory development.
Like all abstractions, the word “theory” has been used in many different ways,
in many different contexts, at times so broadly as to include almost all descriptive
statements about a class of phenomena, and at other times so narrowly as to exclude
everything but a series of terms and their relationships that satisfies certain logi-
cal requirements. Theory dividing to everyday theory, academic theory proposed in
Easterby-Smith et al. (2012): everyday theory reflects to the ideas and assumptions
carried out for making sense for everyday observations; academic theory tend to
present higher level of generalisation [9].
For our purposes, a theory is a coherent set of general propositions, used as

principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena
[16]. A key element in our definition is the term proposition. Before a proposition
can be explained, the nature of theoretical concepts must be understood.
Theory development is essentially a process of describing phenomena at increas-
ingly higher levels of abstraction [16]. Things that we observe can be described as
ideas or concepts. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of
objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name. If you,
as an organizational theorist, describe phenomena such as supervisory behaviour,
you would categorize empirical events or real things into concepts. Concepts are
our building blocks and, in organizational theory, “leadership”, “productivity” and
“morale” concepts. In the theory finance, “gross national product”, “asset” and “in-
flation” are frequently used concepts. Theorists translate their conceptualization of
reality into abstract ideas. Thus theory deals with abstraction. Things are not the
essence of theory, ideas are. Concepts in isolation are not theories. Only when we
explain how concepts relate to other concepts do we begin to construct theories.
Saunders et al. (2012) suggest understanding of theory as formulation regarding
the cause and effect relationships between two or more variables, which may or
may not have been tested. And such aspect as logical reasoning is emphasized while
explaining existing relationships of researched phenomenon [1].
2.2 Universality of Research Methods
Methods of research may be classified from many points of view [1, 4, 9, 10, 14,
16, 20]:
– the fields to which applied: education, history, philosophy, psychology, biology,
etc.;
– purpose: description, prediction, determination of causes, determination of status,
etc.;
– place where it is conducted: in the field or in the laboratory;
– application: pure research or applied research;
– data-gathering devices employed: tests, rating scales, questionnaires, etc.;
– character of the data collected: objective, subjective, quantitative, qualitative, etc.;
– symbols employed in recording, describing, or treating results: mathematical sym-
bols or language symbols;
– forms of thinking: deductive, inductive, etc.;
– control of factors: controlled and uncontrolled experimentation;
– methods employed in establishing causal relationship: agreement, difference,
residues, and concomitant variation.
Where there is a shifting of a point of view in a given classification, without warning
or explanation, the result almost always is confusing. Still another classification of
research methodology, commonly encountered, is: historical, library, field survey,

case study, statistical, genetic, and experimental.
A simple dichotomy used frequently in social science research is that between
quantitative and no quantitative (or descriptive and reflective). The increasing empha-
sis upon quantitative measurement of findings, the development of ICT and software
for data-processing, and improvements in statistical methods have resulted increase
in quantitative studies in business research.
Good research uses a number of methods. Nearly all research projects require the
use of more than one technique or method. Even though the principal portion of the
project uses data obtained directly from the field, the initial phase of the report is
usually a recapitulation of existing information about the problem and a description
of its background. This may involve historical, library, and case study methods. The
field work may result in the collection of several hundred questionnaires or interview
schedules which are subjected to statistical analysis. A part of the study may lead the
researcher to conduct limited experiments to test certain hypotheses on conjectures
that he has developed. These tests would be examples of the experimental method.
Since no two research undertakings, nor the researchers who conduct them, are
exactly alike, it is impossible to set forth any rigid formulation of method or proce-
dure. There is a wide variation in the conditions and circumstances which determine
the objective nature of research projects in different fields. Thus, all methods defy
portrayal in terms of formula or standardization. However, it is possible, taking into
account the basic considerations and fundamental techniques of research, to outline
in general how a research study should be conducted.
2.3 Nature of Propositions
Concepts are the basic units of theory development. However, theories require that
the relationship among concepts be understood. Thus once reality is abstracted into
concepts, the scientist is interested in the relationship among various concepts. Propo-
sitions are statements concerned with the relationships among concepts. A proposi-
tion explains the logical linkage among concepts by asserting a universal connection
between concepts. A proposition states that every concept about an event or thing
either has a certain property or stands in a certain relationship to other concepts about
events or things.
As presented by Zikmund et al. (2012) concepts abstract reality, is expressed in
words that refer to various events or objects [16]. For example, the concept “as-
set” is an abstract term that may, in the concrete world of reality, refer to a specific
punch press machine. Concepts, however, may vary in degree of abstraction. The
abstraction ladder indicates that it is possible to discuss concepts at various levels of
abstraction. Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept becomes more
abstract, wider in scope, and less amenable to measurement. The basic or scientific
business researcher operates at two levels: the abstract level of concepts (and propo-
sitions) and the empirical level of variables (and hypotheses). At the empirical level,
we “experience” reality, that is, we observe or manipulate objects or events. If the

organizational researcher says, “Older workers prefer different rewards than younger
workers,” two concepts—age of worker and reward preference—are the subjects of
this abstract statement. If the researcher wishes to test this hypothesis, John, age 19,
Chuck, age 45, and Mary, age 62—along with other workers—may be questioned
about their preferences for salary, retirement plans, intrinsic job satisfaction, and
the like. Recording their ages and observing their stated preferences occur at the
empirical level.
Researchers are concerned with the observable world, or what we shall loosely
term “reality”.
Consider the following behavioural science proposition that permeates many busi-
ness theories: If reinforcements follow each other at evenly distributed intervals, and
everything else is held constant, the resulting habit will increase in strength as a pos-
itive growth function of the number of trials. This proposition identifies theoretical
relationships between the concepts “reinforcements” and “habit”. It identifies the
direction and magnitude of these relationships.
We have indicated that a theory is an abstraction from observed reality. Concepts
are at one level of abstraction. Investigating propositions requires that we increase our
level of abstract thinking. When we think about theories, we are at the highest level
of abstraction because we are investigating the relationship between propositions.
Theories are networks of propositions.
An Example of a Theory [17]

The theory explain voluntary job turnover, that is, an individual’s movement to
another organization or movement to another position within the same organi-
zation. Two concepts—(1) the perceived desirability of movement to another
organization and (2) the perceived ease of movement from the present job—are
expected to be the primary determinants of intentions to quit. This is a propo-
sition. Further, the concept intentions to quit is expected to be a necessary
condition before the actual voluntary turnover behaviour occurs. This is a
second proposition that links concepts together in this theory. In the more
elaborate theory, job performance is another concept considered to be the pri-
mary determinant influencing both perceived ease of movement and perceived
desirability of movement. Moreover, perceived ease of movement is related
to other concepts such as labour market conditions, number of organizations
visible to the individual and personal characteristics. Perceived desirability of
movement is influenced by concepts such as equity of pay, job complexity,
and participation in decision making.
A complete explanation of this theory is not possible; however, this example

should help the reader understand the terminology used by theory builders.
Verifying Theory [17]

In most scientific situations there are alternative theories to explain certain
classes of phenomena. To determine which the better theory is, researchers
gather empirical data or observations to verify the theories.
Maslow’s hierarchical theory of motivation offers one explanation for
behaviour. For example, Maslow theorizes that individuals will attempt to
satisfy physiological needs before self-esteem needs. An alternative view of
motivation is provided by Freudian (psychoanalytic) theory, which suggests
that unconscious, emotional impulses are the basic influences on behaviour.
One task of science is to determine if a given theoretical proposition is false
or if there are inconsistencies between competing theories. Just as records are
made to be broken, theories are made to be tested.
It must be possible to demonstrate that a given proposition or theory is false. This

may at first glance appear strange. Why “false” rather than “true”? Technically, there
may be other untested theories which could account for the results we obtained in
our study of a proposition. At the very least, there may be a competing explanation
which could be the “real” explanation for a given set of research findings. Thus, we
can never be certain that our proposition or theory is the correct one. The scientist
can only say, “I have a theory which I have objectively tested with data and the data
are consistent with my theory.” If the possibility of proving an idea false or wrong
is not inherent in our test of an idea, then we cannot put much faith in the evidence
that suggests it to be true. No other evidence was allowed to manifest itself.
Business research gathers facts to verify theories. However, the researcher who
wishes to identify inconsistency within a particular theory must understand the dif-
ference between facts and theories: facts and theories are different things, not rungs in
a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world’s data. Theories are structures
of ideas that explain and interpret facts. Facts do not go away when scientists debate
rival theories to explain them. Einstein’s theory of gravitation replaced Newton’s,
but apples did not suspend themselves in mid-air pending the outcome.
2.4 How Are Theories Generated?
Where do theories come from? Although this is not an easy question to answer in a
short chapter on theory in research, we shall nevertheless explore this topic briefly.
In this chapter, theory has been explained at the abstract, conceptual level and
at the empirical level. Theory generation may occur at either level. At the abstract,
conceptual level, theory may be developed with deductive reasoning by going from
a general statement to a specific assertion. Deductive reasoning is the logical process
of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or something known to be true. For
example, we know that all managers are human beings. If we also know that Vardenis
Pavardenis is a manager, then we can deduce that Vardenis Pavardenis is a human

being.
At the empirical level, theory may be developed with inductive reasoning. Induc-
tive reasoning is the logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis
of observation of particular facts. All managers that have ever been seen are human
beings; therefore all managers are human beings.
Suppose a stockbroker with 15 years’ experience trading on the New York Stock
Exchange repeatedly notices that the price of gold and the price of gold stocks rise
whenever there is a hijacking, terrorist bombing, or military skirmish. In other words,
similar patterns occur whenever a certain type of event occurs. The stockbroker may
project these empirical observations to a more generalizable situation and conclude
that the price of gold is related to political stability. Thus the stockbroker states a
proposition based on his or her experience or specific observations.
Over the course of time, theory construction is often the result of a combination
of deductive and inductive reasoning. The experience leads to draw conclusions that
we then try to empirically verify by using the scientific method.
It is useful to look at the analytic process of scientific theory building as a series
of stages. Seven operations may be viewed as the steps involved in the application
of the scientific method: Assessment of relevant existing knowledge; Formulation
of concepts and propositions; Statement of hypotheses; Design the research to test
the hypotheses; Acquisition of meaningful empirical data; Analysis and evaluation
of data; Provide explanation and state new problems raised by the research.
3 Research Philosophies and Approaches
Main philosophical positions are important in design of management research

because they underline outcomes from research activities, it helps to clarify design
of research, and identify limitations in first stages. One of best illustrations for under-
standing complex or research is “research onion” proposed by Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill (2011) presented in Fig. 1 [1].
Speaking about research methodology, we should speak about philosophies, and
it does not mean that one or another is better. It should be taken into account research
problem, question and aims which researcher has. Research onion helps to under-
stand systematically the philosophies and approaches, and to give arguments on
methodological choices.
3.1 Assumptions About Reality
Assumptions about reality was explained clearly by M. Teale et al. (1999) [17].
Explanation was presented as following. When we use the word “natural” and “nor-
mal”, we should consider what we really mean in terms of the discussion that follows.
Fig. 1 The research onion [1]
The discussion sets out a broader theoretical context of approaches to the social sci-
ences. The study of reality, sometimes called ontology, deals with issues concerning
the nature of reality itself. When we say something is “real”, what do we mean?
For instance, “this is a real problem”. Real according to what criteria? What are
the alternatives? What would the problem be if it were not real? Unreal? Imagined?
Usually when we talk about “reality” in this way, we are implicitly addressing philo-
sophical question such as, “is reality external to the individual or is it the product of
an individual’s consciousness?” So, “this is a real problem” may be interpreted as
‘the problem is not just in my head’; others obviously think there’s a problem too”.
The difficulty is that the use of the word “real” in the context of everyday speech
is not as rigorously delimited as it is within the context we are discussing it now,
so the example could be dismissed as a semantic triviality. Nonetheless, that should
not stop us from examining underlying reasons why we might behave and act in
particular ways; after all, those ways might not always be appropriate and we might
wish to change them.
Ontology—is an understanding nature of reality. We should remember that these
are theoretical positions, and it is likely that most people would believe that the
answer to the question “is reality a product of our mind or of the world outside it?”
lies somewhere in the middle, that reality is the product both of our own conscious-
ness and of our interaction with the external world. In social sciences, two aspects
should be emphasized objectivism (e.g. Social entities exist independent from social
actors: management itself, like organization structure and management stay even if
employee’s changes) and subjectivism (e.g. social phenomena rise from the under-
standing and changing actions of social actors).
It is fair to say that in western culture the natural science are often advocated
as the most valid way of researching social phenomena. This has tended to deflect
attention from the idea of human agency. As humans we are capable of producing a
word that we then experience as something other than a human product.
We can start to explore issues concerning reality by identifying different theoreti-
cal positions, for example, nominalism and realism. In studying social phenomena, a
person with inherently nominalist view of reality would emphasize the importance of
the way in which the mind makes sense of the phenomena (a subjectivist approach).
Reality is therefore more likely to be regarded as being socially constructed, that is,
as humans we create and sustain structures as a result of our acting in the word. The
nominalist queries the notion that there is any “real” structure to the world; structures
are seen as being the creation of human interaction.
Realism (in an objectivist approach) to the study of social sciences, and therefore
regards reality as a product of the world external to our mind. For realists, therefore,
social structures are hard and unchangeable. There is no doubt exist independently of
the individual’s consciousness. They might argue, for instance, that we are born into
a world that predates us, and when we die, structures continue to exist. The realist
sees the social world in terms of an existence which is as hard and concrete as the
natural world. We now turn to “problem” of knowledge.
3.2 Assumptions About Knowledge
The epistemology term which explains phenomena and understanding of issues con-
cerning knowledge. It concerns what is acceptable knowledge. Such questions as
“what constitutes truth?”, “What are valid data?”, “What are ‘hard’ data?” and
“What are ‘soft’ data?” “Do we needed to support our statement with some kind
of evidence?”, “What kind of evidence (views of others, statistics, etc.)?”. If we rise
such questions, then we face with epistemological issues.
In social science nowadays, two main trends are more widely discussed: posi-
tivism and social constructivism [4, 9]. Saunders (2012) offer three categories such
as positivism, realism, and interpretivism [1]. Further all these categories will be
explained shortly.
Positivism relies on idea that social world exists externally, an objective view of
the social sciences and set out to explain and predict by measured consistency and
causality using objective methods.
In the last half of XX century scientists Berger and Luckman (1966), Watzlavick
(1984), Shotter (1993) in Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) emphasized the peculiarities
of social science and give focus on the ways people make sense of world especially
through sharing they experiences with others, and social constructivism approach
started to be used [9]. Best explanation of this approach would be that people deter-
mine “reality”, not external factors.
Realism reflect philosophy which idea is—what we sense is reality: objects have
an existence independent of the human mind [1]. It is similar to positivism.
Previously the term and specifics of phenomenology was analysed either. Since
phenomenologists argue that people or situations can be understood only from an
“internal frame of reference”, that may include a detailed study of the person’s biog-
raphy, experiences and social context; for a group, it might include the detailed study
of individuals’ relationships and patterns of communicating [17]. As phenomenology
concerns itself with exploring the subjective nature of the social world and, there-
fore, focuses on the particular rather than the general. The phenomenologist tries
to examine this uniqueness of human beings. This is roots of interpretivism, which
comes from phenomenology and symbolic interactionism.
Approaches to studying the social sciences are usually differentiated in terms
being either positivistic or interpretivistic. Positivist approaches work on assump-
tions borrowed from the study of natural sciences. They therefore attempt to estab-
lish general rules and principles by using systematic techniques based on scientific
methods [17]. The theories of organizational behaviour are often based on laboratory
experimentation, control groups and have positivistic orientations.
Recently, there has been a growing amount of research that studies management
by looking at managers in their “natural” context using such methods as inquiry,
observation, in order to understand behaviour patterns, experiments in order to iden-
tify causes. The underlying assumption here is that people cannot be studied in a
similar way to objects. Approaches that do this can be described as interpretivism.
One more term, which should be mentioned axiology. It is a philosophy that
analysis judgements about values.
The comparison of research philosophies and management research presented by
Saunders et al. (2012) reflects and explains the variety, helps to understand philoso-
phies specifics (Table 1) [1].
3.3 Assumptions About Human Nature
The final set of assumptions deals with issues regarding the relationship between
humans and their environment. The answer to questions “are we affected by envi-
ronment?”, “can we effect environment?”, “are we social actors?” may reveal human
nature.
If to believe that environment make effect on person, then we could say that it is
deterministic approach. If to believe that person change society through the actions,
then we could say that it is voluntaristic approach.
Determinists therefore regard humans as puppets rather than as actors. Social
structures are seen as difficult, if not impossible, to alter, and human behaviour
is seen as being determined by the environment. Voluntarists, regard humans as
social actors who have the potential and the ability to influence and change their
environment [17].
Table 1 Comparison of research philosophies and management research [1]

Pragmatism Positivism Realism lnterpretivism
Ontology: the External, External, Is objective. Socially
researcher’s view multiple, view objective and Exists constructed,
of the nature of chosen to best independent of independently of subjective, may
reality or being enable answering social actors human thoughts change, multiple
of research and beliefs of or
question knowledge of
their existence
(realist), but is
interpreted
through social
conditioning
(critical realist)
Epistemology: Either or both Only observable Observable Subjective
the researcher’s observable phenomena can phenomena meanings and
view regarding phenomena and provide credible provide credible social
what constitutes subjective data, facts. Focus data, facts. phenomena.
acceptable meanings can on causality and Insufficient data Focus upon the
knowledge provide law-like means details of
acceptable generalizations, inaccuracies in situation, a
knowledge reducing sensations (direct reality behind
dependent upon phenomena to realism). these details,
the research simplest Alternatively, subjective
question. Focus elements phenomena meanings
on practical create sensations, motivating
applied research, which are open to actions
integrating misinterpretation
different (critical realism).
perspectives to Focus on
help interpret the explaining within
data a context or
contexts
Axiology: the Values play a Research is Research is value Research is value
researcher’s view large role in undertaken in a laden; the bound, the
of the role of interpreting value-free way, researcher is researcher is part
values in research results, the the researcher is biased by of what is being
researches independent of worldviews, researched,
adopting both the data and cultural cannot be
objective and maintains an experiences and separated and so
subjective points objective stance upbringing. will be subjective
of view These will impact
on the research
Data collection Mixed or Highly Methods chosen Small samples, in
techniques most multiple method structured, large must fit the depth
often used designs, samples, subject matter, investigations,
quantitative and measurement, quantitative or qualitative
qualitative quantitative, but qualitative
can use
qualitative
Table 2 Deduction, induction and abduction: from reason to research [1]

Deduction Induction Abduction
Logic In a deductive In an inductive In an abductive interface,
interface, when the interface, known known premises are used
premises are true, the premises are used to to generate testable
conclusions must also generate untested conclusions
be true conclusions
Generalizability Generalizing from the Generalizing from the Generalizing from the
general to the specific specific to the general interactions between the
specific and the general
Use of data Data collection is used Data collection is used Data collection is used to
to evaluate to explore a explore a phenomenon,
propositions or phenomenon, identify identify themes and
hypothesis related to themes and patterns patterns, locate these in a
an existing theory and create a conceptual conceptual framework
framework and test this through
subsequent data
collection and so forth
Theory Theory falsification or Theory generation and Theory generation or
verification building modification;
incorporating existing
theory where
appropriate, to build new
theory or modify existing
theory
In summary, an awareness of methodology can help the decision-maker such

aspects as: assumptions concerning reality and knowledge, in order to recognize the
validity of other data, and evaluate other perspectives and methodologies, so as to
make judgements based on more informed research, in order to take action based on
examination leading to favourable outcomes.
3.4 Research Approaches
Inductive, deductive and abductive approaches employed when we formulating

research question and objectives of research (see Table 2).
If we attempt to look at particular issues or problems with a view to coming
up with findings that can be generalized, we are reasoning and acting inductively.
If, for instance, we note from our observations that the female managers we know
show good judgement in their decision-making, we might generalize that women
generally make good decision-makers. We begin from specific observation and end
with a general conclusion. Inductive approaches to research, therefore, are those
that move from the particular towards the general. When we come across a female
manager who shows poor judgement, we may start to modify our theory. Induction
would criticize deduction for constructing right methodology that does not allow
alternative explanation. Using inductive approach in research probably will lead to
more attention to context in which events happened.
Deductive approaches begin with the general and work towards the particular.
Its origins lies in natural science. If we begin with a general rule, law, principle or
hypothesis, and try to apply or test it in specific contexts, are reasoning and acting
deductively. Taking the example above, if we start from a general view that female
managers make good decision-makers, and attempt to test this out in some systematic
way, we are acting deductively. We may attempt to set up a hypothesis and test it by
applying it to particular situations [17]. Blaikie (2009) lists six steps for deductive
research [21]:
1. Put forward idea, hypothesis or set of hypothesis to form a theory.
2. Using literature sources deduce testable propositions.
3. Examine logic of the arguments with existing theories to see if it offers an advance
in understanding. If it does, than continue.
4. Test premises by collecting data to measure concepts or variables and analysing
it.
5. If the results are not consistent with the premises (the test fail!), theory should
be rejected or modified and process restarted.
6. If the results of the analysis are consistent with the premises then the theory is
corroborated.
Speaking about main features of the deduction process, such aspects should be noted:
in order to ensure reliability highly structured methodology should be used; con-
cepts need to be operationalized (facts tested usually quantitatively); principle of
reductionism used (problem reduced into simplest elements); and generalization
(sufficient sample size).
Abduction method combining induction and deduction approaches back and force.
This is what often happens in business, management, and economic research.
3.5 Other Philosophies
In previous chapters’ main philosophical approaches, which are important in busi-

ness, management and economic research, are discussed. However, more philosoph-
ical positions exist, which proposed by different schools of thought, and which
should be mentioned at least shortly: critical theory, feminism, hermeneutics, post-
modernism, pragmatism, structuration theory, critical realism.
Critical theory. Origins: Frankfurt School, Habermans (1970), in Easterby-Smith
et al. (2012) [9]. Concept: Identified clear difference between social sciences (based
on communicative experience) and natural sciences (based on sense experience). In
research of natural science used one-way data collecting methods, in social sciences
usually it is two way communication and data collection methods. Main idea is that
jut via communication it is possible become efficient. In addition, it was emphasized
that knowledge determined by interests, and they are presented by certain people
(leaders with strong personality) who determines what is “true”.
Feminism. Concept: idea and concept lies relying on idea that women perception,
opinion and participation in science were undervalued. It is emphasized that it is
important to understand behaviour from internal aspects, like woman themselves.
Importance of such issues as power dynamics and gender differences raised as a
question.
Hermeneutics. Origins: Germany, protestant groups in 17th century. Most known
Gadamer (1989), Ricoeur (1981), in Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) [9]. Concept: Most
attention paid to text interpreting (written and spoken, which can be recorded). In
business and management research this concept can be used in analysis of documents,
reports).
Postmodernism. Origins: term used since 1926 in library science, more academic
attention paid after Jean-Francois Lyotard’s (1984) publication, in Easterby-Smith,
Thorpe, and Jackson (2012) [9]. Concept: Organization interpreted as flexible and
changing, important are visible elements of organization, informal processes of deci-
sion making and tacit knowledge.
Pragmatism. Origins: 19th century W. James and J. Dewey. Concept: In the social
world there is no pre-determined theories or frameworks that shape knowledge and
understanding. Any meaning structures, which get developed, must come from the
lived experience individual [9].
Structuration theory. Origins: Anthony Giddens (1984), in Easterby-Smith et al.
(2012) [9]. Concept: Developed idea of “duality of structure”. Bonds between social
structure and social actions emphasized. Low of science and social science differ-
ences pointed out, like in first case universality emphasized, in second case context in
which everything happens become extremely important. In business and management
it example can be understanding relations between employees and organization.
Critical realism. Origins: Last two decades. Concept: it is compromise between
positivism and constructionism. It suggested to start with realist ontology and incor-
porate realist thread. Key features is the idea of structured ontology, existence of
causality, many mechanisms do not work for ordinary people and employees.
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(Pearson, Boston (Mass.), 2013)
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Planning the Research
Marie Karim Aboujaoude, Khalil Feghali and Charbel Kfouri
1 Introduction
Nowadays, there are myriad of resources offering significant information on research

methodology, and providing different approaches, different concepts, and different
techniques. However a main question remains: How to convey a fit methodological
approach that would help researchers create a scientific research and put in place a
procedural knowledge that describes the different steps involved?
This chapter discusses key ideas in research planning and provides spotlights
on research topic, describes the crucial elements involved in the identification of
research problem and explains what constitutes an effective critical literature review.
2 Defining the Research Process
The research has its own language and exploits a proper vocabulary that occupies
a large consensus in the scientific community. However the choice of concepts,
methodology and approaches are specific to researcher; it is rather a state of mind.
The conceptual framework used in this study is based on reviewing foremost
literature with a holistic view as presented in the below graphical form the Fig. 1.
M. K. Aboujaoude (B)
Department of Business Information Systems, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
Section II, Lebanese University, Achrafieh, Beirut, Lebanon
e-mail: maboujaoude@ul.edu.lb; marie.k.aboujaoude@gmail.com
K. Feghali
Department of Accounting and Audit, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Section
II, Lebanese University, Achrafieh, Beirut, Lebanon
e-mail: khfeghali@ul.edu.lb
C. Kfouri
Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Section II, Lebanese University,
Roumieh, Lebanon
e-mail: charbel.n.kfoury@hotmail.com

26 M. K. Aboujaoude et al.
Fig. 1 The conceptual

framework with a systemic
approach
The most important point for a researcher to start with, is to conceive a research
problem and to elaborate a plan that justifies the techniques and tools applied in order
to acquire the targeted information. Once the methodology is defined, the researcher
proceeds with the data collection and analysis and then, the interpretation of results,
and completes the study with the dissemination of information and outcomes.
This chapter starts with the definition of certain terms that are commonly employed
in research before describing the research process and the related activities.
2.1 Basic Terminology
Clear and consistent terminology plays an important role in research quality. However
some basic terms are not always consistently defined by authors. Indeed, a good
comprehension of the “basic terminology” is a prelude to the commencement and
planning of every research.
To avoid any confusion, the following basic terms with their corresponding defi-
nitions are used throughout this chapter.
Research Topic: is a wide and broad area of Interest. A specific research topic can
generate several research problems. “Research topic” and “research problem” are
often used interchangeably.
Research Problem: is a problem within a broad topic area. It is an issue that needs
a solution or a situation to be enhanced or a difficulty to be defeated.
Problem Statement: conveys the problem to be tackled and highlights the need for
a study.
Research Purpose: is a “declarative statement” that pinpoints the focus and portrays
the overall target of the study.
Research Questions: are defined as “Interrogative statements that narrow the pur-
pose statement to specific questions that researchers seek to answer in their study”
[1].
Research Hypothesis: “A hypothesis is the researcher’s prediction of the relationship
that exists among the variables being investigated” [2].
Planning the Research 27
Research aims or Objectives: “The specific accomplishments the researcher hopes

to achieve by conducting the study. The objectives includes obtaining answers to
research questions or testing research hypotheses but may also encompass some
broader aims” [3].
Data versus Information versus Knowledge: data refer to facts and raw material
where information is processed and analysed data, it is data put in context; knowledge
refers to the subsequent assimilation and discernment of that information. Knowledge
is a combination of contextual information, know-how, values and rules.
2.2 The Beginning: Planning the Research
If you don’t know where you are going, you’ll end up someplace else.
—Yogi Berra (May 12, 1925–September 22, 2015)
The only person, who succeeds, is the person who is progressively realizing a worthy ideal.
He’s the person who says, ‘I’m going to become this’ and then begins to work toward that
goal.
—Earl Nightingale (March 12, 1921–March 28, 1989)
Planning preoccupies the first position in the research process. It is the center
around which all research activities progress. According to Urick (1943) “planning
is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to
act in the light of facts rather than guesses” [4].
The typical research planning approach starts with defining the problem, then
selecting a research methodology and continues with the development of a research
design. The researcher takes to the field, collects data, examines and interprets the
result, and finally writes the study report.
In this regard, we are advocating the reverse: a different prominent approach to
traditional planning principles is “Backward Planning” where the researcher needs
to think from different perspective. The idea is to start with the end—the ultimate
goal—and then move backwards from there to develop the plan and choose the
efficient actions that are most likely helpful to fulfill the desired results. By doing
this, the researcher can mentally prepare himself for success and map out specific
milestones that need to be achieved.
Covey (2004) said that to “begin with the End in Mind means to begin each day,
task, or project with a clear vision of your desired direction and destination, and
then continue by flexing your proactive muscles to make things happen” [5]. This
“habit 2”, as stated by Covey, is a self-mastery activity based on the assumption
that everything is created twice. The “first” creation is a virtual one crafted in our
mind, and the “second” is a physical, real one—action plan. Therefore, and in order
to be more productive, the researcher needs to assess the situation from the early
beginning, and create a mental mission statement that helps him putting the goal in
focus in the light of the triple constraints: “time, budget and data quality”.
Fig. 2 Research as a spiral pattern
Furthermore, setting a personal goal is an imperative step in the research plan-

ning. Once expected outcomes are plunged in the mind, the thoughts start triggering
motivation and thus driving efforts toward the accomplishments.
This orientation pushes the researcher into the respect of the “Research Process”
and the adherence to the pre-planned steps as demonstrated in the graphic form in
the conclusion paragraph (Fig. 2).
2.3 Research Process: Phases and Steps
Research is broadly conceived as a dynamic process that needs to be actively planned

and monitored. The research evolves as activities progress and the elements of process
interact and impact on one another.
– ISO 9000:2015 (en), item 3.4.1, defined the “Process” as a “set of interrelated or
interacting activities that use inputs to deliver an intended result” [6].
– Juran (1992) identified the process as “a systematic series of actions directed to
the achievement of a goal” [7].
– Walliman (2011) described the process as “a series of stages that are interrelated
and are sometimes revisited in an iterative fashion during the project” [8].
Although the research steps are presented throughout this chapter in chronological
order, the process by itself is not linear and straightforward as it is usually illustrated.
As cited in Gill and Johnson (2010), “the process is not a clear cut sequence of
procedures followed by a neat pattern, but a messy interaction between the conceptual
and empirical world” [9]. Some phases may overlap each other or occur concurrently.
Some are interrelated and frequently revisited in an iterative approach during the
study. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2015) research is “by its nature, cyclical
or more exactly, helical” [10]. The questions lead to data collection which leads to
Table 1 Overview of the research process at a glance

Development aspects Definition
1. The theoretical or Conceptual aspect Formulating the scientific problem, reviewing
and criticizing literature, and determining the
research expectation
2. The design and Planning aspect Selecting a research model, developing
analysis procedures, setting the sampling and
data gathering plan
3. The empirical aspect Collecting and preparing data for analysis
4. The analytic aspect Analyzing the data and interpreting the results
5. The dissemination aspect Communicating the results
interpretations and then to new problems; the questions raised and the knowledge
acquired at each turn provide the center for the next round.
Neuman (2008) describes the researcher process as an ongoing endeavor that
builds on past research and performs future research [11]. According to him, the pro-
cess runs interactively in seven steps, with steps running into each other and influenc-
ing each other. Furthermore Cameron and Price (2009) introduced the metaphor of
research process as tornado “you may feel you are in the grip of strong forces which
shift you from one part of the research field to another almost against your will” [12].
Figure 2 highlights the spiral development model which follows the philosophy of
iterative development.
There are several ways to conceive the research process. We are considering the
approach as described by Whittemore and Melkus [13] and which consists of five
development phases:
1. Conceptual or theoretical
2. Design and Planning
3. Empirical
4. Analytic
5. Dissemination.
Table 1 summarizes the different development aspects involved in the research

process.
Following are conventional steps in the research process:
– The consideration of ethics throughout the research process

– The development of the research question
– The search and evaluation of the literature
– The choice of methodology and research design
– The preparation of the research proposal
– The gaining access to data with related authorization
– The development of samples (strategies and design)
– The implementation of the pilot study
– The execution of data collection and data processing

– The realization of data analysis and interpretation
– The dissemination of results
– The Implementation of the research.
Many authors have described the research process as iterative, circular, or recursive
with different number of phases or stages and different names or tags, as shown in
Table 2; however whatever terminology is used, the process core elements remain
the same.
Note that the research life spans into time segments. This chapter refers to these
time segments as phases with a stage as subset of phase, others refer to these time
segments as stages.
The adherence to the “Overview of Research Process” should allow efficiency
improvement of the “system approach to researching”.
2.4 System Approach to Researching
A system is defined in ISO 9000:2015 item: 3.5.1 as a set of interrelated or interacting

elements [6]. According to Senge [14] a system is set of variables that influence one
another. Bertalanffy (1969) defines the system as a set of components that work
together for the overall objective of the whole [15].
Therefore, from a system perspective, a research could be considered as a system
defined by the association of processes and their interrelations. The outputs from
one process might be the inputs into other processes within the network. From iden-
tification of research problem to the delivery of the research report, the processes
interact, exploiting resources, creating results and adding value to the circular chain
of activities.
In this regard, embracing a holistic approach means the researcher views all study
choices as interrelated and thus creates a mental model to manage the research
effectively.
This system itself, applied in a scientific and research environment would be able
to develop and to refine the research problem and the research hypothesis.
3 Developing and Refining the Research Problem
If any student comes to me and says he wants to be useful to mankind and go into research
to alleviate human suffering, I advise him to go into charity instead. Research wants real
egotists who seek their own pleasure and satisfaction, but find it in solving the puzzles of
nature.
—Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (Sep 16, 1893–Oct 22, 1986)
You have to be burning with an idea, or a problem, or a wrong that you want to right. If
you’re not passionate enough from the start, you’ll never stick it out.
Planning the Research
Table 2 Research process: phases’ names proposed in different sources

Author Susman and Evered [36] Kember [37] Polit and Beck [3] Bickman and Rog [38] Parahoo [32] Brink et al. [39]
Phase/stage
Phase I Diagnosis Planning The conceptual Planning: The identification of The conceptual
phase – Definition the research question phase also called
– Design/plan ‘planning’ phase
– Implementation
– Reporting/follow-up
Phase II Action planning Action The design and Execution The collection of The empirical phase
planning phase data
Phase III Action taking Observation The empirical phase The analysis of data The interpretive
phase
Phase IV Evaluating Reflection The analytic phase The dissemination The communication
of findings phase
Phase V Specifying learning The dissemination The dissemination
phase phase
31
—Steve Jobs (February 24, 1955–October 5, 2011)
The starting point of the research is a situation that raises questions, discomfort,
or exasperation and calls for an explanation or at least a better understanding. The
subject of study corresponds to the aspect of the problem that research is seeking
to elucidate. In order to formulate this subject, we have to select a pertinent topic
that refers to the problematic situation. Therefore, the identification of the research
problem starts by selecting the research topic which is considered as the cornerstone
on which everything else lies; consequently, it is of paramount importance to choose
carefully [16].
The research question and hypotheses are derived from the research problem and
constitutes the bridge between the conceptual and design phases.
3.1 Spotlights on Research Topic
Research process often requires persistence and can be tedious and time-consuming
and even may lead sometimes to frustration. For this reason, it is critical to consider
areas of study that the researcher is both passionate and curious about. Curiosity and
passion are strong stimulus and fundamental motivators that supply the researcher
with the necessary fuel and energy to persevere, to maintain enthusiasm for the study
and stay resilient through the challenges.
Suitable topics for research emerge from a variety of sources including personal
interest, professional experience, a recurring difficulty, program evaluation, theory
testing, prior research. According to Johnson and Christensen (2013) past educational
research is the most input resource of research ideas since the important studies
usually generate more questions than answers [17].
For Evans (2007), “there are three simple strategies for evaluating a potential
research topic” [18]:
– “(1) Does the topic elicit interest and curiosity?
– (2) Is the topic worthwhile?
– (3) Is the topic do-able?”
Following are critical attributes of a good research topic:
Interesting: The topic should excite the imagination of the researcher. According
to Johnson (2011) the subject should include something that the researcher would
genuinely like to examine in depth, something in which researcher will not lose
interest while undertaking the study [19].
Novel and Worthwhile: The researcher should seek under-occupied niche for poten-
tial studies.
The topic should be suitable for research and should be able to provide fresh and
creative insights into the subject. For Evans (2007), it is critical that the researcher
picks a topic that is worthwhile. According to him, poor science is unethical; “it is
unethical to ask people to participate in the study if it has little or no likelihood,
because of poor conceptualization and design, of producing meaningful results or

furthering scientific knowledge” [18].
Feasible and Fundable: The topic should be affordable in terms of time, money,
equipment, data access, and expert knowledge.
Relevant: The topic should relate clearly to the idea provided by the organization,
tutor etc. Furthermore the topic should be relevant to scientific knowledge and future
research directions.
3.2 Formulating a Research Problem
Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe.
—Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809–April 15, 1865)
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution.
If I had an hour to solve a problem I’d spend 55 min thinking about the problem and 5 min
thinking about solutions.
—Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879–April 18, 1955)
The research problem epitomizes the hub or the focal point of the study. Polit
and Beck (2004) describe the evolving research problem, as a “creative process
that depends on imagination and ingenuity where the problem by itself is a situation
involving an enigmatic, perplexing or conflictful condition” [3]. For Burns and Grove
(2005), the research problem is a worrying situation in need of solution, improvement
or alteration [20]. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2015), the research problem “is
the axis around which the whole research effort revolves…” [10].
The research problem plays a crucial role in directing and shaping the subse-
quent activities of the study. For Bryman (2008), defining the problem bears critical
importance for the whole research process [21].
Any wrong step during the stage of problem identification could have extremely
negative effects on the whole research process.
The following steps are recognized in identifying a research problem:
Step one: Selection of the research topic or the broad area of Interest to be investi-
gated.
Step two: Study of the idea with a preliminary search on literature. This step interacts
consistently with other steps.
Step three: Turning Topic into Preliminary Questions. The researcher identifies one
or more potential problems by narrowing down the focus and generating questions
from the selected topic. Afterward, the researcher narrows down the questions by
eliminating those that are not researchable.
According to Brink and Wood (2001), researchable questions are:
– Focused on fact not opinion—answers will help to describe or explain a phe-

nomenon
– “Now” questions—deal with current, significant issues
– Relevant—Generate useable information
– Action oriented—usually require you to do something and provide direction for
the rest of the research process” [22].
Step four: Reviewing the relevant literature. The researcher will be able to identify
what is known and what is not known about the research problem. Furthermore,
a concise review of the literature will assist the researcher in identifying gaps and
discrepancies that support the need for further study.
Step five: problem formulation: The researcher considers the potentially research-
able questions and selects one to explore in more depth. The selection takes into
consideration the following factors:
– The researcher interests

– The literature
– The problem feasibility study
Step six: Research purpose identification—the purpose of the study covers the
aims/objectives the researcher seeks to achieve and not the question to be answered.
The research purpose is generated from the research problem.
Step seven: Research Question Refinement. A research question is the kernel of a
research system. It focuses the study, dictates the research design, determines the
methodology, and guides all stages of investigation, analysis, and dissemination.
The researcher generates a statement of the research question based on the specific
question(s) that need(s) to be answered. Therefore, it is an extension to the research
purpose statement.
To conclude, there are essentially two major steps involved in formulating the
research problem, the first one is absolutely the understanding of the problem and
the second one is the rephrasing of this problem into clear and meaningful terms,
from a systemic and analytic point of view.
Hypothesis Formulation
The hypothesis is an element of research problem and a potential answer to the
research question. It is “formulated” before conducting the study “a priori” [23],
because it routes the design, analysis and interpretation of data. The hypothesis
translates the research purpose into a clear prediction of the expected results.
Hypothesis Definitions
– “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches—assumed for use in devis-
ing theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test
when possible” [24].
– “A hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or
observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved” [25].
– “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between
an independent and dependent variable” [1].
A good hypothesis is a clear and concise declarative statement that embraces the
following conditions:
Is written in the present tense and stated in declarative form;
– Is straightly tied to the research problem;

– Is specific in addressing only one variable at a time (Each Hypothesis should
address one and only one relationship between two variables). For multi-
relationships, the researcher can specify multi hypotheses;
– Is explicit and concise in describing the relation between variables;
– Is testable by further investigation. To prove or disprove the hypothesis, the
researcher should be able to complete an experiment and take measurements or
assemble observations to see how the independent and dependent variables are
related.
According to Bruke and Larry (2013), in quantitative study, the researcher typi-
cally states the specific hypotheses developed from the literature review before col-
lecting the data whereas in qualitative study, the hypotheses are often progressively
formulated as data are processed and as the researcher gains deep understanding of
the study [26]; “they are grounded in the data and are developed and tested with
them” [27].
The formulation of the hypothesis mainly varies with the kind of research con-
ducted. A typical hypothesis consists of two parts: a prediction about the outcome
of a scientific investigation and an explanation for why those results will occur. A
good hypothesis is in the form of: If…then…because…
It should be noted that hypothesis formulations, problems definitions and research
criteria necessitate in advance the illustration of the “Research Topic”.
Ultimately, the hypothesis is more than a simple prediction. It is important because
it directs the observations, describes a relation between variables and leads the
researcher’s reflections toward the appropriate solution of the research problem.
4 Critically Reviewing the Scientific Literature (Planning

Literature Search Strategy)
If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.
—Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642–March 20, 1727)
A thorough literature review is an imperative step for the researcher since it

helps him delimiting the research problem and enlightening the concepts that will be
studied by taking into consideration the past research. According to Burns and Grove
(2011), “re-search principally means searching again or examining carefully” [28].
4.1 Critical Literature Review
A literature review is a critical look and in depth interpretation and assessment of pre-
vious research relevant to the topic or problem being studied. Polit and Beck (2004)
defined the research literature review as a written summary of the state of existing
knowledge on a research problem [3]. According to Fink (2010), “a literature review
is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and
interpreting the existing body of recorded work produced by researchers, scholars,
and practitioners” [29].
Ideally, the literature review is seen as an iterative Information System reflecting
the cyclical nature of Deming’s PDSA (Plan-Do-Study-Act) wheel, or the so called
“Model of Improvement”. The cycle begins with the “Plan step”—Planning a search
strategy, followed by the “Do step”—collect data, comprehend and apply, next comes
the “Study step”—analyze, synthesize and interpret Information and then the “Act
step” that blends the cycle by integrating knowledge generated by the entire process.
This approach can be used to correct the goal, fine-tune methods or even reformulate
a theory altogether. The repeated cycle with the iterative feedback–loop mechanism
promotes continuous quality improvement in the research literature.
Nevertheless, from a holistic perspective, we consider the literature review as a
system including four main components: (1) inputs, (2) process, (3) outputs and (4)
feedback. The inputs consist of the sources that the researcher finds through search-
ing the literature, the information technology including software and hardware and
the investigator’s analytical skills. The process is mainly the set of mental activities
the researcher applies to collect, read, synthesize, analyze, interpret and critically
appraise the available literature. The output is the written literature review. Accord-
ing to Grove et al. (2012), “the stages of literature review reflects a systems model”,
where the quality of the input and activities will determine the quality of output”
[30]. However the authors omitted the critical component of the system which is the
feedback loop in which outputs such as research outcomes and critical evaluations
can also serve as input to future research (Fig. 3).
Critically reviewing a scientific literature entails strong logic, careful reasoning
and objective point of view and must incorporate up-to-date references. Furthermore,
Fig. 3 A system approach to literature review
critically reviewing requires comparing and contrasting arguments on the given sub-
ject supported by valid evidence and/or theory.
Moreover, a critical literature review is a critical analysis and evaluation of previ-
ous research and findings including reasoned judgments regarding the overall value
of other’s work to the study being undertaken; consequently it is an assessment of
strengths and weaknesses of other people’s ideas and an opportunity to design better
research by bridging the gap identified in previous studies. As noted by Jankowicz
(1995), “Knowledge doesn’t exist in a vacuum and your work only has value in rela-
tion to other people. Your work and your findings will be significant only to the extent
that they’re the same as, or different from, other people’s work and findings” [31].
Therefore, each stage of the literature review is critical to generating a high-quality
literature review that contributes drastically to the advancement of knowledge and
to the sustainable development of research goals.
There are two approaches to critical review: a deductive approach and an inductive
approach.
A deductive approach starts with a hypothesis, or a general statement, and studies the
possibilities to attain a logical conclusion. It moves from theory, to hypotheses, to
data, to confirmation. This approach uses literature to identify ideas and theories that
will be tested using the processed data. Deductive approaches are more commonly
associated with quantitative research.
An inductive approach explores the data then develops theory which will be related
to the literature. It goes from data, to pattern data, to tentative hypotheses, to theory.
Inductive are generally associated with qualitative research.
4.2 Planning Literature Search Strategy
The literature search is the vital element and key aspect of defining and refining the
research focus.
The purpose of planning a search strategy is to find good quality literature and thus
helping the researcher critically evaluating the research literature. There are a variety
of search strategies proposed by different authors; we recommend the following one:
1. Select a software tool to manage references and citations. For examples: Zotero,
Mendeley, etc.
2. Consider the ‘Paper-and-Pencil Approach’ to make notes and record the thoughts.
3. Refine the topic and write down the research question.
4. Identify the type of literature e.g. primary research in journal articles, systematic
reviews, Peer-reviewed journals, research reports, conference literature, books,
etc.
5. Identify the sources of relevant information—databases, Google ScholarTM , indi-
vidual organizations’ websites, library catalogues etc.
6. Select appropriate Databases. Nowadays, literature searches are undertaken most
commonly using computers and databases management systems to access and
manipulate vast quantities of information that can be retrieved more easily and
quickly than using a manual search. Following are some databases that may be
of interest to business research:
– ERIC, the Educational Resources Information Center
– EBSCO, Academic Search Elite
– JSTOR, academic journals and other scholarly content
– ProQuest(ABI/INFORM) is a business research database
– Elsevier (ScienceDirect)
– ACM (Digital Lib)
– LexisNexis Academic, Etc.
7. Identify key terms/key concepts in the research question. Use keywords and
synonyms: search terms that are logical and relevant to the search.
8. Consider the scope of topic and search restrictions. Framing the research question
by making decisions about the inclusions and exclusions in order to apply efficient
searching with key terms.
9. Record the search terms used, the databases searched and the relevant results
retrieved.
Search tips for databases include:
– Form a Boolean search with the research terms or keywords. There are three
Boolean operators (and, or, and not).
– (and &, +”) to narrow results
– OR: to broaden results.
– NOT: to exclude terms.
– WITH, SAME (proximity): to locate results in same sentence or paragraph.
– or? (truncation): to catch all forms of a word.

– wild card: to deal with different spellings and plurals. The usual wildcard symbol
is a question mark.
5 Formulating the Research Design
Recognizing the need is the primary condition for design.

—Charles Eames (June 17, 1907–August 21, 1978)
I keep six honest serving men, (they taught me all I knew), and their names are: what and
how and when, and how and where and who.
—Rudyard Kipling (December 30, 1865–January 18, 1936)
During the conceptual phase, the researcher tackles the core of the study embodied
by the research problem and converses his/her aims in research reports as statement
of purpose, research questions and/or hypotheses. Nevertheless, during the design
phase, the researcher deliberates decisions on methods and data collection techniques
driven by the nature of the research problem. Therefore, the research design is a
crucial step as it represents the master plan, the blueprint or the fundamental bridge
for connecting the conceptual research problem to the relevant empirical research.
Parahoo (2014) defines the research design as “a plan that describes how, when
and where data are to be collected and analyzed” [32]. According to Polit and Beck
(2004) the research design is “the overall plan for addressing a research question,
including specifications for enhancing the study’s integrity” [3].
The research plan must blend the components of the research and articulate effi-
ciently and effectively, the trilogy of the research project, including time, money and
scope. Strategies to ensure the ethical performance of study must also be incorporated
into this plan.
The research design can serve one or more of the following purposes: Explo-
ration, Description, Explanation, Prediction, Evaluation and History. The Table 3
summarizes the three main types of research design:
The formulation of the research design is imperative since it communicates infor-
mation about key aspects of the study, which can differ for qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methods. Leedy and Ormrod [10] suggest ten points as guidelines for
deciding on the best appropriate method. Table 4 identifies seven main criterion to
be considered in the selection process.
An overview of these designs is shown in the Table 5. To notice that others have
called these designs “approaches to inquiry” [33] or “strategies of inquiry” [34].
The following steps are involved in formulating a research design:
– Delineate the information required for the accomplishment of the study.

– Identify the source of information; Who is appropriate to provide the necessary
information and Characteristics of the target population.
Table 3 Main three types of research design at a glance

Exploratory (discovery) Descriptive (relationships) Causal (cause and effect)
This is the most appropriate This type of research is This type of research aims at
research design for the recommended when the finding out the cause-effect
projects that are addressing characteristics of the target relationship between two or
ambiguous problem which is population are clearly more variables (problem
not very well known or there recognized (aware of clearly defined), also to
are few existing research problem). Usually, the understand which variables
studies on the related topic researcher conducts this type are the cause “independent
(unaware of problem). of research to identify and variables” and which variables
Usually, the researcher classify the elements or are the effect “dependent
conducts this type of research characteristics of the subjects variables” of a given
to identify the reasons behind and to describe the attributes phenomenon
a certain phenomenon and of groups relevant to the It is a highly structured design,
how it occurs. Some of problem under study and there is a hypothesis right
commonly collection methods The most commonly used data at the start of the study. The
include: case studies, collection methods are: most commonly used data
interviews, Secondary data Survey, observation, collection methods are: Field
analyzed in a qualitative way, secondary data analyzed in a Experiments and Lab
literature search and focus quantitative way, simulation Experiments
group discussion. and panel method
Table 4 Research method—selection ground rule

1. The personal comfort with the method
2. The type of the research question
3. The extensiveness of the related literature
4. The depth of what we wish to discover
5. The amount of time available for conducting the study
6. The extent to which we are willing to interact with the people in our study
7. The writing skill
Table 5 Alternative research designs

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed methods
– Experimental designs – Historical/narrative research – Convergent
– Non-experimental designs, – Ethnographies – Explanatory sequential
such as surveys – Phenomenology – Exploratory sequential
– Grounded theory – Transformative, embedded
– Case study or multiphase
– Clarify the “why” behind choosing specific research methods and demonstrate
that these research methods are appropriate to the research.
– Specify the means of obtaining information; identify the best appropriate proce-
dures, techniques and instruments that meet data collection needs. According to
Leedy and Armord (2015), there are five questions that need to be answered in
order to bring the process into focus [10]:
1. “What data are needed?
2. Where are the data located?
3. How will the data be obtained?
4. What limits will be placed on the nature of acceptable data?
5. How will the data be interpreted?”
– Specify the time horizon; whether the design will be “cross-sectional-data are
collected at one point in time” or “longitudinal-data are collected at two or more
points in time over an extended period”.
– Specify the “Measurement and Scaling Procedures”.
– Consider the constraints and ethical issues.
– Construct a “Questionnaire” or consider an alternative technique.
– Specify the “Sampling Process and the Sample Size”.
– Develop a Plan for “Data Analysis”.
To wrap up, the researcher must prepare a protocol or an action plan that incorpo-
rates the above activities into a flexible and coherent structure; thus, imposing dis-
cipline, providing contingency, allowing monitoring and correcting deviations and
mitigating the risk. The plan should explicitly indicate costing information including
the number of days of work and other costs related to each stage of research design.
The plan must also contain the statistical methods to be used in processing the data.
Therefore, the protocol is a critical component of the research design since it
allows the researcher and all the people involved, to scrutinize the study’s progress
and assess its outcomes.
6 Processing and Analysis of Data
In God we trust. All others [must] have data.—Bernard Fisher.

—Siddhartha Mukherjee (July 21, 1970)
Not everything that can be counted counts and not everything that counts can be counted.
—Albert Einstein, (March 14, 1879–April 18, 1955)
Everything is data, but not everything is information. Turning data into information
is the foremost function of data processing and analysis.
The data processing is a crucial activity that involves meticulous planning. From
a technical perspective, data processing includes three main operations:
– Data integration.
– Data cleansing or scrubbing and

– Data transformation.
– Data integration is a process in which separate or heterogeneous data is gathered
and combined as an incorporated structure and form.
– Data cleansing is the process of editing the collected data, by detecting and remov-
ing of erroneous, incomplete, duplicated or improperly formatted ones. This step
is critical to verify the validity and reliability of data. Analyzing data that has not
been carefully screened for problems can generate highly misleading result.
– Data transformation is the process of coding, classification and tabulation of data
so that, they are suitable for analysis.
The data analysis is the process of data modeling and evaluating by systemati-
cally applying statistical and/or logical methods and techniques. The purpose of data
analysis is twofold:
– To convert data into information in order to answer the research question and test
the hypotheses.
– To help finding effective trends, patterns and relationships among the variables.
Notice that the researcher may refer to software tools and techniques such as data
mining to systematically manage the above operations. These tools usually include
rules and algorithms to facilitate and assist the researcher throughout data processing
and analysis phases.
According to Chung and Gray (1999), “the objective of data mining is to iden-
tify valid novel, potentially useful, and understandable correlations and patterns in
existing data” [35].
Two types of data analysis are recognized: Descriptive and inferential. Descriptive
statistical analysis is used to find answers to research questions, while the differential
statistical analysis is used to test hypotheses. The Table 6 provides in a nutshell, the
difference between descriptive and inference statistics.
Once data are analyzed, they should be interpreted. Interpretation consists to
attach meanings to the data. Often the same data can be understood in different
ways, therefore, the researcher needs to listen to the interpretations coming from
different people before the final evaluation of the information and before jumping to
the conclusion.
Finally, the researcher concludes his/her study by summarizing the detailed results
in general statements with explanations on findings compared to the results of past
research.
It is also imperative to wrap up the study with suggestions for future research that
will improve the outcomes and further contribute to the literature on a topic.
Table 6 Descriptive versus inference statistics

Descriptive statistics Inference statistics
– Used to find answers to research questions – Explicitly designed and used to test
hypotheses
– Studies the sample characteristics – Generalize from samples to population
– Does not explain or interpret – Deeply analyzes the statistical data and
observations
– Assesses strength of the relationship between
independent ‘causal’ variables, and
dependent ‘effect’ variables
– Gives a description about a sample – Based on the laws of probability
– Offers a summary, overview and description – Predicts and infers about a much larger
of data under study (organize, summarize, data/population
simplify and presentation of data)
– The conclusions cannot be made beyond the – Aims to depict conclusions about a
given data population
– The predictions can be calculated on the basis
of the parameters of the given population, “it
does not matter how big the population is”
– Deals with small samples which makes – Takes whole population for drawing
possible producing results without errors conclusions “which may not have the extent
of required accuracy”
– Deals with central tendency and spread of the – Deals with more details; hypothesis tests and
frequency distribution confidence interval are studied
– The measures (mean, median, and mode) are – The measures are not always exact numbers
numbers
– Common types include but not are limited to: – Common types include but not are limited to:
– Organize data: – One sample test of difference/one sample
– Tables (frequency distributions and relative – Hypothesis test
frequency distributions) and graphs – Confidence interval
– Summarize data: – Contingency tables and Chi Square statistic
– Central tendency (mean, median and mode) – T-test or Anova
– Variation (range interquartile, range) – Pearson correlation
– Variance and standard deviation – Bivariate regression and multivariate
regression
7 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced a methodological approach that can help researchers
putting together the pieces of information related to the different phases of research
process and creating an understanding of the whole and what creates a scientific
research.
Furthermore, a various key processes have been examined through a systemic
approach, all research elements are considered to be related to one another, notably
the development of research problem, the critical review of the literature, the design
phase along with the data analysis and interpretation. The research planning proposed
Fig. 4 Research planning—the proposed conceptual model
model has focused on backward planning as a key approach to stimulate motivation

and increase the researcher’s efficiency and effectiveness as described in Fig. 4.
Nevertheless, this chapter didn’t tackle the main aspects of recent technology
applied currently in research. This latter continues to exert a strong impact on research
and its environment; new software and hardware emerge, making the research a
more challenging and more enjoyable process. Therefore, further research would
be needed to identify and evaluate what technology types and intervention into the
research planning, would improve and expand this procedural knowledge and help
researcher reaching the goal with minimum cost and maximum quality.
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Basic Research Methods
Jurgita Raudeliūnienė
1 Different Research Types
Many scientists state that research design is related to the identification and formu-
lation of the scientific or practical business management problem [1–16]. Scientists
distinguish three types of research [3]:
– Exploratory—aims to fill missing gaps and insufficiently explored areas in partic-
ular fields;
– Descriptive—aims to elaborate current or historical topics with a view to deepening
understanding of them (research methods as questionnaires, observation);
– Causal—includes gathering empirical data for determination why something hap-
pens.
According to Sarstedt and Mooi (2014) ambiguous problem is related with
exploratory research design, somewhat defined problem related with descriptive
research design and clearly defined problem that is related with causal research
design. Each research design has different uses and requires the application of dif-
ferent analysis techniques [17].
Sarstedt and Mooi (2014) state that the objective of exploratory research is to
explore a problem or situation [17]. Panda et al. (2015) underline that the chief
purpose of exploratory research is to reach a better understanding of the research
problem. This includes helping to identify the variables, which should be measured
within the study. If there is little understanding of the topic it is impossible to for-
mulate hypotheses without some exploratory studies [18].
According Sarstedt and Mooi (2014) exploratory research can help to formu-
late problems exactly or structure them, generate hypotheses and develop measure-
J. Raudeliūnienė (B)
Department of Business Technologies and Entrepreneurship, Vilnius Gediminas Technical
University, 10223 Vilnius, Lithuania
e-mail: jurgita.raudeliuniene@vgtu.lt

48 J. Raudeliūnienė
ment scales [17]. For example, depth interviews, focus groups, projective techniques,
observation studies and ethnographies are often use to achieve this.
Depth interviews consist of an interviewer asking an interviewee a number of
questions. Depth interviews are unique in that they allow discerning on a one-to-one
basis and foster interaction between the interviewer and the respondent.
Focus groups are usually established by 4 or 6 participants, which are led by
moderator, who discuss a particular subject. The key difference between an interview
and a focus group is that the focus group participants can interact with each other
providing insight into group dynamics (for example, “What do you mean by…?”,
“How does this differ from…”).
Projective techniques are motivating people to present their thoughts with means
of pictures, words, or other stimuli, to which they are responding the best.
Observational studies are frequently used to refine research questions and clarify
issues. It requires an observer to monitor and interpret participants’ behavior.
Ethnographies raise originally from anthropology. A researcher interacts with
consumers over a period to observe and ask questions.
By the authors Zikmund et al. (2013) the descriptive research is described as
characteristics of objects, people, groups, organizations, or environments. This type
of research tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation. Descriptive research seeks
to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how [19].
Sarstedt and Mooi (2014) underline that descriptive research is all about describing
certain phenomena, characteristics or functions. It can help describe customers or
competitors, understand market size, segment markets and measure performance
[17].
According to Panda et al. (2015) descriptive research is concerned with describing
market characteristics and/or marketing mix characteristics [18]. Typically, a descrip-
tive study specifies the number and size of market segments, the alternative ways
in which products are currently distributed, listing and comparison of the attributes
and features of competitive products, etc. This type of study can involve the descrip-
tion of the association extent between variables. The principal difference between
exploratory and descriptive research is that, in the case of the latter, specific research
questions have been formulated before the research is undertaken. When a descriptive
research is conducted, the researcher must already know about the research problem,
perhaps because of a prior exploratory study, and is in a position to clearly define
what he/she wants to measure and how to do it.
Kampen and Tamas (2014) find out that descriptive research attempts to identify
and better understand objects of interest and aims to produce an account about what
is exploratory research. It tries to find correlational or causal relationships between
objects that have been described [20].
Zikmund et al. (2013) state that causal research seeks to identify cause-and-effect
relationships. When something causes an effect, it means that brings it about or makes
it happen. Exploratory research builds the foundation for descriptive research, which
usually establishes the basis for causal research [19].
Sarstedt and Mooi (2014) find out that causal research provides exact insights
into variables relate that can help uncover causality and understand the performance
Basic Research Methods 49
effects of marketing mix elements [17]. Causal research is used to understand the
effects of one variable (for example, the wording in advertising) on another variable
(for example, understanding as a result of advertising). It provides exact insights into
how variables relate and may be useful as a test run for trying out changes in the
marketing mix. The key usage of causal research is to uncover causality. Causality is
the relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), when
the second event is a consequence of the first. According to the Authors, causality
needs to meet four requirements: relationship between cause and time, time order,
control for other factors and availability theory. Experiments are a key type of causal
research and come in the form of either lab or field experiments. Lab experiments
are performed in controlled environments to gain understanding of how changes
in one variable (called stimulus) cause changes in another variable. For example,
substantial experiment is conducted to gain understanding of how changing websites
helps people navigate better through online stores and thereby increasing sales. Field
experiments are experiments conducted in real-life settings where a stimulus (often in
the form of a new product or changes in advertising) is provided to gain understanding
of how these changes affects sales.
According to Panda et al. (2015) causal research deals with the “why”. This means,
that there are occasions when the researcher will want to know why a change in one
variable brings about a change in another. If he/she can understand the causes of the
effects observed, then our ability to predict and control such events is increased [18].
Many scientists on methodological issues find it helpful from one side to dis-
tinguish between quantitative and qualitative research and from another side prob-
lematic because many researchers combine quantitative and qualitative methods and
elements.
Veal (2005) states that quantitative approach research involves the gathering and
analysis of numerical data and the data might be derived from questionnaire based
surveys, from observation or from secondary sources [21]. The qualitative approach
research is not concerned with this sort of statistical analysis, because the approach
is based on belief in the value of a full and rounded understanding of the experiences
and situations of a few individuals. The methods used to gather qualitative informa-
tion include observation, informal, unstructured and in-depth interviewing and par-
ticipant observation. Research, in which people study groups use non-quantitative
anthropological approaches, is often referred as ethnographic.
The qualitative research focus and displays the following characteristics [22]:
– It is exploratory in nature,
– It uses natural, existing, settings and contexts,
– It is interested in meanings, perceptions and understandings,
– The research focuses more on process, not outputs,
– It uses induction for the analysis of data,
– It produces specific data rather than generalize data,
– The research findings are specific to the context.
Saunders et al. (2012) state that one way to differentiate quantitative research
from qualitative research is to distinguish between numeric data (numbers) and non-
numeric data (words, images, video clips and other similar material). In this way,
“quantitative” is often used as a synonym for any data collection technique (such as
questionnaire) or data analysis procedure (such as graphs or statistics) that generates
or uses numerical data. In contrast, “qualitative” is often used as synonym for any
data collection technique (such as an interview) or data analysis procedure (such as
categorizing data) that generates or uses non-numerical data [23].
Saunders et al. (2012) reinterpret quantitative and qualitative methodologies
through their associations to philosophical assumptions and also to research
approaches and strategies. Quantitative research is associated with positivism, realist
and pragmatist philosophies, especially when used with predetermined and highly
structured data collection techniques. Qualitative research is associated with an
interpretive philosophy, because researchers need to make sense of subjective and
socially constructed meanings expressed about phenomenon being studied. Quan-
titative research is usually associated with deductive approach, where the focus is
on using data test theory [23]. Many varieties of qualitative research commence
with an inductive approach, where a naturalistic and emergent research design is
used to develop a richer theoretical perspective than already exists in the literature.
Quantitative research examines relationships between variables, which are measured
numerically and analyzed using a range of statistical techniques. Qualitative research
studies participant’s meanings and relationships between them, using a variety of data
collection techniques and analytical procedures, to develop a conceptual framework.
Quantitative research is associated with experimental and survey research strategies.
In quantitative research, a survey research strategy is normally conducted through
the use of questionnaires or structured interviews and structured observations. Qual-
itative research is associated with a variety of strategies: action research, case study
research, ethnography, grounded theory and narrative research.
According to Bryman and Bell (2015), many scientists see quantitative and qual-
itative research as having different epistemological foundations. Authors outline the
differences between quantitative and qualitative research in terms of three areas:
principal orientation to the role of theory in relation to research, epistemological
orientation and ontological orientation [24].
Bryman and Bell (2015) state that quantitative research is a research strategy that
emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data and entails a deductive
approach to the relationship between theory and research; qualitative research is a
research strategy that emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection
and analysis of data and emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between
theory and research. Quantitative research has incorporated the practices and norms
of the natural scientific model and of particular positivism, taking a view of social
reality as an external objective reality. Qualitative research has rejected the practices
and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism on the ways in which
individuals interpret their social word and takes a view of social reality as a constantly
shifting emergent property of individuals’ creation [24].
According to Bryman and Bell (2015) the main steps in quantitative research are:
(1) elaborate theory; (2) devise hypothesis; (3) select research design; (4) devise mea-
sures of concepts; (5) select research site(s); (6) select research subjects/respondents;
(7) administer research instruments/collect data; (8) process data; (9) analyze data;
(10) develop findings/conclusions; (11) write up findings/conclusions [24].
According to Bryman and Bell (2015) the main steps in qualitative research are: (1)
general research questions; (2) selecting relevant site(s) and subjects; (3) collection
of relevant data; (4) interpretation of data; (5) conceptual and theoretical work [(a)
tighter specification of the research question(s); (b) collection of further data]; (6)
writing up findings/conclusions [24].
Scientists have explored the contrasts between quantitative and qualitative
research [24]:
– numbers versus words: quantitative researches applying measurement procedures
to social life while qualitative researchers are seen as using words in presentation
of analyses of society;
– point of view of researcher versus points of view of participants: in quantitative
research, the investigator is in the main place (the set of concerns that he or she
brings to an investigation structures the investigation), in the qualitative research
the perspective of those being studied (what they see as significant) provides the
point of orientation;
– researcher is distant versus researcher is close: in quantitative research researchers
are not involved with their subjects (for example, postal questionnaires, hired
interviewers) and may have no contact with them at all; the qualitative researcher
seeks to close involvement with people being investigated, so that they could
understand the world through their eyes;
– theory and concepts tested in research versus theory and concepts emergent from
data: in quantitative research theoretical work precedes the collection of data;
in qualitative research concepts and theoretical elaboration emerge out of data
collection;
– static versus process: quantitative research is frequently depicted as presenting
static image of social reality with its emphasis on relationships between variables;
qualitative research is often depicted as attuned to the unfolding of events over time
and to the interconnections between the actions of participants of social settings;
– structured versus unstructured: quantitative research is typically highly structured;
in qualitative research the approach is invariably unstructured, so that the possibil-
ity of getting at actors’ meanings and of concepts emerging out of data collection
is enhanced;
– generalization versus contextual understanding: quantitative researchers want
their findings to be generalizable to the relevant population, the qualitative
researcher seeks an understanding of behaviour, values, beliefs, in context in which
the research is conducted;
– hard, reliable data versus rich, deep data: quantitative data are often depicted as
‘hard’ in the sense of being robust and unambiguous, owing to the precision offered
by measurement; qualitative researchers claim that their contextual approach and
their often-prolonged involvement in a setting engender rich data;
– macro versus micro: quantitative researchers are often depicted as involved in
uncovering large-scale social trends and connections between variables, whereas
qualitative researchers are seen as concerned with small-scale aspects of social

reality, such as interaction;
– behavior versus meaning: quantitative researcher is concerned with people’s
behavior; qualitative researcher with the meaning of action;
– artificial settings versus natural settings: quantitative researchers conduct research
in a contrived context; qualitative researchers investigate people in natural envi-
ronments.
Scientists have explored also the similarities between quantitative and qualitative
research [24]:
– Both are concerned with data reduction (by reducing the amount of data, they can
than begin to make sense of it),
– Both are concerned with answering research questions (more specific in quantita-
tive research, more open-ended in qualitative research),
– Both are concerned with relating data analysis to the scientific literature,
– Both are concerned with variation (to explore some of the factors connected to
that variation),
– Both treat frequency as a platform for analysis,
– Both seek to ensure that deliberate distortion does not occur,
– Both argue for the importance of transparency,
– Both must address the question of error; research methods should be appropriate
to the research questions.
If the research design combined quantitative and qualitative research, it is called
a mixed method approach. Saunders et al. (2012) state that mixed methods research
may use quantitative research and qualitative research equally or unequally [23]. In
this way, the priority or weight given to either quantitative or qualitative research may
vary, so that one methodology has a dominant role, while the other plays a supporting
role, depending on the purpose of the research project. Embedded mixed methods
research is the term given to the situation where one methodology supports the other.
During data collection this may occur in different ways. One methodology may be
embedded within the other during a single means to collect data. This is known as a
concurrent embedded design.
Scientists divide various research methods such as observation, experiment, ques-
tionnaires, interview, focus group, use of case studies, etc. [23,24,4,25,26].
According to Horn (2009) mixed methods are often used sequentially, one after
the other in a two-phase design. Qualitative method informs the quantitative method,
often following inductive reasoning. When an area is not well researched or is lacking
in well-developed theory, it may be difficult to create a questionnaire or a hypothesis
[22]. A qualitative method, such as interviews or focus groups, would then be used
to explore issues. The analysis of the data would allow issues and ideas for the
quantitative study to explore.
Quantitative method followed by the qualitative method—the qualitative method
is use to explore interesting or complex issues raised by the questionnaire study. This
approach would be broadly following the deductive method. If the quantitative data
is finding confused or irregular-looking outcomes, a qualitative study (for example

interviews) can be used to follow up and explore these unusual outcomes [22]. Table 1
presents research methods definitions, advantages and disadvantages of methods.
Walle (2015) underlines that when choosing a method for gathering information,
a variety of issues arise including [27]:
– Cost (what is the cost; are these costs affordable; do they give a true value for the
money allocated);
– Time (how much time is required, can the project be completed on schedule, what
are the trade-offs of time and costs; are they acceptable);
– Beneficial characteristics (what other characteristics and considerations need to
be considered);
– and other issues (what other issues have a significant impact upon the product
and/or methodological issues).
2 Observation
Observation is the systematic process of recording and gathering data by watching

different research objects (people behaviour, events, situations, environment, etc.).
Observations can be overt (people know they are being observed) and covert (people
don’t know that they are being observed). The benefit of covert observation is that
people behave naturally if they do not know they are being observed.
Veal (2005) divides the context of observational research into spatial use of sites,
workplace behavior, consumer testing, complementary research and social behavior
[21].
Spatial use of sites method (including workplaces, retail areas, public areas such
as roads or urban precincts, and recreational spaces, such as parks, beaches) can be
used to examine how space is used, the use level of particular areas, traffic flow and
the movement of material and people. The movement of people within an area can
be recorded for later analysis by using a video camera.
Workplace behavior allows a range of workplace behaviors to be examined.
It is possible to observe an individual’s physical actions, non-verbal behaviours
(such as tone of voice or body language) and the time taken to perform tasks, as
well as physical distances between people at work. Finding out about such things
requires observation—sometimes-covert observation. This may raise employee rela-
tions issues and ethical issues concerning people’s rights to privacy.
Consumer testing is another under-exploited use of observation, sometimes
referred to as “mystery shopping”. While interviews are the most common means to
obtain information on the quality of the experience offered by, for example, shopping
centre an additional mean is for researcher to play the role of an incognito customer
and analyse information availability and clarity, product availability, staff courtesy
and/or knowledge.
Table 1 Research methods advantages and disadvantages

Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages
Observation The systematic process Access to situations and Difficulty of waiting for
of recording and people where other long periods to capture
gathering data by research methods are the relevant phenomena;
watching different difficult to use; access to the expense of observer
research object (people people in real life; proper costs and equipment; the
behaviour, events, method for explaining problems of
situations, environment, environmental context quantification and
etc.) information disproportionately large
records; time consuming
Experiment A research investigation The ability to uncover It is difficult to design
in which the researcher causal relationships; experiments to present a
has complete control provisions for specified population; it is
over one set of the controlling extraneous difficult to choose the
variable and manipulates and environmental ‘control’ variables to
the others variables; convenience exclude all confounding
and low cost of creating variables; the experiment
test situations rather than is an unnatural social
searching for their situation with a
appearance in business differentiation of roles;
situations; the ability to experiments cannot
replicate findings and capture the diversity of
thus rule out goals, objectives and
idiosyncratic or isolated service inputs, which
results; the ability to may contribute to
exploit naturally outcomes in natural
occurring events settings
Questionnaires Include all methods of Can collected large Lack of personal contact
data collection in which amounts of information (the researcher is not
each person is asked to from a large number of able to establish a
respond to the same set people in a short period personal relationship
of questions in a of time; the results of the with the respondents);
predetermined order questionnaires can be level of understanding
quickly and easily (respondents may read
quantified; can be differently into each
analysed more question and reply based
objectively than other on their own
research methods; interpretation of the
economical and question); time
anonymity aspects consuming
Interview A purposeful Development of Record problems; lack
conversation between relationship; selection of of attention; time
two or more people, suitable candidate; consuming; personal
requiring the interviewer collection of primary and aspects (personal matters
to establish rapport to sufficient information; may not be revealed by
ask concise and time saving; increasing the interview method)
unambiguous questions knowledge
to which the interviewee
is willing to respond, and
to listen attentively
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages
Focus group A group interview that Interaction and The researcher has less
focuses upon a particular deepness; intelligibility; control over proceedings
issue, product, service or non-verbal aspect; time than with the individual
topic by encouraging saving; variety points of interview; the data is
discussion amongst view difficult to analyse; it is
participants and the difficult to organize; the
sharing of perceptions in recordings are more
an open and tolerant difficult to transcribe
environment than equivalent
recordings of individual
interviews; there are
possible problems of
group effects
Case studies Investigates a Case study is based on The complexity of a case
contemporary people’s competencies, study can make analysis
phenomenon (the own experiences and more difficult; case
“case”) in its real-world practices and it is main studies provide little
context, especially when factor for learning basis for scientific
the boundaries between process; case studies generalisation; case
phenomenon and context allow to present the studies are difficult to
may not be evident complexity of social life; conduct and it are
is possible to collect difficult to manage and
detailed information organise data
systematically
Complementary research can be a necessary to interview surveys in order to

compensate for variation in sampling rates (for example, off peak periods and users
and peak periods and users).
Social behavior observation has been used in sociological research to develop
ideas and theories about social behavior. Researchers use an interactive and inductive
process to build explanations of social behavior from what they observe.
Saunders et al. (2012) divide two types of observation: participant observation
and structured observation [23].
Participant observation is when the researcher attempts to participate fully in
the lives and activities of members and thus becomes a member of their group,
organisation or community. This enables the researcher to share their experiences by
merely observing what is happening and feeling it.
There are four types of participant observation [3, 23]:
– complete participant: role sees you as the researcher attempting to become a mem-
ber of the group in which you are performing research, who operates covertly,
concealing any intention to observe the setting;
– participant-as-observer: the researcher would both take part and reveal the purpose
as a researcher; participant-as-observer forms relationships and participates in
activities but makes no secret of an intention to observe events;
– observer-as-participant: an identity as a researcher would be clear to all concerned

and they would know the purpose of research; observer-as-participant maintains
superficial contacts with the people being studied;
– complete observer: researcher wouldn’t take part in the activities of the group,
merely stands back and eavesdrops on the proceedings.
Structured observation has a high level of predetermined structure. May form only
a part of your data collection approach because its function is to tell how often things
happen rather than why they happen. Structured observation is concerned with the
frequency of events. It is characterised by a high level of predetermined structure
and quantitative analysis [23, 28].
Veal (2005) presents the main steps in an observation research method: (1) choice
of site; (2) choice of observation point(s); (3) choice of study time period(s); (4)
continuous observation or sampling; (5) determine count frequency; (6) decide what
to observe; (7) division of site into zones; (8) design of recording sheet; (9) conduct
study; (10) analyse data [21].
Cooper and Schindler (2011) underline the importance of data collection plan,
which specifies the details of the task and answers the questions who, what, when,
how and where [4].
Who consist in aspects such as:
– What qualifies a participant to be observed;
– Each participant must meet a given criterion.
Those who initiate a specific action:
– Who are the contacts to gain entry, the intermediary to help with introductions,
the contacts to reach if conditions change or trouble develops;
– Who has responsibility for the various aspects of the study;
– Who fulfills the ethical responsibilities to the participants.
What consist in the characteristics of the observation that must be set as sam-
pling elements and units of analysis. This is achieved when event-time dimension
and “act” terms are defined. In the event sampling, the researcher records selected
behavior that answers the investigative questions. In time sampling, the researcher
must choose among a time-point sample, continuous real-time measurement, or time-
interval sample. Other important dimensions are defined by acts: a single expressed
thought, a physical movement, a facial expression, a motor skill.
When, is the time of the study important, or can any time be used.
How, consist in aspects such as:
– Will the data be directly observed;
– How will the results be recorded for later analysis;
– How will the observers deal with various situations that may occur.
Where, is related with place aspects.
Scholars presented a variety of examples on how to prepare observation form,
which included information about observation object, place, date, topic, setting,
observation results, etc. (Table 2).
Table 2 Example of observation form

Study Subject Evaluation Form
Lecturer:___________________________ Observer:____________________________
Location:___________________________ Date and time:________________________
Title of study subject:_________________ Students group:_______________________
Scale of evaluation from 1 to 5, where 1 — unsatisfactory, 2 — fair, 3 — satisfactory, 4 — very good,
5 — excellent.
Evaluation criterion Rating (circle) Comments (if any)

Study subject content
Shows good knowledge of study subject 1 2 3 4 5
Presented study subject systematically 1 2 3 4 5
Teaching methods
Uses active teaching methods 1 2 3 4 5
Uses case study method 1 2 3 4 5
Uses group discussions 1 2 3 4 5
Management skills
Time management 1 2 3 4 5
Auditorium control 1 2 3 4 5
Stokes and Wall (2014) present main dimensions of the research field in relation
to which data can be gathered [3]:
– Space—the researcher has to describe physical place in which operating (what
does it look like, feel like);
– Actors—who is the researcher observing, which is his personality and profile,
what relationships exist between actors;
– Activities—what is taking place in the setting, who is doing what with whom;
– Objects—what objects are present in the research setting and what role do they
play in relation to the actors;
– motivation and goals—what are the actors moving towards, what is motivating
them;
– feelings—how do actors behave, what are their emotions.
The strengths of observation as a data collection method include: access to
situations and people where other research methods (as questionnaires or interviews)
are difficult to use, access to people in real life and proper method for explaining
environmental context information.
Observation may be limited by the difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture
the relevant phenomena, the expense of observer costs and equipment, the problems
of quantification and disproportionately large records and time consuming.
3 Experiment
There are variety of ways to test and do research on new ideas, products, services or
theories. One of these ways is by experimentation. This is when the researcher has
complete control over one set of the variable and manipulates the others.
According to Pickard (2013) experiment is a controlled research situation, which
means that unwanted variables and external influences can be kept out of the exper-
imental environment and the researcher can establish the experimental conditions
down to the smallest details [5]. When these conditions are not entirely met, then the
researcher has a responsibility to identify the extent of the error. Experimental error
occurs when a change in the dependent variable is produced by any variable other
than the independent variable.
Scientists divide different types of variables: the independent variable, the depen-
dent variable, the moderator variable, the control variable [5].
The independent variable is the phenomenon or situation that is manipulated by
the researcher.
The dependent variable is the behaviour or effect that is measured by the researcher
as a result of manipulation.
The moderator variable is a factor, which is measure, manipulate or select by the
researcher to determine whether it changes the relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable or not.
Consideration of the following activities is essential for the execution of a well-
planned experiment:
– Select relevant variables for testing,
– Specify the treatment levels,
– Control the environmental and extraneous factors,
– Choose an experimental design suited to the hypothesis,
– Select and assign subjects to groups,
– Pilot test, revise, and conduct the final test,
– Analyze the data (Cooper, Schindler 2011).
Blaxter et al. [25] and Cooper and Schindler [4] distinguish such kind of advan-
tages of experiment through:
– The random assignment of people to intervention and control groups the risk of
extraneous variables confounding the results is minimized,
– Control over the introduction and variation of the ‘predictor’ variables clarifies the
direction of cause and effect,
– The experiment is the only research design which can, in principle, yield causal
relationships.
According to Cooper and Schindler (2011) an evaluation of the experiment method
reveals several advantages:
– The ability to uncover causal relationships,
– Provisions for controlling extraneous and environmental variables,
– Convenience and low cost of creating test situations rather than searching for their
appearance in business situations,
– The ability to replicate findings and thus rule out idiosyncratic or isolated results,
– The ability to exploit naturally occurring events [4].
The main disadvantages of experiment are [25]:
– It is difficult to design experiments s to present a specified population,
– It is difficult to choose the ‘control’ variables to exclude all confounding variables,
– The experiment is an unnatural social situation with a differentiation of roles,
– Experiments cannot capture the diversity of goals, objectives and service inputs
which may contribute to outcomes in natural settings, etc.
4 Questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to respondents for them

answers.
Saunders et al. (2012) describe a questionnaire as a general term to include all
methods of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the same set
of questions in a predetermined order [23].
In preparing questionnaires, business researcher decides what kind of questions
to ask, the form of questions, the content of questions, the wording and ordering of
questions, etc.
Business researchers distinguish between closed questions (questions that allow
respondents to choose the answer; for example, the question is “are you satisfied
with study quality” and the possible answers are “yes”; “no”) and open questions
(questions that allow respondent to answer based own words; for example, “what is
your opinion of the study quality”).
Scientists present different types of closed and open questions. Closed questions
can be divided to [5, 29] (Fig. 1):
– dichotomous: a question offering to choose from two possible responses;
– multiple choice: a question offering three or more answer choices;
– Likert scale: a bipolar scaling technique, which allows a respondent to select choice
that best demonstrates their level of agreement with a given statement;
– semantic differential: a multidimensional measure between two bipolar adjectives;
– importance scale: a scale that rates the importance of some attribute from ‘not at
all important’ to ‘extremely important’;
– rating scale: a scale that rates some attribute from ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’;
– intention-to-buy scale: a scale that describes the respondent’s intentions to buy.
According to Saunders et al. (2012), the questionnaires can be divided also in two
main groups as self-completed and interviewer-completed [23].
Fig. 1 Types of closed-end questions and examples
Self-completed questionnaires are usually completed by the respondents. Such

questionnaires are sent electronically using the internet (internet-mediated or web-
based questionnaires) or intranet (intranet-mediated questionnaires), posted to
respondents who return them by post after completion (postal or mail question-
naires), or delivered by hand to each respondent and collected later (delivery and
collection questionnaires).
Open-end questions can be divided to [5, 29] (Fig. 2):
– completely unstructured: a question in which respondents can answer in unlimited
number of ways;
– word association: words are presented one at a time, and respondents mention the
first word that comes to mind;
Fig. 2 Types of open-end questions
– sentence completion: incomplete sentences are presented one at a time and respon-
dents complete the sentence;
– story completion: an incomplete story is presented and respondents are asked to
finish it;
– picture completion: a picture of two characters is presented, with one making a
statement and respondents are asked to identify with the other and fill the empty
balloon;
– thematic apperception tests: a picture is presented and respondents are asked to
create a story about what they think is happening or may happen in the picture.
Pickard (2013) presents the main steps in designing a questionnaire:

– Review data requirements of the research question,
– Develop a list of potential research questions to provide required information,
– Prioritize list of questions,
– Evaluate each potential research questions using such criteria as understanding of
participants, position to answer, preparation of participants, content of questions,
– Determine the questions form (open, close, scale),
– Construct specific wording of each question,
– Prepare the structure of the questionnaire,
– Evaluate and pilot the questionnaire,
– Make necessary changes and distribute [5].
Horn (2009) underlines the importance of questions order [22]:
– From general to particular,
– From easy to difficult,
– From factual to abstract,
– Start with closed-format questions,
– Start with questions relevant to the main subject,
– Demographic and personal questions place at the end.
Many scientists state that the questionnaire must be piloted with a potential group
of respondents. For example, 6–10 people for clarifying each question, for under-
standing the clarity and rightness of each question, the sensibility of question, the
questionnaire format, the language style, etc.
The main advantages of questionnaires are:
– Collected large amounts of information from a large number of people in a short
period of time,
– The results of the questionnaires can be quickly and easily quantified by using of
a software package,
– Can be analysed more objectively than other methods of research,
– Economical aspects (it is economical both for the researcher and for the respondent
in time, effort and cost),
– Anonymity issues (this method ensures anonymity to respondents, they feel more
comfortable and free to express their point of view in questionnaire).
The main disadvantages of questionnaires are:
– Lack of personal contact (the researcher is not able to establish a personal rela-
tionship with the respondents and there is difficult to understand how truthful the
respondents are being),
– Level of understanding (respondents may read differently into each question and
therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question),
– Time consuming (open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data and
that can take a long time to analyse data, etc.).
5 Interview
The interview is a purposeful conversation between two or more people, requiring

the interviewer to establish rapport, to ask concise and unambiguous questions to
which the interviewee is willing to respond and to listen attentively [23].
Interviews are led by interviewers and the people being interviewed are called
interviewees. Interviews can consist from open and closed questions. Closed ques-
tions are questions phrased in order to get ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers (for example, which
tool for conducting research would you use; computer, internet connection, library,
laboratory, software or none of these?).
According Veal (2005) the interview can be used [21]:
– When the subjects of the research are relatively few in number, so a questionnaire-
based in quantitative research style is inappropriate,
– When the information to be obtained from each subject is expected to vary con-
siderably and in complex ways. Each interview would be a ‘story’ in its own
right,
– When a topic is to be explored as a preliminary stage of a larger study, possibly a
quantitative study such as a questionnaire-based survey.
Scientist divide two groups of interview: individual depth interview and group
interviews. Interviews can be conducted in a number of modes: face-to-face, via
telephone, via internet, etc.
Individual depth interview is an interaction between an individual interviewer and
a single interviewee. Individual depth interviews generally take between 20 min and
2 h to complete, depending on the issues or topics of interest and the contact method
used [4].
A group interview is a data collection method using a single interviewer with more
than one participant. Group interviews vary widely in size: dyads (two people), triads
(three people), mini-groups (two to six people), small groups (six to ten people) or
super-groups (up to 20 people) [4].
According Horn (2009) group interviews should be used for specific research
purposes:
– To investigate the dynamics of a group,
– To explore the reality of group membership,
– To debate group issues as a collective,
– To discover the methods and dynamics of group cohesion,
– To explore shared meanings,
– To investigate the roles played by group members,
– To discover the processes of constructing realities in groups [22].
Individual depth interview is divided in [4]:
– oral history: ask participants to relate their personal experiences and feelings
related to historical events or past behaviour;
– cultural interviews: ask a participant to relate his or her experiences with a culture or
subculture, including knowledge passed on by prior generations and the knowledge
participants have or plan to pass on to future generations;
– life histories: extract from a single participant memories and experiences from
childhood to the present day regarding a product or service category, brand, or
firm;
– critical incident technique: the participant describes what led up to the incident;
exactly what he or she did or did not do that was especially effective or ineffective;
– convergent interviewing: experts serve as participants in a sequential series of
individual depth interview;
– sequential interviewing: approach the participant with questions formed around
an anticipated series of activities that did or might have happened, in order to have
the participant recall the detail of his or her own experience;
– ethnography: interviewer and participant collaborate in a field-setting participant
observation and unstructured interview;
– grounded theory: using a structured interview, each subsequent interview is
adjusted based on the findings and interpretations from each previous interview,
with the purpose to develop general concepts or theories with which to analyse
the data.
Interviews can be differentiated according to the level of structure and standardi-
sation adopted.
Scientists suggesting interviews are categorised in structured interviews, semi-
structured interviews, and unstructured interviews [3, 23].
In a structured interview, the questions to be asked are written out clearly and the
interviewer asks the interviewee the questions based on standardised set of questions.
A semi-structured interview is a combination of structured and unstructured inter-
views. The researcher will have a list of topics and fixed questions to be covered.
Some of them may be closed questions interspersed with more open-style questions.
The order of questions may also be flexible depending on the conversation.
An unstructured interview is the opposite of a structured interview. Here the
interviewer asks a number of questions that are related to the topic in an informal way.
This means that there is no predetermined list of questions, although the researcher
has to have a clear idea about the aspects that wants to analyse.
Many scientists present main interview process steps. They are the following:
– The creation of comfort,
– The purpose of the interview,
– A address terms of confidentiality,
– Format of the interview,
– Duration of interview,
– Record of interview,
– Questions,
– Feedback of interview results.
By the creation of comfort is suggest to avoid loud lights or noises, to ensure that
the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are). Often, they may feel
more comfortable at their own places (home or work).
Purpose of interview tries to explain the purpose of the interview.
Address terms of confidentiality note any terms of confidentiality, explain who
will get access to their answers and how their answers will be analysed and if the
interviewee comments are to be used as quotes. If so, the interviewer must get a
written permission from the interviewee to do so.
The format of interview explains the format of the interview and explain the type
of interview that the interviewer is conducting.
The duration of interview indicates how long the interview usually takes.
For the record of the interview the interviewer doesn’t have to recall all the
answers. He must ask for permission to record the interview or bring along someone
to take notes.
By the questions the interviewers must ask the interviewee if they have questions
before the interview get started.
Feedback of the interview results must give the interviewee the opportunity gets in
touch with the interviewer after it, if he or she wants to receive feedback of research
results.
Pickard (2013) presents main stages of the interview process [5]:
– Thematising (here is important to identify the problematic points, topics and the
purpose of research),
– Designing (here is important to choose the type of interview),
– Interviewing (the main issue in this step to make the interviewee feel comfortable),
– Types of interview (structured interviews, semi-structured interviews, and unstruc-
tured interviews),
– Recording (important to choose the most appropriate technique for recording inter-
view),
– Transcribing and analysing;
– Verifying and reporting.
Scientists list some advantages of interview:
– Development of relationship (it increases mutual understanding and co-operation
between the parties),
– Selection of suitable candidate,
– Collection of primary and sufficient information (the interviewer can ask proper
question to the interviewee),
– Time saving (within a very short time communication can be accomplished with
the interview),
– Increasing knowledge.
The main disadvantages of interview are the following:
– Record problems (if interviewee doesn’t agree to record interview and no evidence
actually that have been discussed at interview),
– Lack of attention from both sides (sometimes it is observed that both, the inter-
viewer and the interviewee, are less attentive, that is why real information cannot
be collected),
– Time consuming (preparation for the interview, taking interview and interpretation
of the research results required much time),
– Personal aspects (personal matters may not be revealed by interview method).
6 Focus Group
A focus group is a group interview that focuses upon a particular issue, product,
service or topic by encouraging discussion amongst participants and the sharing of
perceptions in an open and tolerant environment. Participants are selected because
they have certain characteristics in common that relate to the topic being discussed
and they are encouraged to discuss and share their points of view without any pressure
to reach a consensus [23].
The main purpose of focus groups is to test new ideas, to evaluate products (or
services). It is also use for external customers for giving feedback on consumer
products (or services).
According to Carkenord (2009) focus groups are led by professional, independent
facilitators who are skilled at observation, listening, feedback. The facilitator does
not participate in the group discussion and does not attempt to influence any opinions
[30]. These sessions are often held in a special place, convenient for participants.
The focus group usually comprises between 5 and 12 participants. Participants of
focus group are encouraged to feel comfortable and invited to talk freely, but with
the moderator supervision and control. The objective is to look for consistencies in,
for example, behaviour, and perceptions or purchase intent. The usual procedure is
to tape record the discussion and for the researcher to produce a summary from the
recording.
According to Pickard (2013) the process of focus group should follow the follow-
ing steps:
– Identification of participants,
– Selection place,
– Preparation of invitation letters for participants (including research purpose, dis-
cussion topics, date, time, duration, place, ethical issues, etc.),
– Preparation of venue (important that participants would see and hear each other),
– Selection of equipment (tape recorder, paper and etc.),
– Briefing sheet and introduction,
– Preparation for moderating process,
– Expression of gratitude to participants [5].
Scientists present some advantages of focus group:
– Interaction and deepness (the researcher can interact with the participants, ask
follow-up questions or questions that probe more deeply),
– Intelligibility (results can be easier to understand),

– Non-verbal aspect (the researcher can get information from non-verbal responses,
such as facial expressions or body language),
– Time saving (information is provided more quickly than if people were interviewed
separately),
– Variety points of view.
For Bryman and Bell (2015) focus groups’ disadvantages are [24]:
– The researcher has less control over proceedings than with the individual interview,
– The data is difficult to analyse,
– Data is difficult to organize,
– The recordings are more time-consuming to transcribe than equivalent recordings
of individual interviews,
– There are possible problems of group effects.
Carkenord (2009) underlines facilitated session’s technique—structured, planned,
working sessions for project initiation activities, where participants are carefully
chosen and have a critical role to play. A facilitator is the main person who plans,
design, help, control, etc. Bringing together project participants at the beginning of
the project creates team synergy and motivation, because everyone feels part of the
planning process and decision-making team. These sessions can also be structured as
brainstorming sessions, where participants generate ideas for improving processes
or creating new products (services) [30]. Facilitation team properly plans a session:
topics on agenda, participants, meeting place and time, duration of session, etc.
Facilitated sessions is a proper technique for brainstorming, balancing priorities and
scope of project. In addition, it is use for process improvement identification, for
changing experiences and for team building.
7 Case Study
A case study investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the “case”) in its real-world

context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context may not
be evident. The second part of the definition points to case study are design and data
collection features, such as how data triangulation helps to address the distinctive
technical condition whereby a case study will have more variables of interest than
data points. Among the variations in case studies, it can include single or multiple
cases, it can be limited to quantitative evidence and it can be a useful method for
doing an evaluation [26].
The purpose of case study is to identify solutions to situations and problems
identified in the case study. Within a case study a variety of methods can be used for
gather data required for research (such as interview, questionnaire) It can also be the
combination of qualitative and quantitative data [3].
Bryman and Bell (2015) state that a case can be:
Table 3 Example case study: sample case study fieldwork schedule, adapted by Pickard [5]
Phase Steps Time (months)
1. Maintain researcher’s diary – Make initial contact 3
throughout all phases – Obtain consent via sign-off
forms
– Interview to identify salient
issues
– Observe the participant using
electronic information sources
– Begin iterative analysis
– Identify subsequent
participants using snowball
sampling
2. Focused exploration – Use research methods as 8
interviews with experts,
observation, non-human
sources, content analysis of
documentation, iterative
analysis
3. Compile preliminary case – Check members: case study 2–3
studies is subject to scrutiny by
participants individually and
during workshops
– A single organization,
– A single location, such as a factory, production site, or office building (for example:
research in milk factory),
– A person,
– A single event [24].
Scientists presenting five types of case study: the critical case, the unique case,
the revelatory case, the representative case and the longitudinal case [24].
The critical case is where the researcher has a clearly specified hypothesis and a
case is chosen on the grounds that will allow a better understanding of the circum-
stances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold.
The unique case—it is the unique or extreme case.
The revelatory case is where the basis for this case exists when an investigator
has an opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon previously inaccessible to
scientific investigation.
The representative or typical case seeks to explore a case that exemplifies an
everyday situation or form of organization.
The longitudinal case is concerned with how a situation changes over time.
Pickard (2013) analyzes case study phases and suggests 3 phases (Table 3) [5]:
– orientation and overview (begin with research question; single or multiple case
designs; selecting the site; decide on the unit of analysis; purposive sampling;
setting up a case database; determining data collection techniques);
– focused exploration (data collection; iterative analysis);

– member checking (exiting the field; cross-case analysis for multiple case designs;
writing up the case study).
Stokes and Wall (2014) present such case study stages as an introduction or
background history that leads up to the contemporary period or moment, to the
current situation and the focal issues or to problems that are to be considered, as well
as analysis of the issues and proposed solutions [3].
Blaxter et al. (2010) distinguish the following advantages on case study [25]:
– Case study is based on people’s competencies (knowledge, capacities and skills),
own experiences and practices and it is main factor for learning process,
– Case studies allow to present systematically point of view on and the complexity
of social life,
– Using case study is possible to collect detailed information, etc.
The main disadvantages of case study are:
– The complexity of a case study can make analysis more difficult,
– Case studies provide little basis for scientific generalisation and it is complicated
to reach a generalising conclusion, because analysing single case,
– Case studies difficult to conduct and producing a lot of documentation and some-
times it is difficult to manage and organise data systematically.
References
1. S. Greener, Business Research Methods (Ventus Publishing ApS, Frederiksberg, 2008), 110 p.
http://web.ftvs.cuni.cz/hendl/metodologie/introduction-to-research-methods.pdf
2. G. Ranzi, R.I. Gilbert, Structural Analysis: Principles, Methods and Modelling (CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2015), p. 562
3. P. Stokes, T. Wall, Research Methods (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2014), p. 284
4. D.R. Cooper, P.S. Schindler, Business Research Methods (McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, NY,
2011), p. 761
5. A.J. Pickard, Research Methods in Information (Facet, London, 2013), p. 361
6. E. Orna, S. Graham, Managing Information for Research: Practical Help in Researching,
Writing and Designing Dissertations (Open University Press and McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead
and New York City, 2009), p. 271
7. B. Blumberg, D.R. Cooper, P.S. Schindler, Business Research Methods (McGraw-Hill, London,
2011), p. 651
8. L.B. Christensen, R.B. Johnson, L.A. Turner, Research Methods, Design, and Analysis (Pear-
son, Boston, Massachusetts, 2011), p. 539
9. T.R. Lindlof, B.C. Taylor, Qualitative Communication Research Methods (Thousand Oaks,
California, SAGE, 2011), p. 377
10. S.L. Jackson, Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach (Wadsworth
Cengage Learning, Belmont, California, 2012), p. 510
11. J. Scott, What is Social Network Analysis? (Bloomsbury Publishing, London and New York,
2012), p. 126
12. A.A. Berger, Media and Communication Research Methods: An Introduction to Qualitative
and Quantitative Approaches (Sage, Thousand Oaks, California, 2013), p. 339
13. R. Edwards, J. Holland, What is Qualitative Interviewing? (Bloomsbury Academic, London,

2013), p. 127
14. T. Hooley, J. Marriot, J. Wellens, What Is Online Research: Using the Internet for Social
Science Research (Bloomsbury Academic, London, 2013), p. 161
15. A. Carsrud, M. Brannback, Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Entrepreneur-
ship and Small Business (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2014), p. 277
16. M. Hammersley, What is Qualitative Research? (Bloomsbury Academic, London, 2014), p.
125
17. M. Sarstedt, E.A. Mooi, Concise Guide to Market Research: The Process, Data, and Methods
Using IBM SPSS Statistics (Springer, Berlin, 2014), p. 343
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a review. Int. J. Extensive Res. 3, 72–78 (2015)
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South-Western, 2013), p. 666
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on policy supporting research. Qual. Quant. 48(3), 1213–1223 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11135-013-9830-8
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Frenchs Forest, 2005), p. 362
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ment Students (CIPD House, London, 2009), p. 268
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2012), p. 696
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778
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2014), p. 265
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2009), p. 353
Research Topic Identification
Tariq Mahmoud, Viktor Dmitriyev and Oana Madalina Driha
1 Introduction
It is a very challenging task to identify topics of interests for anyone in academia.

However, this process is especially challenging and unclear for the ones who are just
making their very first steps in academia. The group of researchers usually includes
last year master students, doctoral (graduate) students at the beginning of their “way
to success” and sometimes junior researchers (post-docs, junior professors) who are
about to start their own independent research group and looking for funding and
ideas, which may be requesting public/private funds or just have a correlation with.
2 Research Topic Identification Approach
A very important issue to be mentioned before listing the state of the art in this
domain is to know how to conduct a proper literature review process. The very first
phase of managing any research is to have a proper process in listing most of the
related research papers and contributions in the application domain, which is the
literature review.
The most remarkable approach to have a proper literature review is proposed by
Webster and Watson (2002) in their paper “Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the
Future: Writing a Literature Review” [1]. These two remarkable authors explained
their approach of performing a systematic literature review by reviewing firstly the
T. Mahmoud · V. Dmitriyev (B)

Department of Business Information Systems, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
e-mail: Viktor.Dmitriyev@uni-oldenburg.de
T. Mahmoud
e-mail: Tariq.Mahmoud@uni-oldenburg.de
O. M. Driha
University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
e-mail: Oana.Driha@ua.es

72 T. Mahmoud et al.
most important publications in the leading journals in the field. This can be done with
the help of one of journal databases like ABI/Inform (ProQuest) where you can find a
suitable journal and review its table of content to accelerate the process of identifying
relevant articles. This is besides checking high reputed conference proceedings in
the research domain. After that, the researcher has to get a backword review by
examining the citations in the identified articles. It is also important to make a forward
review after that by using one of the citation indexing tools like Google Scholar,1
Web of Science,2 Scopus,3 Mendeley,4 etc. by which the researcher can identify
further related articles that cite the already identified articles in the backword review.
Following this approach must be very close “to accumulate a relatively complete
census of relevant literature” [1].
The next important and complex step is reconstructing the huge amount of
reviewed contributions in the related research domain. A very practical approach
to accomplish this process is proposed by vom Brocke et al. (2009) in their paper:
“Reconstructing the Giant: On the Importance of Rigour in Documenting the Lit-
erature Search Process” [2]. One of the authors of this chapter, Tariq Mahmoud
(2013), followed this approach in his dissertation [3]. After he collected all the rele-
vant research articles, he eliminated the amount of articles to select the top 20% of
the ranked publications in the information systems research domain since it was the
considered application domain.
In this way, we can conclude that following the two approaches, from Webster
and Watson [1] and Brocke et al. [2], will make the literature review process simpler
and more professional.
2.1 What Research Is All About?
At the end of the day someone can claim that a research process is all about publishing
your results, there is even a famous cliché like “publish or perish” [4–7]. Research is
meant to solve real world problems as well as trying to mimic the imagination of the
researchers. All the needs for research are firstly and most probably emerging from
the environment from which the researcher starts his/her research. This latter then
has to concretize these needs and transform it into the form of requirements for the
research to be conducted. Depending on the discipline, the form of research is shaped.
This form can be experimental, theoretical, etc., based on the followed research
methodology in design or behavioral sciences besides the detailed requirements wrote
by the researcher.
1 https://scholar.google.com/
2 http://www.webofscience.com/
3 https://www.scopus.com/
4 https://www.mendeley.com/
Research Topic Identification 73
2.2 Variety of Available Research Methodologies
Based on the domain research assigned himself/herself there can be a different pop-
ular or not that popular research methodology. For instance, in order to conduct
research on very good levels in a domain such as Information Systems Research it is
worthy to follow the guidelines proposed by Hevner et al. [8] or the design science
research methodology (DSRM) proposed by Peffers et al. [9].
If the researcher wants to follow a standardized research method, the best method
to follow is then the information systems research framework proposed by Hevner
et al. [8]. The approach behind is widely considered as one of the main reference
sources in the whole information systems research due to its high quality, guide-
lines and criteria it presents. The conceptual framework of the proposed approach is
depicted in Fig. 1.
The environment in this figure represents the problem domain that the researcher
is willing to target Simon (1996) and where the research interest resides [10]. As can
be seen in the figure, the environment has inside it people, organizations, technology
as well as respective responsibilities [11]. The business needs could be derived from
the environment’s problems, goals, tasks, and motivations that are related to the orga-
nization’s people. Such relation could be normally supported by the people’s roles,
capabilities, and characteristics. The running business processes within an organi-
zation together with its strategies, structure, and culture could assess the business
Fig. 1 Based on information systems research framework, Hevner et al. (2004), pp. 79–80 [8]
Fig. 2 Based on DSRM process model, Peffers et al. (2007), p. 54 [9]
needs. Relying on this, the technology infrastructure, applications, communication

architectures, or development capabilities have to be determined in order to define
the business needs. In other words, the three main components of the environment
section from the figure below help to define the problem or business need that the
researcher comprehended (cf. [8], p. 79).
Relying on the business needs, Hevner et al. (2004) argued that an Information
Systems (IS) research can be conducted being part either of a behavioural or a
design sciences [8]. While the behavioural research’s goal is truth, the goal of the
design research is utility. This is on one hand and on the one hand, behavioural
research tries to develop and justify theories that illustrate the issues connected to the
comprehended business needs. On the other side, the design research tries to build
and evaluate the artefacts that have been developed to meet the defined business
needs. As shown in the figure above, justify/evaluate activity drives the research
assessment to identify the main weaknesses of the theory or artefact in order to be
refined and reassessed. Therefore, they are considered to be inseparable from the
research method (cf. [8], p. 80).
The right side of Fig. 1 shows the knowledge base that gives the foundations and
methodologies to complete an IS research. Such foundations can be useful in the
develop/build phase of an IS research to take benefit from former theories, frame-
works, instruments, constructs, models, methods, and approaches. On the other hand,
methodologies that might consist of data analysis techniques, formalisms, measures,
and validation criteria are treated as the main guidelines resources for an IS research.
To summarize, an IS research is considered rigor just when it appropriately applies
the foundations and methodologies that compose the knowledge base (cf. [8], p. 80).
Peffers et al. (2007) had proposed a generic Design Science Research Method-
ology (DSRM) for information systems research [9]. The DSRM process model is
composed of five main activities as depicted in Fig. 2.
The first activity in the DSRM process model is the problem identification and
motivation. This activity identifies and well defines the main research problems in
order to be able to defend the contributions of the resulted research. On the one hand,
this first activity is important since it provides the motivations to researchers and
encourages the community in the targeted research domain to follow up on the con-
tributions that will be resulted from the work. On the other hand, this activity supports
the argumentation provided by the researcher while defending the research problems.
The resources needed for this activity are mainly an in-depth knowledge of the main
weaknesses in the targeted research domain besides the potential significance of the
resulted solution (cf. [9], p. 54).
The second activity within the DSRM process model is the object definition. The
main objectives that are defined in this activity are mainly derived from the problem
identification and motivation activity. The resulted objectives are either classified
quantitatively if the solution behind could become better than an existing ones or
qualitatively if the solution behind would be able to solve problems that are not yet
addressed by the other existing solutions. The resources needed in this activity are
the state knowledge of the existing problems besides being familiar with the similar
solutions in the targeted research domain (cf. [9], p. 55).
The design and development represents the third activity in the DSRM process
model. The theory produced from the object definition activity forms the main charac-
teristics of this activity. The main goal behind this activity is to deliver artefacts. These
latter might include models, architectures, constructs, or instantiations [8]. “New
properties of technical, social, and/or informational resources” could be included in
the outputs of Järvinen (2007, p. 49) [12]. Despite that, the novelty merely represents
a set of objects it has to be integrated in the resulted output. Thus, the main tasks
accomplished in this activity will determine the expected functionalities and its archi-
tecture from the resulted solution and will eventually create the objects and artefacts
to achieve them. The resources needed in this activity are the theory knowledge of
transforming objectives into artefacts in the resulted solution (cf. [9], p. 55).
Demonstration is the fourth activity in the DSRM process model. This activity
incorporates the needed steps to apply the resulted artefact from the design and devel-
opment activity to solve one or more of the problems addressed by the researcher.
Potential demonstration can vary from being experiments to case studies, proofs,
simulations or being any other proper demonstration. The resources needed in this
activity are the “how to knowledge” to show how the resulted artefact can address the
problems in the targeted research domain (cf. [9], p. 55). Moreover and as proposed
by Peffers et al. [9], the applicability of the resulted solution’s ideas can be validated
and proved either in a single act demonstration [13] or in a more formal evaluation
of the designed artefact [8, 14–17].
The fifth activity in the DSRM process model is the evaluation. This activity
includes both the observation and the measurement if the artefact from the resulted
solution defends well the researched problems or not. Furthermore, it is important
in this activity to conduct comparison between the objectives of the solution and the
recent monitored results of applying the artefact in the demonstration phase. Based
on the nature of the problem origin and the resulted artefact, the evaluation activity
can follow different paths. Examples of these paths can be comparing the functional-
ities of the artefact with the objectives defined in the second activity, feedback by the
solution’s users, or even a simulation. The evaluation activity may also contain quan-
tifiable measurement of the system performance (for example service’s availability
or response time), or any other empirical evidence. As can be seen in Fig. 2 and upon
completing this activity, the researcher will decide if it is needed to get back to the
second and third activities to improve the functionalities of the artefact or to move
on to the sixth activity in the DSRM model. The resources needed in this activity are
the knowledge and awareness of the metrics and analysis techniques (cf. [9], p. 56).
Communication represents the last activity in the DSRM process model. The main
purpose behind this activity is to communicate the contributions of all research phases
to the scientific community in the targeted research domain. This communication
activity is normally done in form of scholarly research publications. The authors
in [8] mentioned that this activity is quite necessary to disseminate the resulting
knowledge behind the conducted research to the target research community. The
main resources needed in this activity are the disciplinary knowledge of how to write
and publish rigor publications of the different research parts in suitable research
publications (cf. [9], p. 56).
As shown in Fig. 2, the DSRM process model can lead into one of four possible
research entry points namely: problem-centred initiation, objective-centred solution,
design- and development-centred solution, or client-/context-initiated solution.
If the researcher sequentially goes through the aforementioned six activities, the
resulted research entry point will be a problem-centred from research entry point’s
perspective. In other words, the model will exactly start from the first activity until the
sixth activity in the DSRM model. This approach is normally resulted from observing
a research problem or getting some ideas from the suggestions of future directions
from previous researches (cf. [9], p. 56).
If the researcher decides to start the DSRM process model from the second activ-
ity, the research entry point is then an objective-centred solution. Such solution is
normally triggered by either industrial or research needs that can be identified and
gathered to develop the resulted artefact (cf. [9], p. 56). If the DSRM process model
started from the third activity, the resulted research entry point is a design- and
development-centred solution. This solution normally originates from an existing
artefact that had not been formally employed in a solution to solve the problems
in the targeted research domain. This artefact could also be resulted from another
research domains or it might be even applied to solve the problems in those domains
(cf. [9], p. 56).
The last research entry point results when the researcher starts the DSRM process
model from the fourth activity. A client-/context-initiated solution may originate
from having an observation on a practical solution that already in production. The
researcher in this case gets back to produce more rigor solution than the existing
one. This can be done after considering the weaknesses of the existing solution and
making the best use of consulting experience (cf. [9], p. 56).
2.3 Why Is Proper Literature Review Necessary?
Literature review should be treated as core stone that will play its role in future
success of any research. Core principles of proper literature review are research
agonistic and are not depending on domain of research, which means good literature
review is something that “must have” as a part of research experience. Additional
argument for proper literature review is that it is a permanent a part of any existing
research methodology. Shortly saying, research goals could not be achieved without
properly held literature review. However, despite concepts of a literature review could
be straightforward and easy to grasp, in realty, a good and high quality literature
review is something that is really hard to manage. Especially, it is very crucial to
properly organize and conduct literature review process on very first steps of research
progress. In case of topic identification, despite for the first time it is hard to focus
on particular research topics/domains, journal, conferences, workshops, books, etc.
process of literature review will introduce researcher into proper terminology and
provide. It is a good idea for researcher, who is not familiar with domain, to start
from state-of-the-art surveys/reviews, which will providing generic overview of the
domain, proper terminology and core research works and maybe ongoing research
activities. Another important point, while performing literature review on very first
steps, is to make a self-maintained list of unsolved problems, which are usually left
by manuscripts authors as future work within a publication itself. However, there
are multiple types of research problem exist—(1) problems that are stay unsolved
for decades, which can be seen as core issues of particular domain; (2) problems
that smaller in size, but solution of which could bring particular method of targeted
research domain ahead.
3 Conclusion
The decision about particular topic of a research is one of the most strategical and
life changing steps to be taken by a particular researcher. Despite such decisions are
introducing a lot of uncertainty to the researcher’s future, they also open a new ways
and approaches to be handled and processed. Thus, it’s crucial to explain, how it is
challenging to identifying most suitable research topic for a particular researcher.
Thus, this work demonstrates how to follow a proper research methodology in infor-
mation systems in order to minimize amount of uncertainty, which is in anyway
going to be a part of a research topic identification path.
References
1. J. Webster, R.T. Watson, Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: writing a literature review.
MIS Q. 26(2), 13–23 (2002)
2. J. vom Brocke, A. Simons, B. Niehaves, K. Riemer, R. Plattfaut, A. Cleven, Reconstructing the
Giant: on the importance of rigour in documenting the literature search process, in Proceedings
of the 17th European Conference on Information Systems, (Verona, Italy, 2009), pp. 1–13
3. T. Mahmoud, Lightweight semantic-enabled enterprise service-oriented architecture (Univer-
sity of Oldenburg, Shaker Verlag Aachen, Oldenburg and Herzogenrath, 2013)
4. M.-C. Roland, Publish and perish. EMBO Rep. 8(5), 424–428 (2007)
5. M.R. McGrail, C.M. Rickard, R. Jones, Publish or perish: a systematic review of interventions
to increase academic publication rates. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 25(1), 19–35 (2006)
6. P. Clapham, Publish or perish. Bioscience 55(5), 390–391 (2005)
7. M. Angell, Publish or perish: a proposal. Ann. Intern. Med. 104(2), 261–262 (1986)
8. A.R. Hevner, S.T. March, J. Park, S. Ram, Design science in information systems research.
MIS Q. 28(1), 75–105 (2004)
9. K. Peffers, T. Tuunanen, M.A. Rothenberger, S. Chatterjee, A design science research method-
ology for information systems research. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 24(3), 45–77 (2007)
10. H.A. Simon, The sciences of the artificial, 3rd edn. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996)
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dation for the Mba Core Course. MIS Q. 19(3), 361–390 (1995)
12. P. Järvinen, Action research is similar to design science. Qual. Quant. 41(1), 37–54 (2007)
13. J.G. Walls, G.R. Widmeyer, O.A. El Sawy, Building an information system design theory for
vigilant EIS. Inf. Syst. Res. 3(1), 36–59 (1992)
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research and engineering design: their similarities and differences. Des. Stud. 12(4), 197–203
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2016
Measurement and Measurement Scales
Serene Dalati
1 Introduction
In business studies measurement is crucial and required in different situations request-

ing research. In behavioural management, measurement is crucial in examining
employee attitudes including job satisfaction, organisational commitment, organi-
sational trust and motivation at work. In marketing research measurement is also
crucial in consumer behaviour and customer satisfaction surveys. Attitudes related
to perceived service quality also applies measurement scales. In production manage-
ment it is also crucial to define tools for measuring quality assurance. The purpose
of this chapter is to explore the concept of measurement with a focus on business
research. The nature of measurement, types of measurement levels and different
types of measurement scales are under examination in this chapter. The scope of
this chapter is within business research studies, therefore examples and illustration
will be provided from research in business fields. The target audience is focused
towards students and researchers of business studies with an orientation towards
behavioural management and marketing research. It provides a reliable illustration
for undergraduate students of business research.
2 Measurement Defined
Measurement in business research is extensively examined. What is measurement?

Why measurement? What is being measured? What is the relation between concepts
and constructs, and how are they related to the measurement of objects of study? All
these are questions that this chapter aims to answer in the following sections. Exam-
ining measurement in studies is comprised of assigning numbers to empirical events,
objects or phenomenon, which should be related to specific rules and measurement
S. Dalati (B)
Management Department, Faculty of Business Administration, Arab International University,
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: s-dalati@aiu.edu.sy
80 S. Dalati
design [1]. The measurement process starts with selecting a subject of analysis or
an observable event, then investigating guidelines which include assigning numbers
or codes to indicate certain features about subject of analysis. The mapping rules
should be applied to each observed phenomenon.
3 Types of Variables and Data
It is argued that concepts and constructs are used at a theoretical level, whereas
variables are applied at an empirical level [2]. The study of measurement will, by
definition, lead to the exploration of variables and types of data. A variable is a char-
acteristic or attribute that can assume different values. Data, on the other hand are
the values that the variable can assume [3]. Variables can be classified as qualitative
or quantitative. Whereas qualitative variables can be indicated as distinct according
to some characteristic or attribute, quantitative data are numerical and can be num-
bered. For example, gender is considered as qualitative variable, where the subject of
analysis is classified as either male or female. This is an example of categorical data.
Quantitative variables can be classified into two categories: discrete and continuous.
Discrete variables can assume values that can be counted. For instance, the number
of phone calls a customer service representative answers each day is an example of
discrete variable; the number of students in a classroom is also another example of
discrete variable. Contentious variables, by comparison, can assume an infinite num-
ber of values between any two specific values. They include fractions and decimals.
For example, age, income, height and weight are quantitative variables.
Data
Qualitative Quantitaitve
Discrete Continuous Discrete
Gender, E.g. E.g.

religion Students in
nationality Tempereture Classroom
Fig. 1 Difference between quantitative and qualitative data

Measurement and Measurement Scales 81
In Fig. 1, the mentioned variables are also examples of continuous variables.

Figure 1 illustrates the classification and difference between Quantitative and Qual-
itative variables and types of data.
4 Concepts and Constructs
In social research, concepts are the building blocks of theory and they represent the
points around in which social research is conducted [4]. The definition of concepts in
Business research is not far from the above mentioned approach. A concept in busi-
ness research is commonly recognised range of connotations or implication related
to specific procedures, or phenomenon related to Business studies [1]. For example, a
can of coke is an objective concept with characteristic features, which are obviously
observable, like weight, height, colour, brand name and label. An abstract concept
could include intangible attitudes and feelings (e.g. love). An abstract concept like
love requires illustration and exemplification of the specified examples that would
better illustrate the meaning of love. An abstract idea like love or personality or
vision in organisations is difficult to perceive or visualize and therefore requires fur-
ther illustration; such abstract concepts are referred to constructs [1, 5]. A construct
is defined as a reflection or scientific abstract notion scientifically developed for
building theoretical framework. Constructs are developed by joining more basic and
concrete concepts, specifically if the phenomenon under investigation could not be
directly observed. For example, servant leadership as a constructs is comprised of a
set of concepts that would contribute to the building a theory of servant leadership.
In a research study on servant leadership across cultures, the construct of servant
leadership is developed by identifying core characteristics including egalitarianism,
moral integrity, empowering and developing others empathy, humility and creating
value for community [6].
4.1 Operational Definitions
An operational definition is a characterisation stated in terms of specific criteria for

measurement. Such terms must refer to empirical standards. The subject of definition
could be tangible or physical (e.g. a new car model) or intangible (e.g. personality).
Operational definitions must identify the characteristics and how they are measured.
For example developing an operational definition of charismatic leadership in organ-
isations would require careful design on the components that comprise this variable.
82 S. Dalati
Fig. 2 Measurement levels

Ratio
Interval
Ordinal
Nominal
5 Measurement Levels
Measurement can be characterised by four levels, which are comprised of classifi-

cation, order, distance and zero origin [1, 5, 7]. The combination of the mentioned
measurement levels in Fig. 2 produces four measurement scales namely nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio scales. The nominal scale is the simplest level where clas-
sification only, but no order, distance or absolute zero level could be applied (e.g.
gender). The second would be ordinal level where both classification and order are
applied (ranking a quality of service from excellent to bad). Third level is interval
scale where classification, order and distance but no absolute zero are applied (e.g.
temperature). The highest level of measurement is ratio level where all characteris-
tics of classification, order, distance and zero origin are applied (e.g. income, weight,
and height).
5.1 Nominal Level
Nominal scale is the simplest kind of level as the numbers and the letters assigned
to objects serve as labels for identification or classification [5]. According to Cooper
and Schindler (2014), nominal data involves the collection of information on a vari-
able that can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive [1]. Nominal data is widely used in surveys when the data
is by major subgroups of the population. Classifications of nominal data are such
as respondents’ marital status, gender, nationality and other related factors. Figure 3
illustrates an example of nominal level. The use of numerical symbols to identify
categories at a nominal scale level, is recognised as tags with no quantitative impli-
cation. For example, no. 10 for Wayne Rooney, Manchester United player, is not an
indication a chronological order or a certain level of skill. This example emphasis is
on specifying certain identification of role playing an offensive forward role in the
game of football.
Fig. 3 Nominal level
Fig. 4 Ordinal level
5.2 Ordinal Level
An ordinal scale arranges and classifies objects according to their degree in an ordered
relationship [5, 8]. A typical ordinal scale in business research asks respondents to
rate a certain brand for example as excellent, good, fair and poor. The use of an
ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or less than without stating a fixed
distance of how much greater or less. For example in Fig. 4, shoes are assigned
numbers to represent size, where larger number indicate bigger size [2]. In the UK,
for example shoes size could range from 2 to 15. However, one could not argue that
that size 8 is as twice as big as size 4.
84 S. Dalati
Fig. 5 Interval level
5.3 Interval Level
Interval scale comprises principle of fixed distance between 1 and 2 and 2 and 3,
which should be equal distance [7, 8]. For example, the calendar time is an interval
scale. The time between 12:00 pm and 01:00 pm is the same and equal to the time
between 03:00 pm and 04:00 pm. However, one cannot say that 04:00 pm is twice
late as 02:00 pm because the zero in this example has relative not absolute origin. A
classic example of an interval scale is the Fahrenheit temperature scale, show here
in Fig. 5 [5]. However if the temperature is 80° it cannot be said that it is as twice
as hot as 40°. Many attitude scales are considered an interval such as intelligence
scores, semantic differential scales and other multi-graphical scales. When a scale is
interval, the arithmetic mean is used as the measure of the central tendency [1, 7].
5.4 Ratio Level
Ratio scale indicates the highest levels of measurement as it contains all charac-
teristics of classification, order, fixed distance and zero origin. Measures including
weight, height, distance, population count and other measures. At a ratio measure-
ment level, zero has absolute meaning and indicates the absence of concrete quantity
being examined. Money is an example of ratio level of measurement. Figure 6 illus-
trates an example of a man who has zero money in his pocket. The zero in this
example indicates the absence of money [7, 8].
Fig. 6 Ratio level
6 What Is Being Measured?
It is argued that variables examined at research may be defined or referred to as objects

or properties [1]. Objects may be defined as tangible experiences and phenomenon as
laundry detergent brand, a vehicle or a trainer; or intangible phenomenon as genes,
attitudes or leadership behaviours (see Fig. 7).
Properties on the other hand may be defined as the characteristics or attributes
of the object. A human being physical properties may include weight, height, and
other physical characteristics. Psychological properties on the other hand may include
personality, and perceived phenomenon. Social properties may contain social ranking
(see Fig. 8).
Fig. 7 The measurement of

objects
Objects
Tangible
Intangible
(laundry detergent,
(genes, attitudes) automobile)
86 S. Dalati
Fig. 8 Measurement of
properties Psychological
( attitudes,
traits)
Social
(Leadership, Physical
class affiliation, (weight,
status) height)
Properties
7 The Measurement of Attitudes
The focus of the chapter is Measurement and Measurement scales in Business

research. This chapter will focus on measurement of attitudes in behavioural manage-
ment and business research. The study of attitudes in the workplace, in organisational
behaviour and consumer behaviours is frequent and essential in behavioural manage-
ment research. A good investigation of the nature of attitudes could be realised by a
comparison between emotions and attitudes. Emotions are physiological, behavioural
and psychological episodes experienced towards an object, person or event that cre-
ates a state of readiness [9]. Emotions can be directed towards tangible or intangible
events or phenomena. Human beings experience joy, fear, anger, shame, love and
other emotional episodes towards other human beings or products, ideas or events
[9]. Compared with emotions, attitudes represent a cluster of beliefs, assessed feel-
ings and behavioural intentions meant for a person, phenomenon or object (this is
usually known as attitude object). It is argued that attitudes are judgement, whereas
feelings are experiences. Attitudes are developed through a combination of different
forces including feeling, thinking, personal experiences and values which will lead to
shaping behavioural intention and behaviours [10]. An attitude is learned tendency to
respond towards one self, or others or events in a favourable or unfavourable manner
[1].
This is examined in terms of three cognitive components including beliefs, feelings
and behavioural intentions. Let us consider the example of John, a bank employee
who works for HSBC Bank. John believes that working for such a winning organ-
isation is very good and that there are good opportunities for growth in the future
and career advancement. This is an example of cognitive based attitude. John has an
extremely positive evaluation for working at HSBC. He loves being there and holds
positive feelings about the management and other people who also work there. This
is an example of an affectively based attitude. John also expects to work for years
to achieves promotion and career improvement. This is an example of a behavioural
based attitude. Feelings, beliefs and behavioural intentions are three components of
Beliefs
Cognitive E.g. I think merger reduces work security for
employees in the merged banks
Feelings
Affective I hate it when people lese their jobs
because of merger between banks
Behavioral Intentions
I will be looking for a job elsewhere out side
Behavioral the current bank I am working for becasue
of the merger
Fig. 9 Measurement of attitudes
attitudes. Figure 9 illustrates three components of attitude. Organisational behaviour

studies argues that behavioural intentions are linked to behaviour [7, 9].
The study and measurement of attitudes are significant to behavioural studies
in management. The research studies of motivation, job satisfaction, and perceived
leadership in organisations are types of research, which require measurement scales
related to the above mentioned perceived attitudes. A very frequent example of a
measurement scale applied widely in behavioural studies is the Likert scale. Further
examination will be provided in scaling response types of the above mentioned scale.
8 Selecting a Measurement Scale
Several factors are to be considered before selecting a measurement scale. These

factors include:
8.1 Research Objectives
Research objectives is a crucial factor that needs to be considered before selecting

a measurement scale. Considering, for example, the case study of a research, which
have the objectives of examining Syrian Consumption patterns before and after 2011,
88 S. Dalati
the year where Syria’s political and economic crisis started. The researcher would
start with the research question about examining the change in consumption pat-
terns of Syrian consumers before and after 2011. Doing so, the researcher main
priority is to develop a methodology where consumption patterns could be mea-
sured. This examination will lead to the investigation of consumer needs and desires.
Three levels of consumption could identified which includes necessities, substitutes
and complementary types of products and services [11]. Consequently, the research
should keep in mind the objectives of the research study prior to making decision of
the measurement scale, which will be applied in the research study.
8.2 Response Type
Response types can be mainly classified into three types of measurements scales: rat-
ing, ranking and categorization [1, 3, 7, 8]. Rating scale is applied when respondents
indicates an object without making a direct comparison to another object. A respon-
dent would be requested to code their degree of agreement and disagreement about
a certain point on a five-point rating scale. Ranking is used when participants make
comparison among two or more objects. A respondent would be asked to compare
and select between two or more vehicles. For example, one that is better in qualities
or one that that has a more attractive style. Categorization is used as respondents
are grouped or categorised according to their gender or ethnic background as the
research is directed into certain category.
8.3 Data Properties
The researcher, in the process of identifying the measurement scale in the study,
must identify data properties. Data properties include nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio levels. For example, if the research study requires only a simple category scale
(yes/no question) then nominal level is applied.
8.4 Number of Dimensions
The number of dimensions could be unidimensional or multidimensional. A unidi-

mensional scale examines the measurement of one attribute of the subject of anal-
ysis. A multi-dimensional scale examines the subject of analysis employing several
dimensions.
8.5 Balanced or Unbalanced Scale
A balanced measurement scale has an equal number of points above and below the
midpoint. For example, the Likert scale (which is one type of the rating scale) is
balanced with an equal number of agreement or disagreement response choices. An
unbalanced measurement scale has an unequal number of favourable or unfavourable
response choices.
8.6 Forced or Unforced Choices
An unforced measurement scale is designed to provide the respondent with the pos-
sibility to express an opinion. A forced measurement scale requires that respondents
select one of the responses. Responses including “I do not know”, “No Opinion”,
“uncertain” or “neutral” are examples of an unforced measurement scale response
choices.
8.7 Number of Points in a Measurement Scale
A measurement scale in a research study should clearly identify the number of points
needed to suit the needs of the study.
9 Rating Scales
Rating scales are used to judge properties or objects of study without reference to
other similar objects. Different sorts of rating scales contain simple category, mul-
tiple choice scales, Likert Scale, Semantic Differential, Numerical, multiple rating,
constant sum, staple and graphic rating [1, 8]. Figure 10 illustrates different types of
rating scales.
9.1 Likert Scale
Likert scale consists of statements that express either a positive or a negative atti-
tude towards the objects of study [2]. The respondent is asked to agree or disagree
with each question. Each response is given a numerical score to reflect its degree of
attitudinal favourableness. The score will be calculated totally to measure the respon-
dent attitude. In this research study respondents are asked to code their agreement
90 S. Dalati
Simple Category
Scale Do you have experience in collaboration with
Level : Nominal business?
Yes □ No □
Multiple choice Which magazine do you read?

single response □ Financial Times
scale □ The Economist
Level :Nominal
□ Financial Post
□ The Financial Express
□ Other ( Specify --------------)
Multiple choice In general, what are the evaluation criteria of the

multiple response academic staff at your faculty? Please check all
scale options that apply.
Level : Nominal
□ Teaching quality.
□ Research activity; publications.
□Research activity; projects with enterprises.
□Writing textbooks.
□Supervising Master and PhD students.
□Other, please specify:
Fixed Sum scale Taking into consideration the product provided

Level: Ratio and considering perceived value gained from the
product, what is the relative importance of the
following factors to you? (dividing 100 between)
Price
Quality
Sum 100
Fig. 10 Rating scales
degree of how frequently the person, they perceive as a leader, is capable of engaging
behaviours presented in the questions. The respondent chooses one of the five levels
of agreement. The numbers indicate the value to be assigned to each answer with 1
which is strongly agree and 5 which is strongly disagree (see Fig. 11).
Likert scale The working conditions of researchers in your

Level: Interval institution /faculty are satisfactory
Scale:
1-Strongly Disagree
2-Disagree Agree
3- Not sure
4-Agree
5-Strongly agree
Fig. 11 Likert scale

SD scale for candidate analysis for criteria of selection

The Candidate for the current position is
Friendly 7 1 Aggressive
Frail 1 7 Robust
Proactive 7 1 Reactive
Extrovert 7 1 Introvert
Lazy 1 7 Energetic
Honest 7 1 Deceitful
Professional 1 7 Unprofessional
Emotional 7 1 Emotionless
Communicative 1 7 Incommunicative
Fig. 12 Semantic differential scale
9.2 Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential (SD) scale measures the psychological meanings of an

attitude object using bipolar adjectives. The method comprises with a set of bipolar
rating scales with usually a 7 points where respondents rate the concepts of study on
each item scale. Example of a semantic differential scale include marketing research
studies. For example marketing research study could explore customer perception
of the quality of customer service in the target retail stores under investigation. In
some studies, the SD scale is applied for candidate evaluation in a specific business
sector. Required attributes and characteristics that the candidates should possess to
be successful in performing their work are listed in Fig. 12.
9.3 Numerical and Multiple Rating Scales
The numerical scale is employed to measure equal intervals. The adjectives employed
in scale function as labels for extreme values. It provides numerical score of the
responses in the scale. Both sematic deferential and numerical scales employ bipolar
adjectives. However, the numerical scale provides numerical scores, whereas seman-
tic deferential provides semantic space as a means of identifying response. There is
a similarity between multiple rating scale and numerical scale as both are employed
to measure equal intervals. The scales differ in the layout (see Fig. 13).
92 S. Dalati
Numerical Please evaluate the impact of each of the following factors on the development
scale of your scientific research activity. Please identify using the following scale.
Level: Absolutely 5 4 3 2 1 Absolutely not
Interval
Influential Influential
1-Availability of knowledge about the existence of open access databases
2-Availability of information about international conferences
3-Availability of university/faculty scientific journals abroad
4-Availability of information about scientific projects
5- Availability of statistical databases
6- Collaboration with international researchers
Multiple rating list scale Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Measure

Instructions: Think of the person with whom you can work least
Level: Ordinal or Interval well. He or she may be someone you work with now or someone
you knew in the past. That person does not have to be the person
you like the least but should be the person with whom you had the
most difficulty in getting a job done. Describe this person as he or
she appears to you by circling the appropriate number for each of
the following items.
Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Close
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hostile
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Fig. 13 Numerical and multiple rating scales
9.4 Staple Scale
The staple scale was developed in the 1950s. It is designed to measure the direction
and intensity of an attitude. The scale has similarities with the semantic deferential
scale. The staple scale positions a single adjective or a statement for analysis at the
centre of an even number of numerical values (usually from +5 to −5). The scale
measures how close or distant from the adjective a given stimulus is perceived to be
(see Fig. 14).
9.5 Graphic Rating Scale
Graphic rating scale is designed to enable respondents to distinguish fine differences.

When applying the graphic rating scale, respondents are asked to indicate their answer
Please evaluate the performance of XY organisation according to the following

factors and rating criteria where +5 indicate the most accurate and -5 the least
accurate description of the organisation
+5 +5 +5
+4 +4 +4
+3 +3 +3
+2 +2 +2
+1 +1 +1
Product Leadership Customer Service Operational Excellence
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
-5 -5 -5
Fig. 14 Staple scale
How satisfied are you with quality the service in your institution/ faculty?
Very Much Not at all
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 15 Graphic rating scale
at the scale. The participant response will be measured by millimetres and considered
as interval data. Figure 15 illustrates the graphic rating scale.
10 Ranking Scale
The ranking scale is designed to enable respondents to directly compare two or

more objects and make evaluation about them. In the case of the ranking scale, the
respondent is instructed to indicate the first or ultimate favoured choice. The ranking
scale is comprised of three types. They are illustrated in the following sections.
10.1 Paired Comparison Scale
In certain research studies comparison between more than two subjects of analysis is
required. In this case there is a need for the application of paired comparison scale.
The paired comparison scale enable respondents to compare preference between
more than two objects. A paired comparison scale formula is designed to provide
comparison between each pairs. The number of response required in a paired com-
parison is determined through the following formula: [(n) (n − 1)/2] where n is the
94 S. Dalati
Considering every couple of the carbonated drink brands, indicate your greater
preference of the pair
-----Pepsi ----- Coke
-----Coke ----- Dr. Pepper
-----Pepsi ----- Coke
-----Dr. Pepper ----- 7Up
-----Pepsi ----- Dr. Pepper
----- 7 Up ----- 7 Up
Fig. 16 Paired comparison scale
number of objects under examination. For example, according to the above mentioned
formula in a marketing research study, with the objective of comparing preferences
of four carbonated drinks brands, the number of paired comparisons would be: [(4)
(3)/2 6]. Figure 16 provides illustration of the paired comparison scale.
10.2 Forced Ranking Scale
The forced ranking scale provides respondents with the ability to rank their prefer-
ences. The advantages of this scale include simplicity compared to paired comparison
scale, where respondents relatively easily respond preferences choices of the objects
of study. However, when the number of stimuli or object of study increases, and
possibly exceeds 10 objects, it could be a process where respondents might lose their
focus or interest in responding accurately. In the case of MATRE research study
on research environment on Syrian Higher Education, some respondents provided
duplicated responses in the case of question 15, where they ranked more than a factor
as their first choice. The result for this response resulted in duplication of responses
[12]. Figure 17 illustrates the forced ranking scale, which was employed in MATRE
study in question 15.
Fig. 17 Forced comparison 15.Scale your research motivations (Rank from 1 to 5, where no.
scale 1 indicates the strongest one, no. 2 indicates the second, until the
last number which is no. 5):
□Tenure-required conditions
□Financial benefits
□Business Request
□Career improvement
□Others, specify:
Compared to your consumption before 2011 of necessity, substitute,

and complementary products, would you consider your current
consumption as more or less. Indicate the change in your
consumption according to the following scale
Scale: 1-Much more, 2-More, 3-About the same, 4- Less , 5- 1 2 3 4 5
Much less
1- Consumption of bread □ □ □ □ □
2- Consumption of medicine (painkillers) □ □ □ □ □
3- Consumption of tea □ □ □ □ □
4- Consumption of clothing □ □ □ □ □
5- Consumption of jewelleries □ □ □ □ □
6- Consumption of vehicles □ □ □ □ □
Fig. 18 Comparative scale
10.3 Comparative Scale
The comparative scale is designed to enable respondents to make comparison

between two objects of analysis, where usually the respondent is familiar with the
standard. In the example of research study, investigating the change of Syrian con-
sumption patterns before and after year 2011, the researcher examines carefully the
response types, which best suits the needs of the research study. Figure 18 illustrates
comparative scale question with the aim of measuring a comparison of consump-
tion patterns of necessities, substitutes and complementary products before and after
2011, the year in which the beginning of Syrian Crisis is indicated.
11 Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter examined the subject of measurement and measurement

scales in business research. The meaning and significance of measurement is defined
with a scope of business research and behavioural management. Measurement in
behavioural management and marketing research is investigated. The nature of atti-
tudes is explored differentiating between levels, which establishes the foundation
of attitudes such as feelings, thinking and behaviour. Measurement levels are exam-
ined including nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio levels. This chapter also examined
different levels of measurement scales including rating, ranking and categorization.
This chapter provides a simplistic approach of measurement and measurement scales
in business research.
96 S. Dalati
References
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International University/TEMPUS, Damascus, 2014), pp. 14–15
Common Biases in Business Research
Sulaiman Mouselli and Hiba Massoud
1 Biases in Quantitative Business Research
Quantitative research in business is characterized with extensive use of numerical data

which could be time-series, cross-sectional, or panel that requires the application of
various estimation techniques. This exposes researchers to a unique set of biases when
conducting such quantitative type of research in business. The following discussion
illustrates the definition, sources, consequences and possible remedies of biases that
face quantitative researchers.
1.1 Sample-Size Bias
Researchers usually prefer larger sample size on smaller ones in an attempt to increase
the precision with which they can estimate population parameters. Under normal con-
ditions, a larger sample size increases the reliability of estimates, reduces the standard
error in t-statistic, and increases the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis of
insignificance. However, Shajani (2015) explains that two risks may arise in the
attempt to increase the sample size [2]:
Firstly and mainly, sampling from more than one population. Increasing the sam-
ple size may result in drawing observations from different population and conse-
quently lead to misleading conclusions. For example, the inclusion of certain sectors
in financial markets research may alter the results towards the dominant sectors in the
market, which is the financial sector (banking and insurance) or the dominant sector
in many developing financial markets. Moreover, researchers are usually prone to
S. Mouselli (B)
Department of Finance, Faculty of Business Administration, Arab International University (AIU),
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: S-mousele@aiu.edu.sy
H. Massoud
School of Economics, Finance and Accounting, Coventry University, Coventry, UK
e-mail: ac5148@coventry.ac.uk
98 S. Mouselli and H. Massoud
include companies from the financial sector in their asset pricing tests despite their
special characteristics on the aim to increase the size of their samples. This means
that estimates and conclusions drawn from such samples will be erroneous.
Secondly, increasing the size of the sample usually results in additional expenses
that may outweigh the benefit of increased accuracy of estimates. It is necessary to
remember that a large biased sample is no better than a small unbiased one.
1.2 Data Mining Bias
Data mining bias refers to the error that results from extensively searching a data set
for statistically significant relationships until a desired pattern is discovered [2]. Dur-
ing such process, large number of hypotheses about a data set are examined quickly,
usually without a plausible theoretical background, by looking for combinations of
variables that might show a relationship. Researchers may also be prone to split their
samples into subsamples that confirm a certain desired conclusion.
Given that a large number of hypotheses are tested and many subsamples are tried,
it is expected that some hypotheses will appear to be highly statistically significant
although they are purely coincidences. Data mining bias most frequently happens
when:
First, researchers have not formulated a hypothesis beforehand and are therefore
vulnerable to any hypothesis suggested by a data. For example, when studying fac-
tors that affect stock returns, researchers throw all available variables (accounting
and economic) in the model and hope to figure out a number of significant relation-
ships. Then, they try to explain these relationships which usually lack any economic
meaningful story.
Second, researchers select certain data or testing period in order to increase the
likelihood of the sample accepting or rejecting a certain hypothesis. Sample selection
needs to be appropriately selected and any exclusion should be clearly justified. For
example, splitting the main sample into two subsamples on the basis of the intro-
duction of new accounting standards or regulations is reasonably justified. However,
doing the same sub-sampling without such justification is not usually accepted and
is a source of great concerns.
Third, when data is constructed on some empirically motivated characteristics
instead of theoretically motivated characteristics. Lo and MacKinlay (1990) find
that misleading inferences may result from asset pricing tests when the underlying
tested portfolios are constructed on the basis of the same certain properties used to
construct the examined risk factors [3]. Fama and French (1993) use 25 size and
book-to-market portfolios to test the explanatory power of their three-factor model
[4]. Those portfolios turn to be the standard testing portfolios in any evaluation
of asset pricing models. However, these portfolios are constructed on the basis of
empirically motivated characteristic of the stock, such as market value and book-
to-market ratio rather than a theoretically motivated characteristic, such as dividend
yield, or a market-based characteristic, such as industry sector. The results of such
Common Biases in Business Research 99
tests will be biased toward out-weighting risk factors that are constructed in a similar
way to those of the tested portfolios.
Data mining biases are also apparent in testing the performance of a number of
technical trading rules in Finance. Researchers tend to continue examining trading
rules that worked in the past and ignore those that did not success. In other words,
they are using the same dataset to construct trading rules and to test them which
clearly prefer one trading rule on others [5].
To test for data mining bias in the trading rule example, Sullivan et al. [6] and
White [7] suggest the use of bootstrapping through placing the examined trading rule
in a universe of broadly similar trading rules and testing the whole universe of trading
rules before reaching a conclusion on the successful trading rule [6, 7]. The bootstrap
should be applied to each trading rule through the use of sampling with replacement
from the time-series of this trading rules observed returns. The significance level
from the bootstrap test can then be used to examine if superior technical trading rule
really exists.
Fourth, when certain estimation method has been adopted to the dataset with nei-
ther a clear justification of the selection of this methodology nor a discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of the adopted model and other possible methodolo-
gies. Researchers tend to apply Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) in their model estima-
tion and hypothesis testing while ignoring other more robust estimation techniques
such as Maximum Likelihood (ML) and General Method of Moments (GMM).
There are a number of warning signs that data mining bias might exist. One of
these signs is when too much digging to reach the conclusion is noticed. This usually
involves testing numerous variables and trying subsamples until one relationship
that appears significant is discovered. Another sign is when no plausible story can be
reached from the claimed significant relationship. Furthermore, it could be a sign of
a bias when the researcher does not provide enough robustness tests to support her
empirical results.
The best way to avoid data mining bias is to clearly justify the sample selection
and to provide full rationalization of the model estimation and hypothesis testing
methods supported by prior research in addition to “out-of-sample” tests to check
whether the apparently significant relationships continue to hold.
The idea of out-of-sample testing is essentially that data not used in model esti-
mation, is used for model testing. In other words, data should be divided into two
sets; training and test sets. The training set uses part of the data and is necessary for
the development of the model and test set, that uses portion of the data, for testing
the model that is built. It is expected that if a model is built on the basis of a particular
set of data, the model will of course test quite well. However, if you split the data
into two parts and using one part for model development, and testing the model on
the basis of the second, a more convincing test of the model accuracy is obtained
[8]. Hence, a spurious relationship that is observed in the estimation period and that
is merely due to data mining is very unlikely to be repeated for the out-of-sample
period. In other words, models that are the product of data mining are unlikely to fit
well in out-of-sample tests and are expected to show different results.
1.3 Sample-Selection Bias
It is the bias that results from the elimination of certain observations (such as firms,
funds or assets) from a study due to different reasons. The work of Heckman (1979)
argues that there are two reasons for sample-selection bias to appear in practice;
“First, there may be self selection by the individuals or data unit being investigated.
Second, sample selection decisions by analysts or data processors operate in much
the same fashion as self selection” [9].
This bias could also be a database-specific that results from using historical infor-
mation and suffers from a type of sample-selection bias known as survivorship bias.
Survivorship bias results from using a dataset that only includes the survivors dur-
ing the sample period, not the complete set of firms that were available over the
period [10]. Many databases suffer from this bias especially those that only list firms
or funds that currently alive (for example, Compustat for United States accounting
information), which means firms that have failed are not included in the database.
Consequently, results obtained from the study will be biased towards firms or funds
that are successful and may not accurately reflect the true picture.
Sample selection bias is even worse in studies of credit rating and hedge fund
returns. If firms that would have received lower credit ratings (because they have
weak financials) opt not to request a rating, results of the determinants of credit
rating will only be valid for firms with high credit rating, and coefficients will be
inconsistent [5]. Similarly, because hedge funds are not required to publicly disclose
their performance data, only funds with good performance will choose to disclose
their performance. Hence, hedge fund returns will be overestimated and coefficient
estimates will be inconsistent.
To control for sample-selection bias in hedge fund studies, Heckman (1979) sug-
gests two-step procedure that involves first estimating a 0–1 probit model of whether
the fund solicits to disclose its performance and second estimating the ordered probit
model for the determinants of the performance of hedge funds [9].
A common bias in sample selection occurs also when a researcher selects the
sample from the currently available observations and ignores firms that disappear
during the sample period. This type of bias mixes the sample selection bias with
look-ahead bias because it only includes firms with available information at a certain
recent point of time. One way to avoid this bias is through considering all dead and
live cases (firms) during the whole sample period.
1.4 Look-Ahead Bias
Look-ahead bias can be defined as “the use of information in a simulation that would
not be available during the time period being simulated, usually resulting in an
upward shift of the results” [11]. This type of bias arises when a researcher includes
data that would not have been known or available at the time period being tested.
Including such data will compromise the accuracy of the results.
For instance, the incorrect assumption that accounting data become available
instantaneously at the end of the fiscal period is a source of look-ahead bias. A
trading rule built on the basis of financial ratio such as book-to-market ratio cannot
be constructed until data on book value is released in the financial statements of
the company otherwise the true performance of the trading strategy being tested is
falsified. Many studies recognize this fact and choose to construct portfolios at the
end of June each year to give investors enough time to know, absorb and construct
portfolios on the basis of book-to-market ratio that is usually made available after
the end of December each year.
1.5 Time-Period Bias
The results of a test will be biased if it is based on a certain specific time period and
results of such test are usually referred to as time-period specific [2]. Researchers
usually face the dilemma of the choice between short and long time periods. A
relatively short-time period raises the doubt that the results are only valid during
that particular period. On the other hand, a very long time period may fail to uncover
structural changes that took place during that period. This type of bias is highly likely
to exist as a result of some unique changes during other periods. Such bias could
result in having the research results working well during a specific time frame but
not working good for extended time periods.
For example, business related research regarding the Syrian external trading activ-
ities (exports and imports) trends done before 2011. If those same studies are carried
out in 2018 for a 10-year timeframe, the conclusions certainly would be different.
The same could be said about Damascus Securities Exchange performance-related
research. Circumstances have changed dramatically after the political crisis that took
place in 2011. Researchers could not consider time periods before and after this crisis
homogeneous and therefore they should avoid time series overlapping years before
and after 2011 or address it using dummy variables or other suitable techniques.
Researchers should ideally choose their studies’ time periods carefully. This
should be done after understanding the nature of data in its environment, then study-
ing and testing time frames towards unique effects or circumstances, in order to
ensure that the results are not period-specific or environment-specific. Such bias
will hinder the possibility of generalizing conclusions and consequently limits the
usefulness of study results.
1.6 Omitted Variable Bias
When applying the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) technique in model estimation,
researchers sometimes intentionally or unintentionally drop one or more important
explanatory variables. The bias is created when the model compensates for the
missing variable through over- or underestimating the importance of the remaining
included explanatory variables.
Omitted variable bias may present in two occasions. On one hand, researchers
may exclude explanatory variables from the estimated model in the presence of mul-
ticollinearity. On the other hand, researchers may not be aware of certain important
explanatory variables and consequently do not include them in the model. However,
if the removed variable was relevant in the data-generating process of the dependent
variable, an omitted-variable bias will result [5].
Omitted variable bias can be easily detected by the magnitude and significant of
the intercept term of the estimated model. A large and highly significant intercept
indicates that one or more important explanatory variables are missing from the
model. The researcher should give enough care to the theory behind the model and
should not be driven only by previous empirical results.
2 Biases in Qualitative Business Research
The following types of biases occur mainly but not exclusively in qualitative business
research.
2.1 Sample-Size Bias
Qualitative research is highly likely to use quantitative sampling techniques when

the generalizability is their ultimate goal and therefore could encounter a number
of related sampling biases similar to those related to quantitative research. Sam-
pling from more than one population is also a source of bias in qualitative business
research. Increasing the sample size may result in including observations from dif-
ferent population and consequently lead to misleading conclusions. For example, in
questionnaires to investigate the views of small size population (for instance, the
higher management levels) where fewer numbers of observations are available and
usually difficult to get hold off, researchers are usually prone to reclassify managerial
levels or include lower management levels in the sample. This will bias the results
of the study and may lead to different conclusions.
Researcher should bear in mind that there is neither a universal answer on the ideal
sample size, nor a universal rule for calculating the size of samples for qualitative
research [12]. Therefore, instead of focusing thoroughly and solely on increasing
sample size, the researches should be concerned about other important issues in
sampling, such as judgment. In sampling, judgments have to be made about some
important issues enlightened by the nature and coverage of the study as well as the
types of questions to be answered and the way to answer them. These issues includes
access, representation, the quality of data and strategies of sampling [13].
Determining the size of qualitative research sample should be made in the light of
a number of criteria such as the research purpose, question and design, the popula-
tion size and its heterogeneity or homogeneity, the confidence level and confidence
interval required, the accuracy required, the likely response rate, and the type and
number of variables used for statistical tests. Some guides to test sample adequacy
are available. Easterby-Smith et al. [14] provides a formula that gives an indication
of the sample size adequacy that could be used for both quantitative and qualitative
research. This formula, however, could only be used as an indicator given that the
researcher has some good information and understanding about the research popu-
lation. The sample size indicator formula allows the researcher to form an opinion
on the adequacy of his sample size by comparing it to n being the required sample
size as calculated using the occurrence of the condition (state) P and the maximum
error required E, as:
P × (100 − P)
n
E2
Another way of testing sample size adequacy for generalizability purposes; is the
ratio of entries (observations) to independent variables. This is particularly useful
when quantitative techniques are used to analyze qualitative data. In essence, this
ratio should be greater than 15 entries (but preferably greater than 20) for each
independent variable. This means that there should be 20 entries (observations) for
each independent variable. For example, if the study involves 8 independent variables,
the sample size should be greater than 160 observations. Whereas, the higher the
ratios of entries to independent variables, the lower the risk of making the results
too specific to the sample “overfitting” as this decreases the generalizability of the
results [15]. However, when generalizability is not an ultimate goal for a qualitative
research, it could be useful to study in detail small samples. In such cases, the two
techniques suggested above become irrelevant and it is then up to the researchers to
try to justify and amend the size of their sample to meet their research goals.
2.2 Sample-Selection Bias
Representativeness is a very important factor to consider when selecting the study

sample as this leads to stronger sample external validity and increases the confidence
in the generalizability of the survey results to the targeted population. Therefore,
describing the relationships between samples and their populations is very significant.
In order to convey such a relationship, the researcher must be able to describe it in
terms of characteristics that are common to both the sample and its parent population
[16]. Again, this requires the researcher to know a lot about the population. Such
available information about both the characteristics of the sample and its population
allows examining the representativeness of the sample and possible biases using
tests such as the t-test. If a bias is detected, this could be due to many factors such
as sample design and coverage, and non-response.
It is also common that researchers are unable to reach all members of a target
population for a number of other reasons such as being unable to get the needed
permission to access the data, in addition to time and resources limitations. In such
cases, the researcher must identify that portion of the population which is accessible.
However, difficulties might lead researchers sometimes to use non-probability sam-
pling such as choosing the respondents because being easy to access or have links
with some already accessed observations or respondents such as surveying customer
satisfaction or investors decisions by using friends’ network or work-based networks.
This is called convenience sampling. Researchers may also use snowball sampling
based on the reference of some respondents. These sampling processes are highly
likely to result in having biased samples which include specific types of respondents
(respondents sharing similar characteristics) and exclude others [17]. Furthermore,
such processes give well socially connected respondents higher chances of being
selected compared to others who are less socially connected [18].
Researchers are advised to plan their sampling and to identify the kind of sampling
strategy (qualitative) they require (probability, non-probability, or mixed methods
sample). When using probability sampling, all members of the population have equal
chances to being included; the choice to include them in the sample is purely random
and based on chance. The aim is for generalizability and wide representation and
this lead to less risk of bias in the sample. For non-probability sampling, researchers
should understand their samples and need to be aware of how samples’ shortages
could affect the generalizability of their research results.
2.3 Measurement Bias
Researchers need to be careful when using data that are collected for specific rea-
sons or when changes introduced to the way data are collected [19]. Data, recorded
erroneously on purpose, suffers from deliberate distortion problem, which is very
common when using secondary data sources such as corporations’ reports and their
related records. For instance, the turnover rate of part time or hourly based employ-
ers might be intentionally ignored in the reports to enhance such indicative ratio.
Similarly, bad environmental practices might deliberately be allocated smaller para-
graphs providing minimum details in the social responsibility reports compared to
good environmental practice in an attempt to signal better performance by manip-
ulating readers’ opinions. Deliberate distortion is more pronounced when data is
collected for specific reason and/or for the interest of a particular group. Another
good example for this type of bias might occur when consumer satisfaction sur-
veys are prepared by employees who tend to underestimate and give low credit to
customers’ undesirable observations and notes in an attempt to show better service
quality levels to their supervisors, management teams and stockholders.
One way to deal with this deliberate distortion problem is through cross-check
verification of data [20]. That is to triangulate the findings of main study with one
or more independent data sources. Consequently, researchers and reviewers will be
more confident of the data used in the research and less doubtful of the conclusions
they reach especially if they are inconsistent with previous results.
A change to the way data are collected is a major source of measurement bias. Once
data collection method changes, a bias occurs whether because of altering members
of the data collection team or modifying the procedures used to collect data. Hence,
there is a possibility to reach different conclusions. This is a very serious issue for data
based on questionnaires, which are adjusted from time to time such as Corruption
Perception Index issued by Transparency International and for longitudinal surveys
such as the Price Indexes where researchers focus on trends development [19]. How-
ever, government-sponsored sources are more likely to announce such changes than
within-company sources. Hence, researchers should be warned of such measurement
bias and need to take them into account when reaching conclusions or commenting
on them.
2.4 Interviewer Bias
This type of bias occurs when the comments, tone, language style or non-verbal
behavior (such as, facial expressions, body language and dressing ways) of the inter-
viewer affect how interviewees react when questions are posed by the interviewer
[19]. Social status, race and gender can also produce bias. Additionally, bias happens
when the interviewer unconsciously enforces his/her own believes in the way he/she
is imposing the questions. When interview questions are biased, they influence inter-
viewee’s answers. Leading questions, misunderstood questions and unanswerable
questions are examples of biased questions. The order of questions could also be
one source of bias. Furthermore, bias will also occur in the way the researcher inter-
prets responses. Interviewer bias challenges the validity and reliability of research
when the researchers do not start by building trust with their respondents. This could
generate lack of confidence or credibility by the interviewees.
Some of the interviewer biases are unavoidable, but many of them could be reduced
or controlled. For example, the interviewers’ body language and gestures should not
be excessive. The way they look and talk should also be as neutral as possible. They
should not give opinions while collecting data and should try to avoid all sources of
question bias.
2.5 Interviewee or Response Bias
Interviewee bias is a major issue in in-depth and semi-structured interviews as this is

likely to affect the quality of data collected by researchers. This type of bias occurs
when the respondents consciously or unconsciously misrepresent the truth [21]. The
Interviewee may initially accept to take part in an interview but may still be sensitive
or uncomfortable when it comes to the unstructured exploration of particular topics.
Hence, they intentionally mislead researchers by giving false answers in order to
hide their lack of knowledge or to avoid embarrassment. Providing false answers
could also be stimulated when the interviewees faced sensitive questions or get ask
about critical information, which they do not have the authority to reveal or do not
want to discuss with the interviewer. Such misleading behavior, of providing untrue
answers for some of the questions, will result in a mix of true and false parts of an
incomplete picture that the interviewer might try to draw regarding the situation,
incident or organization they are trying to investigate and study.
Another aspect in interviewee bias is the type, characteristic, nature, positions and
grade of the respondents who accept to take part of the research as interviewees [19].
Given the fact that interviews are time-consuming and could require the interviewees
to undertake some follow up before and after the interview (to arrange and then check
contents), there will usually be a reduction in the willingness to be interviewed for
those who initially agreed to take part in the research. This issue needs to be taken
into account through proper sampling.
Different respondents’ circumstances, intentions, or un-intentions lead to different
types of interviewee biases. For example, consistent biased answers may be noticed
when respondents try to maintain consistency in their answers. This leads all their
next answers to be influenced by their earlier answers. Although the first answer and
some other following answers might be true, some of the following answer statements
might be untrue. Bias could be caused by a dominant respondent; this type of bias is
likely to happen during focus groups where some interviewees could influence the
opinions and answers of the others by dominating talks time, vocalizing their expe-
rience and knowledge, positions, attractiveness, etc. Overestimation is another bias
that might be associated with focus groups. This type of bias occurs when respon-
dents overstate their reactions, opinions, or answers because of being influenced by
the group’s thoughts, actions, and expressions. Some interviewee bias types could
be related to psychological status of the interviewees. For example, extreme feel-
ings bias could occur if an interviewee is in an extreme mood state. The moods
of such interviewees could affect their cognitions, and their answers could reflect
their moods. Angry people tend to provide angry or pessimistic answers. Busy or
work-stressed people may provide short and brief answers. In the same regards, it
is also possible that some interviewees may get angry with the interviewer or the
interview settings. An opposite case, however, may be noticed when an interviewee
chooses his/her answers to satisfy the moderator, sponsor, or interviewer. Respon-
dents may also tend to provide socially acceptable answers that are not true causing
social acceptance/desirable bias.
Another feeling related bias could arise during interviews related to politics in
non-democratic countries where respondents are reluctant to give their opinions
regarding political issues, parties or public figures because of the fear of possible
consequences and/or punishments. In similar reactions, respondents would rather
not talk in response to questions tackling sensitive subjects. Respondents may also
choose to give false answers to hide secrets, causing sensitivity bias. Finally, some
bias could be a result of errors where interviewees forget or have fade memories.
The researcher must be aware of the possible interviewee biases and respond
according to the type of bias expected. Some advices are choosing a suitable time
and place for the interview, checking the mood state of the interviewees and build-
ing trust with them. Judging the answers of the respondents helps in assessing their
truthfulness or exaggeration. In such cases, researchers should ask for clarification
and challenge the respondents in a friendly way without revealing too much about
themselves. Projective techniques or indirect questions are sometimes helpful, espe-
cially with sensitive topics. Managing people during interviews is very important,
especially during focus groups as it involves more than five respondents and could
involve different types of bias. Dominant respondents should be kept in check and
other respondents should be allocated equal talk time.
2.6 Observer Bias
This bias may occur when observers alter the outcomes of a study due to the way they
interact with subjects in the study and in what observers choose to see [19]. This
bias happens because an observer cannot detach him/herself from the social phe-
nomena he/she is trying to study or avoid, depending on his/her previous experience,
culture, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, views, state of mind, reference, error and person-
ality. He/she tries to interpret and analyze the study data or report its results. The
conscious and subconscious are in play and researchers are human. Hence, although
observer bias cannot be completely eliminated, researchers should be aware of the
consequences of such possible bias on the reliability of their data collection, analyses
and reporting. They should acknowledge it and seek ways to control it. For instance,
if a researcher believes that firm performance is not related to the percentage of
female representation on the board of directors, then he will tend to formulate his
hypothesis to reflect his believes and tend to interpret his findings accordingly.
There are two main methods to avoid such bias. The first method is self-verification
where the observer asks himself questions about his conclusions. For instance, he
can ask himself: did the answers received really meant that? and other possible inter-
pretations that could be put forward. The second method is informant verification.
If observers rely on informal discussions to reach conclusions, they can write their
conclusions from these discussions and ask their informants to verify the content and
may be suggest alternative conclusions.
2.7 Transformation Bias
As seen earlier, both quantitative and qualitative methods of research try to achieve
the highest possible levels of reliability and validity of their measures of social reality
away from biases. In qualitative research methods, the measures are considered valid
when they produce the right answers (non-falsified) and will be consider reliable,
when they are trustworthy by producing consistent and replicated answers when
the same or other similar measures are used. The application of these positivist
measurement concepts to qualitative research is deemed inappropriate by a number
of scholars. They criticized and denigrated the process of collecting and analyzing
qualitative data as well as the way they apply to reach conclusions for the high
likelihood of them being subjective. Qualitative researchers try to take steps to reduce
errors and bias (such examples steps are explained above).
The choice of qualitative or quantitative methods or data, however, is a matter
of what is suitable and appropriate for the topic being searched and the research
question being asked. Many quantitative research studies gather and analyze data of
qualitative nature that contributes to addressing specific research questions. Some
other research questions may require mixed research methods. Quantitative analysis
of qualitative data is common in management and accounting research. In order to
quantitatively analyze qualitative data, qualitative data needs to be transformed into
quantitative formats. A number of available methods could be used to transform
qualitative data into quantitative formats. These methods include scoring, ranking
and codifying.
Qualitative data used in quantitative research is likely to face two different cate-
gories of research bias sources. The first category of bias sources is associated with
its qualitative nature. Therefore, it could be vulnerable to bias of qualitative research,
such as measurement bias, interviewer bias, response bias, observer’s bias or other
biases associated with qualitative data, as explained earlier. The second category
of bias sources is associated with the process of transforming qualitative data into
quantitative formats through scoring, ranking or codifying.
Transforming qualitative data into quantitative formats involves data transfor-
mation bias. Such bias are related to the level of researcher’s personal judgment
exerted during the transformation process. The judgment itself decreases when the
transformation technique is straightforward and increases when the technique gets
complicated. This depends on the type and the level of informativeness of the quali-
tative data to be transformed. For example, it is simple to code a response of yes/no
into a binary variable. However, it is quite complicated to code a writing text (or
contents) into various categories to capture the interests of the writer and his impor-
tance (for example, disclosure quality and corporate governance quality). The more
complicated the coding, the more the researcher’s judgment applied and the higher
the likelihood of making transformation bias.
To minimize such data transformation bias, it is important for the researcher to
develop tools such as; classification schemes, check lists, selection criteria, decision
rules and coding protocols. These tools help to make replicable and valid inferences
from data according to their context.
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Research Ethics
Maya Azoury, Bassem Kaissi and Latifa Attieh
1 Understanding Business Ethics
1.1 Defining Research Ethics
Ethics in the generic form stem from values and moral conduct. They are the collective
rules which are designed to help us distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate
behavior. Ethics and ethical rules are to be abided by every time humans interact in the
multitude of forms they may interact in; be it in a social or business setting. Undergo-
ing a research also dictates a high commitment to ethics and ethical behavior through-
out the research proceedings. Many thinkers analyzed and discussed thoroughly the
topic of ethics in research. Kavanaugh (2001) defines ethics not only as a value, he
stresses that it is an ‘intrinsic personal value’ vividly present with us; all the way
through our personal and professional dealings [1]. Other authors such as Cooper and
Schindler (2006) describe the goal of ethics in a research process as one, guarantee-
ing no party is ‘harmed’ in any way or form physically or emotionally or that it would
eventually ‘suffer adverse consequences from research activities’ [2]. Saunders et al.
(2009) use the term ‘appropriateness’ to describe how ethical rules alter one’s behav-
ior and they continue to explain the rights of all persons who would or could, now or at
any future moment, become affected by the researcher’s behavior [3]. These persons
could be the participants in the research study or persons related and/or affected by the
research and/or the research topic and proceedings in one way or another. It is impor-
tant to remember that ethical issues in research spread to appropriateness in the tech-
niques used throughout research and the later appropriate use of research results [4].
M. Azoury · B. Kaissi (B) · L. Attieh

Modern University for Business and Science, Beirut, Lebanon
e-mail: bkaissi@mubs.edu.lb

112 M. Azoury et al.
1.2 Why Is Research Ethics Important?
One may wonder why issues of ethical nature are so essential. The importance of
research ethics is fundamentally vested in how it demarcates the unequivocal reliabil-
ity, the validity of the research in its entirety, the conclusion that the research reaches
and its trustworthiness in validated information to assist in better decision making.
The researcher’s actions and behaviors depicting moral standards and responsibility
in its research from start to finish will ensure to much higher degrees that the research
methods used. The researcher’s understandings of phenomena and findings are to a
large degree dependable and could lead to more generalizable facts. “Ethical issues
cannot be ignored, as they are directly related to the integrity of a piece of research
and the disciplines that are involved” ([5], p. 122). All types of researches revolve
around a learning objective and that is to actually advance the level of knowledge in a
certain topic. Saunders et al. (2009, p. 5) present research as “something that people
undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their
knowledge” [3]. This denotes that research must be established on facts, rationales
and, eventually, establish verified connections between variables and not be based on
assumptions. The fundamental intent of research is to construct a new logic, which
has been measured and tested in order to reach a better more informed knowledge of
a phenomenon leading to a better more informed decision making. Consequently, it
becomes imperative for every researcher to make sure that during the research she/he
undertook. Every stage of the research has gone through the rigid ethical scope to
guarantee that all results or conclusions reached and recommendations written have
actually been verified, not only statistically but also ethically.
1.3 What Are the Fundamental Research Ethics Principles?
– Respect for persons and informed consent; justice and respect for Communities
Zikmund et al. (2013, p. 89) elucidate that “informed consent means that the indi-
vidual understands what the researcher wants him or her to do and consents to the
research study” [4]. Evidently, an informed consent needs to be obtained from any
and all participants in any given research, yet the scope of the consent may not be
as evident. The usage of consented data is thoroughly discussed by Saunders et al.
(2009), who have shown that there is a distinction between obtaining consent from
research participants to provide data in a specified collection, method known to the
participants at that time, and the way this consented data is then used afterwards,
which might be unknown to the participants. Therefore, the extent to the consent
given by participants has to be clearly defined to avoid any unethical behavior [3].
When a researcher considers that a consent seems implicit, by the simple fact that the
participant has in fact agreed to answer the questions or the enquiries, the researcher
would be at fault. Saunders et al. (2009) expound that what could be understood
as consent in the eyes of the researcher, when participants are asked to take part in
Research Ethics 113
the research through answering questions or surveys and they agree, may not nec-
essarily mean the consent has been understood the same way by the participant [3].
A formal consent has to be obtained directly and clearly from the participant after
having thoroughly explained to him/her the purpose of the research and where data
might be used. Implied consent is therefore different from informed consent which
denotes that the participant has in fact, and under no pressure whatsoever, agreed to
participate in the research after obtaining sufficient explanations about the various
aspects and magnitudes of the research [3]. As a general rule, it is advisable that any
and all research undertaken must be done with the use of a documented consent form
(see Sample 1), clearly signed by any and all parties involved. This includes and
may not be limited to the researcher(s) and/or entity undertaking the research on one
hand and the person consenting to participate in the research on the other. Details to
be included in the written consent form may vary and that depends upon the type of
research undertaken, the participating entity and the level of potential harm, which
may be caused as a result of the research or of the later usage of the data. A writ-
ten consent form becomes a necessity, especially when interviews and observations
methods are primarily used in a typical research study [3]. Researchers have to be
both, sensitive and sensible about certain research topics, which require respect for
persons and respect for communities. Topics which are regarded as highly affective
for persons and/or communities such as medical research or unemployment would
certainly need to be treated delicately. Jones et al. (2014) state that communities are
entities with “dignitary interests, values and rights”. Therefore, communities are to
be carefully pondered upon in the ethical review of any research [6].
– Non-maleficence and beneficence
Saunders et al. (2009) have summed up the substance of ethical considerations as the
principle of non-maleficence [3]. To them, anyone who wishes to originate research
has to abide by the principle of non-maleficence or eluding any possible harm. The
principle of non-maleficence needs to be maintained from the method used by the
researcher to obtain consent all the way through, till the researcher examines, uses and
reports the final data or results; that includes the way confidentiality and/or anonymity
is protected throughout the research phases and the methods used to obtain data from
the participants [3]. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013) has revised the
principle of beneficence in both, theoretical and applied ethics, and has highlighted
the idea that, ethically, organizations or corporations might have questionable motives
to take part or allow research to take place and give access to data [7]. This notion
denotes that motives such as portraying a more notorious and affectionate public
image for the corporate might be the clandestine motive.
1.4 Who Oversees Research Ethics? Institutional Research

Boards (IRBs)
Institutional Research Boards (IRBs) are committees established by corporations or

other specialized bodies to inspect, review and then make a decision either to approve
or not research proposals, especially, when research involves humans in any way or
form. The principle objective of initiating such boards is to assure that the research
undertaken is in full accord with the resolute ethical guidelines and any existing gov-
erning laws. Universities around the world usually have their own research boards
and/or ethical committees, some universities even have Independent Ethical Com-
mittees (IECs) to assure non-biased decision and verdict. These are formed with
faculty members and other academicians from outside the university to preserve the
highest possible levels of objectivity and credibility. These university IECs have to
examine and then approve (or disapprove) the research proposal presented. They
also have a responsibility to monitor the progress of the proposed research in all
its stages. IEC’s main responsibility remains in examining the research through its
ethical scope in the purpose of safeguarding the wellbeing of participants and or par-
ticipating organizations. The IECs act as providing support for researchers through
having a specialized committee that assess their work in an objective manner, ana-
lyzing any potential risks and proposing ways to minimize or mitigate such potential
risks. Ethical practices are reviewed periodically to determine and identify existing
or surging risks. The Academy of Management (AoM) Code of Ethical Conduct
(2005) is an example of IRBs and IECs [8].
1.5 How Do We Maintain Ethics Through All Research

Phases?
In each and every phase of the research, high standards of ethics and morals must
be upheld. Ethical judgements must take effect from the choice of research topic,
they must continue through to research results and the conclusion and recommen-
dations. The researcher must think, act and write the entirety of the research in an
ethical manner. The initial stages of every research are the foundation grounds of the
research. Therefore, they are expected to provide a quality research based on current
knowledge on the topic to all entities who will be affected by the research [3]. The
researcher must understand that all choices decided upon the research should be
guided by ethical guidelines. Subsequently, the research design and the access level,
approved between all entities involved, will hold some important ethical selections.
These shall be elaborated in further details in following sections. Any researcher must
understand that any choices he/she may make during the course of the research must
follow correct ethics. This includes all understandings, explanations, observations or
interpretations made or anticipated about persons or situations noticed throughout
the research.
Research Ethics 115
1.6 General Ethical Issues
Undertaking and conducting research entails many ethical issues such as:
– Maintaining the participant’s privacy at all times during the research and beyond
– Understanding and dealing professionally with the possibility of participants wish-
ing to withdraw from the research at any given stage and not exercising any form
of moral pressure on them to stay
– Attaining a fully completed and fully informed consent; dealing with possible
participant’s deception
– Guaranteeing the rights to confidentiality and anonymity to all entities involved
at any and all stages of the research as agreed, circumstances causing any form of
embarrassment, stress, detriment, and or uneasiness in any way or agony, whether
physical or emotional
– Maintaining impartiality and detachment throughout all the stages of the research
– Keeping in mind the rights of the sponsor(s) and participant(s) to a research of
quality, conveying new knowledge to existing problems [3].
2 Ethical Issues in the Scientific Research Process
2.1 Ethical Issues During Design and Gaining Access
The importance of the design stage of the research is that it lays the ground for all the
subsequent stages of the research. Therefore, it is the preparatory platform for laying
down the grounds of ethics, in which the entire ethical dimension of the research
will be constructed. Cooper and Schindler (2006) emphasize that possible ethical
complications could emerge at the design stage; yet careful planning could eliminate
those. An ethically aware and “responsible” researcher, not only copes with arising
ethical problems in the “design, procedures and protocols”, but anticipates them
demonstrating “personal integrity” [2]. Saunders et al. (2009) advise researchers that
while designing the research and deciding upon the ways to conduct it, a researcher
should ensure, for example, that the method and strategy, intended to be used, does
not cause any form of harm to any of the entities involved in the research [3]. The
authors continue, referring to Robson (2002) and Sekaran (2003) explaining that at
the gaining access stage of research, the researcher ought not to impose any form
of pressure or hassle to acquire the desired access [9, 10]. This ethically highly
dubious action is seen as a direct “invasion of privacy” and a subsequent “coerced
participation”, in the case that the participation does take effect following repetitive
requests from the researcher. Following the same logic, Saunders et al. (2009) revert
back to Cooper and Schindler (2006), as well as Robson (2002), in accentuating that
the researcher must also graciously accept that any participant could refuse to take
part in the research and should not, under any circumstance, be pushed or coerced in
any mode to do so [2, 3, 9]. This right of refusal is an integral part the rights of the
participant(s).
2.2 Ethical Issues During Data Collection
The data collection stage is a build-up stage for later results and concluding notes
allowing the structuring of new informed knowledge. Ethical integrity becomes of
utmost significance for the validity and reliability of the consequent research findings.
Once the necessary access has been granted, the researcher has the responsibility to
understand that all participants would still hold their rights to withdraw or refuse to
take part, or release part of some information or aspects, of the research other than
what was agreed upon initially [4]. Evidently, this denotes that a researcher may
not as well, at any given moment of the research, decide to change the method or
the nature of data collecting after the initial access has been agreed [3]. An added
essential ethical concern in the data collection stage is the level of objectivity of the
researcher, reflected in the method and mode in which the researcher collects the data.
This is an exercise, which has to be precise and truthful so that no personal selectivity
occurs whether, intentionally or unintentionally, as emphasized by Saunders et al.
(2009) [3]. The authors also confer that such unethical attitude towards data collection
modes may transfer negatively on the “validity and reliability” of the research [3].
Any form of ethical breach occurring at the data collection stage will inevitably
replicate damagingly on the analyzing and evaluating of that data. Saunders et al.
(2009) concur that no presentation of fabricated data, in any way, amount or form,
is born ethically. No matter the settings, a researcher may not claim to be presenting
viable results to construct an addition to present knowledge, based on partial or full
assumptions of the researcher’s original data collected parts [3].
2.3 Ethical Issues Associated with Data Processing and

Storage
During the research data processing phase, and once data has been accessed and
gathered in a flawless ethical manner, the processing and storing of the data takes
place in a correspondingly ethical mode. Participants who have supplied the data
for the research, whether individuals or organizations are going to connect with the
method in which the data might be process and the storage method for the data to be
used later on. This process renders the data personal as associated with the person who
actually supplied it. This becomes especially relevant in the occasion of collecting
primary data through individual or collective interviews. The obligation to protect the
individuals and the groups of interviewees, presents a legislative right and is exercised
in a lot of nations. Every researcher undertaking research has an ethical duty to look
Research Ethics 117
deeply into the “legislative requirements” of the nation where he/she is conducting the
research [3] in order to protect data, especially data of sensitive personal nature such
as data about the person’s ethnic backgrounds, political inclinations or even religious
preferences. Saunders et al. (2009) add that every researcher has an obligation to
assure that the information is “completely and genuinely anonymized” [3].
2.4 Ethical Issues Related to Analysis and Reporting
From an ethical perspective, the objectivity of the researcher at the data analysis
stage of research and the presentation of the results is thoroughly discussed by Zik-
mund et al. as the researcher is required to uphold highest standards and not be
lured to present certain personal assumptions or sustain a particular view through
the alteration or misrepresentation of results [4]. This jeopardizes the researcher’s
integrity [3]. Statistical conclusions reached must be intrinsically accurate and the
methods used must be clearly justified. Every researcher has the responsibility not
to misrepresent any of the findings and show results and findings as either “under-
or overstated” according to Zikmund et al. (2013) [4]. On the other hand, Saunders
et al. (2009) caution about even more complicated ethical issues, which will arise
when other researchers revert or rely onto the initial research results, made by the
researcher or revert to his/her conclusions and then base their own decision making
and conclusions upon those results or recommendations [3]. The fear that wrongful
or falsified research findings—whether intentionally or unintentionally—might be
used by other researchers to inform new decisions exist. This adds ethical responsi-
bilities of multiple dimensions onto the researcher’s shoulders and directly touches
the people and the entities who were involved throughout the research, The infor-
mation that they supplied might be affected as well as, since the way the report or
publish this information might disturb them and their status at work, at present or at
any alternative time in the future.
3 Ethical Consideration in Quantitative and Qualitative

Research
3.1 The Basic Differences Between Quantitative and

Qualitative Research
Bryman and Bell (2011) define qualitative research as “the approach to empirical
research that relies primarily on the collection of qualitative data (i.e., nonnumeric
data such as words, pictures, images)” [5]. Furthermore, Creswell (2003) argues
that a “qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge
claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives” [11]. Schindler and Cooper
Sample Consent Form:

A sample for an interview informed Consent Form
[Title of the Study] [Start and End date of study]
I, the undersigned, have read and understood the Study Information Sheet provided to me by the
researcher and hereby confirm the following:
- I have been duly informed about all the details undertaken throughout the study, and the
ultimate purpose of the study.
- I have asked the researcher all the questions I had concerning the study, the results and the
later possible publication of the study and have received satisfying answers from the
researcher.
- I have received ample assurance from the researcher that confidentiality and anonymity shall
be maintained throughout all the stages of research.
- I understand that taking part in the study might include in part or in whole: interviews, audio
recording, video recording, observation, and written reporting.
- I understand that any personal facts such as name and employer address shall not be
revealed outside this study.
- I agree for my words to be quoted by the researcher in publications, reports, university website.
- I have been clearly informed that I maintain the right to withdraw from the study, and this at any
stage of the study.
- I have been given ample time for deciding and I agree to take part in the study.
NAME OF PARTICIPANT: _________________________________________________

DATE: ______________________________________________________________
SIGNATURE OF PARTICIPANT: ____________________________________________
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCHER: ____________________________________________
Sample 1 Consent form
(2006) add that the origins of qualitative research come from a plethora of multi-
ple disciplines encompassing anthropology, sociology, psychology, communication,
economics and semiotics [2]. In qualitative research, data should be analyzed in
depth and the significance of data should be truthfully interpreted. Researchers use
qualitative research methods in an attempt to advance a theory based on the quality of
the data collected. Two methods exist for theory advancement: the deductive and the
inductive. The responses have to be grouped into categories where the relationship
between variables is then constructed within those categories. Usage of qualitative
research methods is recommended either when the research objective is of a less sub-
jective nature, or when the researcher is searching for an in-depth understandings of
relationships between variables or when the research aims to advance a new approach
or a new theory [3]. In qualitative research, data results from a diversity and multitude
of sources from individuals or experts, groups, corporations, societies, texts, as well
as settings, environments, objects, artifacts, media products or even events [12].
The debate continues amongst the research community worldwide in order to
know which is grander: qualitative research or quantitative research? The reality of
the matter remains the following: there are no simple answers, it is highly relative.
It depends heavily on the nature of the research problem, its context, the availability
of data, the availability of the experts, etc. Therefore, what depicts the preference
Research Ethics 119
in use of a certain research method over the other is directly reliant on the com-
prehensive research context. Hence, an ideal scenario for a research methodology
would possibly be to combine both aspects of quantitative and qualitative research to
enrich the quality and the reliability of the research. A given research project would
possibly start with a qualitative research methods which leads to a more in-depth
understanding of a certain phenomenon or reveal variables connected with a certain
theoretical model. Once this is done, then use of quantitative research methods would
trail to test the established relationships among the model’s variables in an attempt
to generalize findings [3].
3.2 Quantitative Research
Contrary to qualitative research, quantitative research aims at testing concepts

through the usage of definite scales that engender numeric values. A researcher is typi-
cally able to utilize these numeric values in the aim of testing a certain hypothesis. The
objective of quantitative research aims at understanding a phenomenon through the
significance of the numbers obtained and their interrelationship [3]. Consequently,
the quantitative research methodology is used most commonly in descriptive and
causal research designs. Typically, when conducting deductive research types, the
researcher instigates from an existing theory or concept already established, deducts
an observable hypothesis from the latter and tests it, in an attempt to generalize it [4].
Table 1 presents a series of the main differences between quantitative and qualita-
tive research methods. The table exhibits some of the major dissimilarities between
the two methodology approaches. In it remain some valid exceptions. The approach of
quantitative research relies predominantly on well designed and arranged questions
to collect responses that are subsequently coded, categorized, statistically quanti-
fied and analyzed. In contrast, qualitative research utilizes a series of unstructured
questions to uncover information to find new original theories. As a result, qualita-
tive research approaches belong well in exploratory studies. Quantitative research
makes easier to provide generalizable conclusions, as it relies on much larger samples
where the data obtained from participants is, partially, identical. Differences between
the two approaches also include the level of involvement of the researcher and the
research sponsor. Understandably, the level of involvement in qualitative research is
much higher to delve in depth in the research topic, whilst in quantitative research,
the researcher attempts to keep distance from the participants in order to avoid any
bias in research.
4 Ethics in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
In the past four decades or so, a considerable rise in ethical consideration concerning
research methodologies, whether being quantitative or qualitative, has been noticed
Table 1 Distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research

Research aspect Qualitative research Quantitative research
Research aim Understand and interpret Answers a research question
phenomena or tests hypotheses
Research usage Exploratory research
Data collection approach and Unstructured questions. Usage Well-structured with
methods of observation, individual or categorized responses. Uses
group interviews surveys, experiments and or
quasi-experiments to collect
data
Research approach and data Data is observed, reported and Data is coded, categorized and
analysis interpreted. Analysis’ focus is analyzed. Analysis is
on the contextual framework computer assisted
of the phenomena under study
Research nature Subjectively inclined Objectively inclined
Sample size Relies on small samples Large samples to provide
generalization of results
Sample design Non-probability sampling Probability sampling
techniques techniques
Researcher involvement Active participation through Rarely has direct contact with
direct observation or participant
conducting interviews or focus
groups
[5]. Multiple ethical considerations are under scrutiny when choosing a research
topic. Some substantial questions of ethical nature might rise when dealing with
topics that are sensitive or when a specific type of research design might cause some
form of embarrassment, physical or psychological harm, discomfort, sufferings or
problems alike to the population under study [3].
Entities who are involved in the research process, even at differing degrees, can
all be subject to ethical issues. These include the researchers—whether individuals
or public bodies—who are undertaking research, the ultimate users of research,
including the organization who requests the research (the client), the research sponsor
and the research participants [4].
4.1 The Research Participant
As stated in previous sections, it is decisive for the researcher to pay attention to

ethical considerations especially in the research design phase of the research process.
It is particularly indispensable to protect the rights of the participants. According
to Cooper and Schindler (2006), one good practice is to firstly explain clearly to
the participant the purpose and the benefits of the study (answering the question
Research Ethics 121
“What it’s in there for me”), secondly clearly state to the participant their rights and
protections and thirdly obtain informed consent [2]. The informed consent is granted
“when an individual understands what the researcher wants him or her to do and
consents to the research study” [4]. Once an informed consent has been gained, and
there exits an exchange for confidentiality, the participants are supposed to answer
the researcher truthfully and honestly. As noted earlier, a participant reserves the
right to choose whether to participate or not in the research survey or interview.
It is notable to mention that some types of research might cause physical detriment
as well as psychological harm to the participants. Psychological detriment could
occur as a result of a certain type of research which may cause stress or discomfort
to the respondents. Another ethical consideration to take into account is the fall into
the deceiving trap. Deception occurs in research when the participants are told the
truth only partially and not to the full extent. However, some authors have found
that a form of deception is sometimes necessary for confidentiality purposes or to
enforce an unbiased answer or stand from participants. Nevertheless, the American
Psychological Association’s code of ethics still clearly advises a researcher to avoid
the use of deception, unless the deceptive approach is in fact vindicated by the study’s
attained values [4].
4.2 The Researcher
In research ethics, a large focus is on the researcher and his/her interaction with the
public. A set codes of ethics and ethical conduct has been established by several bod-
ies such as the American Marketing Association (AMA), the European Society for
Opinion and Market Research (ESOMAR), the Marketing Research Society (MRS)
and the Council of American Survey Research Organizations (CASRO). These codes
of ethics aim at providing precise guidelines for both, the research participants and
the researchers, in order to elucidate the rights and obligations of the researcher.
Common unethical practices that the researcher might execute are sugging and
frugging. Zikmund et al. (2013) explain that Sugging is an attempt by the researcher
to sell a product or a concept under the guise of research and that frugging means
“fund-raising under the guise of research” [4]. Added to the above, research might be
done for marketing purposes such as in pseudo-research or push polls where research
is undergone and not done for its original purpose; to gather necessary information.
It rather validate marketing decisions in organizations, influence public opinion or
use a survey’s findings by different parties to strengthen their interpretations. As an
example, in quantitative research surveys and polls might be used to swindle people
or even substitute votes. Consequently, conducting a survey in an ethically correct
manner must avoid predisposed or loaded questions that are designed to actually lead
participants to answer the questions in the form and content by the researcher. On
the other hand, a survey’s purpose should not be to compile material that is already
available in published sources [13].
The forte element in qualitative research, and the key to conduct an effective
interview, is to be able to establish a good rapport. Nevertheless, establishing a rapport
could be, in many instances, a challenging practice and is often subject to even more
depth ethical concerns. Duncombe and Jessop (2013) explored in their study, some
of the ethical and emotional issues which could become concomitant with interviews
[14]. They state that achieving rapport is more difficult when the interviewer feels
no empathy with the interviewees or when he/she feels indebted to force a personal
friendship with the interviewees [14]. More often, ethical dilemmas do occur in
interviews, particularly when the researcher is dealing with sensitive data or subjects
and eventual conflicts of interest. To guarantee that qualitative research answers will
set ethical principles “Qualitative researchers should report the incidents and ethical
issues encountered in their studies to ensure discussion, analysis, and prevention of
future mistakes” [15].
5 Ethics and Professionalism
5.1 Integrity During Execution of the Study
It is not a secret that research is a procedure that is highly complex and extremely
lengthy. It requires lucidity, accuracy and succinctness and most essential integrity
and honesty throughout its various stages. Some researchers may fall into some
pitfalls and these could include, and not be limited to misinterpretation of results,
erroneous observations and plagiarism [16].
5.2 Integrity Related to Publishing
Presently, journals around the world are familiar with the significance of ethical
research in providing honest, integral and reliable scientific research. Journals have
set publishing policies and they expect researchers to follow these policies strictly at
the time of publishing. The following is an example of what these publishing policies
could enclose:
– Authorship statement: Authors sign this statement to declare their substantive
contribution to the journal.
– Conflict of interest statement: A signed document where authors declare any exist-
ing conflicts of interest.
– Redundant Publication Statement: Authors declare that the work has not been
published previously in whole or in part.
– Human/animal subjects Statement Human/animal subjects Statement: Authors
declare that their article was reviewed by an Ethical Review Committee.
Research Ethics 123
– Duplicate submissions: Authors declare that the work has not been published, or
is not being considered for not been published, or is not being considered for
publication, by another journal publication.
5.3 Simultaneous Submission
The matter of simultaneous submission remains debatable amongst scholars as to

whether or not it is in fact an ethical act or not. In most instances, especially in a case
where more than one journal decides to publish a paper, it is consider a violation of
copyright laws. Moreover, when more than a single journal carries out the publishing
process, it is seen as a waste of time and money [17].
5.4 Authorship
The authorship is one central aspect of research as it is used to recognize the indi-
viduals and or entities who are liable for the study. For this reason, and in order to
accord to an individual authorship right of a research paper, the author should provide
a substantial contribution to the research process. Individuals who submit the largest
substantial contribution to the research should have their names listed first on the
paper [18].
5.5 Plagiarism and Maintaining Integrity
Plagiarism and unfair practice constitute some of the foremost mounting problems
in scientific writing, which institutes an immense challenge to academic integrity.
Online plagiarism is multiplying due to the large amount of available data with easy
access online. “Cyber cheating” has sadly become a common practice. Park (2003,
p. 472) implies that “plagiarism involves literary theft, stealing (by copying) the
words or ideas of someone else and passing them off as one’s own without crediting
the source”. Plagiarism is also defined as the “borrowing of another’s ideas or words
without crediting the author” [19].
Park (2003) states that students’ plagiarism can take many forms [20]. According
to the same author, a student who is working in a group on a specific paper may
use the material as his/her own. Moreover, students may submit a paper that was
written by a friend or other people, with or without their knowledge, as their own.
Other forms of plagiarism include students who copy material from different sources
(including online sources) without acknowledging the authors and use it as their own.
The act of paraphrasing a certain text without adequate citation and referencing is
also considered as plagiarism [20].
Table 2 Reference list bibliographic details

Journal Book Website Newspapers,
magazines
Author(s) family Author(s) family Author(s) family Author(s) family
name and initials name and initials name and initials name and initials
Year of publication Year of publication Year of publication Year of publication
Title of article Title of article Title of article Title of article
Title of journal Title of book Publisher Title of newspa-
pers/magazines
Volume, issue number Edition Full URL and the date Volume, issue number
of access to
information
Page numbers Page numbers Place of publication Page numbers
DOI ISB (if available)
5.6 Referencing
Similarly, and to help avoid plagiarism, proper referencing is indispensable so that

all material, data and statistics used in the research is acknowledged in an accurate
way. This way credit can be given to the authors of the primary content and the
readers can allocate the original items in case they need to do so. The reader can
trace the full source citation from the list of references that follows the completed
body of the paper. In some research studies, the researcher is also obliged to include a
bibliography on top of the references list; yet in other research studies the completed
list of references is enough. In both cases, certain bibliographic details must be
shown [3]. Those details could differ depending on the referencing format adopted
in the research study, yet Table 2 summarizes the bibliographic details by type of
publication.
5.7 Sanctions for Breach of Integrity
The higher education institutions around the world continue to place a high value on
academic integrity. These institutions are conscious that the violation of academic
integrity might lead to damaging harmful effects to the institution’s notoriety and
reputation. Moreover, academic integrity affects to a large magnitude of the edu-
cational institution “intellectual climate”. As a result, academic integrity remains a
serious offense that must be handle with very strictly and appropriate sanctions. Any
violation of the academic integrity standards set, in any higher education institution
around the world, is seen as a very serious offence. The purpose of the sanctions
are two; instructive and regulatory. Subsequently, sanctions are imposed not only
to punish those individuals who violate the academic integrity but also to initiate
Research Ethics 125
individuals on adopting correct standards of academic integrity in their future work.

In case of academic integrity breach, a range of sanctions is in place to choose from
what is appropriate as to the degree of breach. The multitude of sanctions may differ
from one educational institution to the other. The list of sanctions may include but
are not limited to the following [18]:
– Warning Letter
– Grades loss
– Academic probation
– Suspension
– Expulsion from the University.
6 Case Study 1.1
Case Study
A local community university faces ethical dilemma
In 2003, a newly established local university generated a campaign within its
local community during the months of October and November, in an attempt to
raise funds. The university’s campaign included TV commercials, radio spots,
and newspaper adverts.
The result was large amounts of donations mostly coming from outside the
community. Towards Christmas time, the university multiplied its campaigning
efforts and was able to donate over 1.3 Million dollars to a local cancer fighting
charity. The event was broadcasted live nationwide and spread all over the
news.
The next few weeks were rather perplex for the university. The local com-
munity press raised issues concerning the university’s actions. They claimed
the university had ulterior motives and was after gaining a good reputation
and attracting a certain profile of students; that personal gain was attained
rather than the community’s. Some local papers even went to suggest that the
university ‘used’ the cancer fighting cause to serve their own interests.
1. Do you think the actions of the university are justified ethically and these
actions fall under the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)? Justify your
answer.
2. In your view, how should the university have tackled this ethical issue to
avoid its escalation? You may support your answer by giving examples of
a similar situation.
References
1. J. Kavanaugh, Who Count as Persons? Human Identity and the ethics of Killing, 2nd edn.
(Georgetown University Press, Washington D.C., 2001)
2. D. Cooper, P. Schindler, Business Research Methods, International (McGrawhill, Singapore,
2006)
3. M. Saunders, P. Lewis, A. Thornhill, Research Methods for Business Students, 5th edn. (Pearson
Education, London, 2009)
4. W.G. Zikmund, B.J. Babin, J.C. Carr, M. Griffin, Business Research Methods, 9th edn. (Cengage
Learning, Canada, 2013)
5. A. Bryman, E. Bell, Business Research Methods, 3rd edn. (Oxford University Press, New York,
2011)
6. D.J. Jones, P.L. Bush, A.C. Macaulay, Beyond Consent: Respect for Community in
Genetic Research, 15 May 2014, https://www.mcgill.ca/healthlaw/files/healthlaw/jonesdj_et_
al_respect4community_2014.pdf. Accessed: 15 Sep 2015
7. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Principle of Beneficence in Applied Ethics, 3 Oct
2013, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principle-beneficence/. Accessed: 15 Sep 2015
8. Academy of Management, Code of Ethics Dec. 2005, http://www.aomonline.org/
governanceandethics/aomrevisedcodeofethics.pdf. Accessed: 15 Sept 2015
9. C. Robson, Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-
Researchers, 2nd edn. (Wiley, West Sussex, UK, 2002)
10. U. Sekaran, Research Method for Business: A Skill Building Approach, 4th edn. (Wiley, West
Sussex, UK, 2003)
11. J.W. Creswell, ‘A framework for design’, in Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches, 4 th edn. (Sage Publications, 2014)
12. S.G. Rogelberg (Editor), Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (Wiley, UK, 2004)
13. D.H. Folz, Survey Research for Public Administration (Sage, California, 1996)
14. J. Duncombe, J. Jessop, ‘Doing rapport’ and ethics of ‘faking friendship’. Ethics Qual. Res.
108–123 (2013)
15. A. Orb, L. Eisenhauer, D. Wynaden, Ethics in qualitative research. J. Nurs. Scholarsh. 33(1),
93–96 (2001)
16. M. Roig, Avoiding plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and other questionable writing practices: a
guide to ethical writing. Off. Res. Integr. 1–63 (2002)
17. S.A. Jawaid, Simultaneous submission and duplicate publication: curse and a menace which
needs to be checked. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 21(3), 245–248 (2005)
18. L.B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson, L.A. Turner, Research Methods, Design, and Analysis,
11th edn. (Pearson Education, Boston, 2011)
19. S. Frankel, N. Mchale, Writing the Research Paper, (Harvard Community College, 2002)
20. C. Park, In other (people’s) words: plagiarism by university students–literature and lessons.
Assess. Eval. High. Educ. 28(5), 241–288 (2003)
Thinking Out of the Box. Non-typical
Research Methods in Business
Kinaz Al Aytouni and Kinan M. Naddeh
1 Thinking Outside the Box
The definition of research includes thinking in a creative way and from new angle or
perspective to find innovative solutions for unsolved problems or to push to overcome
business obstacles that impede decision-making process. Thinking differently in
unconventional style called “Thinking outside the box”.
In the next pages, the authors will try to use the Five W’s and one H (5 W’s and
1 H) to discuss the topic of this chapter.
1.1 What Does “Thinking Outside the Box” Mean?
As research comprises creative and systematic work, it is about bringing new incre-
ment to the stock of knowledge, devise new applications, establish new ideas, dis-
cover new facts, develop new theories, new problems or solutions existed but never
known before; it is not just to handle current problems, but also bring new pillars to
new theories.
All those initiatives require hard, deep and thorough work as well as lateral think-
ing with different style, tools, and non-typical methods.
K. Al Aytouni (B)
Department of Management Information Technology, Arab International University (AIU),
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: k-aytouni@aiu.edu.sy
K. M. Naddeh
Department of Accounting and Finance, Arab International University (AIU), Damascus, Syria
e-mail: k-naddeh@aiu.edu.sy

128 K. AI Aytouni and K. M. Naddeh
Using lateral thinking for problem solving means using indirect creative
approaches, reasoning that is not immediately obvious and that involves ideas that
may not be obtained directly through traditional techniques [1].
“Thinking outside the box” is a phrase thought to be derived from management
consultants who confronted problems that need lateral thinking [2].
However, thinking out-of-the box requires passion for discovery, intellectual chal-
lenge and restatement of the solution strategy for research problems. Sometimes, for
a researcher, perceived barriers may prevent him from discovering a solution. He
might need to breakthrough barriers to find an output.
This new way of thinking has relation with the kind of knowledge (procedural
or declarative) that the researcher follows. Experiments tasks can be exercised with
procedural knowledge. When a researcher’s thinking is dominated by exercising
procedural knowledge, while he is performing special tasks or procedures, it could
be induced that he is trying to discover solutions or removing errors by doing and
redoing (trial and error) [3].
Finding solutions by trial and error is good as long as there is ample of time and
research budget and the researcher learn from his faults, but if not, there is a need to
overcome time and cost limitations.
Another limitation of procedural knowledge is its job-dependence; that particu-
lar knowledge may have only a commercial value for a specific consumer or job-
shop. Nonetheless researcher can get advantages of procedural knowledge as it may
improve the ability to learn and add new elements or controls to the experiment
as well as undergo an innovative problem solving. Grasping the pros and cons of
proposed solutions [3] is also good and may lead to eclipse theories by practice.
On the other hand, declarative (descriptive or propositional) knowledge
“distinguish itself from what is known as ‘know-how’ or the procedural knowl-
edge (i.e. the knowledge of how, and especially how best, to perform some task)
and ‘knowing of’ or knowledge by acquaintance (the knowledge of something exis-
tence)” [4]. The researcher may try to think out loud, freely and non-judgmentally,
using propositional knowledge to get new ideas out of the box, which allow him to
solve problems.
The purpose of this extended explanation of the two kinds of knowledge is to
draw attention to the importance of scrutinizing facts and data with other methods
and tools. Trying to solve obstinate research problems by do and redo or impart from
one’s own experiment without a scientific method may take the researcher to another
problem of a situated knowledge. For example, “imagine two very similar breeds of
mushroom, which grow on either side of a mountain, one nutritious, one poisonous.
Relying on knowledge from one side of an ecological boundary, after crossing to
the other, may lead to starving rather than eating perfectly healthy food near at hand
or to poisoning oneself by mistake. The scientific method tries to overcome such a
mistake. Theories generated by a scientific method are much less situational” [4].
However, there is something that the researcher must keep in mind; not all prob-
lems are well defined, have tailored objectives or have all required inputs to handle
the problem provided. Furthermore, problems, that are precisely defined, have a clear
Thinking Out of the Box. Non-typical Research Methods in Business 129
solution. The solution is “outside of the box” and may be difficult to find at first.
Once it is found it can be clarified.
Researchers encountered ill-defined problems. Those problems are characterized
by:
– Not having a clear question.

– Not having a clue for solution.
– Having no idea what the solution looks like [2].
Solving such vague problems in the world of business may need further collaboration
of many typical and non-typical methods of business research.
1.2 What Is Inside the Box?
If you think of the entire universe as a box, many people would tell you there is nothing
outside of that box. Sometimes they are called materialists. [5]
The existence of a box means there are limitations, constrains and measures, such
as budget, organizational, experimental or environmental constraints. Navigating
beyond the restrictive borders of the box can be positive because it foster creative
leaps, like generating innovative ideas, or negative, which penetrates deep into the
“bottom of the box” [2].
In the professional environment, creative leaders push their thinking, passionately,
to the positive-light-side out of the box, while poor leadership amplitudes leads to
be inside of the “box”. This might be led by negative amplitudes.
However, the process of contemplating-in-the-box needs to be constructed in a
negative context. Such type of thinking is important to set stable foundations of
cumulative knowledge to build upon.
In leadership, for example, scrutinizing to the bottom of the box should lead
to clarify and Breakthrough Opportunity Areas (BOAs), identify risks, learn from
previous mistakes and apply best practices. In other words, the researcher might be
in a better position. This can be emphasize in a multi-stage design thinking process.
1.3 How to Capture Innovative Thinking Outside the Box

in a Systematic Way? Teoriya Resheniya
Izobreatatelskikh Zadatch (TRIZ)
One of the best systematic ways to move to think outside the box with a non-typical
method in the domain of business research is “TRIZ”.
TRIZ was first introduced in the theorem and application to tackle the so-called
“non-ordinary” issues. Such issues are innovative (or inventive) problems, which
cannot be solved with classical methods and that may need non-typical methods for
problems solving (new beyond ordinary solutions). TRIZ extracts common solution
patterns that exist in a previous solution, patents, inventions or studies.
During the last two decades, TRIZ developers extended its implementation to the
field of business. Plausibly, many complicated issues in business find its way to be
untied efficiently and effectively. An evolving process ended with a further promotion
of “Business TRIZ”—around 2003. It was then applied to six sigma and quality man-
agement between 2004 and 2008 [6]. TRIZ applies the concept of evolution through
contradiction resolution. When a certain current business model becomes obsolete,
facing contradictions and not able to survive because of changes in the surrounding
environment, TRIZ works to provide strategies and patterns for solving contradic-
tions in time and space. Sometimes the solution could be compromised/optimized
or radically improved. One generic way, is to consider the opposite action instead of
an intended one (Cf. [7], p. 5).
An important advantage of using TRIZ is helping transfer a weekly-defined con-
tradiction that need to be tackled into a solution by solving an inventive task at an
abstract level; to minimize the search space to the most related world’s conceptual
solutions. With this method, the researcher can use the advanced knowledge of his
precedents, of inventive solution or patterns, to save time and efforts (Cf. [7], p. 3).
This is need in any deliberated transitional process.
In general, there are two ways to approach a problem: to apply optimization or to
trade-off among alternatives. Optimal solutions may help, but not always. In this case,
there is a non-systematic lateral thinking way to solve a problem by continuing using
brainstorming, which is still completely based on unclear trial and error. However,
brainstorming works very well for relatively simple business research problems. On
the other hand, for complicated and sophisticated matters, the researcher might not
be sure after bad trails. He/she is going to achieve a desired result, so maybe it is
better to break through thinking with TRIZ (Cf. [7], p. 6).
2 Non-typical Method for Business Researches
Why non-typical methods? While, unnoticed historical data exists, where there is
large number of variables and the volumes of data rise dramatically, a new type of
methods, which have the capability to handle this nature of large data, is needed
for extracting knowledge from it and to support researchers in solving a problem or
finding an opportunity [8].
Artificial intelligence (AI) is about intelligent problem solving, by using AI data
that can be transformed into knowledge. It can adapt to any environment and manage
incomplete or incorrect knowledge. The main area within AI is machine learning.
It emphasizes in building knowledge for future use [9]. Data mining is the practical
aspect of machine learning. Fayyad (1996) defines DM as the “nontrivial process of
identifying valid, novel, potentially useful and ultimately understandable patterns in
data” [8]. The general approach used in the data-mining arena is to use historical
values to learn from past observations, extract knowledge and test it with new values.
It is very close to statistics but there are important differences between them. The
important aspect that differentiates data mining is the secondary data analysis, which
has been collected for some other purpose to answer a particular data analytical
issue [10]. Data mining approaches underline database integration, a simplicity of
use, besides the issue of computational feasibility, which has a greater role in data
mining than in statistics [11]. Artificial neural network, genetic algorithm, decision
trees, nearest neighbours and rule induction are data mining tools. Our focus in this
chapter will be on Artificial Neural Network (ANN).
Neural networks have developed as advanced data mining tools in such cases
where other AI techniques may not produce adequate predictive models. They have
been successfully executed in fields ranging from engineering to space exploration
and many others [12]. From business perspective, they are used as data analytic
methods. Neural networks and genetic algorithms are at the “lowest levels of AI
abstraction” [9]. The principle of ANN is learning knowledge, which is implicit
in the data as a property of patterns of relationships, while other techniques are
representing knowledge in explicit logical sentences.
3 Artificial Neural Networks
Kevin Gurney (1997) defines a neural network as “an interconnected assembly of

simple processing elements, units or nodes, whose functionality is loosely based on
the animal neuron. The processing ability of the network is stored in the interunit
connection strengths, or weights, obtained by a process of adaption to or learning
from a set of training patterns” [13].
In this section, we are going to provide background of artificial neural network
and its main elements, which are known as network architecture as well as learning
algorithm and parameter settings, the motivation to use them and the applications
that follows.
3.1 What Is Artificial Neural Network?
Imitating human reasoning processes such as massive parallelism, capability of learn-

ing, adaptation and many other functions have motivated artificial neural networks
concept [14].
In 1943, McCulloch and Pitts (1990) lay out the first step toward the concept
of artificial neural networks by explaining how neurons might work, suggesting
machines that are something like brains, which implement arithmetic and logical
functions [15]. They modelled a simple artificial neuron with electrical circuits while
Minsky and Papert’s (1972) work shows that simple neuron has limitations and could
not “learn” [16].
Inputs Weights
Outputs
X1 W1
Y1
Neuron (or PE) f (S)

X2 W2
Y Y2
. .
.
. Transfer
.
Xn Wn
Yn
Fig. 1 Basic elements of a neuron (Developed by the Authors)
3.1.1 The Perceptron
Rosenblatt (1958) proposed a neural network structure and called it perceptron, which
has weight, summation function, activation function, error function and learning
components [17]. Figure 1 shows that each neuron should receive an input vector,
which is named an input pattern x (x1 , x2 …xn ), and are weighed according to the
weight vector of that perceptron w (w1 , w2 …wn ). The weight is the first component
factor in the neuron. It gives the input pattern the impact factor that is needed on the
processing computation element.
The second component is the summation units, which is typically the sum product
of the input pattern multiplied by their weights (1). Then the output of the summa-
tion function, which is a single value, is fed into some activation function (2). The
activation function is the third component and is binary threshold, it converts the
summation function value into one single output value; it is generally between zero
and one [12].

n
S xi ∗ wi (1)
i1
Y f (S) (2)
Activation functions could be linear or non-linear. Sarle (1994) in his paper pro-
vides an equivalent of simple linear perceptron in the form of statistical model as
multivariate multiple linear regression, while simple nonlinear perceptron as logistic
regression [18]. Comparing with regression models, Neural network models could
be provide highly accurate results (Cf. [19], p. 1012).
The graphical illustration and mathematical form of some popular activation func-
tions that are used in neural networks are shown in Table 1.
Learning function is one of the most important components of perceptron. ANN
learns by adjusting the weight values to reach to the desired output. Measure dif-
ference between the actual and the desired output and then transformed it by the
error function component to match particular network architecture. Finally, ANN
generates a new model, which can be used with new data set.
Table 1 Activation function, its mathematical equation and graphical presentations for a neuron
Activation function Mathematical equation Graphical representation
Linear y f (x)
ex −e−x
Hyperbolic tan f (x) ex +e−x
Sigmoid f (x) 1
1+ex−1
f (x) e−x
2/2
Gaussian
f (x) 1 i f (x ≥ 0)
Threshold
else0
As we seen above, perceptron has computational, statistical and cognitive aspects.

It has a statistical aspect due to the computing unit with threshold that is look alike
multiple linear regressions. While perceptron feeds the output of a multiple linear
regression into an activation function, which could be non-linear; a cognitive aspect
of the perceptron is presented by its learning function.
Perceptron with no hidden layers is a simple linear model and the learning function
is only possible to classify linear separable patterns [16]. Therefore, the lack of
implementing some Boolean functions such as exclusive-or (XOR)1 by a single
layer neural network model and the limited learning function were the cause for the
researchers to modernize the perceptron model to be able to learn such functions,
by the addition of several layer(s) of neurons with nonlinear transfer functions [12].
The most public ANN model contains one input layer, one or more hidden layers
and an output layer [12].
3.1.2 Artificial Neural Network Architecture
As mentioned in the last section neural networks consist of a set of neurons which are
interrelated through a set of weights that permits signals to navigate via the network
in parallel, in the sense that all the neurons within the collection, process their inputs
simultaneously and independently [9].
Neurons within neural network are organized according to a specific architecture
(network topology) that can be categorized into two major groups: feed-forward and
recurrent networks (feed-backward). In feed-forward network, the network connec-
tions do not shape any loops and the signal is travelled precisely in one direction from
one layer to another, while one or more loops may exist in the recurrent networks. We
are going to explain two models MLP, which represent feed-forward architecture,
and Hopfield networks, which represent feed-backward architecture.
Multilayer Perceptron Networks (MLP)
The most usually used family of feed-forward networks is multilayer perceptron
network (MLP), which is a group of nonlinear neurons structured and linked to each
other in a feed forward multi-layer structure as shown in Fig. 2. These models have
the potential in classification and forecasting problems [22]. Furthermore, they can
be used to approximate almost any function with a high degree of accuracy [23].
It is equivalent to multivariate multiple nonlinear regression [18]. MLP consists of
three types of layers, input layer that receives input patterns, hidden layer(s), and
the output layer, which contains a list of classifications. The function of the hidden
layers is to adjust the weightings on the inputs until the error of the neural network
is minimized and those input patterns may map to only one class [24].
1 Exclusive OR’ (XOR): means (either A or B but not both). In neural networks, it is a classification
problem. Where A and B are groups, and x 1 , x 2 are explanatory variables. When both x 1 and x 2
are either large (1, 1) or small (0, 0), the resulting group is B (0). When the same variables go in
opposite directions (0, 1) or (1, 0), the group is A (1). [20, p. 106, 21].
Forward Network Activation
List of Classifications or
Input Patterns
Predictions
Input Hidden Output
......
......
Layer Layer Layer
Backwards Error Propagation
Fig. 2 MLP feed-forward network (Adapted from G. F. Luger 2005) [9]
Each neuron in the input layer acts as buffer for allocating the input signal xi
(x1 , x2 ,…xn ), the input signals xi are weighting with the strengths of the individual
connections wji and then sums up the output by the neuron in the hidden layer, and
computes its output yj as a function of the sum (3). In a similar way and through a
sigmoid function the actual output of the output layer’ neurons is computed (4).
n

yi f w ji ∗ xi (3)
i1
1
y (i) n (4)
1+ e− i1 wi j ∗ xi −θ j
Shack states that the MLP’s key strength lies in its ability to model simple parametric
problems to a highly flexible, nonparametric one.
Hopfield Networks
In Fig. 3, all nodes in the neural network are connected to each other and functions
both as input and output node, this type of neural network is Hopfield network. Each
node has a stored value in addition to instantaneous inputs and outputs. The net is
adjusted using some known patterns to reach a stable state. As nodes fire, these values
change. Then, the network task is to receive an input which is unclassified pattern
and produce the known pattern as learnt output. That means the network meets a
solution. The nature of the problem to be solved is embedded in the structure of the
network rather than in definitions of its inputs and in its weights.
y1…..Outputs...y3…...y4……..…..yn
1
Xn0 …….Inputs ….X30….X20….X10 2
.....
n
Fig. 3 Hopfield network (Adapted from E. Turban 2007) [22]
3.1.3 Artificial Neural Network Learning Algorithm
Once the network has been constructed for a specific application, then it is ready
to be trained. In the context of ANN, updating network architecture and connection
weights shape the learning process, so the learning process efficiently performs a
specific task [24].
The main types of learning paradigm are [25]:
1. Supervised learning: In supervised training, both inputs and outputs are provided.
The output computed by the network and then the actual outputs are compared
to the desired ones. The resulted errors are spread back through the system, the
weights will be adjusted by the system, which are controlling the network. The
learning process is inductive.
2. Unsupervised learning: In unsupervised training, the inputs are only provided,
while the outputs are unknown. Similar to the training history, the network is
self-organized in which it detects characteristics of the data step-by-step, leads
to identify the classes and the boundaries between them. Weights and other
parameters can be adjusted once human examines the outputs.
The rate at which ANNs learn depends on several factors such as network complexity,
architecture, size, paradigm selection, and type of learning rule [26]. A low learning
rate may result in a slow learning process, but a high learning rate can lead to
variability of the learning process.
Additional parameter called momentum is created to balance the learning rate
[22].
In this paper we are going to present the most popular supervised learning algo-
rithm; Back-propagation learning and it is executed in nearly all commercial ANN
software packages. While for unsupervised learning, we are going to present Self-
organizing map algorithm. Supervised learning is used for classification, while unsu-
pervised learning process is used for clustering.
Back-Propagation Neural Network (BPNN)
The principle of BPNN is to propagate the output errors back to preceding layers
where they are used to change the weights in the network.
As a starting point of a training process, an ANN does not contain any explicit
information. A large number of cases with known outputs are provided to the system.
Inputs are the independent variables, training values are the dependent variables, and
the predicted values are the output value [18]. The training algorithm changed the
weights of the inter-neuronal connections to decrease the total error of the system. A
trained network has educed rules, which are represented by the matrix of the weights
between the neurons. This feature is called generalization and allows the ANN to
predict cases that have never been seen by the system before. BPNN is a powerful tool
for samples with long periods [27], for function approximation [28] and its greatest
power is in non-linear solutions, to ill-defined problems [26].
BPNN is more suitable for samples with long periods [27].
The BPNN learning algorithm step by step:
1. Assign weights with random values.
2. Read in the inputs (xi ) and the desired outputs (ytarget ).
3. Select an appropriate error function E(w) and learning rate η.
4. For each observation [training pattern (xi , ytarget )]:
4.1 Compute the current output for each neuron in the hidden layer: y f(s)
where S is the output of neuron j as s f( ni1 wij ∗ xi, θj) where θj is the
threshold value for the neuron j, xi is the input for the neuron i.
4.2 Compute the error by using delta rule α z − y where z is the desired
output.
4.3 Use the error to update the weights as follows:
4.4 Gives the change wij the weight of a connection between neuron i and j
the weight, and update equation wij −η ∂E(w) ∂W
for each weight wij in the
training pattern p.
5. While the weights are unstable repeat the forth step, then activate.
Kohonen Network
Also known as, self-organizing map (SOM), its structure consists of one single layer
of neurons organized in rows and columns, each one of the neuron is fully associated
to all the neurons in the input layer. The structure is planned to change as part of its
learning process, while the structure of an MLP network is stable by its designer.
Unsupervised competitive learning constructs binary features, which represents a
cluster of the observations.
The SOM learning algorithm step by step:
1. Assign small random values for the initial weights.

2. Read in the inputs (xi ).
3. Calculate the distance of the input to the weights of each neuron
n j.
4. The neuron with minimum value of distance dj (x) i0 (x i− wi j ) often
2
called the winner neuron.
Gives the change wij the weight of a connection between neuron i and j the weight,
and update equation wij η(t)fun(t) (xi − wi j ) where fun(t) is the Gaussian
neighborhood and η(t) is the learning rate.
5. Repeat from step two until the weights have stabilized.
3.1.4 Parameters Selection
Nevertheless, to define a solution for a given problem, ANNs require the establish-
ment of a set of system parameters, some of these parameters are to determine the
architecture of the ANN. These parameters are the number of input neurons, the
required number of output neurons, the number of hidden neurons and hidden lay-
ers, the types of activation functions, the value of the learning rate and the amount
of training [29]. There is no clear algorithm on selection of those parameters. Which
means to determine the appropriate architecture is a critical decision, so different
models may produce different results. The reasons why these parameters are impor-
tant is because if the training data is over-fitted/under-fitted by the training network
the network suffers from poor generalization capability, which compromises the per-
formance with new data. Over-fit means the network shape itself to match the training
set, instead of creating a generalized model. A rule of thumb of network design is
following these steps: first select a preliminary structure of one hidden layer with the
number of hidden neurons equal to half the sum of the number of input and output
neurons, and conduct a number of tests with each configuration iteratively. Then, if
under-fitting/over-fitting occurs adding/removing more neurons to the hidden layers
or adding/removing extra hidden layers, until determining an effective structure for
the network [30]. These “designer’s choices” for a network architecture establish the
inductive bias of the system [9].
3.2 Who Will Use Artificial Neural Network?
– Researcher uses ANN methodology when his/her objective is to recognize patterns

within the data that are dynamic and they use them to predict upcoming events such
as fluctuation of the foreign exchange market like the case of Citibank London
[30].
– When researcher’s objective is to classify unseen input patterns into pre-defined

groups, ANN decide the category to which an input value belongs [22] in order to
classify problems into binary decision or to find the best organization of constraints
and noise filtering [31].
– When researcher seeks for solutions to complex problems, which have not been
solved by traditional methods due to the lack of good theoretical deductions about
the underlying problems.
– When researcher needs to predict an output variable whose values are of numeric,
or needs to estimate the numerical value of the desired output. When the researcher
needs to cluster the data based on the similar characteristics in the data.
3.3 Why to Use Artificial Neural Network Technique for Data

Analysis?
An ANN technique is applied when the data is rich and the knowledge is poor. In his
paper, Zhang (1998) characterizes ANNs as “data-driven self -adaptive methods in
that there are few a priori assumptions about the models for problems under study”
[32]. ANN uses the rich data to learn and then a network of computing units organizes
itself to implement the desired behaviour [25].
ANN has the capability of generalizing. That is, from the given pool of repre-
sentative cases. ANNs seem to learn the basic rules of input-output interactions and
then compare the unknown inputs to the known ones, predict cases that have never
been seen by the system before [24, 27].
The parallel processing style of ANN allows for great advantages in data analysis
over standard statistical approaches. They are used broadly in several branches of
engineering and science and they have the ability to model complex linear, non-
linear and nonparametric systems without any implicit assumptions. Compared to
typical methods, all traditional techniques should have theoretical and statistical
assumptions, for example assumptions about the form of population distribution,
which must be met before the analysis can progress [33, 34].
ANNs have associative ability. That means, after developed, it is robust to miss
incomplete or inaccurate data [19, 35].
When using large sample sizes where there is a large number of values for each
case, the data does not meet distributional properties that are required by parametric
statistical methods and the underlying associations among the data are fuzzy and ill
defined. ANN becomes a useful approach [36].
ANN also has excellent fault tolerance and is fast and highly scalable with parallel
processing. If one tries to control all of the possible variables and potential outcomes
in the systems and justification for all their dynamic interactions, such a model is
impractical to handle and difficult to build. ANN is then the solution [35].
The following table gives examples for some domains where was ANN applied
by authors in their studies (Table 2):
Table 2 Example domains applied ANN for different problems

Serial Domain Problem type Reference
Forecasting
Stock markets index [37–40]
Stock prices [41–44]
Forecasting foreign exchange rate [45–48]
Sales forecasting [26]
Earning forecasting [50]
Forecasting GDP growth [49]
Cash demand forecasting for ATM [51]
Macroeconomic forecasting [53]
Forecast the end-of-year Net Asset Value (NAV) of mutual funds [37]
Finance
Financial engineering [52, 55]
Loan decisions [54]
Business failure and corporate distress prediction [56, 57]
Financial time series [41, 58]
Intelligent systems for finance [59]
Predicting bankruptcy [60, 61]
Bond rating [62]
Predicting international joint ventures performance [63]
Accounting and auditing
Auditing and risk assessment [36]
Fraudulent financial statements [64]
Auditor selection [65]
Empirical research in accounting [20]
Marketing
International tourism marketing [66]
Consumer service recovery [67]
Customer segmentation (online auction) [68, 69]
Brand choice [70]
Marketing MIX [71]
Management and business
Traffic flow management [72]
Business model [73]
Targeting business users [74]
Social intelligence and the biology of leadership [75]
Students’ academic performance [76]
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Serial Domain Problem type Reference
Organizational research [77]
Operation management/manufacturing performance [78]
Public sector management/measuring efficiency [79]
E-commerce, E-business [80]
Optimization (Minimum cost, maximum profit subject to certain [81]
constraints)
Econometrics
Econometric analysis [82]
Fig. 4 A sample neural

network project
Initialization
Deployment Modelling
Implementation
For more detailed list, H. Hakimpoor listed about 30 different families of ANN that
authors applied in business research and problem solving. He reported 20 problem
types in marketing and sales area, 14 types in finance and accounting area, 8 types in
manufacturing and production, and 3 in strategic management and business policy.
3.4 How to Use Artificial Neural Network
The researcher should follow systemic procedures to design ANN models. In gen-
eral, he/she follows a four-phase model building perspective as shown in Fig. 4: (1)
Initialization, (2) Modelling, (3) Implementation and (4) Deployment.
Phase 1: The most critical phase in building good systems. In this phase two
activities should be done:
– Collecting data
– Preparing sample data.
The collected data could be primary or secondary one. It must include all the attributes
and the information that are useful and can characterize the problem. Pre-preparing
data includes two steps: convert the input data to a numerical form, so they can be
discrete values {0, 1} or real-valued numbers. The second step is to form data as a
pattern of input data with the desired outcome. The collected data is split randomly
in two parts, 80% of the data is selected as training data and 20% as testing data.
The set of data, which enables the training, is called the “training set”. While the
set of data, which enables the validating, is called the “test set”. Validation set is
used for two purpose: (1) to test the capability of the model to predict and (2) to
know when to stop ANN training. An adequately sized data set should be provided
to both trainings. The network and the samples need to be test and they also should
be balanced [22].
Phase 2: Model selection and training is still an art, not a science [32].
In this stage three activities should be done: create the structure of the network,
choose a learning algorithm and set parameters with values. Least-squares regression
is solved analytically and directly. On the other hand, to create ANN, neural network
architecture, training algorithms and other parameters, it must be determined through
experimentation. The artifact of this phase is an optimal structure with the appro-
priate number of hidden-layer nodes. However, by following a well methodological
approach to network design, one can be confident that a good model configuration
can be found [19].
Phase 3: In this stage, building the network requires initialize weights, convert
the data to network inputs, start training and test the performance of the model, until
arriving to generalization capability. Learning is done by training set and evaluating
the performance by test set. To settle ANN at the global minimum solution, it should
be trained long enough. Normally, a sample of larger size would lead to high accuracy,
whereas a smaller sample would lead to low accuracy.
Phase 4: Deployment is to use the network with new cases.
To illustrate how to develop ANN based system, Box-office prediction problem
is an example of MLP ANN, the type of the research is classification model used
quantitative methodology.
Initialization:
1. Collecting Data: the researchers used 2632 movies released between 1998 and
2006, which were drawn from public and commercial movie database.
2. Pre-preparing Data: The dependent variable is the box-office gross revenues.
The researchers discretized the dependent variable into nine classes based on
the knowledge from several industry experts in Hollywood from a “flop” to a
“blockbuster. The independent variables were taken from previous literature and
they are assigned to the input neurons. They are nine inputs; X1: the rating given
by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), which has five possible
values (G, PG, PG-13, R, NR.). X2: the competition. X3: the existence of any
superstars. X4: the level of technical content and special effects. X2, X3 and
X4 all of them have three levels (High, Medium, and Low). X5: the number
of screens on which the movie will be shown during its initial launch, which
Fig. 5 Box office ANN architecture (Adapted from Sharda and Delen 2006) [83]
has an integer value. X6: the content category on which the movie belongs to.
It is classified into ten categories (Sci-Fi, cartoon, action, historic epic drama,
modern drama, politically related, thriller, horror, comedy, and documentary).
X7: identifies if a movie is a sequel or not.
Modeling:
1. Identify network structure: An MLP architecture in Fig. 5 is selected with four

layers, one input and one output layer, and two hidden layers.
The independent variable is transformed into a 1-of-N binary representation, such
as: the level of technical content and special effects, which has three represen-
tation variables (low-medium-high). The sum of all the representation variables
of the independent variables is 27, which constitute the number of the neurons
in the input layer. The dependent variable, that is discretized into nine classes,
is represented by nine neurons in the output layer. Eighteen and sixteen neurons
are assigned to the two hidden layers, respectively.
2. Select a learning algorithm: a back propagation neural network is used to train
the network.
3. Set parameters and values: initial parameters and values are assigned to the
network.
Implementation:
Initialize weights and start training. During the training process, an expected out-
come is generated for each case. The network gradually is changing and adjusting
the weights for all the interrelationships between the neurons after each incorrect
prediction, until the ANN recognizes the patterns and learns how to classify it. The
network through much iteration generates this information.
Deployment:
Use the network in new cases. Sharda and Delen (2006), (2010) show that ANN
“can predict the success category of a motion picture before its theatrical release
with pinpoint accuracy (i.e. Bingo) with 36.9% and within one category with 75.2%
accuracy” [83, 84].
3.5 Where to Use
Artificial Neural Networks (as a non-typical method) used as a research method with
output, input, ANN architecture, software used and comparable findings with other
statistical methods in different domains (Table 3):
3.6 Discussion
ANN and statistics can be utilized for data analysis methods to find solutions for
business problems. Even if ANN methods often perform quite well, there are still
many difficulties in applying them [86].
Musso et al. (2013) claimed that ANN is very effective approach “under condi-
tions of very complex and great amount of data, in which a large number of vari-
ables interact in various complex and not very well understood patterns”, and it has
a greater accuracy over traditional methods [87]. This effective approach can work
with noisy and incomplete data [35]. Meanwhile, Edelsbrunner et al. (2013) char-
acterized ANN as “black boxes”, which obstruct testing theories systematically and
the dissemination of results [88].
An important question has arisen: “should ANN replace statistical approach or
not?” Many researchers have argued that it is not necessary to trade-off between
artificial NNs and statistical methods [18]. Concerning the theoretical point of view,
both of them are driven from different philosophies. The ANN model is defined by
its architecture and learning algorithm, while the statistical model is based on testing
theories, that rely on formula and computations. Sarle (1994) claims to understand
the process under study [18]. Statisticians depend on human intelligence and they
need longer time to define a research question. From our point of view, researchers
in ANN also need to spend time to get pre knowledge about the domain under study
Table 3 Neural networks used as a research method with output, input, ANN architecture, software used and comparable findings with other statistical methods
in different domains
Authors Output Number of Learning Testing Description of NN architecture, other AI/ES methods, Software Summary of Domain
variable input sample size sample size input variables and statistical method findings compared
variables per input per input to statistical
variable variable methods
Yim and Binary For the NNs NA NA 22 ratios usually ANN-Logit-PDA is a hybrid ANN that Eviews 4.0 for The results suggest firm failures
Mitchell (classify) only 4 input used in the used a logit model to preselect the statistical that hybrid neural
(2005) [56] variables: fundamental variables and has the Probability from a models and networks
returns on analysis. These Discriminant Analysis (DA) model as an Neuroshell 2 outperform all other
capital variables are additional input. The hybrid ANNs were for NNs conventional NNs
employed, classified in four trained using the back-propagation and traditional
assets standard ratios algorithm, one hidden layer statistical
turnover, categories, with/6/neurons. Learning rate 0.5 techniques models
solvency solvency, (logit models and
and gearing profitability, discriminant
liquidity, asset analysis) in
utilization, and predicting firms in
structure. Final financial distress
three variables one year prior to the
selected by DA: event
returns on capital
employed,
solvency and
gearing
Stastny et al. (classify) 10 NA NA 30 questions on Multi-layer (3 layers) Perceptron neural software tool Self-organizing marketing
Thinking Out of the Box. Non-typical Research Methods in Business
(2011) [85] consumer network with Back-propagation Weka 3.7; (Kohonen’s) maps (consumer
behavior in areas algorithm compared to Self-organizing MATLAB, brought relatively behaviour)
of quality, price, (Kohonen’s) maps Neural satisfactory results research
origin of the Network especially for the data classi-
product, toolbox age variable fication
characteristics of characteristics
respondents, as better than MLP
age, gender, NN
education,
household type
(continued)
145
146
Table 3 (continued)
Chen et al. Binary 26 input Three e-business service satisfaction satisfaction
2013 [80] (classify) questions detection models are constructed: Fruit of logistics
with total Fly Optimization Algorithm optimized service
sample of Grey Model Neural Network
200 ques- (FOAGMNN), Grey Model Neural
tionnaire Network (GMNN) with 4 layers, and
Multiple Regression (MR)
Vaisla et al. forecasted 500 obser- NA NA NA NA Neural Ware, NNs show superior Stock
2010 [37] daily stock vations. Neural Works performance in markets
return Exchange Predict stock market forecasting
rate, FII forecasting than
purchase, statistical
FII sales are multi-regression
input model
variables
Chung et al. Predict new conjugate gradient with Multiple linear
case regression (MLR) weight initialization
Yang et al. Binary NA NA The authors used both a BPNN and Discriminant Bankruptcy
(1999) (classify) probabilistic NNs, and compared their analysis more
performance with that of discriminant accurately predicted
analysis the status of
bankrupt oil and gas
companies than
either a
probabilistic NN
model or a BPNN
model
(continued)
K. AI Aytouni and K. M. Naddeh
Table 3 (continued)
Barnive et al. Acquired, NA NA The authors used a BPNN NNs performed Bankruptcy
(1997) emerging, better than logit and
and discriminant
liquidated analysis on the
(segmenta- training sample and
tion) full sample, but
performed no better
on the test sample
Bell (1997) Binary NNs did not bankruptcy
(classify) perform
significantly better
than logit model
Etheridge and Binary NA NA Initially, the authors used five NN NeuralWorks Discriminant Bankruptcy
Sriram (1997) (classify) paradigms to recognize two best Professional analysis performed
performing NN paradigms. The two NN II/Plus better than NNs
paradigms were categorical 1 year ahead of
learning/instar and probabilistic NN. bankruptcy. A naïve
The authors in the study observed model performed
categorical learning network to improve better than NNs 2

NN performance the most when its and 3 years ahead
output processing elements were of bankruptcy
modified with the instar learning laws.
The heart of the categorical learning NN
is a Kohonen (middle) layer. This
Kohonen layer is self-organizing and
can be used in classification task
(continued)
147
148
Table 3 (continued)
Tan (1996) Binary 13 111.46 53.46 13 variables and A back-propagation. A feed forward NN NNs perform better Financial
(classify) four quarterly structure. A hidden layer with 5 nodes, than a probit model distress
dummy variables 17 input neurons, and 1 output neurons. in predicting credit
The NNs constructed in this study used union failures
the same set of initial weights.
Altman et al. Binary 15 80.80 30.20 15 business NNs with varying degrees of complexity NNs have Financial
(1994) (classify) ratios were trained using ratios from period “significant distress
T -3 followed by testing in period T -1 capacities for
from the same sample and also an recognizing the
independent sample. The most efficient health of companies
results were obtained with a three-layer with results that are
network, comprising 15 neurons in the near or superior to
first hidden layer, 6 neurons in the the results obtained
second hidden layer, and 1 neuron in the through
output layer. Discriminant analysis discriminant
analysis.”
Wilson and Binary 5 NA NA Altman’s five The authors used a BPNN The authors NNs performed Bankruptcy
Sharda (1994) (classify) financial ratios: used BRAIN- better than
(1) working MAKER for discriminant
capital/total NNs, and analysis
assets, (2) SYSTAT for
retained discriminant
earnings/total analysis
assets, (3)
earnings before
interest and
taxes/total assets,
(4) market value
of equity/total
debt, and (5)
sales/total assets
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Coats and Binary 5 29.40 29.40 five ratios chosen The authors used a learning algorithm NNs performed Financial
Fant (1993) (classify) by Altman: (1) called Cascade Correlation (or Cascor) significantly better distress
working (Fahlman and Lebiere 1990). The than other models
capital/total authors claimed that Cascor overcomes for years 2, 1, and 0
assets, (2) several limitations of the more common prior to
retained back-propagation approach. Cascor going-concern audit
earnings/total begins with no hidden nodes, and then opinion
assets, (3) incrementally creates and install hidden
earnings before nodes (one at a time) to improve the
interest and network’s ability to categorize it. It is
taxes/total assets, the hidden nodes, and their manner of
(4) market value connection with every input and output
of equity/total node and to each other, that makes a
debt, and (5) Cascor NN capable of elaborating on
sales/total assets, hidden structures in the data. One of the
and (6) overall advantages of Cascade Correlation over
index (known as previous NN designs is that Cascor
Altman’s Z score automatically self-determines the
[EI Altman’s number of hidden nodes necessary to
“Financial ratios detect all of the features of the pattern.
discriminant With the other NN methods, extensive
analysis, and the human trial and error is usually needed
prediction of to discover the manner of hidden nodes
corporate that best enables good predictions. The

bankruptcy.” number weight assigned to the
connection of any two nodes reflects the
direction (positive or negative) and
relative strength of the relationship
between the nodes. Determining these
weights is the focus of the NN’s
computational process. In essence, the
network’s knowledge about one node’s
influence on another is encoded in the
connection weights
149
(continued)
150
Table 3 (continued)
Fletcher and Binary 3 6.00 6.00 Three variables The authors developed five BPNN NueralShell NNs performed Bankruptcy
Goss (1993) (classify) (1) current ratio, models and compared their forecasting 4.1 significantly better
(2) quick ratio, ability with that of a logit model. To than discriminant
and (3) income develop the five BPNN models, the analysis
ratio (net authors used three input nodes, each
income/working corresponding to an independent
capital) variable, one output node, representing
the bankruptcy risk index, and hidden
nodes ranging from three to seven,
respectively. The authors use this
approach to determine the optimal
network architecture
Salchenberger Binary 6 33.33 40.67 Six categories of The authors used a BPNN, which is a NeuralWorks NNs performed as Bankruptcy
et al. (1992) (classify) variables: (1) single, middle-layer, feed forward NN, well or better than a
capital, (2) consisting of five input nodes, three logit model when
assets, (3) middle-layer nodes, and one output node tested on a matched
management, (4) sample. NNs
earnings, (5) performed
liquidity, and (6) significantly better
size with a data set that
was more fully
diluted with healthy
institutions
Tam and Binary NA NA The authors used a back-propagation BPNN NNs performed Bankruptcy
Kiang (1992) (classify) model procedures in significantly better
Pascal and run than a decision tree
on an EMX approach (ID3) and
machine a nonparametric
classification
method (KNN)
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Raghupathi Binary 13 3.85 4.00 13 variables The authors used PDP back-propagation Normalized NNs provide Bankruptcy
et al. (1996) (classify) algorithm. (1) One hidden layer with 10, input data by “suitable models for
15, and 20 nodes, and (2) two hidden inputting them bankruptcy
layers with 10 and 15 nodes. For each into a LOTUS prediction.” ANN
configuration, the training was halted worksheet. model with two
after either 10,000 iterations were run hidden layers had
through the training set or when the close to a 99%
network had learned all the training prediction accuracy
examples, whichever occurred earlier
Odom and Binary NA NA Back-propagation rule. A NNs performed at Bankruptcy
Sharda (1990) (classify) three-perceptron network consisting of least as well as
an input layer, a hidden layer, and the discriminant
output layer analysis
Lee et al. Binary 10 (1 layer) The authors used Logistic Regression Work Toolbox The research results fresh food
(2012) [26] (classify) (LR) as a good choice for binary data, of MATLAB reveal that LR sales
the Moving Average (MA) method as a performs better than forecasting
good for simple prediction, while the the other methods

supervised Back-Propagation Neural although MA is
Network (BPNN) method as a good for better
long term data with 2 hidden layers suited to the
management of
convenience stores
(continued)
151
152
Table 3 (continued)
B. Abdulhai New case 5 variables 180 training 25 testing Speed, density, Short term traffic flow prediction system The used Time Advanced
et al. 1999 in 16 loops records record, 25 distance, time based on an advanced Time Delay Delay Neural traffic man-
[72] at 7 validation- and equilibrium Neural Network (TDNN) model with Network (TDNN) agement
different records speed, data from one hidden layer, the structure of which and Adaptive Time and
time a total of 16 loop is optimized using a Genetic Algorithm NN (ATNN) model prediction
periods detector stations (GA). Each neuron is provided with a showed potential to
were used. (5th memory in order to remember previous be superior to other
station is the layer outputs for N periods. For GA the well-known neural
middle one). The number of generation was set to 30 and network models as
extents of the population size to 300 the Multi-Layer
prediction in Feed-forward
future were: 30 (MLF) and to
sec, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 classical statistical
and 15 min prediction models.
Percentage error for
TDNN with full
spatial contribution
is the lowest
to select the appropriate ANN’s architecture. In both fields, the used terminology is
quite different. Salre provides interpretation from ANN to statistic terminology, see
Appendix.
Indeed, concerning the application level, there are many resemblances between
ANN and advanced statistical methods. In some cases, ANN outperform statistical
methods, while in other cases statistical methods are superior to ANN. Statistical
and ANN are complementary tools with overlap in theoretical and application of
fields. None of them should replace the other; they are complementary tools with
commonality in theoretical and application of fields. The future trend is how to merge
them for optimization and high quality researches. In section five, we are going to
present some of these trends.
4 Various Common Performance Metrics Researchers Uses

to Assess Effectiveness of the New Non-typical Methods
Different studies used different metrics performance to judge the success of the new
methods comparing to the statistical techniques in different domain. For example: In
the auditing and fraud risk assessment domain, the type 1 and type 2 error rates are
applied. Type 1 error occurs if the applied method indicated fraud, when in fact there
is no fraud. Similarly, a type 2 error happens when the applied method indicated no
fraud, when in fact fraud exists.2
Mean square error (MSE): in forecasting domain;

FE
MSE
N −1
where: FE represents forecast error and computed as the difference between actual
value and predicted value. In some studies calculated as: MSE 1/n * [Actual − Fore-
cast]2 [37, p. 2108].
The other metrics like (1) median
of the absolute deviation
(MAD) median i ( X i − median j X j [42, p. 913]; (2) root mean squared
error (RMSE) SQRT(MSE); (3) root mean absolute error (RMAE) [89, p. 56]; (4)
coefficient of determination (R-square) criteria; (5) Average Absolute Error (AAE)
which is defined as the absolute of the difference between the actual value and the
|( yactual −y pr edicted )|
predicted neural output [72, p. 10] A AE n
and (6) Average
absolute percentage error value computed as:
2 Type 2 errors are very important because that directly affect the quality and effectiveness of an
audit. Such errors could easily result in an audit failure. If an auditor fails to identify a material fraud
and gives a client a clean-audit report, then there is little doubt that an audit failure has occurred.
On the other hand, a type 1 error has a direct impact on audit efficiency as it forces the auditor
to increase substantive testing and over consume organizational resources. Persistent type 1 errors
could also affect trust in the audit and risk assessment process [36, p. 207].

yactual − y pr edicted ∗ 100
AP EV /N
yactual
N is the total number of records for which predictions are made [72].
5 Contemporary Directions on the Use of New Methods
As we have seen in the ANN architecture section above, many limitation regarding
the selection of ANN parameters does exist. From the non-typical methods side,
it is difficult to report the results of an analysis in a concise statement. From the
coefficients in a statistical regression side, it could not be explained as in the case
of ANN’s weights. In a way, the weights reflects the “importance” of an input, but
complex interactions in the hidden layers make such an analysis very difficult [19].
Therefore, to overcome some restrictions of using one ANN approach, hybrid
methods of both non-typical methods - and even in some cases traditional statistical
models [86]—are suggested to yield better results [36].
For example, compounding Fuzzy Inferential System with Neural Networks was
suggested to reach a learning system to transfer professional behavior to Fuzzy
rules. Fuzzy logic is employed to gain more information from the data through the
inferential ability of the fuzzy systems by means of logical rules. Transforming this
information into fuzzy rules help -the network- better to understand the learning
ability by the neural network. “Fuzzy-neural networks employ Fuzzy understanding
system and the ability for neural learning. Therefore, Fuzzy-neural system is able
to model the unreliability and inner lack of precision of the data due to using the
learning ability of Fuzzy-neural networks” [42].
Calderon and Cheh (2002) noticed a study that describe an innovative application
of a hybrid intelligent system that integrated an expert system and an NN model to
formulate a preliminary control risk assessment [36]. The authors applied an expert
system to provide a user interface and to represent, through a series of logical rules,
the internal control structure information and relationships. Pre-processed data from
the expert system were fed to the NN, which were used to model the more complex
relationships in the auditors’ control risk assessment. The research demonstrates that
NNs can be coupled with expert systems technology to model control risk assessment.
Unlike traditional expert systems where rules are the way to express knowledge, NNs
learn patterns and relationships in complex data and generate their own rules through
an iterative learning process. The two techniques complement each other in certain
judgment tasks where some degree of preliminary data processing that conforms
well to logical rules is needed prior to an assessment of complex relationships that
involve a large number of quantifiable variables [36].
Usually Genetic Algorithm (GA) are used to make better optimization of the
NNs. Finding optimal set of rules that govern the data under study that can help
selecting inputs for the NN, which means saving costs and time and boosting for
better NN performance. For example: NNs hybrid models with Genetic Algorithm
(GA) are suggested to be more effective in classifying financially distressed firms
than traditional BPNN [36].
Ferreira et al. (2008) used modified genetic algorithm in a new hybrid model with
MLP ANN for time series forecasting [90]. The GA function to address the issue
of big number of parameters and to tackle the difficulty of obtaining an analytical
solution. GA used to reach best solution. In their suggested model, they defined
three dimensions of parameters for the algorithm scheme: (1) the number of time lag
for selecting observation for the series, (2) the number of the transfer functions in
the ANN hidden layer, (3) the training algorithm for the ANN. The criterion to be
reached by the network in each run is the minimum fitness value identified by the
following function:
1
Fitness
1 + Mean Squared Error
Ferreira et al. (2008) trained and verified their time series prediction NN with the
utilization of GA. Tiago generated a population of individuals (represented by a
chromosome) in each round [90]. Each chromosome composed of a three-layer ANN.
Each layer are defined by one of the three parameters mentioned above consequently
(i.e. first layer is defined by the number of time lags, the second layer is composed of
a number of hidden processing units (sigmoidal units) and the third layer is composed
of one linear processing unit) [90].
The mechanism of the GA applied by Ferreira et al. (2008) is as follows: each
individual chromosome will evolve as replicas from different initial ANN state and
hold out cross validation set. The round replica fulfill the minimum fitness function.
Above is selected to represent the best individual of the population. When minimum
fitness is reached, stopping criterion is activated for that individual and the GA
evolved towards a good fitness solution. Therefore, a number of generations of best
individuals are created and new fitness evolutions grow up, if the fitness of the best
individual has attained or surpassed the initial value identified in the previous round.
Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative factors in researches with NNs.
Hybrid statistical/ANN models Yim and Mitchell (2005) suggest that using hybrid
models of NNs and statistical techniques may help overcome two of NNs obstacles
as follows:
– Selecting input variables for the neuron using statistical model (like Discriminant
Analysis) reduces the risk of over fitting and the time consumed to select the model.
– Condensing information efficiently by using output from statistical model as input
to the NN,
– And/or using statistical models in input and output selection for the neuron [56].
Statistical techniques could help in training the NNs also. Sometimes training algo-
rithms for the ANN could be inefficient, so, Sarle (1994) suggest using some statis-
tical procedures of a common statistical software package to be used for training of
various non-typical ANN [18].
Mira and Sandoval (1995) deduce an improved algorithm for the training of feed
forward neural networks with incomplete data based on maximum likelihood con-
siderations [86].
6 Conclusion
This chapter highlights the importance of using ANN, one of the data mining tech-
niques that can resolve actual problems in business. ANN should not replace statis-
tical methods. They are complementary tools with overlap in theoretical and appli-
cation of fields. Further research should be directed towards the development and
evaluation of ANN method in business researches. Future research on ANN could
engage in hybrid methods including non-typical approaches and traditional statistical
models.
Appendix
Neural network terminology Statistical modelling terminology

Neural network Model
Synapses, weights, connectivity, etc. Coefficients of the model
Inputs Independent variables
Outputs Dependent variables
Outcome or target Expected value
Node Logistic regression
Hidden layer Intermediate set of logistic regressions
Learning Coefficient estimation
Supervised learning Regression, discriminant analysis, etc.
Unsupervised learning Principal components and cluster analyses
Architecture Model description (e.g., number of nodes and
layers)
Convergence In-sample performance
Generalisation Out-of-sample performance
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(2008)
Research Skills for Business Researchers
Bayan Khalifa
1 Introduction
It has been proved that a researcher cannot conduct research just through learning
research methodologies and carrying out relevant tasks. Rather, he/she should have
specific skills to help him/her meritoriously carry out these tasks. Skill can be defined
as the ability to do something effectively, especially through deliberate practice.
Hence, we can define research skills as the abilities that help a researcher conduct
research effectively, especially through deliberate practice.
Research skills vary according to their relevance from technical skills to soft
skills. Technical skills lie in the core of research work and are inevitable to conduct
it. In this chapter, they represent three skills: using library resources, data analysis,
and technical writing. The other part of research skills is soft skills. These skills
are not inherited in the research work; however, essentials to conduct it. In this
chapter, ten soft skills are presented: patience, listening, asking good questions, doing
parallel tasks, time management, self-learning, critical thinking, team working and
networking, presenting, and emotional intelligence (Fig. 1).
This chapter is not only a conceptual one. It embedded practical parts with strate-
gies and principles to help acquire and develop targeted tasks. Some of these strategies
are skill-specific and are incorporated when discussing their relevant skills. Addi-
tionally, the ten principles are general and can be applied to different skills, which
are discussed at the end of the chapter.
B. Khalifa (B)
Department of Management, Faculty of Business Administration, Arab International University,
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: bayan.khalifa@outlook.com

162 B. Khalifa
Fig. 1 Research skills for business researchers
2 Technical Skills
2.1 Using Library Resources
To design and conduct research, researchers should first be able to effectively use
library resources. Yin’s work [1] stated that the skill means spending effective time
in an academic library in a way that yields a review for the literature.
The skill, thus, includes being able to allocate studies, whether they are books,
journals, conferences, etc. It also means the ability to choose which of these resources
needs to be included in the literature review report, and finally, analytically summarize
them in a report.
Yin’s work [1] elaborated that the researchers’ skill could be developed over time
through engaging a library and with experiences that began in our childhood. Over
time and with practice, a researcher can learn how to access library resources, locate
them, evaluate the quality and relevance of them, and summarize them in a review.
2.2 Data Analysis
Analysis is the ability to collect relevant data, clean it and manipulate it in a way
that enable describing phenomena; discover patterns, connections, and predictions
and make decisions. The data analysis skills can be grouped according to the three
steps: data collection step, data cleaning step, and the analyzing step.
The first step in the data analysis process is the data collection step. In this step,
a researcher should be able to identify the appropriate source of data. He/she should
also be able to identify the participants of a study; the population, the type, and
the size of the sample. Additionally, determining the appropriate type of data to
Research Skills for Business Researchers 163
be collected is another decision that should be made by the researcher. Finally, the
researcher should consider locating an effective data collection instrument [1].
The second step in the data analysis process is the data cleaning step. Once the data
is collected and recorded, it should be screened for incompleteness, duplications and
errors. Several techniques could be used according to the type of data. For example,
Microsoft Excel can be used for screening quantitative data, whereas textual data
spell-checkers can be used for qualitative data.
The third and final process, in the data analysis is the analyzing step. The step
contains the ability to select the appropriate method for manipulating data, mathe-
matical or otherwise. A researcher should be aware of the assumptions, outcomes
and limitations of each method. He/she should then be able to judge and interpret
the computed results. Being able to effectively use analysis software, e.g., SPSS,
EViews, Amos, etc., is an important component of this skill.
2.3 Technical Writing
In order for a researcher to communicate his ideas with the scientific community,
he/she should have an excellent technical writing. Yin [1] stated that writing is more
than recording ideas on paper or in a computer file. Rather, it is also organizing ideas,
writing for permission to use someone else’s survey responses, preparing interview
questions, writing for permission to access a work field, taking notes during a field
work, etc.
The skill also includes being able to write for several audiences. For example, a
researcher needs a more academic style when writing to his/her supervisor unlike
when writing to a public audience. Moreover, he/she needs a more robust style when
writing to an academic journal.
Acquiring a proper technical writing skill must not be taken for granted. Instead,
excellent writers usually develop numerous drafts, receives feedback from others,
review their outlines and finally reach a final version of their work.
3 Soft Skills
3.1 Patience
Patience refers to the ability to stick to the researcher’s target in the face of the
inevitable frustrations, uncertainties, and even pleasantries that he/she may confront
while doing his research [2]. In the field of social sciences, the researcher may also
need to deal with embarrassing or difficult people or situations.
The patience skill includes not only the ability to move forward with the research
despite these situations, but also the ability to positively overcome them.
164 B. Khalifa
For example, in action research, the researcher should be able to overcome the
awkwardness of the first few field visits, pretend to enjoy the items ‘intensely dis-
liked’ with participants, and overcome stress [3]. Furthermore, an interview with a
participant may last up to two hours. Thus, the researcher should be able to keep
encouraging participants to have the time and opportunity to reconstruct their own
experiences in their own words. In addition, the researcher should preserve comfort
and calmness while participants express ideas that may bother him.
3.2 Listening
The listening skill is considered to be a very important skill, especially in the quali-
tative research field work. The work of Creswell [2] explained that the listening skill
exceeds the form of hearing to call upon all of the researcher’s senses, including the
intuition.
The targeted skill here is to be able to capture the most possible amount of infor-
mation about the environment. The capturing could be explicit or inferential. For
example, listening can begin when a researcher engages in a group of participants
and listen to their words. The researcher then is desired to be able to recognize the
pitch and tone of conversations and the body language of the participants in order
to “listen between the lines”, which may reveal participants’ motives, intentions, or
deeper meanings. The more the researcher is able to listen for those signals, the better
his field work will be.
Creswell [2] suggested that listening also has a specific visual mode, which takes
the form of being an observant. For example, your research work may require the
observation of the crowd, scanning the people around you and finding a particular
person or object.
Listening may also include the time or pace of an environment, commotions, and
the general stress that seems to be in the air. The more the researcher is able to
measure these features, the preciser and richer his field work is.
3.3 Asking Good Questions
Rather than only searching for answers, asking good questions can help you getting
an excellent research. Without asking good questions, a researcher risk of collecting
tremendous amounts of irrelevant data is high and might simultaneously lead to miss
other important information.
The researcher should keep asking a series of good questions from the beginning
until the end of his research work. For example, a researcher should ask himself:
why am I going to choose this research topic? Is it in line with the recent trends?
Whom would it be useful for? Is it important for the scholar work? etc.
The skill is also largely needed while doing qualitative field work, e.g. interviews
and focus groups. A researcher is expected to be a good active listener; he should not
be a passive one. The participants may over-express their opinions and maybe their
experiences in life, which might take the conversation to another way than expected
and that is less useful for the researcher. Thus, the researcher is expected to keep the
conversations in a way that yield to the most relevant data.
3.4 Doing Parallel Tasks
Rather than working in a linear approach, researchers usually need to work in a

recursive way. This intensifies the competence of doing parallel tasks. For example,
the qualitative researcher will have to be able to take field notes while making field
observations, or take notes at a meeting while managing a conversation.
The researcher should keep up with such tasks over a long period of time. Some-
times, if a researcher put his pen down, an unexpected field event might suddenly
happen. Thus, the researcher should be able to overcome fatigue and only take breaks
when leaving the research field to a private environment.
Other multitasking forms in qualitative research lies in the need to merge different
research phases such as data collection and data analysis. For example, while the
researcher is collecting data, he will simultaneously need to be thinking about their
analytic implications, in order to determine whether it is needed to collect additional
data to confirm or to augment the collected data.
Another realistic example could be that a qualitative researcher may need to
simultaneously listen to a participant in an interview, observe his/her body language
that might have different cultural meanings, put attention to the participant, take
notes, and think about the next follow-up question.
3.5 Time Management
Perhaps the most challenging feature of the research career is its unstructured nature.
This means that while a researcher is carrying multiple responsibilities, he/she is
expected to experience various distractions that can disrupt research productivity.
Therefore, time management can have a critical role. If a researcher fails to manage
time, he/she might end up with a very low productivity. Furthermore, the advantages
of effective time management may expand to increase job satisfaction and low-stress
outcomes [4].
Claessens et al. [4] defined time management as “deliberate actions aimed at the
effective use of time to achieve specific goal-directed activities; is a skill necessary to
maintaining scholarly productivity”. Several strategies can help researchers manage
their time, in order to reach more success in their research work. Some of these
strategies are:
166 B. Khalifa
– Setting realistic goals. Researchers should identify measurable, challenging, and

attainable goals, and direct their efforts towards them. These goals could be cat-
egorized as long-term goals, e.g. publishing a research article, and short-term
goals, e.g. finishing an assignment. Further, a researcher should periodically
review his/her goals in order to evaluate performance and recognize potential
barriers/facilitators.
– Prioritizing. Prioritizing goals is a critical part in time management. A researcher
should arrange his/her goals according to priority and start working considering
these priorities. Although priorities differ from a researcher to another, it is highly
recommended to prioritize the researcher spirituality, health, and social life. With-
out these priorities, the researcher’s energy would fade over time. Additionally,
he/she would not be able to feel the happiness of achievements. Finally, a researcher
should learn to say “no” for distractions.
– Overcoming the desire for perfection. Perfection appears as an enemy of time. It
is very important for a researcher to target high-quality work. However, target-
ing perfection is not in favour of him/her. For example, a researcher may spend
much time trying to capture all the articles related to his/her topic of study. He/she
may also overly spend time reviewing his/her work and making adjustments. These
behaviours will possibly end up with breaking deadlines or neglecting other impor-
tant actions.
– Being flexible. Emergencies may occur to researchers in a way that can damage
robust schedules. Thus, a researcher should maintain flexible schedules. He/she
may leave a number of hours at the weekend to cover emergencies. Moreover, in
case that his/her time priorities change, it is suggested to exchange the schedule
tasks without neglecting any of them.
– Self -rewarding. Self-rewarding is proved to raise the motivation for work. It is
suggested that a researcher directly reward him/herself after achieving the sched-
uled goals. In case of big projects, it would be a good idea to reward him/herself
after completing parts instead of waiting for the completion of the entire project
[5, 6].
3.6 Self-learning
As society moves from the age of information scarceness to the age of ample one,
self-learning emerges as an opportunity for those who seek success in their lives, con-
taining researchers. It is defined as “an active and constructive process where learners
set goals, monitor their learning, and participate their learning cognitively, motiva-
tionally and metacognitively through controlling their motives and cognitions” [7].
With the dominance of online resources, researchers are now able to learn almost
what they want. They have been able to acquire the knowledge and the skills that
they need when they need it, in order to advance their research performance. Such
learning style results in many achievement ranges such as learning something new,
feeling better about herself/himself as a learner, personal freedom, changed learning

beliefs, new career interest, getting certificate, getting a new job, etc. [8].
Several strategies are sought to raise the effectiveness of self-learning:
– Selectivity. Keeping in mind the huge mass of information available at the differ-
ent sources, researchers should pay attention to select the information that best
contribute to their research achievement. They should be aware of the credibility
and quality of the learning sources. They should also select the information that
is most relevant to their goals.
– Decentralizing the sources of self -learning. Although a researcher might keep
focus on a piece of information, he/she might be having trouble to comprehend it.
Using different sources of information can make the picture clearer. It is suggested
that a researcher use multiple sources such as books, articles, online lectures,
podcasts, and webinars. The wider a researcher’s base is, the more effective self-
learning will be.
– Consult an expert. Although a researcher can highly benefit from self-learning,
he/she can maximize these benefits when consulting an expert in his/her self-
learning journey. Consulting an expert can save time and can direct the researcher
to more effective learning sources and strategies. The expert can be a professor, a
colleague, a friend or a learning community.
3.7 Critical Thinking
Although academic research comprises collecting information, analyzing data and

reporting results, it cannot merely be conducted based on such actions. Academic
research cannot be achieved without raising questions, creating ideas, evaluating per-
spectives and developing arguments, which are all critical thinking aspects. Critical
thinking is defined as “the ability to raise and examine an issue from different per-
spectives by providing supporting and opposing arguments and exploring its reasons
and consequences. Moreover, this examination should be based on reliable evidence
gathered from various sources as well as a personal opinion, which has to be, prefer-
ably, skeptical and questionable to avoid bias” [9]. Critical thinking is proved to
develop academic achievements and considered as an important tool for researchers.
Despite the fact that humans are naturally born with the ability of thinking, critical
thinking is a skill, acquired and developed through several strategies:
– Questioning. Raising thought-provoking questions can develop a researcher’s crit-
ical thinking. He/she could raise questions such as “what would happen if …”
(prediction), “what is the difference between … and …” (comparison), or “what
is another way to look at …” (taking other perspectives) [10]. A researcher may
also question the assumptions he/she believe and the small norms that are usually
taken for granted.
168 B. Khalifa
– Role-playing [10]. Putting oneself in the shoes of others can help imagining their
perspectives, feelings, opinions, and behaviours. Applying this strategy helps a
researcher to be more persuasive in his/her arguments.
– Reading great works. Reading thought-provoking books and articles can also
develop critical thinking skills. The strategy suggests engaging deeply in the read-
ings, reflecting on what is read, and discussing it with others. A researcher may
also benefit from joining reading communities to develop the skill.
– Surrounding oneself with people smarter than him/herself. It has been claimed
that if you are the smartest person in the room, then you are in the wrong room.
Engaging with smarter persons help a researcher nurtures his motivation, sharpen
his thoughts, and recognizes new experiences.
3.8 Team Working and Networking
Academic research does not only mean to sit in front of a laptop or to collect and
handle information. Conducting a high-quality research is also a matter of team
working and networking.
Team working can happen when engaging other people to assist a researcher
in conducting his/her research. For example, a researcher might need company for
security reasons during the fieldwork [11], due to differences in gender and culture.
A researcher may also need other colleagues to perform some research functions. For
instance, when a study needs intensive data collection or collecting data from multiple
sites, a researcher may engage other colleagues in the data collection process. Such
colleagues might be involved for subjectivity reasons, i.e. when coding qualitative
data; more than one researcher is needed to increase the reliability of the coding.
The more advanced form of team working lies in research collaboration. Research
collaboration is defined as “doing research activities with someone outside the
respondent’s department with the aim of generating output” [12]. Based on this
definition, a business researcher who works with another business researcher would
not count as collaboration. However, a business researcher who works with a biology
researcher would count as collaboration. Research collaboration can enhance access
to resources and expertise and increase visibility and prestige [13]. This type of col-
laboration, especially international ones, can also solve complex problems and reach
high-quality research. Such collaborations usually begin with informal relationships
and communications, and ends up with a formal collaboration.
In addition to team working, researchers should improve their skills in profes-
sional networking. Professional networking is described as contacting others through
conversations, where advices or research issues could arise [12]. Research shows
that affective, informal and non-structured relationships, implanted in professional
networks, improve research productivity. They embed diversity and give access to
resources and opportunities as well as information paths that are expected to reach
research success.
Researchers should improve their team working and networking skills. Such
improvement could occur using several strategies:
– Engaging in the academic community. A researcher should surround him/herself
with colleagues from the same and other disciplines. It is advised that he/she join
conferences, workshops, seminars, etc. to communicate with them. He/She might
also use social networks such as Research Gate, LinkedIn, Academia, Mendeley,
etc.
– Knowing each other. Different researchers are expected to have different interests,
targets, and backgrounds. Therefore, knowing each other helps to build mutual
concepts.
– Support. Researchers should support each other by sharing resources, knowledge
and expertise. Such support might build confidence and loyalty, which give the
opportunity to strengthen relationships.
– Responsibility. All researchers should clearly know their roles. They should,
accordingly, display responsibility and accountability on what needs to be done.
3.9 Presenting
In addition to handling a research through a written report, a researcher needs to

present his/her work as well. He/she might present his/her work to a supervisor, as a
requirement for completing a course or complementing the curriculum vitae he/she
might also present the work in a conference. Hence, a researcher should develop
presentation skills to convey the importance of his/her work. Developing this skill
can happen by using several techniques such as:
– Preparing. In almost every presentation, an audience will recognize who is pre-
pared and who is not. A presenter should prepare him/herself before introducing
his work. He/she might do his/her presentation in front of friends or family. He/she
should consider their feedback and repeat it several times. Practicing in front of a
mirror would also help to recognize body language and improve the own perfor-
mance. All in all, “practice makes it perfect”.
– Looking neat. In order to be persuasive in his/her presentation, a presenter should
dress well. He/she should select neat, clean, and professional clothes. Being metic-
ulous about hair and shoes also counts.
– Having a positive attitude. It is very important to maintain a positive attitude while
presenting. A presenter should speak confidently to his audience. Smiling to them
will also have a positive affection. Displaying a sense of humour can also help
when is used politely, professionally and moderately.
– Controlling voice tone. To keep the audience engaged, a presenter should make
infection in his/her voice. He/she should be excited about the topic presented.
He/she should speak loudly, but not yell, vary his/her tone, and use silence at
places to let the audience digest the presented information.
170 B. Khalifa
– Controlling body language. A presenter should not step back and forth or walk out
of nervousness. Rather, he/she should be calm and confident. Making eye contact,
without focusing only on certain parts of the audience, will keep the audience
engaged. Additionally, using hands to emphasize points can make them more
persuasive and interesting.
3.10 Emotional Intelligence
Although learning is seen as acquiring, storing and manipulating information, a new

trend in educational psychology has proposed that academic achievement is subject
to motivations and emotions as far as cognitive factors [14]. Accordingly, emotional
intelligence can be considered as an important research skill.
Emotional intelligence is defined as “the capacity of an individual to monitor their
own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the
information to guide their thinking and actions” [15]. It comprises four domains:
self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management
[16]. The concept, thus, implies that people, who are able to control their negative
emotions and replace them with positive ones, are more able to manage themselves
and their surroundings. They are less likely to become irritated or dejected, when
facing different inevitable unfavorable situations in life or when giving up on their
targets. More specifically, the cause-effect is a two-way relation. It can cause positive
emotions such as pleasure and hope, which can be responsible for targeted achieve-
ments and similarly boredom and nervousness, which can led to failure and impact
on targeted achievement [17].
In this way, emotional intelligence can have its effects on research achievement.
Successful researchers are those who have personal abilities and flexibility. They
have the abilities to manage stressful situations in a calm and proactive manner, and
are capable of identifying and solving possible problems.
Several strategies are expected to improve emotional intelligence:
– Noticing self -emotions. It is important that a researcher notice at the end of the
day how he/she feels about the different experiences, e.g. how he/she feels when
he has been denied from access to a fieldwork. It is also important to recognize
his/her reactions to the different feelings; e.g. what does he/she do when he/she
has been embarrassed by an interviewee? Writing emotions on a piece of paper
can help better recognizing them.
– Being open-minded. An open-minded researcher can be able to keep calm, learn
new insights and deal with conflicts. In an interview, for example, openly listening
to a participant will neutralize the interviewer perspective and yield to the real
perspectives of the participants. In addition, listening to conflicting debates can
help a researcher have broader knowledge and understanding.
– Improving empathy. Empathy means being able to recognize the feelings of others
and share these feelings with them. It can help a researcher more deeply under-
standing the participant in a fieldwork and reflect this understanding in his/her

work. Empathy can be improved by listening to others, reading their body lan-
guage, and sometimes directly asking them about their feelings.
4 How to Acquire and Develop a Skill?
Acquiring and developing research skills are challenges encountered by researchers.

The process of acquisition and development is a matter of hard work and time.
However, extensive research shows that many people not only fail to become high
performers at what they do, despite the years spent doing it, but also they do not even
get better than they used to be when they started [18].
This is due to their unfavorable way of practice. Research shows that effective
practice should be intentional, planned, and systematic. In this part, ten principles
are shown for effectively acquiring and developing skills [19].
4.1 Choose a Favourable Project
Naturally, people learn faster about things that they care than things they do not. The
more excited and motivated a researcher is about a project or a problem, the more
quickly he will acquire its relevant skills.
4.2 Focus Your Energy on One Skill at a Time
Acquiring new skills requires concentration and attention. If you have one or two
hours a day to dedicate on acquiring and developing your skills, do not spread your
time and energy over several skills. Rather, try to focus only on one.
4.3 Define Your Target Performance Level
A target performance is defined as the statement that reflects how well your desired
performance at the desired skill is. According to your target performance, you will
clearly dedicate your time and effort. If you are targeting a world-class mastery, then
you should dedicate 10,000 h of deliberate practice. However, if you just want to
reach a decent and not embarrassing performance, 20 h of practice might be enough.
172 B. Khalifa
4.4 Deconstruct the Skill into Subskills
Almost every skills consist of several subskills. Once you have determined a skill to
focus on, break the skill down into the smallest possible parts. Deconstructing skills
helps focusing on the most critical parts/subskills in the targeted skill.
4.5 Obtain Critical Tools
Critical tools are the components, resources, or environment that should be obtained
to perform the skill. For example, if you would like to develop your data analysis
skill, you need to have a computer with a data analysis software. By ensuring the
availability of such tools, you will be able to maximize your practice time.
4.6 Eliminate Barriers to Practice
Barriers of practice are things that can hinder practice. These barriers could be
unavailable tools. They can also be environmental distractions such as incoming
calls or emails. They could also be emotional barriers as fear or embarrassment.
4.7 Dedicate Time for Practice
Rather than practicing a skill in your free time, you should just dedicate time to
practice a skill. Unfortunately, we usually want to acquire new skills while watching
TV, playing, etc. The best approach to make time for acquiring the skill is to iden-
tify low-value activities and plan to eliminate them. By eliminating them, you can
dedicate more time for skill acquisition. It is recommended to locate at least ninety
minutes a day for a skill. The first days might be hard. However, more practice will
make things better.
4.8 Create Fast Feedback Loops
Fast feedback means getting information about how well are you performing, as soon
as possible. The received information should be used to adjust your performance.
You can get feedback from experienced mentors or devices that can indicate errors
like computer programs.
4.9 Practice by the Clock in Short Bursts
Get a countdown timer and set it for twenty minutes. In the early phases of practice,
time might pass slowly and you will feel that you have been practicing for a long
time. The solution for this is to practice with the timer, no matter how tired and
frustrated you get. Set aside time for three to five such practice sessions a day.
4.10 Emphasize Quantity and Speed at the Beginning
In the early phases of practice, you may reach frustration. Rather than trying to be
perfect, focus on quantity and speed, while keeping a “good enough” level.
If you consider the above ten principles of skill acquiring and developing, you
will get your skills in the most efficient and effective form.
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Qualitative Research, 4th edn. (Pearson Education, Boston, MA, 2012)
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2013)
Surveys and Questionnaires
Serene Dalati and Jorge Marx Gómez
1 Introduction
Survey questionnaire is one of the classical approaches and methods of collecting pri-
mary data. A survey questionnaire is a research instrument which is employed by the
researcher to collect data and information about the subject of study. The purpose of
this chapter is to examine survey questionnaire as one of the methods applied in col-
lecting primary data. The process of developing self-administered questionnaires is
examined by clarifying the advantages and disadvantages of this instrument. Ques-
tionnaire design is a multifaceted process which requires careful consideration of
different factors including purpose and objectives of the study, questionnaire format,
response strategy and unit of analysis as well as different related factors. Survey
questionnaires lack the comprehensive aspect of an interview, however, it is con-
sidered as an efficient instrument for data collection. The scope of this chapter is
within business research studies, therefore examples and an illustration will be pro-
vided from research in business fields. The target audience focuses on students and
researchers of business studies with an orientation towards behavioural management
and marketing research. It could be argued that the competitive advantage of this
chapter is simplicity, clarity and an attempt to illustrate the crucial aspect related to
survey questionnaire design.
S. Dalati
Faculty of Business Administration, Management Department, Arab International University,
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: s-dalati@aiu.edu.sy
J. Marx Gómez (B)
Department of Business Information Systems, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
e-mail: jorge.marx.gomez@uni-oldenburg.de

176 S. Dalati and J. M. Gómez
2 Data Sources and Authority
This section aims to shed light on the nature and sources of data used in business
research. This chapter clarifies mainly two sources and levels of data. Primary and
secondary levels of data are examined. This section shall illustrate the nature of
primary and secondary data and the sources these data could be obtained from.
2.1 Primary Data
Primary data is collected for the exclusive purpose, the research study [1, 2]. The
collection of primary data can be obtained through observations, semi-structured
and in-depth interviews and questionnaires [3]. Observation involves the systematic
observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour
[3]. The second method of collecting primary data are semi-structured and in-depth
interviews, which can help researchers, gather valid and reliable data for the purpose
of the research they are conducting [3].
2.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data is gathered and collected by someone else prior to the research and
for purposes other than the current needs of the researcher [1]. Secondary data is usu-
ally historical and already collected. For example, databases like Bankscope or the
Security Statistics contain broad, generally historical and statistical data about finan-
cial markets and banking organisations, which can be quite useful to the particular
needs of a specific research study about financial organisations in the UK. Collecting
secondary data has advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of secondary data
is that obtaining this kind of data is not expensive and that secondary data can be
obtained more rapidly than primary data [1]. The financial and time factors play an
important role in the success of the research and secondary data could save on both
elements. Collecting data that has been already collected and tested would save the
researcher doing the fieldwork [2]. One of the disadvantages of secondary data is
that it is obtained from data resources which are not designed to meet the specific
needs of the research and the researcher. Does the data apply to the population of
interest? Is the subject matter consistent with the research problem of definition?
Surveys and Questionnaires 177
Approaches on collecting Primary Data
Observation Approach Communicatin Approach
Behavioral Observation
Self administered Survey
Phone Interview
Non Behavioral Observation
Personal Interview
Fig. 1 Approaches on collecting primary data
3 Approaches on Collecting Primary Data
Collection of primary data may be applied through different approaches [4]. Data col-
lection methods have been grouped into three categories consisting of observational
methods, interviews and questionnaire surveys [5]. Two main approaches on collect-
ing primary data are examined. The first approach follows an observation method
in which the researcher observes conditions, behaviour, events, people or processes.
The second approach follows a communication method in which the researcher com-
municates with respondents about the topic or research study. This could include
examining attitudes, studying causes and nature of certain behavioural phenomena
as job satisfaction, employee motivation or leadership behaviours. Figure 1 illustrates
two main approaches on collecting primary data [6].
4 Self-administered Survey Questionnaires
Self-administered survey questionnaires could be conducted though different chan-

nels including mail, fax, computer, email, or the internet. Alternatively a combined
approach could also be applied, subject to the requirement of the research study
and nature of the environment under which the research is being undertaken. For
example, it could be argued that in a business and social environment in Syria, post
mail or paper and pencil survey questionnaire approaches would be a better strategy
than an online survey questionnaire, because Syrian respondents are still not familiar
with the online environment. Technology is a significant factor in the investigation
of the most appropriate approaches for survey questionnaires. The rapidly changing
technology around the globe has played a significant role in survey research. In mod-
ern and advanced technology environments, paper and pencil survey questionnaires
were replaced by computerised and online questionnaire approaches. Recent sur-
vey approaches which are rapidly growing include computer assisted data collection
(CADAC), computer assisted survey information collection (CASIC), and computer
assisted self-interviews (CASIs) [6]. Questionnaires are designed to obtain primary
data which would be used to for the purpose of the research study. The researcher
could apply a very well established approach which is a self-administered ques-
tionnaire method [7]. Postal questionnaires are very established and the traditional
approach. However, one of the drawbacks of this approach is the absence of an
interviewer to ask or clarify questions. Self-administered questionnaires are highly
structured and emphasise on closed questions as they are designed in a simplified
approach to assist the respondent to provide their responses [7].
4.1 Advantages of Self-administered Survey Questionnaire
In a study, which discussed the main advantages of the postal mail survey, the first
advantage is low cost. Economy is one of the most obvious appeals of mail ques-
tionnaire. The post mail questionnaire does not require trained staff of interviewers.
All it entails is the cost of planning, sampling, duplicating, mailing, and providing
stamped self-addressed envelopes for the returns. The second advantage is reduc-
tion in biasing error. The mail questionnaire reduces biasing error that might result
from the personal characteristics of interviewers and variability in their skills. The
third advantage is that with self-completed questionnaire there is greater anonymity.
The absence of an interviewer also provides greater anonymity. The assurance of
anonymity with mail questionnaires is especially helpful when the survey deals with
sensitive issues. On such matters, a mail survey may elicit a higher response rate than
a personal interview. The fourth advantage is considered answers and consultations.
Mail questionnaires are also preferable when questions demand considered answers
or if the answer requires consulting personal documents or other people. The last
advantage is accessibility. Survey questionnaires permit wide geographic contact at
minimal cost [5].
In a study by Alan Bryman (2004), one of the advantages of self-completion ques-
tionnaires is that it is less costly to administer as interviews can be time consuming
and more expensive [7]. Questionnaires can also be quicker bearing in mind that ques-
tionnaires do not come back immediately and may take several weeks to be returned.
Another advantage would be the invariability of questions in the sense that there
is no interviewer who asks questions in a different order of different approaches,
meaning that there is no interviewer influence. Self-completed questionnaires are
also more convenient for respondents as they can answer them at their own con-
venience and speed [7]. Cooper and Schindler (2014) point out that advantages of
self-administered survey questionnaire include less cost, sample accessibility, effi-
ciency in time, anonymity and topic coverage [6].
4.2 Disadvantages of Self-administered Survey Questionnaire
With the disadvantage of the self-completion questionnaire, there are a number of

elements such as the possibility that the respondent does not clearly understand the
questions and that there is no opportunity to probe the respondent to elaborate, espe-
cially if the questions were designed as open-ended. Also there is a possibility of
missing data, which happens as the respondent does not answer all the questions
listed. The ambiguity of the identity of the respondents who participated can addi-
tionally be considered as a disadvantage, as with postal questionnaires the researcher
can never be sure who really completed the questions [7].
5 Disguising the Purpose of Research Study Survey
In certain situations the true purpose of the research study is disguised and con-
cealed for different purposes which could include disguising the identity of the
research study sponsor, or to obtain unbiased data. If that is the case a disguised
question approach is designed to conceal the real purpose of the questionnaire [6]. In
some cases where the purpose of the study examines an ethical problem or socially
unacceptable behaviour, research respondents may be aware of the true answer but
unwilling to provide it. In this case a disguised question technique could be applied
to encourage the respondent to provide true answers and avoid giving biased or
stereotypical data.
Here is an example of a research study, which examines the types of unethical
behaviour and cheating among undergraduate students [4]. In this case the unit of
analysis, which is the undergraduate student, may be able to provide the right infor-
mation, but unwilling to share it because it would implicate them. The researcher
could follow either a non-disguised question approach to obtain data for the ques-
tions designed in the questionnaire or disguised question approaches to guarantee
true or arguably an unbiased response. Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the difference between
projective and non-projective approaches.
In Example A, the researcher has followed a direct non-projective approach in
designing questionnaire items. In consequence, and because of the nature of research
study, there is a considerable possibility that the respondent will not provide accurate
and true answers due to the sensitive nature of the questions, which would implicate
the respondent.
In Example B, the researcher has followed an indirect projective approach in
designing questionnaire items. It is argued that there is a better possibility that the
Table 1 Non-projective approach

Example A
As a student at XYZ University, have you ever been engaged in
the following behaviours? Please code your degree of agreement
or disagreement with the following statements
Scale: 1—strongly disagree; 1 2 3 4 5
2—agree; 3—not sure;
4—disagree; 5—strongly agree
1. Comunicating answers to a
friend during exam
2. Hacking into university
computers to obtain exam
questions
3. Peaking at a neighbour exam
during a test
4. Using a term paper that is
purchased or borrowed from
someone else
Table 2 Projective approach

Example B
As student at XY University, have you ever seen or observed a
student who has been engaged in the following behaviours?
Please code your degree of agreement or disagreement with the
following statements
Scale: 1—strongly disagree; 1 2 3 4 5
2—agree; 3—not sure;
4—disagree; 5—strongly agree
1. Comunicating answers to a
friend during exam
2. Hacking into university
computers to obtain exam
questions
3. Peaking at a neighbour exam
during a test
4. Using a term paper that is
purchased or borrowed from
someone else
researcher will obtain more accurate data through the second approach as no legal
or ethical implication would be related to the respondent.
6 Questionnaire Design
In the process of questionnaire design, the researcher could have an alternative of

employing hybrid strategy and thus apply a combination of previously developed
questionnaires, licensing previously developed questions or developing an original
questionnaire to undertake the specific objectives of research. In the process of ques-
tionnaire design the researcher considers factors that are taken into consideration.
These factors include careful design of the structure of questionnaire, questionnaire
content and wording, and questionnaire response strategy. The chapter introduces
the W model of questionnaire design.
6.1 6-W Model of Questionnaire Design
The 6-W model has been developed in this chapter to examine crucial questions that
researchers should consider in the process of questionnaire design. The 6-W model
of questionnaire design introduces a set of questions, which examine best approaches
that the researcher needs to take into consideration in the process of questionnaire
design. They are:
– What is the appropriate type of scale required to perform the research analysis?
– What type of response strategy is required (structured or unstructured)?
– What type of communication approach is required (disguised or non-disguised)?
– What is the unit of analysis that the questionnaire is designed for?
– What questionnaire sequence should for the questions be arranged?
– What questionnaire layout is required to accomplish research objectives?
6.2 Questionnaire Sections and Structure
Organising a questionnaire structure is a vital stage in the design of questionnaires. It

is argued that questionnaires are structured into three sections, demographic, admin-
istrative, and research purpose sections [6, 8]. Figure 2 illustrates questionnaire struc-
ture categorization.
The administrative section has questions related to the identity of the participant,
the interviewer in some cases, the survey questionnaire location and certain marking
conditions related to the distribution of the questionnaire or environment in which
the survey questionnaire is being conducted. Most of these questions are usually
Questionniare Strucutre
Administrative Research Topic Classificatin

Questions Questions
Participant ID
Topic A
Demographic
Interviewer ID
Sociological
Topic B
Questionnaire
Survey
Location Geographic
Conditions Topic C
Fig. 2 Questionnaire structure
not officially stated in the questionnaire or are designed in the questionnaire layout.
However, they are very important for analysing data and studying different patterns,
which could help in discovering possible errors related to different factors including
lack of precision or inaccuracy in sampling techniques, bias or missing data.
The classification section identifies certain demographical, sociological and geo-
graphical factors including gender, race, nationality, education, year of birth and
other variables that could be related to the research study.
Research topic questions examine research study variables, which comprise of the
research framework and constitutes the relationships between variables of study. In
the example of a research study, which examines the relationship between sustainable
leadership and organisational trust in Higher Education in Syria, the methodology
is based on self-administered questionnaire survey. The research topic questions
would be examining a set of measurement questions for sustainable leadership and
organisational trust in Higher Education institutions.
6.3 Questionnaire Items, Content and Wording
The questions’ content is related to the theoretical aspect when the instrument
designer is developing the final questionnaire. The questionnaire designer examines
the questions’ content in terms of the relations to the concepts, constructs and opera-
tional definitions of the study. The researcher, who is in this case also the instrument
designer, defines the variables of the study, develops operational definitions, and
designs the questionnaire by transforming the constructs of the study or the opera-
tional definitions into questionnaire items. In this process, the instrument designer
must examine the relevancy and scope of questions. In addition, respondent’s
ability and willingness to answer the questions must be considered. Reliability and
validity of an instrument must be considered in the process of questionnaire design.
Reliability and validity of the questionnaire are related to developing accurate
instruments. Questionnaire relevancy is crucially important and means that the data
and information collected accurately addresses the research study objectives [2].
Questionnaire wording is another crucial factor, which plays a role to the success
or failure of a questionnaire. The questionnaire designer should consider clarity and
simplicity of words and vocabulary in the instrument. Clarity, simplicity and shared
understanding of vocabulary employed in the questionnaire is crucial to instrument
success. Questionnaire designer must take into consideration terms or vocabularies
that could be biased or misleading.
7 Response Strategy
Response strategy is a major factor that needs to be taken into consideration. Response
strategy refers to the degree of structure employed in the questionnaire. Questionnaire
design could follow an unstructured or structured response approach. Unstructured
responses (also referred to as open-ended responses) are designed to provide respon-
dents with the freedom to choose how to respond or answer questions. Structured
responses (also referred to as closed-ended responses or fixed-alternative questions)
are designed to provide respondents with specific responses, which can be categorised
into groups.
7.1 Open-Ended Response Questions
Open-ended questions are designed to provide respondents with freedom or to express

their opinion on the topic of research. In this approach the researcher brings a question
of study or a research problem and the respondent provides answers to the question. In
the example of MATRE survey questionnaire, which was designed to examine alumni
perception of the curricula for the Faculty of Business Administration, the final
section of the questionnaire employed an open-ended response questions. Figure 3
illustrates examples of open-ended questions employed in the survey [9].
1. What learning experiences or aspects of the major program you studied for have been
most beneficial to you in your career after graduation?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 What learning experiences or aspects of the major program you studied for have been
least beneficial to you in your career after graduation?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. If you were going to improve the major program you studied for what would be your top 3
recommendations?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What professional experiences, did you learn in the real professional world which you did
not learn or know about during your academic experience?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 3 Open-ended questions
7.2 Closed-Ended Response Questions
Closed-ended responses are designed to provide respondents with specific responses,

which can be standardised and classified into fixed alternative responses. In this
approach, the researcher brings a closed question and has fixed alternative responses
to choose from. In the example of MATRE survey questionnaire, which was designed
to examine academics perception of specific factors related to research environment
at the Higher Education in Syria and Lebanon, most of the questions employed are
closed-ended response strategy [9]. Figure 4 illustrates examples of closed-ended
questions employed in the abovementioned survey questionnaire.
Demographic Profile
Year of Birth: Gender: □ Female □ Male
Please indicate your current role in your institution other than teaching:
□ President □ Dean □ Dean’s deputy □ Head of department □
Department board member
Marital Status: Single □ Married □
Research and Publications
How many hours (on average) do you dedicate weekly to Scientific
research?
Are these hours part of your faculty job? Yes □ No □
Scale your research motivations (Rank from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates the
strongest one, 2 by the second choice and so forth):
Tenure Requirement
Financial benefits
Business Request
Career improvement
Others, specify:
Fig. 4 Closed-ended question
8 Instrument Improvement
The question design or style is another issue the researcher bears in mind when devel-
oping and building the questionnaire. One of the most significant considerations for
many researchers is whether to ask a question in an opened or closed format. In the
case of opened questions, the respondent is asked a question with no limitation or
given choices where they could choose from [7]. The respondent has the freedom
to answer as they wish. In the case of closed questions the respondent is presented
with a set of choices from which they can select an appropriate answer. With self-
completion questionnaires, most of the questions are likely to be closed [7]. The
process of developing a strongly constructed questionnaire is extremely important as
it is one of the most important reasons for accomplishing a good response rate. An
attractive layout is more likely to increase the response rate than other tactics such as
reducing the margins or space between questions [10]. Due to the low response rate
problem, it is preferable to design the questionnaire as short as possible, assuring
that the layout is easy on the eye and that it facilitates answering all the questions
that are relevant to the respondent [7]. Other methods includes building trust and
empathy with the respondents by stressing on the question of confidentiality and
anonymity. The assurance of confidentiality is predicted to increase respondents’
motivation to complete questionnaires [11]. Alternative response strategies with the
aim of improving the response rate are considered [6]. Pretesting is an advisable
approach to do before the start of study and data collection. Pretesting is the assess-
ment questionnaire item before the actual start of data collection [11].
9 Conclusion
This chapter examined self-administered survey questionnaire as an instrument of

collecting primary data in business research study. The process of questionnaire
design is examined at the aim of clarifying aspects including purpose of research
study, questionnaire format, response strategy, communication approaches and
structure.
References
1. W.G. Zikmund, Business Research Methods (The Dryden Press, Orlando, 1991)
2. W.G. Zikmund, Business Research Methods, 9th edn. (Cengage Learning, Mason, 2013)
3. M. Saunders, P. Lewis, A. Thornhill, Research Methods for Business Students, 3rd edn. (Pearson
Education Limited, Essex, 2003)
4. R.L. Daft, Leadership, 5th edn. (Cengage Learning, 2011)
5. C.F. Nachmias, D. Nachmias, Research Methods in Social Science, 4th edn. (Edward Arnold,
London, 1996)
6. D.R. Cooper, P.C. Schindler, Business Research Methods, 12th edn. (McGraw Hill, New York,
2014)
7. A. Bryman, Social Research Methods (Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2004)
2008)
9. S. Dalati, L. Koulo, MATRE Research Study on Academics at Higher Education in Syria (Arab
International University/ TEMPUS, Damascus, 2014)
10. D. Dillman, Mail and other self administered questionnaires, in Handbook of Survey Research,
ed. by P.H. Rossi, J. Wright, A. Anderson (Academic Press, Orlando, 1983)
11. D.R. Cooper, P.C. Schindler, Marketing Research, 1st edn. (McGraw Hill, New York, 2006)
Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism
in Some Higher Education Institutions
in Syria
Victoria Khnouf
1 Introduction
Plagiarism in higher education system became a worldwide phenomenon among

universities, so that a majority of teachers are failing to adequately respond to this
unethical practice, due to the huge impact of the digital means of communication
[1]. Being a growing problem, plagiarism is generally defined as “literary theft” and
“academic dishonesty” in the literature, and it is really crucial to be well-informed
on this topic to prevent the problem and stick to the ethical norms [2]. Plagiarism
is considered, among students in public and private universities in Syria within the
higher education sector, a prevalent and growing phenomenon nowadays. In order to
understand the causes of plagiarism, as a growing phenomenon, this case study has
over scanned it, by using a random sample from some public and private universities
in Syria. The exact causes of plagiarism are complex, but worth examining [3]. The
aim of this case study is to identify the main reasons why students plagiarize in some
higher education institutions in Syria.
2 Problem Background
This problem seems to be a complicated issue that we have focused in this case study
on some important factors. These questions that need to be asked:
1. Are students practicing plagiarism because of stress, lack of time or lack of

knowledge and training?
2. Is the internet helping these practices?
V. Khnouf (B)
Department of Marketing, Arab International University, Damascus, Syria
e-mail: v-khnouf@aiu.edu.sy

188 V. Khnouf
3. Is the availability of commercial offices offering assignments and senior projects

as a paid service for plagiarism problem?
4. Are their poor language skills considered as a reason to practice plagiarism?
5. Do teachers encourage plagiarism intentionally or not?
This case study focuses into the attitude of higher education’s students at the Arab
International University, and some public universities in Syria, in order to understand
the main reasons of Plagiarism.
3 Methods
3.1 Sample
The sampling method in this study is a random sampling method. The questionnaire
was distributed online to the students of the “Arab International University” and
other private universities, as well as some others public universities in Syria, by
using “Likert scale”. In total, 43 students responded to the questionnaire.
3.2 Design
This is a quantitative case study having a survey research design. To gather data, a
questionnaire was developed for this case study purpose, by adapting the “Attitude
toward Plagiarism Scale” in the work of Lin and Wen’s (2007) academic dishonesty in
higher education—a nationwide study in Taiwan [4]. A numerical scale is employed
in this study to measure students’ perception of their teachers’ response regarding
their involvement in un-ethical plagiarized behavior. Table 1 illustrates employed
semantic deferential scale.
Table 1 Numerical scale

Numerical Please evaluate the following statements and code your degree of
Scale agreement whether your teacher should or should not consider the
Level: following set of behaviours as plagiarism. Please identify using the
Interval following scale.
Teacher 5 4 3 2 1 Teacher
should shouldn’t
consider consider
this as this as
plagia- plagia-
rism rism
Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism in Some Higher … 189
37.20%
40.00%
35.00% 26.60%
30.00%
25.00% 16.30%
20.00% 14%
15.00% 7%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Teacher Teacher
shouldn’t should
consider consider
this as this as
plagiarism plagiarism
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 1 Students plagiarize due to stress factors
4 Data Analysis
4.1 Students Plagiarize Due to Stress Factor
The first statement examined stress factors students could be experiencing during
their academic study. The statement investigates whether students conceive that their
teachers will consider study stress as an acceptable excuse for plagiarism. Descriptive
Data indicates that 26.6% of students responded that teachers should not consider
this behavior as an act of plagiarism, where as 14% responded that teachers should.
Figure 1 shows that the majority of students, which were around 37.2%, believe
that their teachers would have a neutral opinion towards plagiarism behavior due to
stress factors.
4.2 Students Plagiarize Due to Lack of Time
The second statement examined is the lack of time as an excuse of plagiarism. The
statement investigates whether students conceive that their teachers will consider
lack of time as an excuse of unethical and plagiarized behavior. Figure 2 shows that
the majority of the students, which is in this case are 34.29%, have a neutral opinion
according to plagiarism due to lack of time, while 25.6% believe that teachers should
consider such behavior as plagiarism.
190 V. Khnouf
34.90%
35.00% 25.60%
30.00%
25.00% 16.30%
20.00% 11.60% 11.60%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Teacher Teacher
shouldn’t should
consider consider
this as this as
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 2 Students plagiarize due to lack of time
4.3 Students Plagiarize Due to Lack of Knowledge and

Training
Lack of knowledge and training is examined in the third statement as a possible excuse
for plagiarism among students. The statement investigates whether students conceive
that their teachers will consider this factor as an excuse for plagiarized behavior.
Figure 3 shows that the majority of the students, 30.2%, were against plagiarism due
to lack of knowledge and training, while 27.9% have a neutral opinion. 18.6% of
respondents perceive that their teacher should not consider such unethical behavior
as plagiarism.
50.00% 30.20%
27.90%
18.60% 18.60%
4.70%
0.00%
Teacher Teacher
shouldn’t should
consider consider
this as this as
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 3 Students plagiarize due to lack of knowledge

Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism in Some Higher … 191
37.20%
40.00%
20.90%
30.00% 14% 11.60% 16.30%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Teacher Teacher
shouldn’t should
consider consider
this as this as
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 4 Students plagiarize due to availability of copying from the Internet
4.4 Students Plagiarize Due to Availability of Copying from

the Internet
The fourth statement studied students’ accessibility to the internet and plagiarizing
assignments. Figure 4 shows that the majority of students which is 37.2% have
a neutral opinion, while 20.90% believe that their teachers should not hold them
accountable for cheating through the internet. 16.30% believe that their teachers
should consider copying from internet as cheating and unethical.
4.5 Students Plagiarize Due to the Availability of Commercial

Offices, Offering Paid Assignments and Senior Projects
The fifth statement studied the availability of commercial offices and services which
prepare assignments for students in return of money. Figure 5 shows that a high
percentage of students, 53.5%, are against plagiarism in this approach, meaning that
students would easily accomplish assignments without any academic effort. On the
other hand 11.60% believe that their teachers should not consider such practice as
cheating and plagiarizing.
5 Conclusion
Based on the results provided by the current case study it could be concluded that
the ethical issue towards plagiarism in higher education institutions in Syria was
approximately a responsible attitude towards students unethical behavior, partic-
ularly with regard to question 5 which studies students opinion towards students
192 V. Khnouf
53.50%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00% 18.60% 14%
11.60%
20.00% 2.30%
10.00%
0.00%
Teacher Teacher
shouldn’t should
consider this consider this
as plagiarism as plagiarism
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 5 Students plagiarize due to availability of commercial offices, offering paid assignments and
senior projects
obtaining assignments form commercial service offices. It can be considered that the
highest percentage of students are against plagiarism, especially when performing
assignments or senior projects conducted by others for particular financial reward.
As a summary, the following could be concluded that 25% of the students were
plagiarizing because of the psychological pressure, 25% of the students were against
plagiarism due to a lack of time, majority of the students are against plagiarism due
to lack of knowledge and training, 20% of the students have justified plagiarism
through the internet and more than 50% of the students are against paying money for
assignments. The case over scans the possible causes of plagiarism among students
in universities in Syria by analyzing responses and attitudes towards this unethical
practice. Decision makers in higher education institutions in Syria are advised to take
corrective actions and measures to equip students with the necessary knowledge and
skills to achieve scientific and ethical performance.
References
1. A. Abou-Setta, in Plagiarism: Is There a Solution?—A Case Study. International Conference

ICT for Language Learning, 4th edn. (PIXEL, Via Luigi Lanzi 12, Florence, Italy, 2011), pp.
1–6
2. A. Eret, T. Gokmenoglu, Soc. Behav. Sci. 2(2), 3303–3307 (2010)
3. Middle Georgia State University. Student Success Center Plagiarism Prevention Guide Why
Students Plagiarize?
4. C.H.S. Lin, L.Y.M. Wen, Academic dishonesty in higher education—a nationwide study in
Taiwan (2007)
The Case of MATRE Questionnaire for
Academics: Measurement Scales,
Lessons and Questions Reformulation
Serene Dalati
1 Introduction
The purpose of the MATRE study is to examine a number of factors related to business
research environment in Syrian Higher Education Institutions (HEI). These factors
include human resources, motivation to constructing research, technological factors,
research infrastructure, research equipment, facilities, and software programs. Fac-
tors including access to databases, scientific journals and international conference
are also factors included in this research study. Questionnaire design, measurement
scales and response types are discussed in the case with the aim of evaluating main
strength and weaknesses of the questionnaire.
2 Research Background
The prevalent organizational environment of Higher Education industry in Syria,

namely public universities, could be characterized by a traditional managerial
approaches with strong bureaucratic environment, application of outdated method-
ologies, lack of individual recognition, lack of effective encouragement of outstand-
ing performance, limited collaboration with international conferences and academic
journals, and most important, a turbulent political environment which goes back to
the last five years represented by a political and national crisis in Syria [1]. The
research environment in Syrian Higher Education could be characterized by a poten-
tial, among Syrian researchers for conducting research with a number of weaknesses
and threats which can be characterized due to the lack of solid research infrastruc-
ture (library resources, electronic databases, and access to scientific journal), lack
S. Dalati (B)
Department of Management, Faculty of Business Administration, Arab International University,
Damascus, Syria
e-mail: s-dalati@aiu.edu.sy; serene.dalati@gmail.com
194 S. Dalati
of awareness of up-to-date research methodologies, lack of individual motivation

to conduct research, and a turbulent political and economic environment in Syria
[2]. Against this background the MATRE project, which is funded by TEMPUS pro-
gram, was developed and successfully launched in 2014 with the aim of modernizing
research and teaching environment in Syria and Lebanon.
3 MATRE Survey Questionnaire Methodology
MATRE research methodology employed the application of a self-administered ques-

tionnaire as the main instrument of data collection. This, by definition, adopts a quan-
titative approach of methodology design where the questionnaire designer develops
questions to help them answer research questions and collect data under examination.
MATRE research study sample size is comprised of 38 cases selected from the Dam-
ascus University (DU), the Arab International University (AIU) and the International
University for Science and Technology (IUST). The sampling strategy employed in
MATRE research for academics follows a non-probability sampling technique.
3.1 The First Phase: Research Questionnaire Formulation

and Design
The first phase was initiated in April 2014 with the aim of examining the MATRE
project implementation plan including work packages, project wider and specific
objectives, indictors of progress and measurement of the indicators, and the assump-
tions and risks related to implementation of project. The first work package of
MATRE project examines conducting surveys and analysis on research environment
in Higher Education in Syria and Lebanon reporting on research in Business by
collecting data on active researcher and existing research publication, as well as fac-
tors related to research including research infrastructure, methodologies, required
tools, individual motivation for research, collaboration with business and interna-
tional partners and regulations and policies, related to research environment in Syria
and Lebanon.
Brainstorming sessions between project partners took place with the aim of staring
the Work Package 1 (WP1) implementation by examining the objectives of research
survey and design of survey questionnaire. Project researchers stressed the clarifi-
cation of objectives of questionnaire and factors measures. Defining the parameters
of study was a major objective prior to survey questionnaire design. Theoretical
development of the questionnaire was based on defining factors related to research
in Higher Education. Prior research examines factors related to Higher Education
and research environment including academics expertise, the courses offered, learn-
The Case of MATRE Questionnaire for Academics: Measurement … 195
ing environment, and infrastructure [3]. In addition previous literature on research

environment in Higher Education is also examined [4].
A team of researchers representing partner universities and business partners in
the MATRE project designed the survey questionnaire. The questionnaire design
process was initiated in May 2014 with first draft developed by researchers from the
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University (VGTU). The second draft was developed
by researcher from AIU and was substantially built on the first draft. Improvement
on the questionnaire layout, structure and questions wording were conducted. The
final draft was formulated by researchers from IUST and DA.
This research applies nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data. Rating scale is
applied in this research, through the use of simple category scale, multiple choice
single response, multiple choice multiple response and Likert scale. The ranking
scale is also employed in MATRE questionnaire academics study.
3.2 The Second Phase: Research Questionnaire Translation
MATRE questionnaires were originally developed in English. The second phase

comprised the translation of the questionnaires from English to Arabic. Back trans-
lation was not conducted due to lack of time. Back translation is constructed as the
scale is originally developed in English. It is advisable to conduct back translation
in cross cultural research, where the scale is designed and distributed in more than
one language [5].
Further improvement on the translation was conducted to examine minor details
related to scaling and translations. Discussion with experts from project partners
were conducted. Questionnaire translation was completed during June 2014.
3.3 The Third Phase: Combined Approaches of Data

Collection
Questionnaires were distributed to academics in Syria and Lebanon. The unit of

analysis is Higher Education academic staff. Two techniques were applied in data
collection phase including the design of online survey and the application of paper
and pencil survey questionnaire approach. Questionnaires were distributed to respon-
dents. Minor mistakes were conducted during this stage, as in the online survey
questionnaire followed a scale approach in question 14 which was different from the
original design of the questionnaire. This resulted a discrepancy in responses between
the online survey questionnaire responses and paper and pencil survey questionnaire
approach. This point will be examined in research evaluation thoroughly. Data was
collected in July 2014.
196 S. Dalati
3.4 The Fourth Phase: Data Analysis
Descriptive data analysis was conducted including the calculation of means, fre-
quencies and standard deviation of the questions. Descriptive data analysis included
respondents’ demographic profile and questionnaire target research questions.
Research data analysis was conducted during August 2014. Descriptive data analy-
sis levels, sufficient the level of significant information to make decisions related to
developing MATRE training fields and areas.
3.5 The Fifth Phase: Report Write up
The final report write up was completed in October 2014. The report was reviewed
from the MATRE project partners.
4 MATRE Questionnaire Structure
The MATRE questionnaire for academics was mainly structured into two sections,
demographic section and target research section.
4.1 Questionnaire Demographic Section
MATRE questionnaire demographic section was comprised of a set of questions

which includes personal and work related questions including date of birth, gender,
2. Gender:
□ Female □ Male
Measurement Level: Nominal 3. Nationality ……………………………..
Response Type: Categorization scale
4. Marital Status:
□ Single □ Married
Fig. 1 Demographic profile section

nationality, marital status, institution, academic and organizational roles, and educa-
tion levels. Response type scales employed in this section includes categorization and
ratio scales. Measurement levels employed in the questionnaire demographic profile
include nominal, interval and ratio levels. Response types and measurement scales
employed in this section include categorization scale. Figure 1 illustrates demo-
graphic profile questions illustrating levels of measurement and response types.
4.2 Questionnaire Target Research Section
The MATRE questionnaire target research section question examined factors related
to Business Research environment in Higher Education in Syria and Lebanon. These
factors include academic business research and publication, cooperation with busi-
ness sectors, human resources, and motivation to constructing research, technologi-
cal factors, research infrastructure, research equipment, facilities and software pro-
grams, databases, scientific journals and international conferences. Measurement
levels employed in the questionnaire target research questions include nominal, ordi-
nal, interval and ratio levels. Response types and measurement scales employed in
this section include simple category scales, multiple choice single response scale,
multiple choice multiple response scale, Likert scale, forced ranking scale and cate-
gorization scale.
4.2.1 Simple Category Scale
Simple category scale is employed in questionnaire target research questions. Exam-

ples of simple category scale are illustrated in questions 13, 18, 22, and 25. Figure 2
illustrates questions where the simple category scale is employed.
4.2.2 Multiple Choice Scale, Single Response
Multiple Choice scales are employed in the MATRE questionnaire for academics
both as single and multiple responses. Example of multiple choice, single response
is illustrated in question 31. Multiple choice, multiple responses scales are employed
in questions 16, 17, 23, and 24. Figure 3 illustrates multiple choice scale, single
response questions.
Measurement Level: Nominal 18. Do you think that current regulations hinder
(inhibit) the development of the research
Response Type: Simple Category Scale environment
□Yes □ No
Fig. 2 Simple category scale

198 S. Dalati
31. Do study programs in your institution have integrated

subjects related to scientific research activities (e.g.
How to prepare a questionnaire, how to indicate sample
size, how to analyse data, etc.)?
Measurement Level: Nominal
1. Yes, the study course
Response Type: Multiple Choice,
2. Yes, some hours in other study courses
Single Response 3. No
4. I cannot answer
Fig. 3 Multiple choice scale, single response
16. In general, what are the evaluation criteria of the

Measurement Level: Nominal academic staff at your faculty? Please check all options that
apply.
Response Type: Multiple Choice,
Multiple Response Teaching quality.
Research activity; publications.
Research activity; projects with enterprises.
Writing textbooks.
Supervising Master and PhD students.
Other, please specify
Fig. 4 Multiple choice, multiple response
4.2.3 Multiple Choice, Multiple Response
Multiple Choice, multiple response scale is employed in the MATRE questionnaire.

Examples of multiple choice, multiple response is employed in questions 16, 17, 23,
and 24. Figure 4 illustrates multiple choice, multiple response questions.
4.2.4 Likert Scale
Likert Scales is employed in the MATRE questionnaire for academics. Examples of

Likert scale questions are 27, 28, 29, 30, and 33. The Likert scale has the charac-
teristics of classification, order and distance. It is selected to measure respondents’
attitude about statements constructed (Fig. 5).
4.2.5 Ranking Scale
Ranking scale is employed in the MATRE questionnaire for academics. Example

of forced ranking scale question is employed in question 15. Figure 6 illustrates of
forced ranking scale.
Fig. 5 Likert scale
15. Scale your research motivations (Rank from 1 to 5, where

Measurement Level: Ordinal 1 indicates the strongest one, 2 by the second choice and so
forth):
Response Type: Forced Ranking Scale Tenure requirements
Financial benefits
Business Request
Career improvement
Others, specify:
Fig. 6 Ranking scale
Measurement Level: Nominal

10. Please indicate your current role in your institution other than teaching:
□ President
Response Type : □ Dean
Categorization Scale □ Dean’s deputy
□ Head of department
□ Department board member
Fig. 7 Categorization scale
4.2.6 Categorization Scale
Categorization scale is employed in the MATRE questionnaire for academics. Exam-

ples of categorization scale are employed in questions 14, and 21 (Fig. 7).
200 S. Dalati
5 Questionnaire SWOT Analysis
A SWOT analysis is conducted with the aim of evaluating major strength, weak-
nesses, opportunities and threats in the design and production of the MATRE ques-
tionnaire for academics.
5.1 Strength
It could be argued that the most significant strength that characterizes the MATRE
questionnaire for academic is the variety in measurement scales and response types
applied. Rating, ranking and categorization are applied representing variation of
responses and providing participants with different approaches of response. A self-
completed questionnaire has many advantages which are discussed in the previous
literature and textbooks on Business research methods [6, 7]. MATRE questionnaire
advantages include lower cost of data collection and efficiency in time. It also argued
that a combined approach between paper and pencil technique and online survey
techniques are considered a strength point. The drawback of the combined approach
is due to lack of coordination between survey questionnaire administrators, which
resulted in inconsistent response types and data in terms of the relation to question 14.
5.2 Weaknesses
The areas of weaknesses or development could be characterized by scaling response

types and implementation of questionnaire data analysis. The first minor area of
weakness or development is being related to question 14. This above-mentioned
question follows a categorization scale where the measurement level is at a nominal
level. Originally the scaling of the question 14 was designed to enable participants to
respond questions about tools related to conducting research including PCs, laptops,
internet, software, access to database and other related resources. This response
type enables participants to pick choices whether these tools under investigation are
needed, available or unavailable. Figure 8 illustrate the design of question 14.
The argument which could be developed in this example is that the design of
the response type took careful consideration of asking respondents about the need,
availability, or unavailability of research tools under investigation. However, the
design of the question did not take into consideration adding a fourth category to
represent if the tool is not needed.
A better approach was designed and implemented in the online survey question-
naire, which was designed by DA where the following rating scale was designed. The
drawback for this implementation is due to lack of coordination between partners,
which resulted in discrepancy in the scales and response types and consequently the
14. Which tools, from the given list, do you need for conducting research? (tick ( ) for Yes)
Tool Needed Available Unavailable

PC/ Laptop
Private Internet
Libraries
Faculty's Internet Laboratory
Software (SPSS, STATA, Nvivo, etc)
Access to scientific databases (i.e. data-stream)
Databases for scientific journals (EBESCO, J-Store, etc.)
Fig. 8 Tools need and availability categorization scale
14. Which tools, from the given list, do you need for conducting research?
Scale 1. Needed and available 2. Needed and not available 3. Not needed
Tool 1 2 3
PC/ Laptop □ □ □
Private Internet □ □ □
Libraries □ □ □
Faculty's Internet Laboratory □ □ □
Software (SPSS, STATA, Nvivo, etc) □ □ □
Access to scientific databases (i.e. data-stream) □ □ □
Databases for scientific journals (EBESCO, J-Store, etc.) □ □ □
Fig. 9 Tools need and availability improved categorization scale
data, which resulted from different response types. Figure 9 illustrates an improved
categorization scale for question 14.
Other limitations include minor weaknesses related to question 30 in terms of
questions wording and grammatical phrasing (e.g. a quality of master’s and doctoral
studies strongly depends on the lack of scientific research infrastructure). Clearly
improvement in terms of scaling, questionnaire items content and wording would
reinforce and support the instrument.
5.3 Opportunities
The major opportunity related to MATRE questionnaire would be by collecting

further data through the questionnaire and conducting research on factors related
to Higher Education in Syria and Lebanon. Such studies may include different
approaches in research on quality assurance in Syria and Lebanon. Other research
opportunities also include collaborating with MATRE international partners conduct-
202 S. Dalati
Strength Opportunities
• Variety Response types • Further data collection

• Scaling • Further research topics generated from
• Lower cost questionnaire
• Efficiency in time • Further Collaboration with MATRE research
• Combined approach partners
Match Match
Weaknesses Threats
Convert
• Respondents ignore completing
• Inconsistency in Scales Questionnaire
• Implementation problems • Respondents providing inaccurate data
• Low response rate • Respondents provide missing data
Fig. 10 SWOT Matrix
ing joint research studies on different HEI within the scope of the MATRE project
partners.
5.4 Threats
The major threat, which is generally related to the employment of self-administered

questionnaires, is related to participants not responding to questionnaire resulting in
low response rate [8]. In some occasions participants may provide wrong or missing
data due to lack of questions understanding. MATRE questionnaire for academics is
no exception to this rule. With a response rate estimated to be less than 30% a risk
or threat for the success of research becomes evident. The solution to this problem
is follow up by data collection to secure acceptable levels of response rate (Fig. 10).
6 Discussion
SWOT analysis of the MATRE shows different factors which could be taken into
consideration. Firstly, questionnaire design clearly shows variety of measurement
scales which will be significantly reflected in the level of data analysis. This is a
strength point in the questionnaire, which will be positively reflected in the level of
data analysis and the variety of research topics, which are under examination in the
questionnaire in future research.
SWOT analysis also shows discrepancy and inconsistency of response types

between traditional approach of paper and pencil and online survey related to question
14. Coordination between survey questionnaire administrators is a crucial element
to effective completion of survey questionnaire. A mixed approach combining paper
and pencil and online approaches requires levels or integration and coordination
between survey questionnaire administrators.
7 Conclusion
This chapter examined the case of MATRE questionnaire for academics scrutinizing
the overall process of instrument design, translation of the questionnaire and com-
bined approach of both paper and pencil, and online survey questionnaire design
approach. An evaluation of advantages and drawbacks of the instrument is provided.
The potential of conducting further research and the employment of the questionnaire
is significant. Areas of development can be further discussed.
Appendix—MATRE Research Environment

Questionnaire-Academics
This questionnaire is part of MATRE project funded by EU aimed at modernizing

academic teaching and research environment in business and economics at Lebanon
and Syria. The purpose of this questionnaire is to identify factors impacting research
environment in Higher Education in Syria and Lebanon. We would be grateful if you
could take 15 min of your time to answer the following questions electronically or
return it in the pre-paid envelop provided.
All gathered data will be for the purposes of research only.
204 S. Dalati
206 S. Dalati
208 S. Dalati
References
1. S. Dalati, Leadership behaviors in higher education in Syria, in European Conference on Man-

agement, Leadership and Governance, Zagreb (2014)
2. S. Dalati, L. Koulo, MATRE Research Study on Academics at Higher Education in Syria (Arab
International University/TEMPUS, Damascus, 2014)
3. B. Butt, K. Rehman, A study examining the students’ satisfaction in higher education. Proc.
Soc. Behav. Sci. 2, 5446–5450 (2010)
4. S. Mahmoud, Factors affecting the quality of research in education: student’s perceptions. J.
Educ. Pract. 2, 34–39 (2011)
5. R. Brislin, Translation for cross cultural research. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 1, 185–216 (1970)
6. A. Bryman, Social Research Methods (Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2004)
2014)
8. J.M. Ruane, Essentials of Research Methods (Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Malden, 2005)

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Progress in IS

Jorge Marx Gómez

Modernizing the Academic

ISSN 2196-8705 ISSN 2196-8713 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

Oldenburg, Germany Jorge Marx Gómez

Research Methodology: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Case Study on the Causes of Plagiarism in Some Higher Education

1 The Nature of Research

1.1 Scientific Research

to one another, a set of general or abstract principles, or a more or less plausible

1.2 Business and Management Research

making part of a broader problem-solving cycle. Many managers are probably

1.2.1 Managers as Action Researchers

Management is often regarded as synonymous with action. Managers spend the

1.2.2 Managers as Ethnographers

As well as action researchers, managers may also be regarded as organizational

1.3 Kinds of Research Investigations

1.4 Stages in the Development of Research

The history of intellectual development has been characterized by forward spurts

2 The Meaning of Theory

2.1 Research Methodology

For our purposes, a theory is a coherent set of general propositions, used as

2.2 Universality of Research Methods

research methodology, commonly encountered, is: historical, library, field survey,

2.3 Nature of Propositions

we “experience” reality, that is, we observe or manipulate objects or events. If the

An Example of a Theory [17]

A complete explanation of this theory is not possible; however, this example

Verifying Theory [17]

It must be possible to demonstrate that a given proposition or theory is false. This

2.4 How Are Theories Generated?

Pavardenis is a manager, then we can deduce that Vardenis Pavardenis is a human

3 Research Philosophies and Approaches

Main philosophical positions are important in design of management research

3.1 Assumptions About Reality

Fig. 1 The research onion [1]

3.2 Assumptions About Knowledge

3.3 Assumptions About Human Nature

Table 1 Comparison of research philosophies and management research [1]

Table 2 Deduction, induction and abduction: from reason to research [1]

In summary, an awareness of methodology can help the decision-maker such

3.4 Research Approaches

Inductive, deductive and abductive approaches employed when we formulating

3.5 Other Philosophies

In previous chapters’ main philosophical approaches, which are important in busi-

Marie Karim Aboujaoude, Khalil Feghali and Charbel Kfouri

Nowadays, there are myriad of resources offering significant information on research

2 Defining the Research Process

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 25

Fig. 1 The conceptual

2.1 Basic Terminology

Research aims or Objectives: “The specific accomplishments the researcher hopes

2.2 The Beginning: Planning the Research

Fig. 2 Research as a spiral pattern

Furthermore, setting a personal goal is an imperative step in the research plan-

2.3 Research Process: Phases and Steps

Research is broadly conceived as a dynamic process that needs to be actively planned