Sugar Processing Technology 1

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. The Science of Sugar
• What’s sugar?
The terminology used to describe sugars can be confusing and imprecise. “Sugar”; Generally,
refers to sucrose, which is manufactured primarily from sugar cane or sugar beets. In addition to
sucrose, other sugars include invert sugar (sucrose molecule in which the disaccharide bond has
been cleaved), high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), crystalline fructose, and glucose. But; literally,
“Sugar’’ is a term to describe nutritive or caloric sweeteners from different sources.
Sugar is a class of carbohydrate formed naturally in plants (Fruits & Vegetables) and Animals. All
green plants manufacture sugar through photosynthesis, the process by which plants transform
sunlight and soil nutrients into their food and energy supply.

All carbohydrates are compounds built up from the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates are a main fuel source for some cells, especially those in the brain, nervous system,
and red blood cells. Muscles also rely on a dependable supply of carbohydrate to fuel intense

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 Sugar Processing Technology 2

physical activity. Yielding on average 4 kcal per gram, carbohydrates are a readily available fuel
for all cells, both in the form of blood glucose and that stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen.
The glycogen stored in the liver can be used to maintain blood glucose availability in times when
the diet does not supply enough carbohydrate. Regular intake of carbohydrate is important, because
liver glycogen stores are depleted in about 18 hours if no carbohydrate is consumed. After that
point, the body is forced to produce carbohydrate, much of which comes from breakdown of
proteins in the body; this eventually leads to health problems.
Carbohydrate comes from various food sources. Currently, the top five carbohydrate sources are
with bread, soft drinks, cookies and cakes (including doughnuts), sugars/syrups/jams and potatoes.
1.2. Classification and Sources
A useful way of classifying sugars is by the number of saccharides also called Degree of
Polymerization, or DP. The number of monosaccharides hooked together indicates the Degree of
Polymerization or DP. So-called “simple sugars” contain one saccharide (Monosaccharides);
simple sugars may be strung together necklace-like into linear chains of two or more saccharides
or connected like the branches of a tree. Chains of Two monosaccharides are called Di-saccharides
and more than Two are called polysaccharides.
1.2.1. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)
All have the formula C6H12O6 and have a single ring structure.
A. Glucose: A simple sugar found naturally in corn. Glucose is the primary source of energy
for the body and is the only fuel used by brain cells. Starch digestion in the body yields
glucose; even non-digestible carbohydrates (e.g. cellulose) are composed primarily of
glucose. Glucose is sometimes referred to as dextrose.

B. Fructose: A simple sugar found in fruits, honey, and root vegetables. When it occurs
naturally, fructose is always found along with other sugars such as glucose. Fructose makes
up half of the sugar of sucrose and about half of the most common form of HFCS. Pure
fructose is also a caloric sweetener added to foods and beverages in crystalline or liquid

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 Sugar Processing Technology 3

form (made from corn syrup in a process similar to making HFCS). Can be changed to
glucose in the liver and so used in the body.

C. Galactose: A simple sugar that is unique to milk and dairy foods. Galactose is not found
free in nature, but is bound to glucose to form lactose. Can be changed to glucose in the
liver and metabolized. Synthesized in the mammary gland to make the lactose of milk. A
constituent of glycolipids and glycoproteins.

1.2.2. Disaccharides (Double Sugars)

All have the formula C12H22O11
A. Sucrose: Often called “Table Sugar”, and is a disaccharide that is composed of one
glucose unit and one fructose unit joined together by a chemical bond that is readily broken
in the small intestine. Sucrose is found naturally in fruits and vegetables, but in the highest
quantities in sugar beets and sugarcane. When sucrose is digested or placed in an acidic
environment (such as in many ready-to-drink beverages), it ‘inverts’ and yields 50%
glucose and 50% fructose.

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 Sugar Processing Technology 4

B. Lactose: A disaccharide found naturally in milk, it is composed of one galactose unit and
one glucose unit. Lactose is sometimes called “Milk Sugar”.

C. Maltose: Digestion by amylase or hydrolysis of starch. Germinating cereals and malt. A

disaccharide composed of two glucose units, it is found in Malt and is also used for
fermentation.

1.2.3. Polysaccharides (Complex Sugars)

Those are Formed of three or more simple sugar units
A. Glycogen is an “animal starch” which is stored in liver & muscles of animals.
B. Cellulose is almost indigestible in humans’ and forms cell walls in plants. (structural
component)
C. Starches is used as energy storage in plants.

1.3. How are complex carbohydrates formed and broken down?

1.3.1. Dehydration Synthesis
Combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water
Example:
✓ Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide Disaccharide + Water
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O

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 Sugar Processing Technology 5

✓ Polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration syntheses of water (They are
the stored extra sugars known as starch)
1.3.2. Hydrolysis
Addition of WATER to a compound to SPLIT it into smaller subunits (also called chemical
digestion)
Example:
✓ Disaccharide + Water Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

1.4. General Advantages of Sugar

Sugars play an important role in the lives of the users by giving different advantages.

1.4.1. Digestion and Metabolism

Once ingested, carbohydrates (polysaccharides and disaccharides) are broken down into their
component monosaccharides. In the digestion of sucrose, both glucose and fructose are released
into the bloodstream. Glucose, but not fructose, utilization is insulin dependent. Under normal
circumstances, glucose is the only fuel utilized by the brain and the primary fuel used by working
muscles. The calorie content of carbohydrate sugars is 4kcal/g or 16kJ/g.
1.4.2. Functions of Sugars in Foods
Many ingredients are added to products for functional properties, including sweetness. Sugars are
added not only to provide sweetness, but also to act as preservatives and contribute to product
colour, texture or mouthfeel. In addition to sweetening, sugars perform many functions in foods.
They contribute to food preservation such as inhibiting microbial growth by binding water in
products such as jams, jellies and cured hams. Disaccharides can break down to release
monosaccharides which will affect the product characteristics and storage stability.
The major advantages sugars impart on foods are;
Sweetening
Food Preservation

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 Sugar Processing Technology 6

Add Texture, Flavor, and Color to baked goods.

Support the growth of yeast for leavening or fermentation.
Contribute volume in Ice-cream, Baked goods, and Jams.
Enhance the creamy consistency of frozen desserts.
Enhance the crystallization of confectionary products.
Balance acidity in salad dressings, sauces, and condiments.
Help to maintain the natural color, texture, and shape of preserved fruits.
A. SUGARS IN FRUIT AND VEGITABLE PROCESSING
Gelling
Sugar is essential in the gelling process of jams and jellies to obtain the desired consistency and
firmness. This gel-forming process is called gelation, where the fruit juices are enmeshed in a
network of fibers. Pectin, a natural component of fruits, has the ability to form this gel only in the
presence of sugar and acid. Sugar is essential because it attracts and holds water during the
gelling process.
Preserving
Sugar prevents spoilage of jams, jellies, and preserves after the jar is opened. Properly prepared
and packaged preserves and jellies are free from bacteria and yeast cells until the lid is opened and
exposed to air. Once the jar is opened, sugar incapacitates any microorganisms by its ability to
attract water. This is accomplished through osmosis (the process whereby water will flow from a
weaker solution to a more concentrated solution when they are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane). In the case of jellies and preserves, the water is withdrawn from these microorganisms
toward the concentrated sugar syrup. The microorganisms become dehydrated and incapacitated,
and are unable to multiply and bring about food spoilage. In jellies, jams and preserves, a
concentrated sugar solution of at least 65% is necessary to perform this function. Since the sugar
content naturally present in fruits and their juices is less than 65%, it is essential to add sugar to
raise it to this concentration in jellies and preserves.
Color Retention
Sugar helps retain the color of the fruit through its capacity to attract and hold water. Sugar
absorbs water more readily than other components, such as fruit, in preserves and jellies. Thus,
sugar prevents the fruit from absorbing water which would cause its color to fade through dilution.

B. SUGARS IN SOFT DRINKS

Soft drinks broadly fall into two categories: Ready-To-Drink (RTD) and concentrates. Almost any
alcohol-free drink, which is to be served cold can be referred to as a soft drink sucrose commonly
used in soft drinks will break down under acid/heat to release glucose and fructose, which will
affect the sweetness, calorie-contributing and colour of the drinks during storage.

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 Sugar Processing Technology 7

Sugars play an integral role in the organoleptic quality and microbiological stability of soft drinks.
The basic taste profile of all flavoured soft drinks is generated as a combination of the sweetening
ingredient (normally sucrose or HFGS) and the acidulants. Sugars are bulking agents, which give
texture to the liquid, and without the sugars the soft drink will lack body and feel flat in the mouth.
Additionally, sugars can act as preservatives and thus prolong the shelf-life of a product by
inhibiting the growth of spoilage microorganisms, especially when used at higher Brix (soluble
solids or soluble sugars) levels due to the resultant low water activity. However, the
microbiological stability of soft drinks can be controlled through a range of other modes, including
pH reduction (mainly through the use of acidulants), the use of preservatives and/or heat treatment,
or non-thermal treatment such as High-Pressure Processing (HPP). Ultimately, the strategies used
to prolong the shelf-life of a soft drink are governed by the formulation, processing, packaging and
storage conditions. For any sugars added, it is important that all of its functions are considered and
not just sweetness.
C. DAIRY PRODUCTS
Dairy ingredients used in a wide variety of milk-derived ingredients that have been produced by
mechanical separation (i.e. centrifugation, evaporation, drying, etc.), fermentation, enzymatic
treatment, or acidification. Additionally, milk or milk ingredients are extensively used for the
preparation of desserts, ice creams and cream liqueurs, amongst others. The most commercially
important sweetened dairy products will be reviewed. These include:
Yoghurts
Milk-based beverages
Dairy desserts
Ice cream and frozen desserts

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 Sugar Processing Technology 8

The presence of sugars affects the freezing point of ice creams and frozen dairy products since the
freezing point decreases as the concentration of sugars increases. A low freezing point is an
important parameter in frozen products as it reduces the formation of large crystals of ice that
might confer a gritty texture. Since dissolved sugars have the ability to bind water, diminishing
the water available for crystallization, the addition of sugars therefore promotes the formation of
small ice crystals that are not noticed in the mouth thus preserving the smooth soft texture of ice
creams and frozen dairy desserts. Sugars provide good dispersion of fats in ice creams. It also
increases the stability to heat shock and preserves the texture when the products are subjected to
freeze-thaw cycles (i.e. being in and out of the freezer). Additionally, sugars increase the viscosity
or thickness of frozen desserts, yoghurts and flavoured milks, which helps to increase the
smoothness perceived in the mouth. Sugars, despite not being fat substitutes, can be used in lower
fat products to increase flavour, texture and to supply bulk for the missing fat. Sugars also protect
proteins from denaturation and have the ability to stabilize protein foams. The low temperatures
of frozen desserts affect flavour perception since the taste buds become less sensitive. In this case,
sugars act as a flavour enhancer, eliminating the need for additional flavouring.
In chocolate-flavoured milks, the addition of sugars serves to increase the product viscosity to
impart a richer, thicker mouthfeel, and also to enhance the flavours of the cocoa and milk. Sugars
are also necessary as a precursor in the development of flavours through caramelization in some
desserts such as crème caramel or sweetened condensed milk, where the sugars are subjected to
high temperatures promoting changes in colour (browning) and the creation of new flavours.
Sugars play an important role in the preservation of products such as condensed milk. The high
levels of sugars present in this type of product increase the osmotic pressure of the media, where
microorganisms are not able to grow and multiply, and the shelf-life of the product is amply

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 Sugar Processing Technology 9

extended. The added sugars in fruit preparations found in some dairy desserts possess functional
properties other than providing sweetness and bulk. Sugars are also essential in the gelling process
of such preparations since it greatly influences the gelation ability of the gelling agent (pectin)
normally used in such preparations. Sugars prevent the spoilage of these products by lowering
their water activity to levels where microorganism growth is inhibited. In addition, it also helps
retain colour of the fruit by attracting and holding water, preventing the fruit from absorbing water
that would fade by dilution.
D. BAKERY PRODUCTS
The bakery products category is quite varied covering many different types of products including
cakes, biscuits and pastries. The common form of added (extrinsic) sugars in bakery products is
sucrose, but a highly varied range of other sugars are used in bakery products. These include; invert
sugar, fondant, brown sugar, molasses, fructose, starch hydrolysates, honey and malt syrup. The
two main sources of commercial sucrose are from sugar beets and sugar cane. A common source
of intrinsic sugars in bakery products is from the use of fruit-based ingredients. Aside from
sweetness, sugars also influence many product properties such as the volume, moistness,
tenderness, colour, appearance, and energy content of baked products.

Gluten Development
During the mixing process, sugar acts as a tenderizing agent by absorbing water and slowing
gluten development. During the mixing of batters and doughs, flour proteins are hydrated
(surrounded with water) forming gluten strands. The gluten forms thousands of small, balloon-like
pockets that trap the gases produced during leavening. These gluten strands are highly elastic and
allow the batter to stretch under expansion of gases. However, if too much gluten develops, the
dough or batter becomes rigid and tough. Sugar competes with these gluten-forming proteins for
water in the batter and prevents full hydration of the proteins during mixing. As a consequence,
less gluten is allowed to “develop,” preventing the elastic dough or batter from becoming rigid.
With the correct proportion of sugar in the recipe, the gluten maintains optimum elasticity, which
allows for gases to be held within the dough matrix. These gases, from leavening agents and
mixing, expand and allow the batter or dough to rise. By preventing the gluten development, sugar
helps give the final baked product tender crumb texture and good volume.
Leavening
Sugar increases the effectiveness of yeast by providing an immediate, more utilizable source of
nourishment for its growth. Under recipe conditions of moisture and warmth, sugar is broken down
by the yeast cells, and carbon dioxide gas is released at a faster rate than if only the carbohydrates
of flour were present. The leavening process is hastened and the dough rises at a faster and more
consistent rate.
Creaming
Sugar crystals become interspersed among the shortening molecules when shortening and sugar
are creamed together. In cakes and cookies, sugar helps promote lightness by incorporating air into

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the shortening. Air is trapped on the face of sugar’s irregular crystals. When sugar is mixed with
shortening, this air becomes incorporated as very small air cells. During baking, these air cells
expand when filled with carbon dioxide and other gases from the leavening agent.

Egg Foams
Sugar serves as a whipping aid to stabilize beaten egg foams. In foam-type cakes, sugar interacts
with egg proteins to stabilize the whipped foam structure. In doing so, sugar makes the egg foam
more elastic so that air cells can expand and take up gases from the leavening agent.
Egg Protein Coagulation
In unshortened cakes, sugar molecules disperse among egg proteins and delay coagulation of the
egg proteins during baking. As the temperature rises, egg proteins coagulate, or form bonds among
each other. The sugar molecules raise the temperature at which bonds form between these egg
proteins by surrounding the egg proteins and interfering with bond formations. Once the egg
proteins coagulate, the cake “sets,” forming the solid mesh-like structure of the cake.
Gelatinization
During baking, sugar tenderizes by absorbing liquid and delaying gelatinization. In cakes, the heat
of baking causes the starch in flour to absorb liquid and swell. This process is called gelatinization.
As more liquid is absorbed by the starch, the batter goes from a fluid to a solid state, “setting” the
cake. Sugar acts to slow gelatinization by competing with the starch for liquid. By absorbing part
of the liquid, sugar maintains the viscosity of the batter. As a result, the temperature at which the
cake “sets” (turning from liquid to solid state) is delayed until the optimum amount of gases is
produced by the leavening agents. Carbon dioxide, air and steam produced from leavening agents,
heated water and air become entrapped and expand in the air cells. The result is a fine, uniformly-
grained cake with a soft, smooth crumb texture.
As described above, sugar is effective in delaying starch gelatinization in cakes and provides good
texture and volume. Little data is available concerning sugar’s function in delaying gelatinization
in breads; therefore, its influence on gelatinization in yeast-leavened breads is less clear. In theory,
as breads with higher sugar content bake, gelatinization is delayed by the same mechanism
described above in cakes. A bread with more tender crumb texture results.
Caramelization
Sugar caramelizes when heated above its melting point, adding flavor and leading to surface
browning which improves moisture retention in baked products. At about 175°C (or 347°F),
melted dry sugar takes on an amber color and develops an appealing flavor and aroma. This
amorphous substance resulting from the breakdown of sugar is known as caramel. In baking a
batter or dough containing sugar, caramelization takes place under the influence of oven heat, and
is one of two ways in which surface browning occurs. The golden-brown, flavorful and slightly
crisp surface of breads, cakes, and cookies not only tastes good but helps retain moisture in the
baked product.

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Maillard Reactions
At oven temperatures, sugar chemically reacts with proteins in the baking product, contributing
to the food’s browned surface. These Maillard reactions are the second way in which bread crusts,
cakes, and cookies get their familiar brown surfaces. During baking of breads, cakes, and cookies,
Maillard reactions occur among sugar and the amino acids, peptides or proteins from other
ingredients in the baked products, causing browning. These reactions also result in the aroma
associated with the baked good. The higher the sugar content of the baked good, the darker golden
brown the surface appears. As described above, these browned surfaces not only taste good but
help retain moisture in the baked product, prolonging freshness.
Surface Cracking
Sugar helps produce the desirable surface cracking of some cookies. Because of the relatively high
concentration of sugar and the low water content in cookies, sugar crystallizes on the surface. As
sugar crystallizes, it gives off heat that evaporates the water it absorbed during mixing and baking.
At the same time, leavening gases expand and cause cracking of the dry surface.

1.5. Measurements of Sugar

The determination and quantification of sugars is important for quality control. There are different
analytical methods for determination of sugars and sweetness of fresh and processed fruit and
vegetables, including the use of destructive and non-destructive instrumental techniques to
evaluate sugar composition and characterize taste profile or sweetness. From the standard hand-
held refractometer to the hydrometer, electronic tongue and high-pressure liquid chromatography
(HPLC) equipped with different detectors, a wide range of devices have been used to determine
sugar composition and sweetness of many fruit and vegetable products. Although chromatographic
techniques are very accurate and useful, they require extensive sample preparation based on
solvent extraction and hence are generally time-consuming and expensive. Visible to near infrared

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spectroscopy (vis/NIRS) has been proposed as an interesting alternative to traditional methods due
to its rapidity, simplicity, cost effectiveness and potential for routine analysis if proper calibration
and validation steps were developed. Current trends favor analytical methods that are simple to
use, quick and non-destructive. The prospects for using emerging technologies such as
hyperspectral imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance for non-destructive assessment of sugar
content and sweetness of fresh and processed horticultural food products are also discussed.
Soluble sugars, mostly comprised of glucose, fructose and sucrose, may be determined using
refractometry or colorimetry. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is the mostly used
technique for analysis of individual compounds.
There are a lot of different sugars, e.g. sucrose, malt sugar, glucose, HFCS. Strictly speaking of
Brix, only the pure sucrose content in a solution is meant. But often as well, the High Fructose
Corn Syrup (HFCS) is measured and expressed in 0Brix (Degree Brix) which is equivalent to %.
What is Brix (°Brix)?
Brix is the measurement in percentage by weight of sucrose in pure water solution. This
designation of Brix degrees is only valid for pure sucrose solutions. Pure sucrose is extracted from
sugar-cane or sugar-beet.
Where is Brix and HFCS measured and Why?
For any sample containing sucrose or HFCS the measurement of Brix can be done to obtain the
solid component of sugar. Brix is defined as percent-weight containing in pure sucrose solution.
For sugars other than sucrose, it is called the "apparent Brix" and is always a relative value.
Although the designation of Brix is strictly valid only for solutions whose solids are entirely
sucrose, the industry uses the measurement somewhat loosely to refer to any sweet solids in a
product.
Two Methods to measure Sugar Content
It is possible to measure the sugar/HFCS content either with a density meter or a refractometer.
Both methods will give the same result if pure sucrose/HFCS content of a solution is measured.

Brix Hydrometer Pycnometer Abbe Refractometer

The above instruments are Old methods to measure Degree Brix:
Brix Hydrometers are widely used for measurement of Brix. They have relatively good accuracy
± 0.05 on Syrup and ±0.02 Brix on beverage, and are available at reasonable prices. One

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disadvantage of Hydrometers is, that due to different operators and the way of working (e.g. put
down the hydrometer calmly) the results may differ a lot. The Hydrometers are made of glass and
therefore highly breakable.
Pycnometers measure with a good accuracy, but are not suitable for daily control since it takes
about 30 minutes for each measurement.

Digital Density Meters Digital Refractometers

New methods to measure Brix
Digital Density Meters allow to measure directly Brix degrees or HFCS %. Both measuring
methods allow the automatic conversion of refractive index / density into Brix degrees or HFCS
%. With both methods the obtained results are identical when measuring pure sucrose or pure
HFCS and can be compared with each other.

1.6. Disadvantages of sugar (Health Related)

Added sugars, not naturally occurring sugars, when considered with solid fats and excess energy
intake, have been linked to health concerns, including overweight and obesity, type 2 diabetes or
prediabetes, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease.
WHO Recommendations
The WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, endorsed at the 57th World
Health Assembly, includes limiting the intake of free or added sugars. In an earlier document,
WHO recommended that < 10% of energy be provided by added sugars.

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1.7. Target of the Coarse

The aim of the sugar manufacturing process is to extract the sucrose from the sugar cane or sugar
beet to obtain white sugar, a product with a high level of purity. Sugar cane and sugar beets contain
sucrose in large quantities; that’s why they are used as the source of the sugar we use. The sugar
removed from sugar cane and sugar beets is exactly the same as the sugar found in all fruits and
vegetables. Fully processed beet sugar and cane sugar are identical products and may be used
interchangeably for all purposes. The sugar manufacturing processes are characterized by handling
of big volumes, by a continuous process and by products of high purity and homogeneity. From
extraction/remelting to crystallization the processes are fully automatic and to a great extent take
place in closed systems.
Here under-described the short summary of sugar processing steps from sugar-cane and sugar-beet
respectively.
The modern sugar industry has evolved into a rather complex agro-industrial activity, with three
distinct phases:
Harvesting of the sugar cane and/or sugar beet crop
Conversion of sugar cane and/or sugar beet crop into small crystals of raw sugar
Refinement of raw sugar

1.7.1. The single process for making raw cane sugar involves the following ten steps:
1) Harvesting and Delivery: Matured sugar cane is harvested from the plantation area and
delivered to the main processing factory.
2) Cleaning: The harvested Sugar cane is cleaned from adhered muds and other contaminants.
3) Pre-Extraction: Pretreatments which are size reduction unit operations includes;
Cutting of the cane into short size.
Shredding which break the tissues of short sized cane and
Crushing which is to break the tissue of cane left the shredder and delivery for
extraction of the cane juice.
4) Extraction: Process of extracting the cane juice by pressing using a set of Mill rollers.
5) Purification: A clarification processes of the juice extracted from different Impurities other
than the sucrose. The clarification processes employed are Defecation, Sulphitation,
Carbonation and Phosphitation.
6) Concentration: A process for removal of water from the clarified juice and to increase the
brix of the solution. This is done by using a serious of multiple effect evaporators.
7) Crystallization: The final stage for the crystal sugar formation.
8) Centrifugal Separation: A process of separating the crystal sugar from the mother-
liqueur(Molasses).
9) Drying: Hot air is used to remove completely the moisture on the crystal sugar.
10) Packaging

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By-products
There are different by-products released from the processing steps of raw cane sugar production.
Those include;
✓ Leaf’s and Tops of the sugar cane from the Harvesting step which are used for power
source in the boiler house by burning.
✓ Bagasse: a fibrous material released from the extraction/milling stage and used for
power generation in the boiler house by burning or as animal feed.
✓ Molasses: Molasses is the high viscous and coloured runoff from the crystallization
step. It is used as a substrate for biochemical transformation (alcohol fermentation
carrier, production of baker’s yeast and of micronutrients).

1.7.2. The single process for making Raw beet sugar involves the following ten steps:
1) Harvesting and Delivery: The sugar beet is delivered to the factory by growers.
2) Washing: The sugar beet is moved to washers fitted with agitator blades to remove soil, weeds
and stones.
3) Slicing: The washed sugar beet is then put through slicing machines that cut it into thin slices
called "strips".
4) Extraction: The sugar juice is extracted from the strips by diffusion in a long cylinder in which
hot water circulates in the opposite direction to the strips. In a process rather like brewing tea
in a pot, the sugar from the strips gradually passes into the water.
5) Purification: The juice extracted contains all the sugar from the sugar beet as well as
impurities (mineral salts), which are removed by adding milk of lime and carbon dioxide and
then filtering.
6) Evaporation: The filtered juice contains around 13% sugar and 87% water. It is heated to
boiling point and then passed through a series of evaporator pans to convert it to syrup
containing 65–70% sucrose.
7) Crystallization: Tiny sugar crystals are added to the pans to start crystal formation. The
mixture of crystals and syrup (or “mother liquor”) is known as "massecuite".
8) Centrifugal treatment: The massecuite is spun in centrifuges to separate the sugar from the
syrup. The sugar settles on the sides of the centrifuge and is then washed with clean hot water
to produce white sugar crystals.
9) Drying: Still hot and moist, the crystallized white sugar is transferred to hot-air dryers and
then cooled. It is then ready for consumption.
10) Packaging: After sifting, sorting and weighing, the sugar is stored in bulk in huge silos, then
bagged or sent for specialized packaging, e.g. as cube, caster or icing sugar, before shipping.

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By-products
The beet tops and extracted strips as well the molasses is used as feed for cattle. The beet strips
are also treated chemically to facilitate the extraction of commercial pectin. The end product
derived from sugar refining is blackstrap molasses. It is used in cattle feed as well as in the
production of industrial alcohol, yeast, organic chemicals and rum.
Pulp: The exhausted beet strips, which remain after being diffused with hot water to draw the
sugar from the beets, are called pulp. They are pressed and/ or dried for animal feed.
Molasses: Molasses is the high viscous and coloured runoff syrup from the crystallization step. It
is used as a substrate for biochemical transformation (alcohol fermentation carrier, production of
baker’s yeast and of micronutrients).

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Chapter Two
2.1. Sugar Production
2.1.1. Raw Materials
Most of plants produce/form sugar by the process of photosynthesis with regardless of the type of
the sugar;but what matters is the % content of sucrose.
Raw material acceptence criteria = f(% sucrose content)
Twenty percent of the world's supply of sugar is derived nowadays from sugar beet, mainly
cultivated in industrialized countries, while the remaining 80% of the world’s sugar supply is
derived from sugar cane, mainly cultivated in tropical climates in developing countries.
Raw Materials and Their Physical Characteristics
Sugar Cane
Sugar cane typically takes 1 year(12months) to reach maturity although the times varies around
the world, when harvested it is about 3m tall. when cut, will re-grow in another 12 months provided
the roots are undisturbed. A typical sugar content for mature cane would be 10- 15% by weight
but the figure depends on the variety and varies from season to season and location to location
The process whereby canes plants make sugars is photosynthesis.
12CO2 + 11H2O + Energy = C12H22O11 +O2
Carbon dioxide + water + energy = sucrose + oxygen

OTHER 40% Total Biomass

(@50% moisture)

GREEN
TOP
80-88%
MOISTURE Attached
Leaves
Tops

Ground Trash

GENERALLY WASTED COM PONENTS

MILLABLE MILLABLE CANE

STEM 60% Total Biomass
ATTACHED TRASH 70-75%
18-30% MOISTURE MOISTURE
70-75% Moisture
EXPANDING
CROWN 15-20% Fiber
10-15% Sucrose

NOW HARVESTED PORTION

Figure: Sugar Cane

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Physical Characteristics of Sugar Cane

A specific crop of sugar cane plant has an average composition of;
Water (70- 75%)
Sucrose (10- 15%)
Fibre (10-16%)
Reducing sugars (0.5-2%)
Other organics (0.5-1%)
Inorganics (0.5-0.8%)
Sugar Beet
Beets belong to the Beta vulgaris species, as do the three cultivated forms of beet:
■ Red Table Beet
■ Fodder Beet, used mainly as animal feed
■ Sugar Beet (white flesh beet)
Sugar beet has a conical, white, fleshy root and a flat crown. Sugar is formed through a process of
photosynthesis in the sugar beet’s rosette of leaves, the size of which differs according to the sugar
beet variety.
The root serves as a reservoir for the sugar, which can represent between 15% and 21% of the
sugar beet’s total weight.

Figure: Sugar Beet

Physical characteristics of sugar beet

The root of the beet (taproot) contains 75% water and 25% dry matter. The dry matter comprises
about 5% pulp. Pulp, insoluble in water and mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin
and pectin, is used in animal feed. Sugar represents 75% of the root’s dry matter. The sugar content
in sugar beet can vary from 12% to 20%. It is the sugar that gives value to the sugar beet crop.

The by-products of the sugar beet, such as pulp and molasses, give an added value of up to 10%
of the value of the sugar. The sugar extraction rate depends on the sugar content of the sugar beet
at the moment of its arrival in the processing plant. European norms define the sugar beet as
marketable if it contains 14% sugar or more. The standard sugar beet should have a sugar content

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of 16%, which would yield 130 kg of sugar per 1 ton of standard sugar beet processed at a sugar
plant (ideal efficiency is 82.5%).
Specific conditions for Raw Materials cultivation
Unlike sugar cane, sugar beet does not thrive in tropical conditions. It prefers a temperate, humid
climate, with dry, sunny periods just before the harvest. Producers often reserve their best land,
fertile and deep, for the sugar beet because of its delicate, fragile nature in the initial stages of life.
The sugar beet produces sugar during the first year of life and stores it in the root, which is almost
completely buried in the soil and which measures from 15 cm to 35 cm in length. It is harvested
after the first year. If the growing cycle were allowed to continue, it would enter into a reproductive
phase and in the following year would use all of its sugar to produce seeds. For this reason, it
is sown in spring and harvested in the autumn/early winter (a relatively long growing season).
Sugar beet plays an important part in the crop rotation cycle.

2.1.2. Supply of Sugar Cane (Harvesting)

The price of sugar raw materials is a contractual price agreed between a sugar processor and a
sugar raw material farmer. Raw material prices depend on sugar prices. The price of sugar is fixed
by the sugar producer according to market conditions and governmental agreements. The price is
also seriously affected by many technical factors that include raw materials yield, the sugar content
of raw materials and the sugar yield. Sugar manufacture is a heavy industry requiring a substantial
investment, while the international market price of sugar is rather low. It is of utmost importance
to have access to a raw material that incurs low transportation costs, and high and regular sugar
yield as well as sufficient technical means to ensure continuous functioning of a large facility, the
immobilization of which is rather costly.
Methods for Harvesting Raw Materials
Generally, there are two methods of raw material harvesting.
1) Traditional or Manual Harvesting
2) Mechanical or Clean Harvesting
In Sugar Cane Harvesting
Traditional or Manual Harvesting characterized by;
✓ Hand cutting is the most common harvesting method which makes the canes easy to handle
(for hand cut by knives)
✓ Uses fire for the removal of dangers like animals and insects which affect and Pollutes the
nearby environment.
✓ The fire used causes a Loss of biomass potential (tops, leaves) which is a dis advantage.
✓ But, as an advantage, this type of harvesting can employ lots of people in areas where jobs
are scarce.

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Mechanical or Green Harvesting characterized by;

✓ Highly mechanized and cuts the canes and chopping it into pieces 25-30 cm.
✓ Machines separates and save the tops and leaves (cane trash) from the cane.

When the cane is cut, rapid deterioration of the sugar begins due to inversion process. Therefore,
sugarcane can’t be stored for latter processing without excessive deterioration of the sucrose
content. Thus, it has to be processed as soon as possible after harvesting (24 hrs.)
In Sugar Beet Harvesting
Both types of harvesting methods are applicable. However, because of sugar beet is more familiar
for those developed countries due to their environmental condition which is favorable for sugar
beet growth and capability for technology, raw materials are lifted mechanically. A single machine
performs several tasks and has a “topper” or “defoliator” at the front and a “lifter” at the rear.
A soil removal machine cleans the sugar beets before they are transported to the processing plant.
Transporting the crop is no mean feat. It must be completed very quickly because the sugar content
of raw materials drops rapidly once the sugar beets are lifted.
Sugar processing plants work day and night during the two to three months following the harvest.
The sugar beet harvest lasts about three months, while the sugar cane harvest lasts up to six months.

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For each ton of sugar beet there is from 20% to 30% of waste, while for each ton of sugar cane
there is less than 5% of waste.
Yields
While the harvesting date has a certain impact on the crop yield, other factors have a critical impact
on the harvest yields and include the crop variety, the spacing between rows and the number of
seeds within the rows, harvesting conditions and storage conditions. However, depending on the
quality of the seeds, the climatic conditions and the cultivation methods, individual yields can vary
from as much as 30 to 70 tons/ha of sugar beet roots.
One ton of sugar beet yields:
■ 160 kg of Sugar
■ 500 kg of Wet Pulp
■ 38 kg of Molasses
Changes that occur in the crop as the growing season progresses under the average climatic
conditions of Western Europe.

Early Sept. to Early Oct. to Early Nov. to Early Dec. to

early Oct. early Nov. early Dec. early Jan.
Yield of washed
Up 3.75 Up 1.9 Up 1.25 Up 1.25
beet tons/ha
Sugar Content Up 1% Up 0.25% Down 0.25% Down 0.75%
Yield of Sugar
Up 1000 Up 375 Up 190 Down 60
kg/ha

New varieties and biotechnology

Genetic research, seed selection, the fight against diseases and parasites, and the mechanization of
the various growing and harvesting phases resulted in significant improvements in sugar beet
yields. Recent biotechnology studies have resulted in an herbicide-tolerant beet that offers a
radical solution to the problem of weeds. The pros of the genetically engineered seeds are weed
control and, consequently, higher yields. The cons are higher seed costs and higher technical fees.
Sugar is a refined product that contains no deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or proteins but just the
chemical sucrose. While the genetically modified (GM) sugar beet is genetically different from a
standard beet, the sugar in both beets are the same.
Comparison of sugar beet and sugar cane

• Cultivation conditions
Sugar beet is cultivated in countries with temperate climates, mainly in Western, Central and
Eastern Europe, the United States, China and Japan but also in Chili, Morocco and Egypt. Whereas
Sugar cane, by contrast, is cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries, mainly in Brazil, Cuba,
Mexico, India, Sub-Saharan Countries and Australia.
• Sugar content
A standard sugar beet has a sugar content of 16% compared with 12 to 13% in sugar cane.
• Extraction rate
The extraction rate of sugar from sugar beet varies from 40 to 80% (sugar content 16%), while the
extraction rate of from sugar cane can vary from 30 to 95% (sugar content 12%).
One ton of sugar beet yields from 130 to 160 kg of white sugar. The non-crystallized sugar remains
with the molasses, which contain 50% sugar.

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Average Sugar Content Sugar Recovered by Extraction Process

14%-16% 80%
In Sugar Beet i.e. 1 ton of sugar beets = 0.16 ton of sugar i.e. 0.112 – 0.128 ton of sugar
9%-12% 95%
In Sugar Cane i.e. 1 ton of sugar cane = 0.12 ton of sugar i.e. 0.110 – 0.114 ton of sugar

2.1.3. Sugar Production from Cane

Worldwide, 123 countries are producing sugar, 80% of which is made from sugar cane and 20%
from sugar beet.
■ both sugar cane and sugar beet are grown in 9 countries
■ only sugar beet is grown in 43 countries
■ only sugar cane is grown in 71 countries
The Four largest sugar producing countries are Brazil (22%), India (14%), EU (9%) and China
(6%), which together represent almost half of the world’s production.
WORLD’S LARGEST SUGAR-PRODUCING NATIONS FOR
THE 2016-2017 CROP YEARS (IN MILLION METRIC TON)

Brazil, 37.7 MMT,

22%
Others, 83.5 MMT
49% India, 23.9 MMT,
14%

EU , 16.2 MMT,
China, 9.5 MMT, 9%
6%

Ethiopia contribute a share of 1.25% to world sugar production by each 6 functional sugar
processing companies.

2.1.4. Handling and Delivery of Sugar Cane

The factory takes delivery of the cane, either directly at the factory weighbridge, or at auxiliary
weighbridges serving certain important or remote points in the area from which the mill draws its
supplies. Transport is arranged by the factory, either by railway, or more often by lorries, or by
tractors and trailers.
There are different equipment’s used for the accomplishment of tasks like loading/unloading,
transporting and carrying a cane from the cane yard to the factory. Some of them are;

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Major Unloading Methods Used

Unloading by crane: unloading device at the factory are generally cranes, lifted the bundle of cane
and deposits it on the heap of the cane which is called stock-pile.

Self – discharging trucks:

Tipping trucks: actuated by a hydraulic device which tilts the truck body toward s the back till its
load of cane slides in to the conveyer arranged to receive it.

Tractors and semi-trailers with nets: found in different forms and long chains of trailers attached
with tractors; used for transporting and unloading to large carriers the cane from the harvesting
area to the factory.

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Cane Carrier: moving apron which conveys the cane into the factory and which assures the feeds
to the mill by transporting the mill by transporting the cane from the yard to the crushers.

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Cane Elevator: located after a set of knives and designed for lifting a cane and delivering for the
next unit operation when there is a limited space within the factory.

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