HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT:
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Introduction to
Organisational Effectiveness
 1. Table of Content

Contents

1. Table of Content ............................................................................................................................. 2

2. Course Information ........................................................................................................................ 4
3. Course Overview ............................................................................................................................ 5
3.1 Introduction to Organisational Effectiveness (OE)...................................................................... 5
4. Course Overview ............................................................................................................................ 6
4.1 Welcome ................................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Course Introduction ............................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria ......................................................................... 6
APPENDIX 1 – Outcome Summary ......................................................................................................... 7
4.4 Learning, teaching and assessment strategies ...................................................................... 8
a) Delivery of the subject ............................................................................................................ 8
b) Assessment and Weighting ..................................................................................................... 8
c) Activities to promote learning ................................................................................................ 9
d) Library orientation .................................................................................................................. 9
5. Copyright and Plagiarism ............................................................................................................... 9
Annexure 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Annexure 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 11
6. Student Support ........................................................................................................................... 12
7. Work Integrated Learning (WIL) .................................................................................................. 12
8. Quality Assurance and Enhancements ........................................................................................ 12
9. Module Syllabus - Introduction to Organisational Effectiveness ............................................... 13
9.1 Productivity .................................................................................................................................... 13
9.1.1 Basic needs, quality of life and productivity ............................................................................ 13
9.1.2 Work study and productivity ................................................................................................... 14
9.2 Human Factor in the Application of Work Study .......................................................................... 19
9.2.1 The human factor in enterprise/organisation’s operations ............................................. 20
9.2.2 Work study and management .......................................................................................... 20
9.2.3 Work study and supervisor ............................................................................................... 21
9.2.4 Work study and worker .................................................................................................... 21
9.2.5 The work study practitioner.............................................................................................. 22
9.2.5.1 Personal qualities of work study person ................................................................... 22
9.3 Working Conditions and the Working Environment ..................................................................... 22
9.3.1 General considerations ............................................................................................................ 22
 9.3.2 Occupational health and safety organisation .......................................................................... 24
9.3.3 Safety criteria ........................................................................................................................... 25
9.3.4 Prevention of industrial accidents ........................................................................................... 26
9.3.5 Working premises .................................................................................................................... 29
9.3.6 Good housekeeping ................................................................................................................. 29
9.4 Method Study in the Office............................................................................................................ 31
9.4.1 The importance of method study in the office ................................................................. 31
9.4.2 Approach to method study ............................................................................................... 31
9.4.3 The procedure for improving methods of work in the office ........................................... 32
9.5. Problem Solving Techniques ......................................................................................................... 33
9.5.1 Interview technique .......................................................................................................... 33
9.5.2 Brainstorming.................................................................................................................... 34
9.5.3 Pareto analysis (80/20 principle) ...................................................................................... 34
9.5.4 5 Why technique ............................................................................................................... 35
9.5.5 Cause and Effect (Fishbone / Ishikawa Diagram) .............................................................. 36
9.5.6 Force field analysis ............................................................................................................ 37
9.5.7 Tally sheet ......................................................................................................................... 38
9.5.8 Six words - (5W1H)- technique ......................................................................................... 39
10. Prescribed Textbook....................................................................................................................... 40
11. Assignment Submission Date - TBC ............................................................................................... 40
12. Test Date / s - TBC .......................................................................................................................... 40
13. Make Up Test Date - TBC ............................................................................................................... 40
14. Exam Date – N/A ............................................................................................................................ 40
 2. Course Information

Faculty : Management Sciences

Department : Business Studies Unit

Qualification : Higher Certificate in Operations

Management in Project
Management

Qualifier : Project Management

Abbreviated Title : HC (Operations Management)

(Project Management)

Qualification Code : HCOMP1

Qualification Type : Higher Certificate

Module : Introduction to Organisational

Effectiveness

Module Code : INOE101

 3. Course Overview

Module Title Graduate Attribute Course Information - Other

Knowledgeable practitioners HEQSF Credits 16
Graduates will have an in-
HEQSF Level 5
depth knowledge in their
3.1 chosen field of study, and an Notional Hours 160
ability to apply that
Introduction to knowledge in practice. Duration 16 days
Organisational Graduates have developed
Effectiveness Service DUT Business
the necessary
Department School
(OE) work/professional ethics, self-
discipline and collaborative Major Module No
[1] skills to be successful in the
workplace Compulsory Yes

Offering Type Part Time

Name of Lecturer Dr P Mthalane Office Number C- Block, 2nd Floor

Campus Location Ritson Campus Telephone 031-3735659

Lecturer Email gumedepp@dut.ac.za Fax No.

Head of Department Dr SN Jugmohan Office Number AB 0114

Campus Location ML Sultan Telephone 031 373 5735

HOD Email seanj@dut.ac.za Fax No.

Student Ms F Shamase Telephone 031 373 5768

Administrator

Secretary Email faiths@dut.ac.za Fax No.

Independent 112 hrs -

Study / 70%
No. of Lectures 48 hrs - Duration 3 hr
Practicals /
30% Days 16 Tutorials /
Assignments /
Other

Written Test (1) 50 Assignment 50 Final Mark 100

(1)
 Module Title Graduate Attribute Course Information - Other
% Test Contribution 60% % Assignment 40% % Final Mark 100%
Contribution

4. Course Overview
4.1 Welcome

Welcome to the course on Introduction to Organisational Effectiveness (OE). This study

guide has been designed to guide you through the teaching, learning and assessment
procedures and requirements for this module.

4.2 Course Introduction

The South African economy is characterised by both high levels of unemployment, and severe
shortages of certain skills demanded in the economy. Critical shortages exist across the high
and semi-skilled spectrum, ranging from managers and professionals to artisans and
technically trained workers. The South African government has identified these shortages as
one of the binding constraints to achieving higher and shared economic growth in the
country.
Management is a multidisciplinary discipline made up of several areas of specialization
namely business administration, marketing and retailing, public relations, operations
management, business law and human resource management. The Diploma in Management
Sciences aims to prepare students with a theoretical and practical basis so that the various
management functions can be effectively and efficiently performed.
This course is designed to prepare learners to have a basic knowledge of aspects that are
essential to the development of a safe and productive workplace. This is achieved through
creating greater awareness of safety requirements and the use of problem-solving
methodologies as well as techniques such as method study to improve productivity.

4.3 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria

On completion of this programme the learner will be able to:

carry out productivity improvement exercises in the workplace under supervision

record information on processes where work is carried out
carry out critical examination of current work methods
develop improved work methods
use problem solving techniques to identify areas of inefficiency and develop
potential solutions
articulate key aspects relating to good housekeeping, working conditions, and
health and safety legislation.
APPENDIX 1 – Outcome Summary

TABLE 1

Learning Outcomes Assessment Criteria Assessment Methods

• Conduct exercises in • Demonstration of ability to Various assessment

productivity improvement do comparative measures methods are adopted
in the workplace under showing productivity within the programme
supervision increase and proposed inter alia: tests,
improvements. assignments, role plays,
report writing, case
studies.
• Select operation and
record information on • Demonstration of ability to
work processes identify areas for method
improvement and collection
of process information
using various recording
techniques.

• Examine recorded data

critically and develop
• Demonstration of ability to
improved methods
use the critical questioning
technique in order to
develop improved methods
and report on proposed
improvements.

• Contribute to the
development of safe work
environment • Demonstration of ability to
assess workplace with
respect to good
housekeeping and safe
practice.

• Conduct oneself in an
ethical and professional
manner in engagements
with all stakeholders
affected by productivity • Demonstration of ability to
improvement studies articulate attributes of work
study practitioner as well as
ethical conduct with respect
to interactions with workers,
supervisors and managers
affected by productivity
improvement studies
 4.4 Learning, teaching and assessment strategies

a) Delivery of the subject

The credit value of the subject and the equivalent notional hours of study, represent the
notional hours as:

Lectures, group discussion and feedback, and case study analysis

Learning Activity % Learning Time Hours Lecture Duration

Lectures 30 48 4 hr
12 days
Independent Study / 70 112
Practicals / Tutorials /
Assignments / Other

b) Assessment and Weighting

Assessment is by means of continuous assessment and comprises one test and one
assignment. All test question papers and scripts are moderated.

Assessment Number Marks Out Weighting DP Duration

Of (%) Required

Test(s) 1 50 60 N/A 2 hours

*Make Up Test 1 50 60 N/A 2 hours

Assignment(s) 1 50 40 N/A N/A

Project(s) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Exam N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Supplementary N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Exam

Feedback will be given to students on their performance using comments on assessment

scripts, class discussions on assessments, marking rubrics, study guides.

* Only students who do not achieve the minimum 50% DP based on the test and assignment,
will be given an opportunity to write a make-up test.
 c) Activities to promote learning

No additional resources will be used in most modules except the prescribed and
recommended materials. However, case studies and subject related DVD’s / videos may be
used to enhance learning.

d) Library orientation

A compulsory library orientation is offered to all first level learners. The students are
orientated with regards the library environment, subject librarians, internet and research
facilities. This is reinforced and developed within the modules by the lecturers in preparation
for assessments.

5. Copyright and Plagiarism

The DUT, Faculty and Department emphasizes the need for academic integrity in all student
learning and assessment activities. Various formal and informal workshops and training
sessions are conducted during the duration of the programme to inform and train students
on the plagiarism policies, procedures and guidelines as well as the relevant tools and
techniques for referencing the materials and sources used in the completion of assessment
tasks.

In particular, the DUT plagiarism declaration must be completed and submitted with
assignments, portfolios and other formative assessments. Consult the “Project Management
Study Guide 2020” clause 9 for detailed information. See annexure 1 and 2 below.
Annexure 1 Example of Plagiarism Declaration to be signed by student on submitting
work for assessment

DECLAR
ATION

1. I know and understand that plagiarism is using another person’s work and pretending it is
one’s own, which is wrong.

2. This essay/report/project/assignment is my own work.

3. I have appropriately referenced the work of other people I have used.

4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of
passing it off as his or her own work.

Student Signature

Name (in capital letters)

Student Number
Annexure 2 Warning of next plagiarism offence letter

Date:

To: Student

Number: (name of student)

Warning regarding a further plagiarism infringement

This serves to confirm that:

1. You have been found to have infringed the University’s Policy on Plagiarism and have
received structured feedback on your plagiarism errors; and

2. If there is any further suspected infringement, the matter will automatically be referred to
the Registrar for disciplinary action.

NAME OF ACADEMIC: _______________________________________________________

SIGNATURE OF ACADEMIC: _______________________________________________________

Read and acknowledgement by Student:

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT: _______________________________________________________

Signed at this day of 20 .

Student Plagiarism Policy Form 1

 6. Student Support
Academic support is provided via tutorials and one on one student consultation sessions. In
addition, at risk students and modules with low pass rates are identified at a
departmental/module levels.

Basic study skills, note taking, and time management concepts are introduced by module
lecturers. Thereafter students are referred to Student Counselling, Student Health services,
Library courses, Financial Aid.

Finally, students also have access to residence study programmes and other courses offered
by Student Governance. An informal system of monitoring and tracking is implemented at the
module level.

7. Work Integrated Learning (WIL)

There is no requirement for Work Integrated Learning– (industry, community, and
occupation-related information), on this programme.

8. Quality Assurance and Enhancements

Quality assurance through subject and lecturer evaluation, staff-student meetings and
informal feedback, internal and external moderation, GS (Graduation Survey), PR (Peer
Reviews), PRE (Program Review and Evaluation) and AQM (Annual Quality Monitoring) will
also allow for feedback and areas that require improvement.

University quality assurance process, external moderation of tests and assignments.

Assessment tasks/methods/standards, module content, teaching approaches, tutorial

support and consultation are continuously reviewed and revised when necessary to
incorporate feedback from the above quality assurance interventions and student feedback.
 9. Module Syllabus - Introduction to Organisational Effectiveness

9.1 Productivity
9.1 Basic needs, quality of life and productivity
9.2 Work study and productivity

9.1.1 Basic needs, quality of life and productivity

Food: enough food every day, to generate the energy needed for living and working.
Shelter: a shelter that provides protection under healthy conditions.
Clothing: enough clothing to afford protection from adverse weather conditions.
Security: security against violence and against unemployment.
Health and essential services: safe drinking water, sanitation, access to energy use, medical
care, education and means of transport.
Resources or inputs with which the business produces an output
a) Land and buildings – Land and Buildings in a convenient location.
b) Materials - that can be converted into products to be sold, both as raw materials and
finished product.
c) Energy – in its various forms as electricity, gas, oil or solar power.
d) Machines and Equipment – equipment necessary for the operational activity of the
enterprise.
e) Human Resources – men and women trained to perform the operational activity, to
plan and control.
Use of productivity

1.1 Productivity is the ratio of output

Input
It can be used to assess or measure the extent to which a certain output can be extracted from a
given input.

A nation has aspirations to raise their standard of living and improve their quality of life, this
can be achieved by maximizing the return from its resources or improve productivity so that
the economy can grow and sustain a better quality of life
The task of management
Role of management in co-ordinating the resources of an enterprise.

9.1.2 Work study and productivity

Work study is the systematic examination of the methods of carrying on activities so as to

improve the effective use of resources and to set standards of performance for the activities
being carried out.
How the total time of a job is made up
Basic work content of the product is the amount of work contained in a product. Work hour
– is the labour of one person for one hour. Machine hour – is the running of a machine or
piece o plant for one hour.

How operational time is made up

Management techniques used to reduce ineffective time
a) Product development reduces work content due to poor design.

b) Proper material utilisation reduces and utilizes waste.

c) Quality control ensures proper standards and inspection methods.

d) Better layout and process planning reduces unnecessary movements.

e) Materials handling adapted to activity reduces time and effort.

f) Production planning and control reduces ineffective time.

g) Methods study of an activity reduces work content.

h) Inventory control defines appropriate and most economical inventory levels.

i) Preventative maintenance ensures longer life and continuous run of machines.

j) Proper management and personnel policy can create a satisfying working

environment.

k) Training can develop appropriate skills.

l) Better working conditions improve morale and reduces absenteeism.

Basic and added work content
The Link between work study and productivity
9.2 Human Factor in the Application of Work Study
9.2.1 Human factor in enterprise/organisation’s operations
 9.2.2 Work study and management
9.2.3 Work study and supervisor
9.2.4 Work study and worker
9.2.5 The work study practitioner

9.2.1 The human factor in enterprise/organisation’s operations

Employees at all levels must feel a sense of belonging to the enterprise. Employees should
develop a sense of security and the feeling that they are working in a safe healthy and
enriching working environment. When this happens, they will contribute not only their labour
but also useful suggestions that can lead to productivity improvements and will assist the
work study person.
Workers need to understand the nature of, and the reason for each step taken to improve
productivity.
Worker representatives should be trained in the techniques of improving productivity so that
they will be able to explain them to the workers.

9.2.2 Work study and management

Work study is regarded as the most penetrating tool of investigation because a well
conducted work study analysis is ruthlessly systematic, the places where effort and time are
being wasted is exposed.
Bad planning, bad organisation, insufficient control and lack of training are the causes of effort
and time being wasted. Management have failed in their duties because they were not
provided adequate training. Management did not attempt to improve productivity in the past.
The value of work study must be explained to everybody from the beginning otherwise
workers, supervisors and management will combine to put obstacles in the way of the work
study person.
If work study is to succeed it must have the backing and understanding of management at all
levels, starting at the top. Top management, managing director and departmental heads must
be explained first the purpose and techniques of work study.
Short appreciation courses should be taken my managers. They could also attend university
lectures and short courses on work study.
Newly trained work study people should not run short courses on work study, because they
will not know the subject well enough to teach it to others.
9.2.3 Work study and supervisor

2.3.1 Supervisors are likely to be difficult or obstructive for the following reasons: -
Supervisors are the people most deeply affected by work study. The work for which they have
been responsible for years is being challenged. If great improvements take place in their
areas, they would feel that their prestige is being lessened.
In organisations where specialist have not been used, planning functions, developing job
methods, make up time sheets, hiring and firing workers have been carried out by supervisor.
If these responsibilities are taken away, it would make the supervisor feel a loss of status.
If disputes arise in the work place, the supervisor is the first person who would be called upon
to clear matters up, and it is difficult for them to do so if they do not understand the problem.

2.3.2 The work study practitioner should observe the following rules: -
The work study person must never give a direct order to a worker. Workers asking questions
calling for decisions outside the technical field of work study should always be referred to the
supervisor.
The work study person should take care never to express opinions to a worker. The work
study person must not allow the workers to “play him or her of” against the supervisor.
The work study person should seek the supervisor’s advice in the selection of jobs. The work
study person should never start alone.

9.2.4 Work study and worker

The problem of raising productivity should be approached in a balanced way, without too
great emphasis
on productivity of labour. It is important that the work study person be open and frank as to
the purpose
of the study.

Workers’ representatives should be kept fully informed of what is being studied and why,
they should
receive induction training.

The work study person should give workers proper credit for their inputs on improving
methods. The
work study person must make it clear that it is the work being studied not the worker.

The work study person should remember that the objective is not merely improving
productivity but
to also improve job satisfaction.
9.2.5 The work study practitioner

Education: Matric and ND. Operations management: or ND. Management Services; or ND

Industrial Engineering; or ND Organisation and Work Study
Experience: Must have practical experience in the industry he/she will be working in. Must
have completed at least 100-time studies and 50 method studies. Carried out productivity
improvement projects. Member of a professional body.

9.2.5.1 Personal qualities of work study person

Sincerity and honesty: the work study person must be sincere and honest for him to gain
confidence and respect.
Enthusiasm: he or she must be really keen on the job.
Interest in and sympathy with people: the person must be able to get along with people at
all levels.
Tact: Tact in dealing with people comes from understanding them and not wishing to hurt
their feelings.
Good appearance: the person must be neat and tidy and look efficient.
Self-confidence: can come from good training and experience. He must be able to stand up
to top management, supervisors and trade unions.

9.3 Working Conditions and the Working Environment

9.3.1 General conditions
9.3.2 Occupational health and safety organisation
9.3.3 Safety criteria
9.3.4 Prevention of industrial accidents
9.3.5 Working premises
9.3.6 Good housekeeping

9.3.1 General considerations

The interdependence between working conditions and productivity is increasingly

recognized. The first
move in this direction came when people began to realize that occupational accidents had
economic as
well as physical consequences, although at first only their direct costs (medical care,
compensation)
were perceived.

Subsequently, attention was paid to occupational diseases as well. As a final step it was
realized that the
indirect costs of occupational accidents (working time lost by the injured person, the
witnesses and the
accident investigators, production stoppages, material damage, work delays, possible legal
and other
costs, reduced output when the injured person is replaced and when he or she returns to
work, and so
on) are usually far higher – as much as several times higher in some cases – than the direct
costs.
The reduction in productivity and the increase in production rejects and manufacturing waste
that result
from fatigue due to excessively long working hours and bad working conditions – in particular,
lighting
and ventilation – have shown that the human body, in spite of its immense capacity for
adaptation, is
far more productive when working under optimal conditions. Indeed, in certain developing
countries it
has been found that productivity can be improved merely by improving the conditions under
which
people work.

Generally speaking, occupational safety and health and ergonomics have not been given
sufficient
consideration in modern management techniques, in spite of the modern tendency to
consider an
industrial enterprise as a total system or a combination of subsystems.

These problems have been seen in a different light since public opinion and, in particular the
trade
unions became aware of them. It has been possible to detect in the stresses imposed by
modern
industrial technology the source of those forms of dissatisfaction which occur, in particular,
among
workers employed on the most elementary type of repetitive and monotonous jobs that are
lacking in
any interest whatsoever.

Thus, not only may a hazardous working environment be a direct cause of occupational
accidents and
diseases, but workers’ dissatisfaction with working conditions which are not in line with their
current
cultural and social level may also be at the root of a decline in production quality and quantity,
excessive
labour turnover and increased absenteeism. Obviously, the consequences of such a situation
will vary
according to the socio-cultural environment. Nevertheless, wherever there is a demand for
labour, it
would be senseless to believe that firms whose working conditions have not developed in line
with
technical progress and economic growth can count on a stable workforce and achieve
profitable levels
of productivity.

9.3.2 Occupational health and safety organisation

The most effective method of obtaining good results in the prevention of occupational
hazards includes the following:
▪ To recognize the importance of the employer’s responsibilities for ensuring that the
workplace is safe and without risk to worker’s health;
▪ To adopt an occupational safety and health policy that provides for the establishment
of a good occupational safety and health organization within the enterprise; and
▪ To encourage strong participation of workers in safety and health activities at the
workplace, including safety committees, inspection and accident investigation, and
the appointment of specialists.
It is equally important that the workers are adequately informed of the nature of the
occupational hazards they may be exposed to; this should be considered as a fundamental
right. Furthermore, workers should always have the right to remove themselves from a work
situation which they have reasonable justification to believe presents an imminent and
serious danger to their life or health.
The structure of safety services needs to be formalized. Its essential features should be a
precise allocation of responsibilities within a structure which can ensure sustained action and
a joint effort by employers and workers to maintain a safe and healthy working environment.
This may be accomplished through joint safety committees. Responsibility for safety and
health in an enterprise cannot be isolated from day-to-day functions such as management,
production, maintenance and other related service activities. This responsibility should be an
integral aspect of the workplace and follow the management structure from the senior
executive to line supervisors.
Education and training on safety and health matters should always be an integral part of
training activities at any enterprise regardless of size. These should be carried out in such a
way that the safety and health needs of the enterprise are constantly addressed at all levels,
leading to positive action that will tend to emphasize solutions rather than merely the
recognition of hazards. The activities are most effective when their goals are in the line with
other management goals of the enterprise.
Sufficient time and effort must be invested in implementing these training activities. New
workers should receive an orientation to their tasks so that they will learn to perform their
jobs in a safe manner. This should be followed by regular refresher training. Safety committee
members and safety representatives should receive specialized training to support and
facilitate the improvement of the work environment. The training of managers and
supervisors is particularly important and due emphasis should be placed on action for
improvement.

9.3.3 Safety criteria

Studies of occupational hazards in modern industry have revealed the extremely complex
nature of the possible causes of occupational accidents or diseases.
Occupational accidents
The causes of occupational accidents are never simple, even in an apparently commonplace
accident; consequently, the number and variety of classifications are great. Statistics show
that the most common causes of accidents are not the most dangerous machines (circular
saws, spindle moulding machines, power presses, for example) nor the most dangerous
substances (explosives, volatile flammable liquids, chemicals), but rather quite ordinary
actions like stumbling, falling, the faulty handling of goods or use of hand tools, or being struck
by a falling object. Similarly, those who have accidents most frequently are not the disabled
but, on the contrary, those who are the best equipped from the physical and psycho-sensorial
point of view, i.e. young workers.
It should be kept in mind that in modern industry there are a variety of both visible and
invisible hazards at the workplace. Visible hazards include unfenced scaffolds, openings in the
floor, dripping or leaking chemicals or the unlocked working zone of a robot. Invisible hazards
are now becoming more and more common and dangerous. They include inert gases, welding
fumes, noise, vibration or unforeseen effects of a mixture of chemicals.
Technical progress has created new health hazards while at the same time making the
prevention of occupational accidents achievable in practice. It greatly reduces the severity of
conventional hazards and significantly improves safety standards. In addition, since in many
countries commuting accidents have now been brought under heading of occupational
accidents, the demarcation line between occupational and non-occupational hazards has
become less distinct and the role of the human factor and the importance of the
circumstances attending an accident have become increasingly clear.
An accident is often the result of a combination of technical, physiological and psychological
factors; it depends on both the machine and the environment (lighting, noise, vibration,
vaporizing substances, oxygen deficiency), as well as the worker’s posture and work-induced
fatigue; but it is also conditioned by commuting circumstances and other activities outside
the plant and by ill-temper, feelings of frustration, youth exuberance and other specific
physical or mental states. In the developing countries, in addition, malnutrition, endemic
diseases, lack of adaptation to industrial work and the immense changes that industry has
brought to the worker’s individual and family life and customs also play a part. It is therefore
not surprising that, nowadays increasing attention is being paid to the accident hazards
inherent in human behaviour, be it in the factory or elsewhere, and that the problems of
safeguarding the worker’s health and welfare are now being examined using an integrated
approach.
The first precaution to take, in order to avoid accidents, is the elimination of potential causes,
both technical and human. The ways of doing this are too numerous and varied to be listed
extensively here. However, to mention but a few, there are the observance of technical rules
and standards, careful supervision and maintenance, safety training for all workers, and the
establishment of good working relationships.
The main technical safety criteria are listed in decreasing order of effectiveness in figure 7.
Some 30 per cent of all accidents occur in manual handling; work study can contribute to
reducing the incidence of these accidents quite simply by reducing the number of handling
operations and the distance involved in transporting goods. A significant percentage of other
accidents could be prevented by eliminating dangerous operations through prior work study,
process analysis and flow process charts (as explained in Part II) and, in general, by a critical
examination of work organization with a view to accident prevention.
Work-related diseases
The situation relating to the causes of occupational diseases and ways of preventing them is
equally complex. Technical progress has been so rapid that it has often created new and
totally unrecognized hazards which have resulted in occupational diseases even before the
disease was recognized as such. Yet this same technical progress has provided extremely
effective tools for the early detection of signs or symptoms of occupationally induced
morbidity, and even methods for assessing exposure levels before they have any biological
effect.
The study and monitoring of the working environment have, in this way, assumed a
fundamental importance in the prevention of occupational diseases.
Industrial hygiene measures are similar to those that have already been mentioned for
accident prevention. One important point needs to be made, however. Industrial hygiene has
been a subject of study for a much shorter period than occupational safety. It is a discipline
which involves both medical and technical knowledge. It is therefore essential that the
management of an enterprise comes to grips with the problem and adopts the most suitable
approaches for its solution; such approaches are not, however, of universal application since
they have to be matched to the individual circumstances of the enterprise and its workers.
A number of basic general criteria in industrial hygiene can nevertheless be put forward. First
of all, as has been found in the field of mechanical safety, in industrial hygiene too the most
effective means of prevention is that which occurs at the design stage – be it of a building,
plant or work in process – since any subsequent improvement or modification may perhaps
be too late to protect worker’s health and will certainly be more expensive. Dangerous
operations (for example, those resulting in environmental pollution or producing noise or
vibration) and harmful substances which may contaminate the atmosphere at the workplace
should be replaced by harmless or less harmful operations or substances.
Priority should be given to technical preventive measures with an emphasis on the effective
use of control technologies. Where it is impossible to provide group safety equipment, use
should be made of supplementary work organization measures which, in certain cases, may
include a reduction of the duration of exposure to risk. Where group technical measures and
administrative measures do not reduce exposure to acceptable levels, workers must be
provided with suitable personal protective equipment as the basic means of safety. This is not
only for physiological reasons but also a matter of principle, since the worker may, for a wide
range of reasons, fail to make use of this equipment.

9.3.4 Prevention of industrial accidents

Fire prevention and protection

The prevention of fire and, in certain cases, explosion and the appropriate protective
measures should receive particular attention, especially in hot and dry countries and above
all in certain industries where a fire may lead to widespread material damage and, should it
occur during working hours, to injury and even death. Measures to prevent fires (fire
prevention) and measures to reduce the threat of injury and death and to limit the extent of
damage (fire protection) should receive special attention.
The first principle of fire prevention is to design buildings, processes and storage facilities
in such a way as to limit the possible combination of oxygen, fuel and an increase in
temperature. In this regard, the construction of facilities and process engineering should
always strive to reduce the possibility of a fire developing and spreading. Fire risks exist in all
workplaces. The highest priority should be given to locating the fire as soon as possible and,
with the facilities and measures available, reducing the possibility of the fire growing and
spreading to other parts of the workplace. It is therefore important that the choice of
materials used in the process or in support of the process should be those with the lowest
risk of contributing to a possible fire or explosion. Good housekeeping also considerably
reduces the risk.
The second principle is to eliminate or reduce sources of heat or ignition, thus limiting the
rise in temperature. Measures such as restricting open flames, for example welding torches,
and banning the smoking of cigarettes should be taken. The process heat should also be
carefully controlled so as not to pose a risk.
Preparedness for fire emergencies should always be organized by management along the
following lines;
▪ Every workplace should have an emergency plan with information detailing the role
of every worker in case of a fire or other emergency;

▪ There should be at least two clear, properly marked, unobstructed exits leading to
areas of safety;
▪ There must be a way of notifying personnel of a need to evacuate, such as an alarm
system. This should produce a sufficiently loud signal for all workers to hear the alarm.
In some applications, for example where there is a high level of noise, visual signals
such as flashing or revolving lights are also frequently used;

▪ The right type of fire extinguisher should always be provided in adequate numbers
for the given risk, and placed accordingly. Different types of fire extinguisher exist for
different fire risks and there are national codes for the different types of risk. Each
extinguisher should be labelled with easy-to-read instructions and an indication of
which fire extinguisher to use for which risk;

▪ Every worker should have hands-on training concerning the proper use of the
extinguisher, including both when and when not to use it. The training should also
cover safety considerations in using an extinguisher;

▪ The provision of automatic fire protection such as sprinklers has proved to be very
effective in protecting escape routes for workers, as well as in rapidly controlling fire.
This is especially true in certain high-risk industries such as chemicals and textiles.
Fire can strike a workplace on any day at any time. Adequate preparation can greatly reduce
the extent of injury or damage to property. The six essential features for preparedness are as
follows:
 1) A way to notify all workers to evacuate to a safe area.
2) An emergency plan detailing what should be done by whom during a fire or other
emergency.
3) A trained firefighting team which carries out regular firefighting and evacuation drills.
4) Periodic inspection of evacuation routes, including emergency exits, firefighting
equipment, alarm systems, automatic fire protection systems and fire hazards.
5) A method of rapidly notifying the fire brigade and assuring its familiarity with the
facilities, processes, and fire protection schemes and equipment.
6) Periodic fire alarm and evacuation exercises.
Major hazard control
The potential for major industrial accidents has become more significant as the production,
storage and use of hazardous substances has increased. Major fires, explosions or the
dispersion of toxic chemicals can cause deaths and injuries to workers and the public, result
in the evacuation of communities and adversely affect the environment as a whole. In
addition to the steps outlined above under “fire prevention and protection”, special measures
are necessary to prevent such industrial disasters. Because of the complexity of the industrial
activities concerned, the control of major accidents needs to be based on a systematic
approach.
The basic components of major hazard control systems are:
▪ Identifying major hazard installations. Government authorities and management
should set up, on a priority basis, a system to identify plants where major hazards
exist. This may be done by means of a list of hazardous chemicals or categories of
chemicals and associated threshold quantities.

▪ Information about the plant. Once the plants concerned have been identified,
additional information needs to be collected about their design and operation. This
information, which is often presented in the form of a safety report, should be
gathered and arranged systematically, and should be accessible to everyone
concerned within the industry, such as management and workers, and outside the
industry, such as the government bodies which may require it for licensing and
inspection purposes. In order to achieve a complete description of the hazards, it may
be necessary to carry out safety studies and hazard assessments.

▪ Action inside the plant. Management has the primary responsibility for operating and
maintaining a safe plant. A sound safety policy is therefore required. Technical
inspection, maintenance, plant modification, and training and selection of suitable
personnel must be carried out according to sound procedures. In addition to the
preparation of the safety report, accidents should be investigated and reports
submitted to the authorities. Lessons should be learnt from accidents and near misses.

▪ Emergency planning. All previous elements focus on the prevention of the occurrence
of major accidents. Emergency planning aims at mitigating the consequences of major
accidents, and assumes that absolute safety cannot be guaranteed. In addition to the
measures mentioned above, management may need to:

- Set up and train fire brigade;

- Provide alarm systems with a direct line to the fire brigade or public emergency
forces;
 - Draw up an emergency plan, including information about hazardous substances
and their antidotes, guidelines for fighting the emergency, and alarm and
communication routes;
- Coordinate with the authorities regarding their contingency plan.
In setting up emergency planning, a distinction is made between on-site and off-site planning.
A well-structure and clear plan is one which is based on a well-prepared safety report and
which can be quickly and effectively employed when a major accident occurs.

9.3.5 Working premises

It would be inappropriate to deal here with the technical details of plant location and
construction, but certain basic principles need to be appreciated and applied if management
is subsequently to obtain viable results. This point should be borne in mind by the work study
specialist, especially when plant installation is being studied.
In developing a layout, emphasis should be placed on the principle of isolating any operation
which is hazardous or constitutes a nuisance. Wherever possible, work premises should be
above ground level and equipped with windows having a surface of not less than 17 per cent
of the floor area. Minimum ceiling height should not be less than 3 metres and each worker
should have at least 10 cubic metres of air (or more where temperatures or the level of
atmospheric pollution are high). For the purposes of accident prevention, it is important to
ensure that each worker has an adequate minimum free-floor area which should not be less
than 2 square metres per person.
Walls and ceilings should have a finish which prevents the accumulation of dirt, avoids
moisture absorption and, where necessary, reduces noise transmission; floor coverings (table
1) should be of the non-slip, non-dust-forming and easy-to-clean type and should, where
necessary, have good electrical and thermal insulation properties.
Finally, the principles of good housekeeping should be applied.

9.3.6 Good housekeeping

Building work premises in accordance with safety and hygiene regulations is not enough,
however, if the plant or workshop is not kept clean and tidy. Good housekeeping, which when
used with reference to a factory or workplace is a general term embracing tidiness and
general state of repair, not only contributes to accident prevention but is also a factor in
productivity. In fact, it is by looking at such things as how material and equipment are stored,
whether aisles and gangways are kept free of obstructions and the cleanliness of working
areas that a person can even form an idea of the whole attitude of management to
productivity and to safety.

Good housekeeping involves certain basic elements:

▪ Unnecessary items should be disposed of: those that will not be used should be
thrown away and other rarely used items collected and stored in a suitable manner.

▪ Tools and equipment should be arranged in a way that allows easy access and return
to their designated place. Boards on which hand-tools may be displayed are useful in
this context.

▪ Gangways and passages should be kept clear and the floor painted lines at least 5
centimetres wide that distinguish them as such. Depots and storage areas should be
similarly marked. Toxic matter should be painted in a different colour to identify it as
such.

▪ The work area should be kept clean. Dust may be harmful to certain operations, oil
and grease can cause accidents, and deposits of toxic material or chemicals left
unattended are a source of occupational diseases. Continuous cleaning of floors,
workbenches, machinery and equipment can prolong their working life and show
when repairs or maintenance are required.

▪ Working clothes should also be kept clean in order to reduce the skin-absorption
hazard of certain toxic substances (aniline and its derivatives, benzene, its homologues
and its derivatives, organo-phosphorus compounds, tetraethyl lead and other organic
metal compounds, carbon tetrachloride and other solvents, nicotine, and so on) and
the problem of skin sensitization and chronic or acute irritation.

Prolonged contact of the skin with certain substances (especially mineral oils and
aromatic hydrocarbons) may produce chronic dermatitis, sometimes followed by the
development of cancer. Workers exposed to toxic substances should have twin-
compartment clothing lockers to keep their working clothes separate from their other
clothes. Similarly, it is advisable to provide a centralized laundry service for working
clothes in plants using highly toxic substances.

▪ Workers employed on dirty jobs or exposed to dangerous or toxic substances should

have wash-rooms with a tap for every three or four workers and a shower for every
three workers (and never less than one for every eight workers) to ensure that
workers do not give up taking a shower because they have to wait too long. Adequate
toilet facilities should be provided no farther than 75 metres from work areas.
 9.4 Method Study in the Office
9.4.1 The importance of method study in the office
9.4.2 Approach to method study
9.4.3 The procedure for improving methods of work in the office

9.4.1 The importance of method study in the office

a) Resources are used in the office, and it’s important for these resources to be utilized
efficiently.
b) Administrative and clerical costs are very significant to most organizations and they must be
controlled.
c) Method study can point out clearly the need for new machines and equipment in the office
environment.
d) The importance of resource utilization within the office environment becomes more
important as the percentage of workers in offices continue to increase.
e) Office workers have been subjected to very little systematic study, thus there is a need for
the application of work study in the office.

9.4.2 Approach to method study

Design and control of forms

Examination of forms follow the basic critical examination process asking:

Why is the form necessary?

What information does it convey?
Who uses it?
When do they use it?
Where is it used?
How is it used? (Is the form produced by a computer, are entries typed, is it filled in
manually).

When designing forms, we are trying to make the form:

Compatible for its intended use. If the form is required to be used outdoors or under
extreme weather conditions the quality of the needs to be different.
Easy to complete. The form should be clear and unambiguous.
Easy to use. This refers to the part the form plays in a procedure after it has been
completed.

Control of forms

Important aspect on controlling forms is to undertake regular audits to discover if each form is still
necessary to serve a particular business function.
Other items to be considered in controlling forms [page 180]
Office Layout

Advantages of open plan offices:

The saving of space devoted to walls and partitions

Improved communication and contact between different work stations.
Greater flexibility if the layout needs to be changed in the future.
Easier supervision of staff.
Easier and cheaper cleaning of office space.
Easier power and service distribution.

Office layout studies

An office layout study should consist of the steps described on [page182]

9.4.3 The procedure for improving methods of work in the office

Steps in method study in the office

Same steps involved as method study in the production environment.

Select, Record, Examine, Develop, Evaluate, Define, Install and Maintain

Select
Selection consists of two components: finding those areas which represent significant problems or
opportunities, and then giving priority to them.

In the office we shall be looking for areas or activities that:

a) Activities that account for a significant proportion of office labour costs.

b) Activities that are producing large number of errors.
c) Areas that are creating high levels of dissatisfaction.
d) Activities that need to change in response to some external change.

Record Stage

In the office there is no end product. The important objects in use are forms or documents. In the
office, the progress and the content of documents as they move through the clerical systems and
procedures are recorded. Most office work can be placed on a hierarchy which includes systems,
procedures, activities and methods. [Diagram page 172]

Information can be recorded using:

Procedural narrative
Specimen chart [page173]
Procedure flowchart [page174]

Examine, Develop, Evaluate and Define

The examination of the recorded data must be systematic and complete; the critical examination
process is useful here in providing the structure. There is an increase in the use of technology in
support of office work.

Thus, when it comes to developing new and improved, methods of working, the work study person
needs an up to date knowledge of information systems and computerization. A factor to be considered
in evaluating technology is the conflict between cost and ease or convenience of use.

It is important that the new method meets the aims of the investigation, but it is also important to
identify secondary benefits of any change. E.g. Using a personal computer or laptop to type reports to
increase the efficiency but it also has secondary benefits such as improved presentation.

Install, Maintain

The install and maintain stages are the same as method study in the production environment. Both
stages must be handled with care or the new method will not be successful.

Training and support of those involved in the change are very important. Procedure manuals should
be updated to the new method of working. Instruction sheets with training courses should be
implemented.

9.5. Problem Solving Techniques

9.5.1 Interviewing technique
9.5.2 Brainstorming
9.5.3 Pareto analysis
9.5.4 5 Why technique
9.5.5 Cause and effect diagram
9.5.6 Force field analysis
9.5.7 Tally sheet
9.5.8 Six words - (5W1H)- technique

9.5.1 Interview technique

Step Criteria Description

1 Plan Ahead Do a little homework! Research the problem as well, the people you will
be conducting the interview with. Have your facts ready.
2 Role Play Once you have finished studying, begin role playing (rehearsing).
3 Eye Contact Maintain eye contact with the interviewee.
4 Don’t get Personal In particular, avoid any negative comments you may have about the
problem. Don’t let your own views get in the way.
5 Listen and Adapt Be sensitive to the style and the needs of the interviewee. Don’t
interrupt unless absolutely necessary.
6 Relate Try to relate your questions to the actual problem
 7 Encourage Encourage the interviewee to share his or her own thoughts,
information, knowledge or skills about the problem. Show interest
during the process.

Roleplay: an interview process in class on production problem. Example; a machine is producing

defective products only on night shift.

9.5.2 Brainstorming

Clearly identify the issue.

Allow a minute for everybody to think about the issue.
Allow a random flow of ideas at first and then one idea per person in turn as fewer ideas are
shared.
Record every contribution verbatim onto a flipchart.
Say pass when no ideas are available.
No comments are allowed during the brainstorm
Brainstorming is carried out away from the organization in most case, where the
environment is quiet and members are relaxed.
Roleplay: brainstorm a quality problem related to high reject rates on the production of cell phone
covers.

9.5.3 Pareto analysis (80/20 principle)

Use
To identify the areas that offers the greatest potential for improvement. It is based on the
principle that 20% of the sources normally account for 80% of the results.

Method
List the different categories in descending order of frequency.
Add a column indicating the cumulative number of occurrences.
Prepare a bar graph of the number of occurrences against the categories, listing
them in descending order.
Add a line graph on the same axes to show the cumulative number of
occurrences.
Explore other Pareto charts of the same situation (e.g. cost implications of the
occurrences).
Focus your attention on the areas of biggest impact.
Tally sheet on complaints of cell phone service provider.
Use the following check sheet and develop a Pareto diagram

No signal Can’t sms Calls No games

expensive
Monday 11111 11 111 -
 Tuesday 1111 11 111 1

Wednesday 111111 11 1 1

Thursday 1111 111 1 1

Friday - 11111 11 11

Total 19 14 10 5

9.5.4 5 Why technique

When there is a problem and you want to narrow down “root-cause”:

Ask Why 5 times (sometimes more than 5, sometimes less than 5)

Is an indication – point you in the right direction
May not be replicated – depending on circumstances

Examples
9.5.5 Cause and Effect (Fishbone / Ishikawa Diagram)

Use
To assist with the identification of possible causes resulting in a specified effect.

Method

Define the problem effect as precisely as possible.

Draw the cause-effect diagram onto a flipchart and write the problem in the problem box.
Brainstorm possible causes and write these down on the diagram linked to the appropriate
cause categories (e.g. Man, Method, Machine, Material, Measurement, and Environment).
Develop consensus on the most probable causes by means of a suitable technique.
Repeat the procedure, using the elimination of the root cause as the ‘effect’ in order to
arrive at possible solutions.

Afterwards
Use some analytical technique to find the most probable root cause or the best solution.

Example
 Man

9.5.6 Force field analysis

Use
To assess possible solutions and find the ‘best’ one by analyzing the restraining forces and driving
forces.

Method

Define a goal or ideal state you want to reach.

List the restraining forces that are preventing progress towards the goal.
List driving forces that will assist you to achieve the goal.
Rank these forces in terms of their strength.
Much opposing forces, i.e. identify strong forces that will overcome restraining forces.
Decide on an action plan by focusing on strengthening the most important driving forces and
countering the strongest restraining forces.

Example 1

Practical: You owe DUT fees, find 3 solutions to this problem. Then explore the driving and
restraining forces in implementing these solutions.
Example 2

9.5.7 Tally sheet

Use
To gather data in the form of frequencies of different occurrences (e.g. different kinds of
minor stoppages).
Method
List the different occurrences to be monitored.
Determine who will collect the data (e.g. the operator).
Determine the data source.
Define the data collection time period (e.g. two weeks).
Draw up a user-friendly form and record the data on it.

Afterwards
Analyse the data through Pareto Analysis.

Example
An example of the tally sheet is shown on the next page.

9.5.8 Six words - (5W1H)- technique

Use
An analytical technique to assess possible causes and/or solutions for relevance.

Method

• Specify the questions around the six words:

What is the problem and what not?

When did it happen and when not?
How did it happen and how not?
Where did it happen and where not?
Who experienced the problem and who not?
Why does it happen and why not?
• Find evidence to answer each of the questions,
e.g. “The problem only occurs during night shift
and “It only occurs on Machine A, but never on
Machine B”.

• Use the results to identify the root cause of the

problem or to assess possible causes or solutions
for relevance.

10. Prescribed Textbook

Frievelds A, Benjamin WN. (2014) Niebel’s Methods, Standards and Work Design, 13th edition. Mcgraw-Hill.
New York.

11. Assignment Submission Date – TBC (in class and on Moodle)

12. Test Date / s – TBC (in class and on Moodle)

13. Make Up Test Date – TBC (in class and on Moodle)

14. Exam Date – N/A