Unit-4

BASICS OF ELECTROMECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

(24 Marks= 1&1/2 essay, 3 shorts)

Definition of instruments:
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value
of the quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current,
power and energy etc. Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

Absolute instrument:
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be
measured in terms of the instrument parameter. This instrument is really used,
because each time the value of the measuring quantities varies. So we have to
calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically which is time
consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use. Example:
Tangent galvanometer
Secondary instrument:
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly.
Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard
secondary instrument. Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter etc. Practically secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Indicating instrument: This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the
value of measuring quantity. The pointer Indication gives the magnitude of
measuring quantity.
Recording instrument: This types of instruments records the magnitude of the
quantity to be measured continuously over a specified period of time.
Integrating instrument: This type of instrument gives the total amount of the
quantity to be measured over a specified Period of time.
Electromechanical indicating instrument: For satisfactory operation
electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary. They are
 Deflecting torque or force
 Controlling torque or force
  Damping torque or force
Deflecting torque or force:
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero
position. To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is
known as deflecting force. A system which produces the deflecting force is known
as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal
to a mechanical force.

This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage. The
deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position. It is
produced by utilizing one or more of the following effects of current or voltage:
 Magnetic effect ——————————- Moving-iron instruments.
 Electrodynamic effect ———————- (i) Moving coil instruments, (ii)
Dynamometer type.
 Electromagnetic induction effect ———Induction type instruments.
 Thermal effect ———————————Hot-wire instruments.
 Chemical effect ——————————–Electrolytic instruments.
 Electrostatic effect —————————-Electrostatic voltmeters

Below table gives the information about electrical measuring instruments in which
deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the first three effects.
Controlling torque or force:
To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force
is necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force.
This force is known as controlling force. A system which produces this force is
known as a controlled system. When the external signal to be measured by the
instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position. This is
possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.

Different types of controlling torque: They are spring control and gravity control.

Spring control:

Spring control

In spring control, two spiral springs made of phosphor bronze is attached to the
above and below the spindle. When the pointer moves, the spring twist the spindle in
opposite direction thus producing controlling torque and stops the free movement of
pointer.
The deflecting torque produced is directly proportional to value of current in the coil.
Td α I
The controlling torque is proportional to angle of deflection (ɵ). Tc α ɵ
When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then ɵ α I. So the scale is uniform.

Gravity control:
In gravity control, a control weight is attached to the spindle. The control
weight is attracted by gravitational pull of the earth. The control weight provides
control torque. When the Instrument is connected in the circuit, the pointer deflects
from zero position thus providing deflecting torque: Td α I
When pointer moves, the control weight and balance weight also moves up in the
direction of pointer. Control weight moving up is W cosɵ component.
But due to earth’s gravity the control weight is pulled back or down to its original
position thus bringing back the pointer to the correct reading on scale. Control
weight moving down is W sinɵ component. Pointer is controlled during W sinɵ
component. So Tc α sinɵ

Gravity control

When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then sinɵ α I. So the scale is non-uniform

Damping torque:
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro
mechanical. Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it
final steady position before coming to rest. The time required to take the
measurement is more. To damp out the oscillations quickly, a damping force is
necessary. This force is produced by different systems.
A damping torque is used to reduce oscillations in the pointer
Under damping: If system is under damped, the pointer takes some time to come
rest position.
Over damping: If system is over damped, the pointer moves very slowly.
Critical damping: If system is critical damped, the pointer quickly comes to rest
position.

Different types of Damping torques: They are

 Air friction damping.
 Fluid friction damping.
 Eddy current damping
Air friction damping:

A light aluminium piston moving in and out of the air chamber is attached to
the spindle. When the piston moves into the chamber, the air in the chamber is
compressed, opposing the pointer motion. The compressed air moves piston up,
opposing the pointer motion. This continues movement of piston going in and going
up in to air chamber, opposes the pointer motion thus decreasing the oscillations.

Fluid friction damping:

It consists of light aluminium vanes attached to the spindle. When

the spindle rotates the vanes rotates in the damping oil. Due to the viscosity of
damping oil, the vanes movement is opposed by damping oil. So spindle movement
is also opposed, thus decreasing the oscillations in pointer.

Eddy current damping:

It is based on the principle of electro-magnetic induction. Whenever an
aluminium disc is rotated in a magnetic field, an EMF is induced in the disc which is
called eddy currents. These eddy currents produce a force which opposes the motion
of disc and reduce the oscillations of the pointer.

Measurement: The measurement of a given quantity is an act or the of comparison

between the quantity whose magnitude is unknown and a predefined standard. Since
two quantities are compared the result is expressed in the form of numerical values.
There are two methods of measurement

 Direct method
 Indirect method.

Direct Measurement: In direct method the unknown quantity is measured directly

such as measurement of current by an ammeter, voltage by voltmeter, resistance by
ohm meter, power by wattmeter etc.
Indirect Measurement: In the indirect method of measurement the unknown
quantity is determined by measuring other functionally related quantities and
calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it directly with an instrument.
For example resistance of a conductor may be determined by measuring voltage
across the conductor V, and current flowing through the conductor I, and then
calculating it by R=V/I

Important definitions relevant to instruments will be discussed first. Measurement

work employs a number of terms which are defined below:

Measurand: The quantity or variable being measured is called measurand or

measurement variable.

Accuracy: It is defined in terms of the closeness with which an instrument reading

approaches the true or expected (desired) value of the variable being measured.

Precision: It is measure of the consistency of reproducibility (repeatability) of the

measurement (i.e., the successive reading do not differ). For a given fixed value of an
input variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement
differ from one another.

Sensitivity: It is defined by the change in the output or response of the instrument

for a unit change of input or measured variable.

Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in a measured variable (measurand) to

which the instrument will respond.

True or Expected Value: The true or expected value of a quantity to be measured

may be defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when the
average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero. It also refers
to a value of the quantity under consideration that would be obtained by a method
(known as exemplar method) agreed upon by experts. In other words, it is the most
probable value that calculations indicate and one should expect to measure. Note that
the value of the unknown obtained by making use of primary standards and
measuring instruments is considered to be its true value.

Error: It is the deviation of the measured (or indicated) value from the true (or
expected) value of a quantity. In other words, error is the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the unknown quantity. It is also called absolute
error or maximum possible error.

Correction: The difference between the true value and the measured value of the
required quantity is defined as the reading correction or simply correction. That is,
correction is negative or error. Therefore addition of correction in measured value
gives the true ( accurate or expected) value.
Bandwidth: The bandwidth of an instrument relates to the maximum range of
frequency over which it is suitable for use. It is normally quoted in terms of 3 dB (dB
= decibel) point. For an amplifier, it is the range of frequencies between which the
gain or amplitude ratio is constant to within 3 dB (this corresponds 30% reduction in
gain).

PERMANENT MAGENT MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT (P.M.M.C):

It can only measure D.C current or voltage
Working Principle: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a force.
Construction: PMMC Instrument consists of poles (N and S) of a permanent
magnet. A rectangular coil is wound on the iron core. The coil is attached to spindle
which is rotated with the help of bearings so that it can moves freely between poles.
Two hair springs made of phosphor bronze is placed above and below the coil. The
current goes in and out through these hair springs. A pointer is attached to spindle
which moves over a calibrated scale.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminium former.

Control: Spring control is used.

Working: When PMMC instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or
voltage, the current flows through the rectangular coil which produces a magnetic
field. The reaction between magnetic field of coil and the permanent magnet field
causes a torque which moves the coil thus deflects the pointer over a calibrated scale.
The torque produced is directly proportional to value of current in the coil. This
torque is called deflecting torque. Td α I
When the pointer moves, the hair springs controls the pointer by twisting the spindle
so that free movement of pointer is controlled. The torque produced by twisting the
spindle by hair springs is called controlling torque. The controlling torque is
proportional to angle of deflection (ɵ). Tc α ɵ
When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then ɵ α I
So the scale is uniform.
Though the pointer is controlled by hair springs, pointer oscillates on the scale.
These oscillations are reduced by eddy current damping.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a
continuous deflection. Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.
Advantages:
 Torque/weight is high.
 Very accurate and reliable.
 Power consumption is less
 Scale is uniform
 Damping is very effective
 Since operating field is very strong and the effect of stray field is negligible
 Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages:
 Use only for D.C.
 Cost is high
 Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
 Friction and temperature error are present
Errors in PMMC:
 The permanent magnet produced error due to ageing effect. By heat
treatment, this error can be eliminated.
 The spring produces error due to ageing effect. By heat treating the spring the
error can be eliminated.
 When the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil vary and the spring
also produces error in deflection. This error can be minimized by using a
spring whose temperature co-efficient is very low.

Extension of range of PMMC instrument:

Case-I: Shunt:

A low shunt resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter to extent the range
of current. Large current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by
using a shunt.
Let Rm =Resistance of
meter Rsh =Resistance of
shunt
I m = Current through
meter I sh=current
through shunt
I = current to be measure

Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermo electric emf. The
change is resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible

Case (II): Multiplier:

A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier. A
large voltage can be measured using a voltmeter o f small rating with a multiplier.
Let R = resistance of
meter Rse= resistance of
multiplier Vm = Voltage
across meter
Vse = Voltage across series
resistance V = voltage to
be measured

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS (M.I):

These instruments can measure both A.C and D.C current or voltage
They are two types of moving iron instruments
1. Attraction type moving iron instruments
2. Repulsion type moving iron instruments
ATTRACTION TYPE MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS:

Principle: It works on the principle of attraction of soft iron piece in to a magnetic

field

Construction:
It consists of fixed coil or solenoid through which current is passed. A oval shaped
soft iron piece is attached to spindle to move in and out of the fixed coil or solenoid.
A pointer is attached to the spindle to move over a calibrated scale. The spindle is
fixed or pivoted in bearings to move freely. An air chamber with piston is attached to
spindle to provide damping

Working:
When the instrument is connected in circuit to measure the current or voltage,
the current flow through the fixed coil or solenoid. A magnetic field is set up in the
solenoid or fixed coil and attracts the nearby soft iron piece. When soft iron piece is
moved in to the coil pointer also moves thus producing deflecting torque (Td). The
deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the currents (current to magnetize
the coil and current to attract the iron piece). Td α I²
The free movement of pointer is controlled by the hair spring which provides
controlling torque. The controlling torque is proportional to angle of deflection ɵ i.e.
Tc α ɵ
When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then ɵ α I²
So the scale is non uniform
REPULSION TYPE MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT:

Principle: When two iron pieces are magnetized by same magnetic field, the iron
pieces will have same polarities i.e., both pieces will be North Pole or both pieces in
South Pole. So a force of repulsion occurs between two iron pieces. This repulsion
moves the pointer.

Construction:
It consists of cylindrical coil inside which there are two iron pieces. The iron A is
fixed. The iron B is movable which carries a pointer to move over a scale. The
controlling torque is provided by hair springs. An air chamber with piston is attached
to the spindle to provide damping.
Control: Spring control is used.
Damping: Air friction damping is used

Working:
If the instrument is connected to the circuit for measuring the current and
voltage in it. If the current flows through the cylindrical coil which produces
magnetic field. This magnetic field magnetizes the two iron pieces A and B with
same polarities. So the iron pieces repel each other due to same polarities causing the
pointer to move over the scale, thus producing deflecting torque
The deflecting torque is proportional to square of the field strength(H) caused by two
iron pieces Td α H² since H= NI/L and H α I so Td α I²
The free movement of pointer is controlled by the hair spring which provides
controlling torque. The controlling torque is proportional to angle of deflection ɵ Tc
α ɵ
When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then ɵ α I²
So the scale is non uniform
Advantages:
 MI can be used in AC and DC
 It is cheap
 Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
 Simple construction
 Less friction error.

Disadvantages:
 It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error.
 Scale is not uniform
 It consumed more power
 Calibration is different for AC and DC operation

Comparison between MI & MC instruments:

Moving coil Instrument. Moving Iron Instrument

It is used on DC supply only. It can be used both on AC and DC.
Its scale is uniform. Its scale is not uniform
It is costly It is cheap.
It is not simple in construction. It is simple in construction.
Eddy current damping is used. Air friction damping is used.
Its coil is always made of thin wire with Its coil is made according to value of
a few turns. current or voltage.
Permanent magnet is used. Electromagnet is used.
It is more sensitive It is less sensitive.
consume less power It consumes high power
It is more accurate It is less accurate
Controlling torque is produced by spring Controlling torque is produced either by
control. spring control or by gravity control
DYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENT: (measuring current and voltage)
It can measure both A.C and D.C current or voltage. Also measures power and
is most probably used as a wattmeter.
Principle: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a torque and moves.

Construction:
It consists of fixed coil divided in to two halves and are connected in series.
Fixed coil is made of less no to turns thick wire
A moving coil is made to rotate in between the two halves of fixed coil. Moving coil
is made of more no of turns, thin wire. A pointer is attached to spindle to move over
a calibrated scale. Two hair springs are provided on the spindle to provide
controlling torque
Air friction damping is used here
Working:
The fixed coil and moving coil are connected are in series connection. I1 and
I2 are the currents flowing in the fixed coil and moving coil when the instrument is
connected in the circuit. When the currents I1 and I2 flows through fixed coil and
moving coil a torque is produced on moving coil. This torque moves the pointer on
the calibrated scale. The pointer comes to rest position when Td = Tc.
When used as a ammeter: The deflecting torque is proportional to currents in both
fixed coil and moving coil Td α I²
The controlling torque Tc α ɵ. When Td = Tc, ɵ α I². So, scale is non uniform
When used as a voltmeter, the deflecting torque is proportional to the voltage drops
in both fixed coil and moving coil Td α V²
The controlling torque Tc α ɵ
When Td = Tc, & ɵ α V². So, scale is non uniform.
Advantages:
 It can be used for voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
 Hysteresis error is nil
 Eddy current error is nil
  Damping is effective
 It can be measure correctively and accurately the rms value of the
voltage

Disadvantages:
 Scale is not uniform
 Power consumption is high(because of high resistance )
 Cost is more
 Error is produced due to frequency, temperature and stray field.
 Torque/weight is low.(Because field strength is very low)

DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER: (measuring power)

It is used to measure both D.C and A.C power.

Principle: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a torque and moves.

Construction:
It consists of a fixed coil divided in two halves and the current in series. Fixed
coil is also called current coil (C.C) and is made of less turns, thick wire of low
resistance. Fixed coil is connected in series to load and carry only load current. A
moving coil is made to rotate between two halves of fixed coil with the help of
spindle. Moving coil is called Pressure coil (P.C) and is made of more turns, of a thin
wire of high resistance. Moving coil is connected in parallel to load and carries
current proportional to the voltage.
A Pointer is attached to the spindle which moves over a scale
Air friction damping is provided here.
Working:
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure power, load current
(I1) flows through current coil and another current (I2) flows through moving coil
proportional to applied voltage. These two currents I1 and I2 produce a deflecting
torque which moves the pointer over a calibrated scale.
In A.C circuit power factor cos Ø will be there, Td α I1 I2cosØ
But I2 α V, so Td α I1 VcosØ
Td α load power
The free movement of pointer is controlled by the hair spring which provides
controlling torque. The controlling torque is proportional to angle of deflection ɵ. i.e
Tc α ɵ
When the deflecting torque and controlling torque are equal (Td = Tc), the pointer
comes to rest position then Load power α ɵ
So the scale is uniform

Errors in Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

The following are severe errors in this type of wattmeter:

1. Error due to potential coil inductance: The inductance of the potential coil is
liable to cause an error in the reading of the wattmeter. Because of this error, the
wattmeter gives a high reading on the lagging power factor and low reading on the
leading power factor.
The high non-inductive resistance connected in series with the coil swamps the
phasing effect of the potential coil inductance.

2. Error due to power loss in the potential coil or current coil: Another possible
error in the indicated power may be due to some voltage drop in the current coil or
the current taken by the potential coil.
We can overcome this defect by using an additional compensating winding. This
winding is connected in series with the potential coil and so placed that it produces a
field in the opposite direction to that of the current coils.

3. Error due to eddy currents: The alternating field of fixed or current coil
induces eddy currents in the solid metal parts which set up their own magnetic field.
This alters the magnitude and phase of the magnetic field, causing deflection.
Thus an error is introduced in the instrument reading. To reduce this error, the solid
metal parts are placed as far away as possible from the current coil.

4. Error due to the stray magnetic field: The dynamometer type wattmeter has a
relatively weak operating field; therefore, stray fields affect the reading of this
instrument considerably and cause serious errors. Hence, this type of instrument
must be shielded against stray magnetic fields try using iron cases or providing thin
iron shields over the working parts.
WESTON SYNCHROSCOPE:
It is also called as electro dynamometer synchro-scope. It is used the measure the
phase angle and frequency differences between any two machines during parallel
operation. It helps in synchronizing the two machines.

Construction:
It consists of fixed coil connected to the incoming machine. The moving coil is
connected to the bus bar or existing machine. The pointer is attached to the moving
coil to move over a scale. The scale is marked slow or fast. It also consists of three
limbed transformer. The winding of one of the outer limbs is connected to busbar
and the other outer limb is connected to incoming machine. The central limb winding
is connected to the lamp.

Working:

When the meter is connected to the circuit, current flows through the two outer limbs
of the transformer. These two currents in the outer limbs produce two fluxes. These
two fluxes pass through the central limb winding and induce an EMF which glows
the bulb.

To know phase differences: When the bus bars and incoming machines are in same
phase, the two fluxes from outer limbs passes to the central limb and become
additive. This induces an EMF in the central limb winding which glows the bulb
with maximum brightness.
When the bus bar and the incoming machine are not in same phase or out of phase,
no emf is induced in the central limb winding. So the bulb does not glow.

To know Frequency differences: If the frequency of the bus bar and incoming
machine are different the bulb flickers. Here the pointer becomes stationary when the
bus bar and incoming machine are having same phase and frequency. The bulb
glows with brightness The pointer moves slow or fast if the bus bar and incoming
machine are not having same phase and frequency.The bulb does not glow or
flickers.

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER:

It is used to measure the single phase power in a.c circuits
Principle: The interaction between two fluxes (shunt &series magnet fluxes) and the
eddy currents induced in the disc causes a torque on the disc to rotate

Construction: It consists of
1. Driving system: It consists of two electromagnets known as series magnet and
shunt magnet
The series magnet consists of U shaped laminations. The coil of series magent
is connected in series to the load. This coil is called current coil and always
carry load current. The flux produced in current coil Φ1 is in phase with the
load current I1
The shunt magnet consists of M shaped laminations. The coil of shunt magnet
is connected in parallel to the load. This coil is called Pressure coil or voltage
coil and always carries a current proportional to load voltage. The flux
produced in pressure coil is Φ2 should lag voltage by 90degrees.
2. Moving system: It consists of alumininum disc made to rotate between series
and shunt magnet with the help of shaft.
 3. Braking system: It consists of permanent magnet called braking magnet placed
at the edge of the alumininium disc. The aluminium disc rotated through this
magnet. This magnet controls the disc and also provides damping.
4. Registering system: It records the values proportional to the disc rotations.
Registering system consists of train of gears run by shaft.

Working:
When the energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure power, the load
current (I1) flows through current coil and another current (I2) proportional to applied
voltage flows in to the pressure coil. These two currents produce two fluxes Φ1 & Φ2
which induces eddy currents in the disc. Now the interaction between two fluxes and
eddy currents causes a torque to drives or deflects the aluminium disc. When the disc
moves, shaft moves and records the values in the registering system.
The deflecting torque Td α I1 I2 COSΦ
Since I2 α V , Td α I1 V COSΦ and Td α Load power
When the disc rotates, the braking magnet controls the free movement of disc. The
torque to control the speed of the disc is called braking torque (Tb) Tb α Speed of the
disc (N)
When the deflecting torque and braking torques are equal, the disc attains a steady
speed and moves smoothly registering the values correctly. Then,
Load power α Speed N

Meter constant:
The number of revolutions made by the aluminium disc for 1KWH of energy
consumption is known as meter constant.
In energy meter the speed N α Energy i.e Speed N = K + Energy.
Where K is meter constant.

speed (N) No . of revolutions

Meter constant = = KWH
approximately 1500 rev/ KWH
Energy

Errors in Induction Type Energy Meter with their Compensation:

 Error due to friction: This error can be compensated by the additional
shading band provided on the shunt electromagnet.
 Phase or low p.f. error: To overcome this error the shading band is provided
on the central limb of the shunt electromagnet.
 Error due to temperature variation: The effects of temperature changes on
the driving and braking system tend to balance each other, hence no need of
compensation.
 Error due to variation of frequency: The frequency should be kept constant.
 Creeping error: This error can be compensated by providing two small holes
on the disc diametrically opposite side. When the hole comes under the pole of
a shunt magnet,the disc stops running.
  Error in Registration: This error can be compensated by adjusting the
braking magnet or changing registering system.
 Speed error: This error can be compensated by readjusting the compensating
mechanism.
 Overload error: This error can be compensated by providing a ‘flux diverter’
to the current magnet.

Instrument Transformers:

Need of instrument transformers:

The d.c circuits when large currents are to be measured, it is usual to use low-range
ammeters with suitable shunts. For measuring high voltages, low-range voltmeters
are used with high resistances connected in series with them. But it is neither
convenient nor practical to use this method with alternating current and voltage
instruments. For this purpose, specially constructed accurate-ratio instrument
transformers are employed in conjunction with standard low-range a.c.
instruments. Their purpose is to reduce the line current or supply voltage to a value
small enough to be easily measured with meters of moderates size and capacity. In
other words, they are used for extending the range of a.c. ammeters and voltmeters.
Instruments transformers are of two types:
 Current transformers (CT) —for measuring large alternating currents.
 potential transformers (VT) —for measuring high alternating voltages

Advantages of using instrument transformers for range extension of a.c.

meters are as follows:
 The instrument is insulated from the line voltage, hence it can be grounded.
 The cost of the instrument (or meter) together with the instrument
transformer is less than that of the instrument alone if it were to be insulated
for high voltages.
 It is possible to achieve standardization instruments and meters at secondary
ratings of 100– 120 volts and 5 or 1 amperes. If necessary, several
instruments can be operated from a single transformer and 5 power consumed
in the measuring circuits is low.

In using instrument transformers for current (or voltage) measurements, we must

know the ratio of primary current (or voltage) to the secondary current (or voltage).
These ratios give us the multiplying factor for finding the primary values from the
instrument readings on the secondary side.
However, for energy or power measurements, it is essential to know not only the
transformation Ratio but also the phase angle between the primary and secondary
currents (or voltages) because it necessitates further correction to the meter
reading.
For range extension on a.c. circuits, instrument transformers are more desirable
than shunts (for current) and multipliers (for voltage measurements) for the
following reasons:
 Time constant of the shunt must closely match the time constant of the
instrument. Hence, a different shunt is needed for each instrument.
 Range extension is limited by the current-carrying capacity of the shunt i.e.
up to a few hundred amperes at the most.
 If current is at high voltage, instrument insulation becomes a very difficult
problem.
 Use of multipliers above 1000 becomes almost impracticable.
 Insulation of multipliers against leakage current and reduction of their
distributed capacitance becomes not only more difficult but expensive above
a few thousand volts.
APPLICATIONS OF CT & PT: Used in
 To measure currents & voltages in high power A.C circuits.
 In substations.
 For measurement & protective application together with meters & relays.
Precautions to be taken while using CT (current transformers):
 Secondary of CT must never be open circuited.
 Secondary of CT must be earthed to avoid shock.
 Secondary of CT must be designed to carry 5A current through it.
 It can’t be operated beyond rated current values.
 Primary winding of CT should be made small as possible.
Current Transformer:

A current transformer takes the place of shunt in d.c. measurements and

enables heavy alternating current to be measured with the help of a standard 5-A
range a.c. ammeter. As shown in Figure below, the current - or series-transformer
has a primary winding of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with
the line carrying the current to be measured. The secondary consist of a large
number of turns of fine wire and feeds a standard 5-A ammeter or the current coil
of a watt-meter or watt-hour-meter (in the below figure)
For example, a 1,000/5A current transformer with in single turn primary will have
200 secondary turns. Obviously, it steps down the current in the 200: 1 ratio
whereas it steps up the voltage drop across the single-turn primary (an extremely
small quantity) in the ratio 1: 200. Hence if we know the current ratio of the
transformer and the reading of the a.c. ammeter, the line current can Be calculated.
It is worth noting that ammeter resistances being extremely low, a current
transformer operates with its secondary under nearly short-circuit conditions.
Should it be necessary to remove the ammeter of the current coils of the wattmeter
or a relay, the secondary winding must, first of all, be short-circuited before the
instrument is disconnected.
If it is not done then due to the absence of counter ampere-turns of the secondary,
the unopposed primary m.m.f. will set up an abnormally high flux in the core
which will produce excessive core loss with subsequent heating of and damage of
the transformer insulation and a high voltage across the secondary

Terminals this is not the case with the ordinary constant-potential transformers
because their primary current is determined by the load on their secondary whereas
in a current transformer, primary current is determined entirely by the load on the
system and not by the load on its own Secondary. Hence, the secondary of a
current transformer should never be left open under any circumstances.

Potential Transformers:
These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down transformers and are used
in conjunction with standard low-range voltmeters (100-120 V) whose deflection
when divided by transformation ratio, gives the true voltage on the primary or high
voltage side.
In general, they are of the shell type and do not differ much from the
ordinary two-winding transformers except that their power rating is extremely
small. Sine their secondary windings are required to operate instruments or relays
or pilot lights, their ratings are usually of 40 to 100W. For safety, the secondary is
completely insulated from the high voltage primary and is, in addition, grounded
for affording protection to the operator figure shows the connection of such a
transformer

Ratio and Phase-angle Errors:

In the case of a potential transformer, we are interested in the ratio of the primary
to the secondary terminal voltage and in the phase angle γ between the primary and
reversed secondary terminal voltage V2′ The general theory of voltage transformer
is the same as for the power transformers except that, as the current in the
secondary burden is very small, the total primary current I1 is not much greater
than I0.
In the pharos diagram of Figure, vectors AB, BC, CD and DE represent small
voltage drops due to resistances and reactance of the transformer winding (they
have been exaggerated for the sake of clarity). Since the drops as well as the phase
angle γ are small, the top portion of diagram can be drawn with negligible loss of
accuracy as in Figure where V2′ vector has been drawn parallel to the vector for V1.
In these diagrams, V2′ is the secondary terminal voltage as referred to primary
assuming transformation without voltage drops. All actual voltage drops have been
referred to the primary. Vector AB represents total resistive drop as referred to
primary i.e. I2′R01. Similarly, BC represents total reactive drop as referred to
primary i.e. I2′X01.
In a voltage transformer, the relatively large no-load current produces appreciable
resistive drops which have been represented by vectors CD and DE respectively.
Their values are I0R1 and I0X1 respectively.