LAGUNA UNIVERSITY

Laguna Sports Complex, Santa Cruz, Laguna

SOLUBILITY OF IONIC SUBSTANCES

Narrative Report for SCI2 – METEOROLOGY

Prepared by:

Amador, Jel Ester

Artigas, Carl Gavin Slet

Aranillo, Angela

De Torres, Lyra

Submitted to:

Mr. Christian Mier C. Escriba

Academic Year 2023-2024

 Introduction

Ionic compounds are those that are bound together by ionic bonds. Elements can

change their electron count to get closer to the configuration of a noble gas. They

become more stable when ions are formed (either by gaining or losing electrons) to

complete the octet.

Metals often lose electrons to complete their octet in a reaction with non-metals,

whereas non-metals acquire electrons to complete their octet. Ionic compounds are

often created by the reaction of metals and non-metals.

The electrostatic connection between the positive and negative ions holds ionic

solids together. As an illustration, sodium ions are drawn to chloride ions, and vice

versa. The product is an alternating structure of Cl– and Na+ ions in three dimensions.

This is a sodium chloride crystal.

LESSON 1: Lattice Enthalpy and Solubility

Lattice enthalpy

The strength of the forces between the ions in an ionic solid is measured by

lattice enthalpy. The bigger the lattice enthalpy, the stronger the forces.

For instance, when ions are separated from each other, they can be thought of

as being in the gaseous state.

−¿ ¿
+¿+C l (g) ¿
NaC l (s ) → N a(g)

When separate ions come together to form a lattice, they are in the solid state.

−¿ →NaC l( s) ¿
+¿+C l (g) ¿
N a(g)

The formation of a lattice from gaseous ions is always an exothermic process,

and thus always negative.

−¿ →NaC l( s ) ∆ H ¿=−787 kJ /mol¿

+¿+C l (g) ¿
N a(g)

Thus, there are two approaches to describe lattice enthalpy:

Lattice Dissociation Enthalpy

The enthalpy change required to transform one mole of solid crystal into its

distributed gaseous ions.

Lattice Formation Enthalpy

 The enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of solid crystal is produced from

its separated gaseous ions.

Factors Affecting Lattice Enthalpy

 The quantity of charge associated with the constituent ions (Amount of Charge)

 The spacing between the ions (Size of the ion)

Hydration Enthalpy

Enthalpy of hydration can be defined as the energy released when one mole of

gaseous ions is diluted. It can be thought of as an enthalpy of solvation, where water is

the solvent. Also referred to as hydration energy, hydration enthalpy always has a

negative value.
−1
+¿ ∆H Hyd =−406 kJ mo l ¿
+¿+ ( aq ) → Na (aq) ¿
Na ( g)

Because water has both positive (H atom) and negative (O atom) poles, it is

regarded as a polar solvent. An ionic compound (any salt, for example, NaCl) dissolves

in water, causing the compound's solid-state structure to be broken down and the
−¿ ¿

separation of Na+¿∧C l ¿.
 Hydration Enthalpy Values

Several ionic compounds do dissolve, even though energy is required to break

apart the lattice. It follows that yet another occurrence is required to provide that energy.

The Coulombic force of attraction holds the ions in a solute together. To dissolve

this solute into the solvent (in this case, water), the water molecule must overcome this

high force of attraction. The energy required to break this string force of attraction is

known as lattice enthalpy.

 In non-aqueous solutions, most ionic compounds are insoluble; nevertheless, in

water, they exhibit significant solubility. The interaction of the ions with the solvent is

what determines a salt's solubility.

Enthalpy of Solution

Both the hydration enthalpy and the lattice enthalpy affect the dissolving process.

∆ H Solu=∆ H ¿ +∆ H Hyd
−¿¿
+¿+Y (aq) ¿
∆ H Hyd =X (aq)

The enthalpy of the solution involves two processes:

 Lattice energy

 Enthalpy of Hydration

For instance, the lattice energy of NaCl is 786 kJ/mol and the Hydration enthalpy of

NaCl is 783 kJ/mol. Calculate the enthalpy of the solution.

∆ H Solu=∆ H ¿ +∆ H Hyd

∆ H Solu=786+(−783)
LESSON 2:

A. For Group 1 Metal

The alkali metals are found in Periodic Table Group 1A (or IA) and include hydrogen

(H), lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium

(Fr). Except for hydrogen, these are soft, shiny, low-melting, highly reactive metals that

tarnish when exposed to air. The name derives from the fact that when these metals or

their oxides are dissolved in water, an alkaline (basic) solution is formed. Because alkali

metals are highly reactive, they are rarely (if ever) found in their elemental form in

nature and are instead found as ionic compounds (except for hydrogen). In their

highest-energy orbitals (ns1), alkali metals have only one valence electron. They are the

largest elements and have the lowest ionization energies in their respective periods.

The valence electron is easily lost, resulting in a 1+ charged ion. The salts of Group 1A

elements are extremely soluble in water. Because alkali metal ions are relatively large

(in comparison to other ions from the same time period), their charge densities are low,

and they are easily separated from their anions and solvated by polar solvents such as

water. Alkali metal hydroxide - Alkali hydroxides are a type of chemical compound that

has an alkali metal cation and a hydroxide anion. The following are alkali hydroxides:

Lithium hydroxide, Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, Rubidium hydroxide, and

Cesium hydroxide are all examples of electrolytes. The solubility of alkali metal

hydroxides increases from top to bottom. Hence, the order of their solubility is:

LiOH<NaOH<KOH<RbOH

B. For Group 2 Metals

Group 2A (or IIA) of the periodic table are the alkaline earth metals: the beryllium (Be),

magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). They are

harder and less reactive than the alkali metals of Group 1A. The name comes from the

fact that the oxides of these metals produced basic solutions when dissolved in water.
Like the Group 1A elements, the alkaline earth metals are too reactive to be found in

nature in their elemental form.

The alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons in their highest-energy

orbitals (ns2). They are smaller than the alkali metals of the same period, and therefore

have higher ionization energies. In most cases, the alkaline earth metals are ionized to

form a 2+ charge.

Atomic and Ionic Radii

The atomic and ionic radii of the alkaline earth elements are smaller than those

of the corresponding alkali metals of the same period. This is due to an increase in

atomic number as well as an increased nuclear charge in these elements. Within the

group from Be to Ba, the atomic and ionic radii increase with an increase in atomic

number.

Ionization Enthalpies

These elements have a fairly large size. They have low ionization enthalpies. As

we move from Be to Ba, their atomic size increases, their ionization enthalpy decreases.

Because of low ionization enthalpies, they are strongly electro- positive in nature. The

electropositive character increases down the group from Be to Ba.

Due to low ionization enthalpy, alkaline earth metals are fairly reactive. However, their

chemical reactivity is lower than those of alkali metals. Further, as we move from Be to
Ba, the chemical reactivity increases as the electropositive character of the metals

increase with the increasing atomic number.

Solubility of Alkaline Earth Metals Hydroxides

Group II metal hydroxides become more soluble in water as you go down the

column.

Be(OH)2 is least soluble

Ba(OH)2 is most soluble

Cause of solubility in any substance are:

Hydration- energy released due to the hydration of one mole of ion of salts.

Lattice Enthalpy- energy required to separate the ions from mole of the solid to

the infinite distance in the gaseous state.

Hydration > Lattice Enthalpy - salt dissolve; soluble

Hydration< Lattice Enthalpy - salt does not dissolve; insoluble.

Therefore, as we move down to the group, hydration enthalpy is greater than lattice

enthalpy. Hence, the solubility increases down the group.

The solubility of Group 2 hydroxides generally increases as you move down the

group. For example, magnesium hydroxide has a solubility of 0.00064 g/100 mL at

25°C, while barium hydroxide has a solubility of 3.7 g/100 mL at the same temperature.

The Group 2 elements can form metal hydroxides when reacting with water.

These hydroxides display a trend in their solubility in water.

The solubility of these hydroxides increases due to the increasing radius of the metal

cations.
 Ions that are similar in size will experience stronger electrostatic attractions to

one another as they are able to get closer together. As the hydroxide ion (OH-) is quite

small, smaller metal cations will create stronger and so less soluble ionic compounds.

Group 2 metal hydroxides are all basic compounds. When dissolved in solution

they will form alkaline solutions, with the alkalinity of the solutions increasing down the

group as solubility increases. This means that they can react with and neutralize acids.

These neutralization reactions are used for a range of purposes, from agriculture to

medicine.

Magnesium Hydroxide

Though magnesium hydroxide is considered insoluble in water, in a solution of

magnesium hydroxide and water, the solution will become slightly alkaline. This solution

will be about pH 9, meaning that some hydroxide ions are present. Therefore,

magnesium hydroxide is referred to as being ‘sparingly’ soluble.

Mg(OH)2(s)→ Mg 2+¿¿ (aq)+2OH-(aq)

Calcium Hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide is partially soluble in water, producing an alkaline solution (pH

11)

Aqueous solutions of calcium hydroxide (limewater) can be used to test for carbon

dioxide. In this test,

CO2 is bubbled through limewater causing calcium carbonate to be formed which

presents as a white precipitate.

Ca(OH)2(aq)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)+H2O(l)

Barium Hydroxide

Barium hydroxide is very soluble in water. This means that a solution of barium

hydroxide and water is very strongly alkaline.

Ba(OH)2(s)→Ba2+(aq)+2OH-(aq)
Solubility

Is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (referred to as

the solute) to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a solution.

Solvent

Is a substance (usually water) that can dissolve one or more substances to form

a solution. A common example of a solvent is water, which is used to neutralize polar

molecules.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solution.

Sulfate

A group of mineral salts that can have a natural or human-made origin.

In nature, sulfates are often found in water. The concentration increases when drinking

water is obtained from industrial or domestic waste. Low concentrations are normal and

not cause for concern. Higher concentrations will make the water taste worse and

increase the risk of developing gastrointestinal problems.

Sulfates of the heavier alkaline earth metals are quite insoluble because of the

higher lattice energy due to the doubly charged cation and anion. The solubility of the

carbonates and the sulfates decreases rapidly down the group because hydration

energies decrease with increasing cation size.

Carbonate

usually used to refer to one of its salts or carbonate minerals.

Solubility of Sulfate

 The sulfates become less soluble as you go down the group.

 Magnesium sulfate is soluble in water.

  Calcium sulfate is only very slightly soluble in water.

 Strontium and barium sulfates are virtually insoluble in water.

Solubility of Carbonates

Group 1: Alkali Metals and Carbonates

reaction between Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs with CO3. All except Lithium are soluble in water

and stable to heat.

Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3)

 Uses: drug development.

 Chemical Characteristics:

 Low solubility in water.

 Unstable to heat.

 Appearance: white powder, fragrance-free

Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)

 Uses: glass making, pulp and paper industry, sodium chemicals (silicates), soap

and detergent production, paper industry and water softener.

 Known as soda ash.

 Soluble in water

 Stable to heat

 Appearance: crystal white solid

Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3)

 Uses: glass making, soft soap production, textile, and photography chemicals.

 Soluble in water.

 Can be heated too high. temperatures.

 Appearance: white solid

Rubidium Carbonate (Rb2CO3)

 Uses: glass making, short-chain alcohol production.

 Soluble in water.

 Can be heated to high temperatures.

 Appearance: white solid.

Cesium Carbonate (Cs2CO3)

 Uses: production of other cesium salts.

 Soluble in water.

 Can be heated to high temperatures.

 Appearance: white powder.

Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals and Carbonate

All are insoluble in water and unstable to heat.

Beryllium Carbonate (BeCO3)

 Insoluble in water.

Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)

 Uses: skin care products, cosmetics, anti-fire products, climbing chalk.

 Insoluble in water.

 Hygroscopic substance.

 Appearance: white solid.

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

 Uses: textile, paint, paper, plastic, caulks industry used to produce ink and

sealant. It is used as a food additive (nontoxic), drug development and chalk

production.

 Principal constituent of limestone (sedimentary rock).

  Low solubility in water.

 Soluble in acids.

 Appearance: white powder.

Strontium Carbonate (SrCO3)

 Uses: fireworks, magnets, and ceramic manufacture.

 Low solubility in water.

 Reactive to acids.

 Neutralize acids.

 Appearance: white powder, unscented.

Barium Carbonate (BaCO3)

 Uses: glass, cement, ceramic, porcelain, rat poison manufacture.

 Low solubility in water.

 Appearance: white crystals.

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