1 s2.0 S0169555X20301379 Main

Geomorphology 366 (2020) 107165
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph
The expanding role of anthropogeomorphology in critical zone studies in

the Anthropocene
Raquel Granados Aguilar a,b,⁎, Rebecca Owens a,c, John R. Giardino a,b,c
a
High Alpine and Arctic Research Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
b
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
c
Water Management and Hydrological Science Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Just as geomorphology evolved from a predominantly descriptive science to largely quantitative, a new frame-
Received 10 November 2019 work for geomorphology is again required as rapidly increasing human population pushes anthropic-geomor-
Received in revised form 10 March 2020 phic processes to a dominant role in the Anthropocene. Understanding these processes requires new
Accepted 11 March 2020
conceptual frameworks, interdisciplinarity, and a strong technology-assisted approach. We propose a focus on
Available online 24 April 2020
the Critical Zone as a useful conceptual framework in studies of Anthropocene geomorphology. Prior studies
Keywords:
have assessed the Anthropocene with a focus on soils, which are generally considered the unifying thread of
Critical zone the Critical Zone. The Critical Zone in its entirety, however, extends from the top of the canopy to the base of
Anthropocene the groundwater system. This concept thus permits a systems approach to geomorphology across scales, address-
Anthropogeomorphology ing the extensive role of human impact on Earth surface processes. Changing climatic conditions impact the de-
Global change livery of water to the Critical Zone, causing an expansion of arid lands. Land-cover alteration is decreasing
infiltration, armoring surfaces, increasing surface runoff, enhancing erosion rates, and is expected to expand in
the future. Thus, the benefit of using the Critical Zone as a lens to study geomorphology will result in a broad, uni-
fied interdisciplinary study of the Anthropocene. These studies can be aided by modern technology, including
drones and machine-learning applications. The trend toward technology-driven studies will continue through-
out the geosciences, and geomorphology will be well-aided by its use. We present a comprehensive review of
the concept of the Anthropocene and the Critical Zone making a case for the necessity of a Critical Zone-approach
to anthropogeomorphology.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction conclude by presenting our view of where the discipline of geomorphol-

ogy is being driven.
Human activities have had a growing and persistent impact on Earth
for millennia (Ruddiman and Thomson, 2001; Ruddiman, 2003; Ehlers
and Kraft, 2006; Szabó et al., 2010; Doughty et al., 2010; Price et al., 1.1. Recognition of humans' role as geomorphic agents
2011; Zalasiewicz et al., 2011; Ellis et al., 2013; Rick et al., 2013; Smith
and Zeder, 2013; Glikson, 2013; Savenije et al., 2014; Arnáez et al., Marsh (1898) warned of future challenges resulting from anthropo-
2015; Fox et al., 2017; Ruddiman, 2017; Tarolli et al., 2014, 2019; genic environmental changes long before their formal consideration: “It
Beach et al., 2015). The increasing impact has resulted in the recognition is still too early to attempt scientific method in discussing this problem
of human-driven activities that alter the surface of Earth as a geomor- … human action has been or may be the most injurious or most benefi-
phic process and referred to as anthropogeomorphology. The term cial in its influence upon the physical conditions of the earth we inhabit”
anthropogeomorphology was introduced by Golomb and Eder (1964). (Marsh, 1898, p. 6). Though discussed in an observational, qualitative
In our paper, we place anthropogeomorphology in the context of the manner, the warnings are clear: “But man is everywhere a disturbing
Anthropocene and link human impact on Earth within the context of agent … Indigenous vegetable and animal species are extirpated, and
the newer title of the Critical Zone (Giardino and Houser, 2015). We supplanted by others of foreign origin, spontaneous production is for-
bidden or restricted, and the face of the Earth is either laid bare or cov-
ered with a new and reluctant growth of vegetable forms, and with alien
⁎ Corresponding author at: High Alpine and Arctic Research Program, Texas A&M
tribes of animal life … [these changes are] insignificant in comparison
University, College Station, TX, USA. with the contingent and unsought results which have flowed from
E-mail address: raquelg@tamu.edu (R.G. Aguilar). them” (Marsh, 1898, p. 17).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107165
0169-555X/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 R.G. Aguilar et al. / Geomorphology 366 (2020) 107165
Today, these challenges are widespread and the subject of much dominant force on Earth (Crutzen, 2006; Steffen et al., 2011; Lewis
quantitative, scientific literature. Landscape modification through exca- and Maslin, 2015a, 2015b).
vation, production, and storage of waste materials in landfills, resource Ancient and modern anthropogenic modifications of the environ-
exploitation, and expansion of the built environment results in the de- ment have inspired the creation of terms such as Noösphere (i.e., the
liberate transport of 57,000 million tonnes of sediment annually (Mt/ sphere of human thought), Anthroposphere (i.e., the sphere of human
yr), nearly three times the amount transported by fluvial processes environment), Technosphere (i.e., the sphere of technological advance-
(Price et al., 2011). Fig. 1 shows the volume of sediment transported ments) and Archaeosphere (i.e., used interchangeably with
by major rivers for the various continents. Land-cover alteration and Anthroposphere and Technosphere), to refer to a human-dominated
mining operations have also resulted in modified fluvial systems and environment. These terms encompass human modification of the natu-
depressed groundwater supplies (Mayer, 1972; Bull, 1973; Bull and ral environment through milestones related to human evolution, such
Scott, 1974; Lagasse et al., 1980; Morgan-Jones et al., 1984; as the discovery of fire, the use of tools, engineering of the built environ-
Schlesinger et al., 1990; Lee et al., 1993; Kondolf, 1994; Mossa, 1995; ment, anthropogenically driven faunal extinctions, land-use change and
Mossa and McLean, 1997; Zhang and Schilling, 2006; Nie et al., 2011; global environmental change (Doughty et al., 2010; Smith and Zeder,
Suriya and Mudgal, 2012; Wijesekara et al., 2012; Nugroho et al., 2013; Glikson, 2013).
2013; Ahiablame et al., 2017), and altered albedo, contributing to an- The starting point for humans' role as a primary force, however, is
thropogenic climate change (Claussen et al., 2001; Matthews et al., debatable. As Fox et al. (2017, p. 206) argue, “The anthroposphere …
2003; Myhre and Myhre, 2003; Findell et al., 2007; Li et al., 2013; has evolutionary roots going back to the origins of our species, even if
Abera et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2019; Münch et al., 2019). Replacement of its effects on the Earth System may have only become glaringly obvious
native vegetation with agricultural fields is a leading cause of such alter- within the last 10,000 years or later.” The time of initiation of the
ations, coupled with expanding urbanization worldwide. Introduction Anthropocene could be based on criteria from the climatic, geomorpho-
of domestic, synanthropic and invasive species have compacted soil, de- logical, sedimentological, or ecological record (Schlütz and Lehmkuhl,
creasing infiltration and altered vegetative cover. Estimates of the 2009; Price et al., 2011; Brown et al., 2013a, 2013b; Lewin and
amount of ice-free land affected by human action vary from 20% to Macklin, 2014).
100% (Hooke et al., 2012; Wohl, 2013). Even land left untouched is Goudie and Viles (2016) traced studies related to the effects of an-
not immune to the effects of regional land-cover change; patches of un- thropogenic interventions in the environment back to 1796, citing a
developed land have been fragmented to 990,000 bodies of land study by de Saussure (1796) in the Alps. Other studies and mention of
roughly a square kilometer in area, causing habitat disconnect and frag- the “human epoch” or “Anthropozoic” (i.e., de Buffon, 1778) predate
mentation of natural geomorphic processes (Duncombe, 2019). the introduction of terms like anthropogeology (Häusler, 1959),
The realization that the collective actions of humans had significant anthropogeomorphology (Golomb and Eder, 1964), and the
effects on Earth inspired many early observers, like Marsh, to discuss the Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002), showing that the underlying concepts
role of human beings as a new geologic force (i.e. Suess, 1862; have been discussed repeatedly in the past two centuries and even far-
Haughton, 1866; Arrhenius, 1896; Woeikof, 1901; Shaler, 1905; ther back into Classical Antiquity (Beach et al., 2019a) but with different
Gilbert, 1917; Sherlock, 1922; Jacks and Whyte, 1939; Brown, 1970; terms for different human impacts and time frames.
Trimble, 1974; Trimble, 1975; Nir, 1983; Turner et al., 1990; Revkin, Controversy surrounds the acceptance of the role of humans as geo-
1992; Gutiérrez and Naredo Pérez, 2005; Davis, 2011) and distin- logic agents; although wide acknowledgment of the impact of human
guished the need to identify and name the timeframe of these occur- activities on the environment is recognized, no consensus on the magni-
rences accordingly (Fig. 2). The Anthropocene, proposed as a new tude of such impacts is accepted by all. For example, Visconti (2014) re-
epoch, indicates the time during which human influence became a stricts the effects of anthropological interventions to the near-surface,
Fig. 1. Volume of sediment transported by major rivers for various continents. Compiled from Chen et al. (2008) and Mouyen et al. (2018). Anthropogenic processes move 57,000 Mt/yr of
sediment, an amount significantly higher than the combined effects of major rivers around the world.
R.G. Aguilar et al. / Geomorphology 366 (2020) 107165
Fig. 2. Timelines highlighting relevant publications related to anthropogeomorphology since the eighteenth century. *Häusler (2017) mentions 1914; Rull (2017a, 2017b) places it in 1922.
3
implying a small-scale significance and also a short-term manifestation 2015; Edwards, 2015; Gibbard and Lewin, 2016; Finney and Edwards,
of human-induced impacts on the landscape, in accordance with 2016; Ruddiman, 2017; Ruddiman, 2018). Lewin and Macklin (2014)
Moore's (2013) views. This view is challenged, however, by Häusler suggest that the formalization of the Anthropocene epoch is subjective,
(2017) who provides a compilation of quantitative evidence of humans of no practical value, and possibly irrelevant for geoscientists. Propo-
as geologic and geomorphologic agents citing significant changes in nents of this view argue that the term is useful for environmental
rates of erosion and deposition, anthropogenic seismic activity, compar- awareness and political action but not for the geosciences (Autin and
isons of human energy production/release to natural processes, and Holbrook, 2012; Visconti, 2014; Edgeworth et al., 2015; Finney and
prevalence of anthropogenic “fossils” such as concrete structures and Edwards, 2016; Rull, 2017a, 2017b). Still others argue the Anthropocene
plastics. In addition, Hooke (1994, 2000) provides a qualitative and should be used as a general and flexible term (Edgeworth et al., 2015;
quantitative analysis of humans acting as geomorphic agents, focusing Rull, 2017a, 2017b; Ruddiman, 2018).
in Earth-moving activity. Examining the combined effect of intentional Among those who support defining the Anthropocene, how to de-
and unintentional Earth-moving, Hooke concludes that humans are re- fine the beginning of this human-dominated time remains undecided
sponsible for contributing more to this measure than any other geomor- (Zalasiewicz et al., 2010; Doughty et al., 2010; Steffen et al., 2011;
phic agent. Glikson, 2013; Lewin and Macklin, 2014). Some scholars suggest the
Price et al. (2011) bring attention to impacts on the surface and sub- boundary should be placed as early as late Pleistocene, citing the role
surface including habitation and infrastructure, extraction, processing of humans in the extinction of large mammals (Doughty et al., 2010).
and wasting of natural resources, artificial ground, excavations, and Other scholars, however, suggest placing the boundary a few thousand
ground shifting. They suggest identifying a “shallow zone of human in- years later coinciding with significant human migrations at the begin-
teraction” in which all these processes occur. Here, the spheres of Earth ning of the Holocene (Smith and Zeder, 2013). And, still other scholars
interact with each other (Fig. 3), and resources essential for human ex- suggest pushing the starting date forward to somewhere between
istence are found. 8000 and 2000 yr ago concurring with technological advances in agri-
cultural practices (Ruddiman and Thomson, 2001; Ruddiman, 2003;
1.2. The Anthropocene proper Fuller et al., 2011; Certini and Scalenghe, 2011; Beach et al., 2015,
2019a, 2019b). Several other researchers suggest even more recent
Throughout history, times of dramatic change, noted by appearance dates, including a potential marker coinciding with the Industrial Era
or disappearance of species, have been used to demark the beginning or in the eighteenth and nineteenth century (Crutzen and Stoermer,
end of specific time periods. We stand at the brink of such dramatic 2000), to a boundary coinciding with the detonation of nuclear
change today; climate change and land-cover alteration, both propelled weapons in the mid-twentieth century and consequent radionuclide
by humans, are altering the system of Earth yet again by changing fallout. Table 1 provides a summary of some of the events that have
weather patterns, intensifying storm events, and threatening biota been proposed as markers of the beginning of the Anthropocene.
(Díaz et al., 2020). As human population continues to increase, the Several scholars propose the creation of subdivisions of the
rate of geomorphic activity increases and creates significant challenges Anthropocene to represent different milestones in the history of anthro-
(Segura and Booth, 2010). Understanding the full scope of human im- pogenic disturbances on natural processes. For example, Glikson (2013)
pact on the surface of Earth requires consideration of the direct alter- divides the Anthropocene into four stages: Stage A: Early Anthropocene
ations to the natural environment, effects of prior human impact, about two million years ago, coinciding with the discovery of fire; Stage
attenuation of subsequent human impact through various feedback B: Middle Anthropocene ~10,000 yr BP, a time in which agriculture be-
mechanisms, and modification of connectivity of geomorphic systems came significant; and Stage C: Late Anthropocene ~1750 CE,
(Vanacker et al., 2005; Chin et al., 2013; Jefferson et al., 2013; Wohl,
2013; Poeppl et al., 2017). Table 1
Discussion regarding the beginning of the Anthropocene and the for- Summary of some of the events proposed as markers of the Anthropocene.
mal acknowledgement as a geologic epoch draws a variety of views. Beginning of the Event Authors
Some scholars oppose the creation of a new geologic epoch focusing Anthropocene
on human impacts, arguing the impacts of human actions will leave
Late Pleistocene Megafaunal extinctions Doughty et al.,
minimal evidence in the sedimentary record (Ruddiman, 2003; Autin ~13,800 BP Human-driven climate change 2010
and Holbrook, 2012; Gibbard and Walker, 2014; Visconti, 2014; Pleistocene–Holocene Domestication of flora & fauna Smith and
Finney, 2014; Walker et al., 2015; Baskin, 2015; Head and Gibbard, boundary 11,700 BP Human migrations Zeder, 2013
~11,000–9000 BP Significant human niche construction
8000–5000 BP Agriculture/technological innovations Ruddiman and
in farming Thomson, 2001
Global atmospheric change Ruddiman,
2003
2000 BP Anthropogenic land surface alteration; Certini and
anthropogenic soils Scalenghe, 2011
Beach et al.,
2015, 2019a,
2019b
1610 CE New–Old World collision event Lewis and
Low point of CO2 in glacier ice Maslin, 2015a,
2015b
1750–1800 CE Atmospheric CO2 and CH4 Crutzen and
Industrial Era concentrations above previous Stoermer, 2000
longer-term values
1950s AD Artificial radionuclides Zalasiewicz
Or post-1950s et al., 2010
Steffen et al.,
2011
Rose, 2015
Lewis and
Maslin, 2015a,
Fig. 3. The spheres of Earth interact in an area called the Critical Zone.
2015b
Modified from Giardino and Houser (2015).
R.G. Aguilar et al. / Geomorphology 366 (2020) 107165 5
corresponding with the Industrial Era. Building on Glikson's (2013) sub- studies from a general-systems-theory perspective. Encouraging a de-
divided Anthropocene, Kunnas (2017) proposed his four stages: The parture from Davis' ideas, Chorley (1962, p. B1) proposed an open-
Early Anthropocene: 5000–14,000 yr BP, to highlight the impact of the system framework “… focusing of attention on the possible relation-
domestication of animals and large-scale agriculture; the first accelera- ships between form and process”, recognizing “… the multivariate char-
tion phase of the Anthropocene: ~1750 CE, marking the beginning of acter of most geomorphic phenomena”, and directing “… attention to
fossil fuel combustion practices (i.e., the Industrial Revolution); the the heterogeneity of spatial organization”. Systems thinking gained
post-1950 Great Acceleration: a time recorded in the global record as traction in geosciences because it leads to a better representation and
nuclear bomb testing, which has resulted in the accumulation of radio- consequent understanding of complex processes, while facilitating bet-
active materials in sediments; and the potential labels “good ter interconnectivity with other scientific fields, in theoretical and ap-
Anthropocene” or the “bad Anthropocene”, which according to plied approaches. Thus, the conceptual framework of geomorphic
Kunnas (2017) would be selected in accordance with the outcomes of systems has significant overlap with Critical Zone Science (CZS).
current times. The Critical Zone Observatory (CZO) program was created in 2005
Goudie and Viles (2016, p. 13), in their extensive review of the with financial support from the US National Science Foundation (NSF),
Anthropocene, show the timelines of the Anthropocene in four sub- following a suggestion by the US National Research Council (NRC,
sections: Palaeoanthropocene: from 7000 BP to c. 1750; The Industrial 2001) to promote the study of processes, pathways, and feedbacks on
Era: from c. 1750 to c. 1945; The Great Acceleration: from c. 1945 to c. the surface of Earth (Ashley, 1998). The definition of the Critical Zone
2000; and Earth System Stewardship from c. 2000–present. Brown has varied since the creation of the CZO program, in part because of
et al. (2017) provide a different perspective, arguing that anthropogenic the broadness of the original definition, the multidisciplinary nature of
activities impact different environments at varying scales. the Critical Zone research, and the need to incorporate environments
The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is tasked with developing that were not clearly initially included (Giardino and Houser, 2015).
a formal proposal for the definition of the Anthropocene as a chrono- The Critical Zone is described as a thin, heterogeneous, changing, com-
stratigraphic unit, which they plan to finalize by 2021 (Subramanian, plex, and porous layer of Earth, comprising surface and subsurface envi-
2019). The AWG is composed of 34 members and is part of the Subcom- ronments, and which hosts essential resources to sustain life on our
mission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent body of the In- planet (NRC, 2001; The Critical Zone). Furthermore, this area hosts eco-
ternational Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). For example, the ICS has nomically important resources such as metallic and nonmetallic min-
been deliberating on the Anthropocene Epoch and has designated three erals, and what some call the “energy of the future” (renewable
Holocene Stages: the Greenlandian, the Northgrippian, and the resources) that can be tightly linked to the Critical Zone, as solar panel
Meghalayan. The Meghalayan, which starts with cultural shifts coincid- farms and wind turbines for example, are spread throughout the surface
ing with large scale drought, is also referred to as the 4.2 ka event of Earth.
(Walker et al., 2018). Critical zone research is interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
Initially, the AWG focused on compiling evidence supporting the (Sullivan et al., 2017; Giardino and Houser, 2015). Fig. 4 shows the in-
thesis that anthropogenic interventions could produce distinctive and terconnectivity between some of the disciplines involved in the study
long-lasting impacts in the stratigraphic record. In spite of opposition of the Critical Zone. According to Sullivan et al. (2017), contributions
to formally defining the Anthropocene, in May of 2019 the AWG pub- from disciplines, such as ecology and biology, must also be included in
lished the official stance and indicated the Anthropocene should be de- Critical Zone research, as life-sustaining resources as well as many
fined by a Global-boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP or nutrient-producing and microbe-driven weathering occur within this
‘golden spike’), placing the lower boundary in the 1950s, a date sup- near-surface area. Anderson et al. (2007) and Brantley et al. (2007)
ported by Zalasiewicz et al. (2015, 2017). This stance has been strongly refer to the Critical Zone as a “weathering engine” or “weathering reac-
contested by those who insist that impacts prior to the 1950s cannot be tor” in which chemical, physical, biological, and geological processes act
considered under the framework used by the AWG (Ruddiman, 2018). together through time, at millimetric to global scales, producing outputs
At the writing of this paper, widespread agreement among scientists re- that influence responses from the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and
garding the date and formalization of the Anthropocene remains the pedosphere. Earth systems interact with each other through diverse
unattained. pathways in the Critical Zone in a complex, dynamic way in which in-
puts of energy and mass are transformed, leading to the production of
1.3. The critical zone sediment, and life-sustaining nutrients that move with water and
other agents of transport (Banwart et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 2004;
As stated by Price et al. (2011), understanding the full scope of
human influence on Earth necessitates identification of a “shallow
zone of human interaction”. To this end, the Critical Zone as a concep-
tual framework for studying Anthropocene geomorphology is ideal.
Soil is generally considered the unifying thread of the Critical Zone,
but our proposal of the Critical Zone as a conceptual framework is not
a proposal of a soil framework. Prior studies have taken such an ap-
proach to the Anthropocene (Richter Jr, 2007; Certini and Scalenghe,
2011; Edgeworth et al., 2015; Richter et al., 2015; Lane et al., 2019),
and such a recommendation would hardly be novel. The Critical Zone
in its entirety extends from the top of the canopy to the base of the
groundwater system (NRC, 2001; Giardino and Houser, 2015). This
framework thus permits a systems approach to Anthropocene geomor-
phology, addressing the extensive role of human impact on interrelated
surface and near-surface processes.
The concept of the Critical Zone, as proposed by the US National
Research Council (2001), is not a new idea. Since the 1950s numerous
geomorphologists (Strahler, 1950, 1952a, 1952b; Culling, 1957; Hack, Fig. 4. Interactions between some of the relevant disciplines and fields concerned with the
1960; Hack and Goodlett, 1960; Chorley, 1962; and Chorley and critical zone.
Kennedy, 1971) explored the benefits of conducting geomorphologic Modified from Giardino and Houser (2015).
Brantley et al., 2006; Giardino and Houser, 2015). In general, Critical- components, to move toward a sustainable future (Brantley et al.,
Zone Science focuses on coupled processes, energy fluxes, and connec- 2017). It is interesting to note that these ideas are similar to those pro-
tivity between systems, occurring in what Brantley et al. (2017) call posed by many geomorphologists for more than a century such as
the dynamic “living skin” of Earth. Chorley (1962, p. B1) who argued that geomorphologists should “direct
Minor et al. (2020) highlight the benefits of using a Critical Zone con- attention to the whole landscape assemblage”. Because the Critical Zone
ceptual approach to biogeographical and ecological studies, while also approach has provided a coherent framework for studying the interac-
presenting an integrated model of transfer of matter and energy via di- tions between processes from an interdisciplinary perspective, we pro-
verse pathways across subsystems of Earth. The approach presented by pose a Critical Zone approach be used to study Anthropocene
Minor et al. (2020) validates how Critical Zone Science can benefit from geomorphology for its role as an interface between several Earth
borrowed methodologies and tools traditionally used in biogeography spheres and its inherent perspective on the system.
and ecology. This combined approach could foster understanding and
prediction of the effects of global warming and change in land cover, 1.3.1. Anthropocene-epoch impacts on critical zone
particularly on the hydrosphere and the biosphere. As an interface between Earth spheres, the critical zone is particu-
By 2015, 64 Critical Zone observatories had been established around larly susceptible to a cascade of changes induced by anthropogenic in-
the world (Fig. 5) (Giardino and Houser, 2015). Critical Zone Observato- fluence in any one component. In addition to a changing climate, the
ries (CZOs) are chosen to study a particular environment by an interdis- Anthropocene has introduced new forcings on these sensitive environ-
ciplinary team of researchers. The goal is a compilation of an extensive ments through arrival of domestic and invasive animal populations, al-
record of processes and interactions generated by multiple sampling teration of land cover, and soil degradation.
techniques over varying temporal and spatial scales. These records are
analyzed using multidisciplinary approaches, allowing the generation 1.3.1.1. Domestic and invasive populations. Animals are known to influ-
of integrated models to understand the complex processes occurring ence geomorphic processes through actions, such as burrowing, dig-
in the Critical Zone of Earth (Banwart et al., 2013). ging, trampling, damming, and hillslope loading (Butler, 2018), and
Critical Zone Observatories are located in different environments to cause direct alteration to the Critical Zone. Human influence on and
facilitate the study of processes controlled by location-dependent fac- management of animal populations has modified the rate and intensity
tors (i.e., climate, slope, geology). Examples of these observatories in of these processes. Grazing and trampling by domesticated hoofed ani-
karst environments include those in France (Jourde et al., 2018) and in mals induces increased sediment flux in fluvial systems and accelerated
Southwest China (Zhang et al., 2019). Hillslope processes are studied erosion of fine sediment, while also impacting water infiltration and
at the CZOs in Luquillo, Puerto Rico (Dialynas et al., 2015), the gully erosion (Neff et al., 2005; Butler, 2013; Waters et al., 2016).
Adirondack Mountains of New York, Boulder Creek, Colorado, Susque- Human exploration introduces exotic species to new geographic re-
hanna Shale Hills, Pennsylvania, and the southern Sierra Nevada, Cali- gions and with them, new geomorphic impacts (Butler, 2006). Intro-
fornia. The CZOs at Damma Glacier, Switzerland, and Bonanza Creek, duction of burrowing rodents to sub-Antarctic islands free of natural
Alaska, focus on glacial and periglacial environments. Coastal environ- predators led to removal of sediment from solifluction lobes and con-
ments are one of the foci of the Eel River Critical Zone Observatory duits for warm water and air, inducing accelerated soil erosion
(ERCZO), California (criticalzone.org) and the Christina River Basin (Eriksson and Eldridge, 2014). Likewise, removal or reduction of popu-
CZO, Delaware/Pennsylvania (Aufdenkampe et al., 2012). Intensively lations alters geomorphic processes by reducing the role of one popula-
Managed Landscapes (IML-CZO) are studied in the midwestern United tion and increasing the role of its competitors. Reduction in predators,
States at the Minnesota River, Clear Creek, and Sangamon River water- for example, has led to an increase of deer populations in North
sheds, which enables researchers to study fluvial processes in this area America and their impact on riparian vegetation (Seagle and Liang,
(Lewis et al., 2014). 2001). Trapping of the North American beaver altered fluvial systems
One must go beyond interdisciplinarity when studying Critical-Zone by dramatically reducing sediment storage in beaver ponds and chang-
processes to truly understand the CZ structure and evolution. One must ing flow regimes (Marston, 1994; Butler, 1995; Butler and Malanson,
approach a CZO as an entity, instead of focusing on its individual 2005; Pollock et al., 2007; Green and Westbrook, 2009).
Fig. 5. Distribution of the 64 CZOs around the world.

Modified from Giardino and Houser (2015).
1.3.1.2. Alteration of the land cover. As early as the mid-Holocene, expan- 2. Anthropogeomorphic landforms and processes in the critical zone
sion of farmland led to alluvial adjustment of proximal rivers (Brown
et al., 2013a, 2013b). With the expansion of agriculture came changes We have highlighted the importance of the Critical Zone in consider-
to hydrology and rates of sedimentation, including an increase in fine- ation of Anthropocene geomorphology because the Critical Zone is the
grained anthropogenic alluvium and lacustrine sedimentation interface between various Earth subsystems. We now turn our attention
(Macklin et al., 2014; Beach et al., 2015). Early alterations to landscapes to landscapes altered by humans to the point that they may be consid-
by deforestation and agricultural practices are thought to have modified ered anthropomorphic landscapes. Anthropogeomorphology as a pro-
ancient soil horizons so that the start of the Anthropocene can be distin- cess presents a direct long-term or permanent anthropogenic
guished by changes in paleosols (Certini and Scalenghe, 2011; Stephens alteration of the Critical Zone, altering the geosphere, hydrosphere,
et al., 2019). Modern urbanization alters the rates of geomorphic pro- and biosphere at or near the various interfaces.
cesses (Simon and Rinaldi, 2006), introduces hybrid urban landforms Hooke et al. (2012) estimates that humans have modified over 50%
(Dixon et al., 2017) and reduces the extent of the natural environment of the land surface of Earth, reducing ecosystem services that are pro-
(El Banna and Frihy, 2009). Fluvial systems adjust to direct effects of vided, seemingly for free, from the plants, animals, insects, and mi-
channelization, dam construction, and channel diversion as well as crobes all sharing with humans. In the last century, powerful
changes in watershed levels, such as land-cover change, riparian habitat technologies have enabled people to accelerate this process. Hooke
destruction, and mining (Marsh, 1864; Thomas, 1956; Williams and (1994, p. 845) remarked that, “One might ask how long such rates of in-
Wolman, 1984; Butler, 2006; Gregory, 2006; Wohl, 2006, Brown et al., crease can be sustained and whether it will be rational behavior or ca-
2013a, 2013b; Skalak et al., 2013). tastrophe that brings them to an end.”
Estimates of the amount of ice-free land affected by human action
vary from 20% to 100% (Hooke et al., 2012; Wohl, 2013). These changes
1.3.1.3. Soil degradation. The abundance of human-derived material dur- stem from human action involving moving sediment or changing sedi-
ing the Anthropocene has produced new forms of sediment. Often ment fluxes, and many have indirect consequences that extend beyond
called legacy sediment, it drives lateral, longitudinal, vertical, and tem- the immediate spatial and temporal effects (Hooke et al., 2012). The role
poral connectivity in fluvial systems and impacts water quality (James, humans play as the dominant geomorphic agent on Earth (Hooke, 1994;
2013; Wohl, 2015). The Anthropocene will undoubtedly be marked by Szabó et al., 2010) stems from a demand for resources to satisfy a
sedimentological markers made of materials like plastic, concrete, alu- skyrocketing population — a demand beyond what can be sustained
minum, and other substances unknown prior to human influence. Re- long-term. Over the past century, world population has increased 6-
search into geomorphological impact of specific sediments, such as fold, croplands of the world have almost doubled, the area of pasture
microplastics, is growing rapidly. Microplastics, defined as plastic rem- has increased by ~75%, and tropical forests acreage has decreased by
nants under 5 mm in diameter, are washed into the marine environ- ~25%. Similarly, almost all of the major reservoirs of the world were con-
ment with other sediments. High levels of microplastics have been structed during the past sixty years (Walling, 2008). Regions of unde-
detected in major inland lakes, which should logically lead to investiga- veloped land have been fragmented to 990,000 bodies of land roughly
tion of rivers, because rivers are a main source of lake and marine plas- a square kilometer in area, causing habitat disconnect and fragmenta-
tics (McCormick et al., 2014). tion of natural geomorphic processes (Duncombe, 2019).
Microplastics have been found in sediments of the St. Lawrence It is difficult to accurately determine how much of landscape alter-
River (Castañeda et al., 2014) at an average density of 13,759 per ations are the result of human activity alone, natural processes alone,
m2, with a maximum density of 136,926 per m2. Fish in these locali- or a combination of natural processes that have been modified by
ties have been shown to have microplastics in their bellies, implying humans (Hooke, 1994, 2000). Hooke (1994) estimates that on a
a health threat to the fish and to those who would eat them. The worldwide-basis, humans move more of the planet around (about 45
prevalence of microplastics is likely to increase with proximity to ur- gigatons annually) than do rivers, glaciers, oceans, or wind. As a com-
banization. McCormick et al. (2014) tested for microplastics in an parison, he estimated that meandering rivers may move about 39
urban river upstream and downstream of Chicago and found that gigatons of sediment a year. Other researchers (Hooke, 1994, 2000)
microplastic concentrations increased from 1.94 per m3 upstream have estimated that rivers deliver about 24 gigatons of sediment to
of Chicago to 17.93 per m3 downstream. They found that the the oceans each year. This enormous volume is aided by human activity.
microplastics also created new biota assemblages for bacteria, Soil erosion from agricultural fields, built environment construction
influencing ecological nuances of the river. Additionally, wastewater sites, and other sources contributes significantly to sediment loads in
treatment sites are known sources of microplastics in the form of rivers (Hooke, 1994; Montgomery, 2007). Changes in sediment load
microbeads, because they remove microbeads during treatment, have many important implications. For example, changes in sediment
returning them to the environment (Castañeda et al., 2014; Rezania flux to oceans will result in alterations to global biogeochemical cycles
et al., 2018). (Walling, 2008). Knowing the role and volume of human-derived sedi-
Current research in microplastics focuses on water quality and ment relative to the global sediment transport flux is useful when plan-
ecological disturbance, but the geomorphological implications have ning future land development. In addition to impacts on
not been considered. Other assessments of anthropogenic sediment geomorphological processes, ecosystem service loss through anthropo-
acknowledge their influence on the geomorphic system (Gill, 1996; genic biogeochemical cycles might be predicted and thus mitigated in
Maholland, 2002; Kaufmann and Hughes, 2006; Ramos-Scharrón advance.
and MacDonald, 2007; James, 2013; Jordan et al., 2016). On one hand, it is well-established that human activities have in-
Vörösmarty et al. (2003) examined the prevalence of creased the volume of sediment by soil erosion (Rosewell, 1996;
anthropogenically-derived sediment in large-river impoundments. Syvitski et al., 2005; Kao and Milliman, 2008; Mouyen et al., 2018),
Langedal (1997) found that rates of floodplain sedimentation along and on the other hand, sediment transport by rivers has often decreased
the Knabeåna-Kvina rivers in Norway increased from 0.5 mm to because of human activity (Syvitski et al., 2005; Walling, 2006; Naik and
4.3 mm annually because of deposition of molybdenum mine tail- Jay, 2011; Wang et al., 2016). Determining whether humans move more
ings. Research of the role of human activity on overall sedimentation sediment than a combination of other geomorphic processes is difficult
processes remains a relevant undertaking in geomorphology. Addi- because the indirect effects of human activities are far-reaching. The
tionally, much research remains to be done investigating the role global sediment discharge to the ocean remains unknown, and its mea-
and pathways of specific anthropogenically-sourced sediment in surement remains a challenge, because it requires continuous monitor-
geomorphic systems. ing of suspended and bedload sediment transport at the mouth of every
river, which is difficult and expensive (Syvitski and Kettner, 2008; of these structures are intended to disrupt the longshore current or
Mouyen et al., 2018). wave energy. Jetties and groins protrude perpendicular from coastlines
The impact of anthropomorphic influence on landscapes is not and modify coastlines. They increase the accumulation of sediment in
merely comparable to other geomorphic processes, but surpasses their the updrift direction and deplete it in the downdrift direction.
effectiveness (Hooke, 1994; Szabó et al., 2010). In the Anthropocene, Seawalls and breakwaters are built parallel to shorelines, with sea-
humans are a dominant part of the natural world (Church, 2010; walls against the land and breakwaters in open water. Both introduce
Thornbush and Krakauer, 2017), and their influence should be consid- new long-term positive relief structures to coasts. Breakwaters further
ered as geomorphic agents, not as external forcing factors. Thus, in the modify the coastal environment by disrupting incoming wave patterns,
following sections, we discuss anthropogenic landforms in the context thus, altering longshore drift and wave erosion processes. Seawalls also
of various environments, which become long-term or permanent fea- protect against wave erosion by armoring the shoreline and subse-
tures of the geomorphic landscape. quently stabilizing the shoreline with a hard structure. Unfortunately,
in some instances, such as a storm-surge, the seawall can act as a dam
2.1. Anthropogeomorphic landscapes in the coastal environment and may prolong flooding if the structure is breached.
Efforts to reduce reliance on fossil fuels have led to efforts to harness
Coastal systems are naturally dynamic in that changes that take tidal energy, making tidal barrages a feature of many coastal inlets. Ef-
place in one element of this system bring about change in others fects of these and other coastal engineering features are summarized
(Davis and Barnard, 2000). In the Anthropocene, however, the adjust- in Fig. 7.
ments of coasts to anthropogenic climate change are more intense and Adjustments to the submarine coastal environment are equally
frequent than before. Global warming is playing a major role in this prominent. Offshore dredging has created bathymetry alterations visi-
change as evidenced by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel ble even decades after the operation (Li et al., 2019), and beach
on Climate Change (IPCC) when they stated in 2019: “Global warming renourishment or artificial island construction that often follows creates
has already reached 1°C above the pre-industrial level, as a result of entirely new coastal environments (Giardino et al., 1987). Artificial reefs
past and current greenhouse gas emissions. Overwhelming evidence are constructed as habitat restoration or for surf production and in turn
suggests that this is resulting in profound consequences for ecosystems modify wave patterns.
and humans. The ocean is warmer, more acidic, less productive, and On the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions of the United States, barrier
more energetic as tropical storms get more destructive. Melting glaciers islands are a prominent feature of the coastal system. Barrier-inlet sys-
and ice sheets are causing sea level rise, and coastal extreme events are tems are ever changing and important elements of the coastal zone
becoming more severe” (IPCC, 2019, p. 1). and particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic change. As people began
In addition to indirect alterations to coastlines resulting from climate to live and recreate on the coast, pressure to provide an efficient
change, humans directly alter the coastal landscape by efforts to stabi- means for transporting them to the barriers intensified. This was often
lize the natural environment and by constructing new built environ- done by dredging material from the estuaries and bays landward of
ments. In both situations, new geomorphic landforms are created as the barrier and using that material for constructing roads from the
part of the natural environment, and these human-created landforms mainland to the barrier islands (Davis and Barnard, 2000). Increasing
remain as permanent fixtures. rates of development required further dredge and fill construction for
Anthropogeomorphic features intended to stabilize coastal environ- adding waterfront houses in some locations and many coastal features
ments change pre-existing geomorphic processes, often leading to deg- were stabilized by hard construction (Davis and Barnard, 2000). Barrier
radation (Davis and Barnard, 2000; Feagin et al., 2010; Bernatchez et al., islands are naturally unstable, migrating, and changing in response to
2011). As Feagin et al. (2010) explain, the human idea to stabilize a nat- factors such as sea level rise and extreme episodic storm events, and at-
ural environment is to erect hard, impervious structures intended to tempts to halt such adjustment modify the entire system.
hold the line against environmental adjustment rather than managing In Florida, enhanced dredge-and-fill operations during the 1950s
the extent and succession of native vegetation. In the United States, created series of upland areas separated by finger canals, produced
the former approach on barrier island systems leads to patchy vegeta- from what was originally mangrove communities and seagrass
tive stabilization and heightened erosion. For example, the construction beds (Davis and Barnard, 2000). In Longkou Bay, China, Li et al.
of the seawall along the Gulf Coast side of Galveston Island has resulted (2019) detected modified bathymetry decades after dredge-and-fill
in the disappearance of beaches in front of the seawall (Fig. 6) and accel- was used to maintain and enhance port and coastline developments.
erated erosion where the sea wall does not exist (Giardino et al., 1987). The volume of sediment transported by dredge-and-fill is immense;
Coastlines take on a distinctly anthropogenic nature with the addi- recent airport expansions have used hundreds of millions of cubic
tion of structures intended to improve the coastal environment. Many meters of dredged sediment in Asia and the United States (Douglas
Fig. 6. The seawall along Galveston Island, Texas. Note the lack of a sand beach in front of the seawall.
(Photo by J. Giardino, 1988.)
Fig. 7. Natural induced impacts (left) and anthropogenic impacts (right) on coastal landscapes.
and Lawson, 2003). This technique is also used in the construction of disruption of wave patterns and ecological health by disturbance of
artificial islands. the water column and bottom sediment (De Groot, 1979; Goudie and
Artificial islands are constructed to create prestige housing and to Viles, 2016; Chee et al., 2017).
meet recreation, military strategy, and transportation needs. All of Notable examples of artificial island construction are The Pearl in
these human-built landforms modify coastal geomorphology through Doha, Qatar, and The Palm, The World, and The Universe in Dubai,
Fig. 8. The image is a view of The Pearl near Doha, Qatar. The Pearl is an artificial island that was created to resemble a string of pearls. The image was captured by one of the astronauts of
expedition 53 from the International Space Station (ISS) on 10/23/2017.
United Arab Emirates (Fig. 8). The Pearl-Qatar is a human-made island, yazoo tributaries and backswamps are typical in low-gradient stream
spanning approximately 1.5 km2, that was constructed for recreation, channels with dominantly lateral channel erosion. Such channels often
luxury residences, and shopping. In a push to encourage tourism, The have high width-to-depth ratios and gentle channel slopes. Anthropo-
Pearl-Qatar is among the first properties in Qatar available for owner- genic influence creates new fluvial landforms and modifies preexisting
ship by non-Qataris (NASA, 2018). This echoes a common justification features. Dams and levees create new positive relief structures, which
for construction of new land: economic benefits to the country are ex- are long-term or become permanent parts of the fluvial landscape and
pected to outweigh the economic, ecological, or historical costs of con- modify the channel upstream and downstream.
struction. The Pearl-Qatar, for example, sits on a historically important Upstream of a dam, sediment accumulates and lowers channel slope
pearl-diving location in Qatar. Construction of artificial islands off the (Owens, 2019). The increase in local base level increases lateral channel
coast of Dubai have buried coral reefs and oyster beds under millions erosion upstream of the dam and augments floodplain landforms.
of tons of sand and rock and contributed to the decline of fish stocks Downstream of the dam, landform development varies based upon
and turtles. The islands are also altering currents, exacerbating erosion management. The decrease in sediment flux and regular flow down-
on the natural beaches of Dubai (Krane, 2005). Yet they are also proving stream of a dam often leads to narrower channels and, as flooding is typ-
immensely lucrative for the economy of Dubai: thousands of residential ically reduced by dams, floodplain features are less pronounced
and vacation homes have sold for $780,000–$1.4 million, and entire (Owens, 2019). Types of dams and management should be considered
islands are sold for $7 million–$35 million (Krane, 2005). Indeed, search in any assessment of a modified river channel.
for wealth, leisure, and accommodation is driving anthropogeomorphic Management of a dam that does not release water from its impound-
changes in the Persian Gulf, as they do around the world. ment in anticipation of coming precipitation will increase flooding up-
stream of the dam and cause flashier flows downstream, leading to
2.2. Anthropogenic landscapes in the fluvial environment less stable channels with higher rates of migration. Rivers with numer-
ous dams in sequence have further altered geomorphology, as the
The fluvial environment is highly vulnerable to change by anthropo- downstream effects of one dam are not dissipated before the upstream
genic processes because of its favorability as a settlement site and its effects of the next dam occur. The morphology of a reach affected by
multiplicity of resources. Anthropogenic-driven climate change results multiple dams is distinct from the typical upstream or downstream ef-
in changes to the amount and intensity of precipitation, and increased fects of singular dams (Jefferson et al., 2013).
evapotranspiration in the fluvial environment (Goudie, 2006; Goudie Levees are positive relief structures that trend parallel to river chan-
and Viles, 2016). Rivers are more immediately affected by direct nels as flood control measures. Yazoo tributaries are commonly formed
human alteration to the river channels (Fig. 9) and watersheds through or more pronounced by the presence of artificial levees as the drainage
channelization, dams and river restoration projects (Hootsmans et al., pattern adjusts to augmented banks. Reduction of floods in the immedi-
2015). Fig. 10 presents a summary of natural and anthropogenic im- ate vicinity of rivers means that excess energy is less frequently
pacts on fluvial environments. expended overbank to the adjacent floodplain, but is directed down-
Fluvial landforms are determined by the nature of the fluvial pro- stream. Higher rates of flow are, thus, experienced in the channel
cesses at work. The presence of floodplains, oxbow lakes, meanders, more frequently, and cause downstream regions to experience
Fig. 9. San Antonio Riverwalk: an example of human modification of a river channel. San Antonio River, San Antonio, Texas.
Fig. 10. Natural induced impacts (left) and anthropogenic impacts (right) on fluvial landscapes.
increased erosion leading to channel migration and cutoff loops. If a attributes, vegetation characteristics, climate, etc.) suggest that stan-
levee is breached by an unusually high flood, water is less apt to drain dardized watershed responses to the alteration of land cover are un-
back into the channel once the flood has passed because of the presence likely (Guzha et al., 2018). Guzha et al. (2018), for example, found no
of the levee. The presence of levees leads to more pronounced significant trends in streamflow resulting from removal of forested
backswamps in the floodplains of such modified channels. lands in East Africa. In a study in 2013, alteration of grassland to farm-
land, forest, and urban areas in the Upper Du watershed in China did
2.2.1. Effects of land-cover change in watershed not exert a significant influence on either streamflow or sediment
Of the various ways humans alter their environment, change in land- yield (Yan et al., 2013).
cover has the largest global impact (IPBES, 2019). The growth of the With geomorphic processes now dominated by human influence,
urban built environment coincides with the alteration of land cover as one cannot propose a general prediction for the response of watersheds
natural cover is segmented or replaced with impervious cover. Conven- to formulaic changes in land cover. A watershed response and the ensu-
tional wisdom predicts that change in land cover associated with urban- ing fluvial response to the alteration of land cover is dependent on tra-
ization or conversion to farmland leads to increased runoff, decreased ditional factors such as soil type, geology, topography, climate, and
evapotranspiration, and decreased infiltration (Schlesinger et al., nature of the alteration of the land cover, and also on land management
1990; Zhang and Schilling, 2006; Nugroho et al., 2013; Ahiablame procedures and distribution of human population. Quantifying the ef-
et al., 2017). These effects directly alter processes in fluvial geomorphol- fects of a nonstationary process, like land management, would be su-
ogy and slope processes. Zhang and Schilling (2006) observed an in- premely difficult, thus, making a general prediction model for the
crease in streamflow from 1940 to 2006 in the upper Mississippi River effects of human alteration on the fluvial system highly unlikely.
basin resulting from conversion of natural, perennial vegetation to cul-
tivated soybean farms. 2.3. Anthropogenic landscapes in the glacial and mountain environments
Hydrological recovery can be induced by returning a watershed to
its original cover, but scales of recovery vary. Zhu and Li (2014) assessed Humans have modified the alpine landscape through activities such
a watershed in which residential and commercial lands increased from as mining, built landscapes, farming, grazing, lumbering, roads, train
5.2% and 1.0% to 8.3% and 2.8%, respectively, and agricultural land de- tracks, water impoundment, ski trails, and river restoration (Gamache
creased from 28.3% to 18.9% during the years 1984–2010. Despite efforts et al., 2018). Humans have also impacted landforms produced by natu-
by the United States National Park Service, which increased forested ral geomorphic processes (Fig. 11). Moraines, for example, are often
land from 65% to 69.5% during this same time period, SWAT (a hydro- productive borrow sources for gravel, sand, and aggregate (Gamache
logic quality model developed by United States Department of et al., 2018).
Agricultural-Agricultural Research Service) simulation indicated a 3% Mining of natural resources to meet human demands is a direct dis-
increase in streamflow. Stream flows from forested sub-watersheds sta- turbance of the natural workings of the Critical Zone (Fig. 12). Removal
bilized, but near urban centers streamflow increased by more than 10%. of mineral matter reduces the quantity of solid soil material available in
In a separate study from the Srepok watershed in Vietnam, reforestation the Critical Zone, and also removes potential storage sites for soil water
efforts increased forest cover by 41 ha during the years 2000–2010, cor- and habitat for near-surface organisms. In some cases, excavation may
relating with decreased surface, lateral, and groundwater flow (Quyen lead to over-steepening of slopes and increased danger of mass move-
et al., 2014). ments (Gamache et al., 2018).
Despite conventional wisdom that alteration of land cover associ- Growth of mountain towns has modified drainage such that, when
ated with urbanization leads to increases in runoff and river discharge, subdivisions are built, many minor geomorphic features are destroyed,
interactions between site-specific factors (i.e., watershed slope, soil increasing the likelihood of increased risk from geomorphic processes.
Fig. 11. Impacts of natural and anthropogenic processes on mountain and glacial landscapes.
Fig. 12. (a) Settling ponds of the Pandora Mill near Telluride, Colorado; (b) ground view of the settling ponds; (c) mine tailings from the Camp Bird Mine near Ouray, Colorado.
(Photos by J. Giardino, 2016.)
Specifically, steeper slopes are produced to create flat surfaces for build- been established. Cook and McCuen (2011) studied the nexus between
ing. In addition, the covering of pervious surfaces with house footprints, the change in land cover, hydrology, and soil erosion in areas with solar
concrete, roads, and parking-lot surfaces has greatly decreased infiltra- panel farms. Cook and McCuen (2011) indicate solar panels can increase
tion and increased surface runoff (Gamache et al., 2018). Moreover, the kinetic energy of rainfall by an order of magnitude, which impacts
city infrastructure plays a role in altering the environment. Early moun- the potential for erosion of the soil according to the type land cover.
tain roads, where present, provide narrow regions of slope modification Landforms produced by future expansion of renewable energy will
and impervious surfaces. High traffic corridors contribute external heat be unique to the Anthropocene. In an effort to combat the global reli-
and vibrations to the soil, compromising slope stability (Fig. 13). US-550 ance on fossil fuels, demands for solar, wind, and/or geothermal energy
was originally constructed as a narrow unpaved route between Ouray have risen in recent decades and are expected to increase. Less often
and Silverton, Colorado, USA. As a result of increased tourism, protection discussed is the potential effects of large-scale renewable energy opera-
from avalanches and other forms of mass movement has been tions on geomorphology. Li et al. (2018) provide a comprehensive over-
attempted as seen in this avalanche protection (Fig. 14). view of studies of the effects of solar and wind farms on climate change.
Ski runs, mountain roads, bike trails, and hiking paths cause impacts Hu et al. (2016) found that solar-panel electricity generation will redis-
ranging from minor to significant, and mountain sports are growing tribute the energy from the sun, thus, affecting regional and global cli-
dramatically, and the impact will be significant. The introduction of mates. Without the solar panels, solar radiation reaching the surface is
nontraditional mountain sports also alters the landscape. In Telluride, either absorbed or reflected, but with the solar panels, a portion of
Colorado, for example, a vast area has been used for creation of a golf absorbed solar radiation is diverted to electricity generation.
course and the landscape has been completely altered through the re- According to Keith et al. (2004), large amounts of wind power can
moval of vegetation and flattening of slopes (Gamache et al., 2018). Rec- produce non-negligible climatic change at continental scales because
reational trails also contribute to increased mass movement and of interactions of wind turbines with the atmospheric boundary layer.
increased channel-rut runoff. Off-road vehicles create channels and In the Li et al. (2018) study, combined effects of large-scale wind
then compact the materials, allowing water to flow freely down newly farms and solar farms in the Sahara are modeled. Wind farms caused
created channels (Martin and Butler, 2017; Gamache et al., 2018). significant regional warming on near-surface air temperature
Climate warming also results in permafrost melting with thaw lakes (+2.16 K) and increased precipitation as much as +0.25 mm/day.
being created as well as beaded drainage. The island of Shishmaref, Fig. 16 is an example of a wind farm in West Texas.
Alaska, has experienced accelerated erosion over the last decade. The Impacts of solar farms on temperature and precipitation are similar
village of Shishmaref, an Inupiat community, which is located along to those of wind farms. When wind and solar farms are deployed to-
the northern shore of the island, has experienced flooding and erosion gether in the Sahara, precipitation increases from 0.24 mm/day in the
driven by climate change. Because the Bering Strait is no longer frozen control run to 0.59 mm/day in the case of combined wind and solar
throughout the winter, the front of the island is being impacted by win- farms, a ~150% increase, and the temperature increase is slightly larger
ter storm surges, which has caused more than 61 m of erosion. The ero- than for the solar farm alone.
sion has impacted the community to such an extent that the community Changes to local climate patterns will undoubtedly have lasting ef-
voted to relocate the whole village but have experienced numerous de- fects on geomorphology, particularly in arid regions where even occa-
lays (Fig. 15). sional rainfall is known to rapidly produce ephemeral streams and
replenish playa lakes. This action is especially enhanced because the in-
2.4. Anthropogenic landscapes formed by energy resources troduction of anthropogenic structures occurs more rapidly than natu-
ral environmental changes and with greater effect. Thus, resultant
The infrastructure required to harvest renewable resources can have climate change may occur more rapidly than natural environmental
significant effects on the land surface at varying scales; however, such evolution would. A sudden increase in precipitation in arid environ-
effects are understudied. Rising temperatures of up to 0.72̊C per decade ments, those most likely to capitalize on large-scale solar operations,
in regions where land cover is modified to build windmill farms, can be will contribute to flash floods and rapidly widening stream channels,
attributed to the turbulence generated by wind turbines, which in turn hence increased erosion.
modify energy-mass exchanges between the atmosphere and the land Wind farms are also prevalent in coastal environments, having po-
surface (Wang and Wang, 2015; Zhou et al., 2012). Goudie (this issue) tential impacts on coastal geomorphology. Coastal wind turbines are be-
reports surface destabilization in desert areas where wind farms have coming increasingly higher capacity and located in deeper water.
Fig. 13. (a) 4 × 4 vehicles cause considerable erosion to former mining trails along Black Bear Trail, San Juan Mountains, Colorado; (b) highly weathered volcanics on the Corkscrew Trail are
susceptible to accelerated erosion resulting from heavy use by 4 × 4s.
(Photos by J. Giardino, 2017.)
Fig. 14. Avalanche snowshed on US-550 between Silverton and Ouray, Colorado.
Additionally, it is increasingly common for more than one wind farm to introduction of agricultural terraces. Terraces are perhaps the starkest
occur in a local area (Bailey et al., 2014). Little research has been con- anthropogenic hillslope landforms. Agricultural terraces are often built
ducted on the geomorphic effects of extensive offshore wind farms, in mountain regions to provide more surface area for farming on
but potential effects may be extrapolated from the expected effects on hillslopes and have significant geomorphic impact (Fig. 18). Collapsed
marine habitat. Turbines, for example, may act as artificial reef struc- stone walls, small mass movements, sheet-wash erosion, piping, rills,
tures (Bailey et al., 2014). In addition to providing habitat for marine in- gullies and debris flows are all found in terraced landscapes (Arnáez
vertebrates, reefs will disrupt incoming wave patterns and alter et al., 2015). Terraces generally increase infiltration, which decreases
subsequent shoreline erosion. Because safety buffers often prohibit runoff and soil erosion. Under certain circumstances, however, aban-
boating and shipping operations in their vicinity, reduced choppiness doned or cultivated terraces can accelerate soil erosion as a result of fac-
from water vessels may decrease disruption of seafloor and shoreline tors such as slope, lithology, soil surface cover, quality of construction,
sediment. vegetative cover and land use, and the abandonment period of the ter-
race (Arnáez et al., 2015).
2.5. Anthropogenic hillslope landforms Geomorphic effects can vary with location within each terrace. Soil
saturation is reached faster in the inner parts of terraces with more shal-
Hillslope landscapes are impacted by much of the same anthropo- low soil, causing increased runoff, and high infiltration rates in external
genic forces already discussed (Fig. 17). Introduction of hoofed livestock sections often generate subsurface runoff. Farming terraces have a sig-
is known to trample sediment and vegetation, causing soil compaction, nificant effect on hydrological processes because their presence reduces
decreased infiltration, and increased runoff (Butler, 1995). Replacement overall slope, irrigation ditches reorganize the drainage network, and
of natural vegetation with impermeable land cover or agricultural pro- soil distribution and characteristics are reorganized. Terraces also alter
duction often increases runoff as well, whereas re-introduction of native hydromorphic processes by reducing hydrologic connectivity in the wa-
vegetation to previously modified regions may decrease runoff and in- tershed and introducing piping (Arnáez et al., 2015). The aforemen-
crease infiltration. Introduction of housing developments results in tioned outcomes are dependent on the quality of construction of such
oversteepening of slopes to allow for housing-pad construction, as terraces (Beach et al., 2015).
well as increased sediment yield because of vegetation removal. After
the construction phase, natural land cover is generally replaced with 2.6. Anthropogenic landscapes produced by conflict
low permeability, high albedo coverings that modify runoff, infiltration,
and local weather temperatures. Mining and excavation processes like- One of the impacts of humans on the surface of Earth that is sparsely
wise remove significant amount of sediment and overburden and intro- mentioned in the geomorphology literature is the landscape that re-
duce permanent changes to regional topography. mains after a conflict. The impact of bombs has been recognized by
Agriculture introduces many slope-related changes. In addition to Hupy and Koehler (2012), and they introduced the term bombturbation
the trampling effects of livestock, tillage and replacement of natural to describe the impact of the explosion from the detonation of an ordi-
vegetation with crops compromises soil integrity, potentially increasing nance on the surface of Earth and soil structure. Examination of a Google
runoff and soil erosion. In some regions, this is avoided by the Earth image (Fig. 19) of Pointe du Hoc in France today still shows a
Fig. 15. House tipping in Shishmaref, Alaska.

pocked surface that was created by the heavy bombing of this location geophysical methods, and big data, machine learning and artificial
in World War II. One can also examine a Google Earth image of the intelligence.
Vicksburg Battlefield in Mississippi and see the trenches that were dug
during the long conflict during the Vicksburg Campaign during the US 3.1. Remote sensing methods
Civil War.
More recent conflicts such as the Vietnam War also show these Dafflon et al. (2017) point out that modern geomorphological stud-
bombturbation impact features caused by the extensive carpet bombing ies include the use of traditional methods (observation and measure-
by B-52s. These features are conical-shaped impact craters. For example, ment) aided by highly advanced technology with remote sensing
even though it is in a tropical environment, the area around Khe Sanh, techniques, as the use of aerial photography, satellite images, and
Vietnam, still shows these impact craters. UAVs or drones facilitate landscape studies through time at varying spa-
Today, conflicts in Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen and Syria are creating tial scales. According to Clapuyt et al. (2017), techniques used in geo-
human altered landscapes. In many of these areas, traditional bombs morphological studies, particularly landslide monitoring, have
carried and released by aircraft are being replaced with drone bombing. progressed from interpretation of historical and current aerial images,
This new approach is resulting in a more restrictive type of often limited by the low frequency of data acquisition (cost of flight
bombturbation impact. campaigns), to methods with high temporal and spatial resolution
such as satellite imagery. Table 2 summarizes the methods detailed by
Clapuyt et al. (2017). Accurate 3-D models, usually in the form of a Dig-
3. Technology-assisted approach to geomorphology ital Elevation Model, of the surface can be constructed from high resolu-
tion data allowing for more thorough geomorphic studies. As Clapuyt
Geomorphology has a long, rich history of field-based research. Over et al. (2017) note, however, most methods are still economically costly,
the years, geomorphology has evolved from meticulously drawn dia- which makes them unsuitable for monitoring purposes.
grams and detailed field notes in field books and field sketches from Several models can be utilized to produce a 3-D representation of the
horseback, through recording observations with analogue cameras, terrain from a 2-D image by using mathematics to graphically represent
elaborately designed sampling protocols extending over temporal and natural geographical features (Li et al., 2005). The most commonly used
spatial scales, mathematical modeling, remote sensing techniques, geo- models correspond with the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and the Digi-
chemical and geophysical methodologies, to big data sets and artificial tal Elevation Models (DEM). The distinction between a DTM and a DEM
intelligence. Incorporating new tools and techniques has expanded is that a DEM refers to an expression of the distance from a datum
the geomorphologist's understanding of process and form. In this sec- whereas the DTM encompasses other surface features, including eleva-
tion we present an overview of advances in remote sensing techniques, tion (Li et al., 2005). According to Li et al. (2005) the elements included
Fig. 16. Wind farm in West Texas.

in the construction of a DTM are dependent on the purpose of the study deformation (Clapuyt et al., 2017). LiDAR imagery can be acquired
and the discipline of the researcher. with an airborne LiDAR system (ALS) as well as with a ground-based
Other commonly used techniques in geomorphic investigations cor- or terrestrial system such as Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) (Clapuyt
respond with radar methods such as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) et al., 2017). At the Calhoun Critical Zone Observatory (CCZO), DEMs
and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). These methods are widely generated from LiDAR data were used to determine the parameters
used for a variety of applications, including detection of surface needed as inputs for gully erosion development and remediation
Fig. 17. Environmental and anthropogenic factors influencing hillslope landscapes.

Fig. 18. (a) Agricultural terraces on the Yangtze River, China (photo by J. Giardino, 2018). (b) Rice patty agriculture in Bali, Indonesia (photo by J. Giardino, 1986).
models (Bastola et al., 2018). The data allowed Bastola et al. (2018) to UAV-mounted cameras. This technique is also referred to as Aerial
evaluate practices for erosion control and calculate their effectiveness. Structure from Motion (ASfM) digital photogrammetry image process-
In the case of SAR, data collection platforms can be satellite-based or ing technique (Bonali et al., 2019). According to Fonstad et al. (2013),
ground-based (GB-SAR). These techniques are effective in multi- the UAV-SfM approach is user and budget friendly, while producing
temporal studies, but the acquisition of the aircraft and spacecraft data high resolution data comparable to that of aerial LiDAR. Kasprzak et al.
is still costly, and it can be challenging to use terrestrial platforms in (2018) report obtaining more detailed microtopography from their
complex topography. UAV-SfM DTM than with the aerial LiDAR imagery, highlighting that
Data acquisition challenges have driven geoscientists to look for UAV-SfM does not always yield better resolution than aerial LiDAR. Au-
cost-effective and adaptable technologies that can be employed in thors such as Cook (2017) and Carey et al. (2019) compared the resolu-
rough terrain, as well as for landform change monitoring applications. tion of LiDAR and UAV-SfM data, confirming the advantages of UAV-SfM
The use of UAV as platforms for data collection is becoming common over LiDAR in terms of time of deployment and interpretation, as well as
practice in many geomorphic studies. Geomorphological mapping of cost effectiveness.
periglacial landforms using images from a long-range UAV is exempli- Some of the limitations of the UAV-SfM method include the pres-
fied by Dąbski et al. (2017). The authors favor the use of UAVs in remote ence of artifacts in the generated topographic models after the auto-
regions like Antarctica to obtain high resolution imagery and produce mated filtration process (Kasprzak et al., 2018), and the inability to
accurate landform change maps. UAV platforms are also useful in engi- mount both a GPS and a camera on small UAVs (Fonstad et al.,
neering geology settings. Congress et al. (2018) proved the effectiveness 2013). The availability of larger platforms makes it possible to pro-
of using data collected with an UAV to monitor change in an anthropo- duce close range photogrammetry (CRP) using UAVs. A global navi-
genic feature, specifically pavement deformation and cracking. gation satellite system (GNSS) and a high definition camera were
A digital image processing technique called Structure from Motion mounted on a UAV platform to perform a UAV-CRP study (Congress
(SfM) is used to produce 3-D topography from images captured using et al., 2018). The authors recommend combining the use of the
Fig. 19. Example of bombturbation in Pointe du Hoc, France.

Google Earth Engine, 2019.
Table 2
Comparison of methods used to generate DEMs in mass movement monitoring studies.
After Clapuyt et al. (2017).
Technique Resolution Advantages Limitations
Aerial photographs Regional (several meters) Allows visual interpretation and Costly campaigns limit monitoring; not ideal for high-resolution
construction of DEMs studies
Satellite imagery Decimeters Allows visual interpretation and Costly imagery; limiting for monitoring applications
construction of high-resolution DEMs
Radar methods: Synthetic Aperture Airborne: regional Methods can be airborne or Ground-based LiDAR in complex terrain requires overlap to
Radar (SAR) (several meters) ground-based to develop DEMs. produce adequate results
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) Ground-based: Great for monitoring applications
high-resolution
(centimeters)
UAV image-based Decimeter to centimeter Cost-effective and suitable for use in Requires at least 70% overlap to produce adequate results and
structure-from-motion algorithm complex terrain and remote areas ground control points to georeference the images
(UAV-SfM)
GNSS with ground control points (GCPs) but highlight the need for using geophysical techniques. Pazzi et al. (2016) used ERT and EM in
less GCPs using this approach. an urban environment to study subsurface anthropogenic features.
Monitoring geomorphic change is accomplished by collecting and Non-invasive methods such as near-surface geophysics can be used
analyzing high resolution multi-temporal data. Some authors refer to in combination with invasive methods (i.e., drilling and trenching) to
these types of data as 4-D. Cucchiaro et al. (2018) provide a methodol-
ogy for the data collection and processing stages of a rapid geomorphic
change investigation. The authors utilize complementary terrestrial SfM Table 3
Commonly used geophysical methods in the study of geomorphological processes and en-
and UAV-SfM data to quantify erosion and sedimentation volumes, de-
vironments and examples of applications.
termine the magnitude and distribution of processes, and evaluate the
validity of using check dams to mitigate erosion in debris flow Application Method
catchments. Tectonic processes GPR (Kruse, 2013)
The UAV-SfM approach has been applied to study fluvial processes EM (Pavan Kumar et al., 2019; Gürer et al., 2009)
and environments (Fonstad et al., 2013; Izumida et al., 2017; Cook, ERT (Kruse, 2013)
Seismic (Kruse, 2013)
2017; Nesbit et al., 2018; Langhammer and Vacková, 2018; Strick Periglacial processes, GPR (Degenhardt and Giardino, 2003; Schrott
et al., 2019), mass movement (Peppa et al., 2017; Clapuyt et al., 2017; environments, and et al., 2013; Hauck and Kneisel, 2008; Colombo
Yu et al., 2017; Valkaniotis et al., 2018; Eltner et al., 2018; Cucchiaro landforms et al., 2018)
et al., 2019; Carey et al., 2019; Peppa et al., 2019), glacial landforms ERT (Hauck and Kneisel, 2008; Stan et al., 2017;
Colombo et al., 2018; Doetsch et al., 2015)
(Rossini et al., 2018; Midgley et al., 2018), coastal processes and land-
IP (Doetsch et al., 2015)
forms (Anzidei et al., 2017; Guisado-Pintado et al., 2019), and volcanic SP (Colombo et al., 2018)
processes (Darmawan et al., 2018; Gomez and Kennedy, 2018; De Seismic (Kruse, 2013)
Beni et al., 2019; Dering et al., 2019). Other applications include granite Fluvial processes and ERT (Robinson et al., 2008; Khalil et al., 2018)
tor mapping (Kasprzak et al., 2018), lava flow mapping (Favalli et al., environments EM (Rapti-Caputo et al., 2009; Robinson et al.,
2008)
2018), and tectonic feature mapping (Giletycz et al., 2017; Bonali IP (Robinson et al., 2008; Ntarlagiannis et al.,
et al., 2019). 2016)
Seismic (Calvès et al., 2019; El-Mowafy and
Marfurt, 2016)
Critical Zone studies GPR (Yu et al., 2016; Guo et al., 2020)
3.2. Geophysical methods
ERT (Leopold et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2020)
Seismic (Befus et al., 2011; Flinchum et al., 2018;
Geophysical methods have been used to solve geomorphological Novitsky et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019)
problems since the twentieth century. Commonly used geophysical sNMR (Flinchum et al., 2019)
methods in geomorphology include Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Coastal processes and GPR (Wegmann et al., 2012)
environments EM (Paine et al., 2015; Weymer et al., 2015;
Electromagnetic methods (EM), Electrical Resistivity Tomography Wernette et al., 2018; Raimbault et al., 2018)
(ERT), and seismic methods. Other applicable but less commonly used sNMR (Keating et al., 2018)
methods include the Induced Polarization (IP), Self-potential (SP), sur- Karst environment GPR (Carbonel et al., 2015; Artugyan et al., 2015;
face Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (sNMR), and gravity methods. A re- Bottari et al., 2017)
ERT (Siart et al., 2013; Carbonel et al., 2015;
view of geophysical methods used in Critical Zone investigations is
Bottari et al., 2017; Lazzari et al., 2010)
provided by Parsekian et al. (2015). Table 3 presents commonly used EM (Bottari et al., 2017)
geophysical methods in the study of geomorphological processes and SP (Artugyan et al., 2015; Giampaolo et al., 2016)
environments, as well as examples of applications. Seismic (Van Dam, 2012; Kruse, 2013)
Landform characteristics such as geometry, internal structure, and Gravity (Kaufmann and Romanov, 2016;
Kaufmann and Romanov, 2017)
makeup can be interpreted from geophysical surveys (Van Dam, Mass movement GPR (Brody et al., 2015; Bernatek-Jakiel and
2012). Monitoring rapidly occurring geomorphic change in distinct en- Kondracka, 2016)
vironments can be accomplished by integrating surface feature charac- ERT (Naudet et al., 2008; Marescot et al., 2008;
terization with subsurface geophysical investigations (Kruse, 2013). Perrone et al., 2014; Bottari et al., 2018; Kasprzak
et al., 2019)
Other applications of geophysical methods in geomorphology include
EM (Solberg et al., 2016; Gallistl et al., 2018)
multitemporal landform studies at varying spatial scales (Schrott et al., IP (Gallistl et al., 2018)
2013; Schrott and Sass, 2008), determination of rates of erosion and SP (Naudet et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2018;
sedimentation (Church, 2010), studying impact structures (Bobée Santoso and Hasanah, 2019)
et al., 2010) and geomorphological mapping of extraterrestrial bodies Seismic (Brody et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2019;
Huntley et al., 2019)
(Rodriguez et al., 2015). Anthropogenic structures are also studied
validate geologic interpretations, to assess the performance and appli- An example of the application of technological advances in the study
cability of the method to a geomorphic environment, and to determine of anthropogenic landforms is the methodology developed by Sofia
its effectiveness in addressing a specific research question. The use of et al. (2014) for automatic detection of terraced slopes, which the au-
geophysical methods (non-invasive and borehole geophysics) in the thors think has potential to be used for the identification of other an-
study of geomorphic processes, particularly in deep Critical Zone studies thropogenic features, and to aid in the study of mass movement
(Robinson et al., 2008; Slim et al., 2015; St. Clair et al., 2015; Parsekian resulting from agricultural practices. Their protocol, Slope Local Length
et al., 2015; Riebe et al., 2017) is becoming the norm because it allows of Auto-Correlation (SLLAC), uses an algorithm applied to LiDAR DTMs
for a better understanding of the subsurface-surface connectivity and to produce maps used in detection and characterization of terraced
for further understanding of geomorphic process dynamics (Kruse, landscapes. These techniques are often necessary in areas where vege-
2013). tation does not allow for photo interpretation, as well as studying
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), electrical conductivity, and mag- areas where it is difficult to obtain access. A similar approach was uti-
netic susceptibility surveys were conducted at the Luquillo Critical lized by Beach et al. (2019b) to identify ancient canal systems under
Zone Observatory (Comas et al., 2019). The authors used the geophysi- the tropical forest in Central America.
cal data to study the mechanisms driving the accelerated erosion and A technique that utilizes fuzzy logic (which looks for approximate
weathering rates at a landscape scale. Comas et al. (2019) patterns) in combination with neural networks to essentially replicate
complemented their geophysical interpretations with direct coring the way in which humans link processes and concepts in order to
and stress modeling. A multiple-method approach like the one used make decisions called Fuzzy Cognitive Map (FCM) was used by
by Comas et al. (2019) can be time-consuming and the field expeditions Houser et al. (2015) to quantify the effects of human interventions on
costly. However, CZOs are inclined to using multiple methods because an aeolian environment. Their study analyzed the reactivation of
they investigate complex and interconnected processes, with a high dunes within the South Texas Sand Sheet.
level of detail, through time. Tien Bui et al. (2019) developed a model that uses artificial intelli-
gence and machine learning algorithms to generate predicted gully ero-
sion maps in a watershed in Iran. The authors assessed the accuracy of
3.3. Big data, machine learning and artificial intelligence the ensemble model and concluded it is a very useful approach to this
problem. As long as site-specific conditioning factors are identified
Scientific research has been revolutionized by the advent of big data, and ranked as needed, this model is applicable to areas in which condi-
artificial intelligence, and GPU computing. “Big data” refers to databases tions are similar to those described in the article and the distance to the
of zettabyte size (billions of terabytes) that can contain massive river was the most important factor in the development of gully erosion.
amounts of data in the form of text, numerical values, images, e-mail, Advances on machine learning methods by Wang and Wu (2019)
GPS data, or even data acquired from social networks (Spina, 2019). Ar- make crater identification on the surface of extra-terrestrial bodies
tificial intelligence (AI) aids in the processing of big data by simulating faster and more accurate. Their approach uses overlapping 2-D (surface
typical behaviors of the human brain through complex algorithms that images) and 3-D DEMs information from the same area from which the
mimic decision-making through machine learning (Spina, 2019). GPU training samples can be selected. It allows updates and retraining that,
Parallel Computing (GPGPU) involves the processing of data by the pro- according to the authors, results in better training samples (automati-
cessors present in the graphics card (GPU) and has allowed the compu- cally selected) that lead to a quicker learning process. This method
tation, in relatively short times, of huge amounts of data with an was validated on data sets from Mars and the moon.
efficiency of at least two orders of magnitude greater compared to the
past (Spina, 2019). 4. Concluding thoughts
The evolution of big data introduces more data than can be effec-
tively processed by traditional geomorphic research methods and ne- 4.1. The Anthropocene from the perspective of the critical zone
cessitates new approaches to geomorphologic research (Tooth, 2007;
Stepinski and Vilalta, 2010; Spina, 2019). Advances in geomorphic map- As geomorphology progresses, new research paradigms emerge. As
ping, for example, have not adequately kept up with advances in data Naylor et al. (2002) explain, biogeomorphological research tends to
collection (Stepinski and Vilalta, 2010; Ebert-Uphoff et al., 2019). Geo- focus on aspects of the two-way linkages between ecological and geo-
morphologists, therefore, must utilize the opportunities provided by ar- morphological processes, but shortcomings exist with approaches to
tificial intelligence, GPU computing, and automated mapping processes biogeomorphological research. Namely, biological impacts on geomor-
(Stepinski and Vilalta, 2010; Spina, 2019). If geomorphology is to aid in phology are often considered without reference to other influential fac-
mitigating and adapting to future environmental change, we need to tors or the reverse impacts of geomorphology on ecology. Additionally,
systematically incorporate a stronger geomorphological perspective existing research has primarily been focused on erosional landforms
into the science of global change; the Anthropocene represents an ap- rather than measuring the construction or protection provided by or-
propriate platform from which to inject that perspective (Meadows, ganisms. Third, research has focused on process studies at individual
2016). study sites and has not attempted to link findings to other scales of geo-
Critical Zone studies deal with complex interconnected chemical, morphological inquiry (Naylor et al., 2002).
physical, biological and geological processes of multivariate nature, Naylor et al. (2002) suggest opening the sphere of
across temporal and spatial scales (Brantley et al., 2007). Today in the biogeomorphological research by encouraging extension of the network
US, much NSF-sponsored research is focusing on the Critical Zone. To of bioprocess observations using standardized methods to other envi-
understand the transfer of mass and energy through the system, Critical ronments and longer timespans, focusing further on bioconstruction
Zone scientists utilize multiple methods and models, requiring powerful and bioprotection, and investigating the complexity of biogeomorphic
computational resources to interpret large such datasets. interactions. Additionally, new theoretical and technological advances
Efforts to find ways to work with such complex and large models should be used to advance the field of biogeomorphology (Naylor
and data sets include the increasingly relevant attempts made to auto- et al., 2002; Talalay, 2014). Slaymaker (2009) outlines four needs for
mate certain components of data processing, and to produce reliable the future of biogeomorphology: a stronger intellectual and philosoph-
methodologies for remote studies, particularly important in a time in ical rationale for geomorphology as a discipline, establishment of a basis
which geomorphologists expand research interests to explore planetary of unity, reconciliation of interest in unique landform sequences with
bodies, which is driving interest in machine learning and artificial intel- that of prediction, and adaptation to an increasingly anthropogenically
ligence techniques. modified world.
Church (2010) observes that geomorphology is diversifying: it is be- Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Cook, D., Dunning, N., Kennett, D.J., Krause, S., Terry, R.,
Trein, D., Valdez, F., 2015. Ancient Maya impacts on the Earth’s surface: an Early
coming a more rigorous geophysical science, while also becoming more Anthropocene analog? Quat. Sci. Rev. 124, 1–30.
concerned with human, social, and economic values, environmental Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Dunning, N., 2019a. Out of the soil: soil (dark matter bio-
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Eshleman, S., Doyle, C., 2019b. Ancient Maya wetland fields revealed under tropical
develop educational initiatives (Murray et al., 2009; Keylock, 2010). A forest canopy from laser scanning and multiproxy evidence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
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framework for interdisciplinary research that incorporates multiple Befus, K.M., Sheehan, A.F., Leopold, M., Anderson, S.P., Anderson, R.S., 2011. Seismic con-
straints on critical zone architecture, Boulder Creek Watershed, Front Range, Colo-
Earth spheres susceptible to human influence. We propose this ap-
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effects of multiple Earth spheres and modification of systems and feed- geomorphological indicators and local knowledge in the analysis of coastal flooding
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of the western part of the Rochechouart-Chassenon impact structure, Charente,
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Bonali, F.L., Tibaldi, A., Marchese, F., Fallati, L., Russo, E., Corselli, C., Savini, A., 2019. UAV-
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- based surveying in volcano-tectonics: an example from the Iceland rift. J. Struct. Geol.
ence the work reported in this paper. 121 (February), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2019.02.004 Elsevier.
Bottari, C., Aringoli, D., Carluccio, R., Castellano, C., Caracciolo, F.A., Gasperini, M.,
Materazzi, M., Nicolosi, I., Pambianchi, G., Pieruccini, P., Sepe, V., 2017. Geomorpho-
Acknowledgements logical and geophysical investigations for the characterization of the Roman Carsulae
site (Tiber basin, Central Italy). J. Appl. Geophys. 143, 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/
The authors express their gratitude to Tim Beach, Kevin Gamache, j.jappgeo.2017.03.021 Elsevier B.V..
Bottari, C., Albano, M., Capizzi, P., D’Alessandro, A., Doumaz, F., Martorana, R., Moro, M.,
Jack Vitek, and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable suggestions, Saroli, M., 2018. Recognition of earthquake-induced damage in the Abakainon Ne-
which improved the quality of this manuscript. cropolis (NE Sicily): results from geomorphological, geophysical and numerical anal-
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Geomorphology 366 (2020) 107165

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

The expanding role of anthropogeomorphology in critical zone studies in

1. Introduction conclude by presenting our view of where the discipline of geomorphol-

Fig. 5. Distribution of the 64 CZOs around the world.

Fig. 15. House tipping in Shishmaref, Alaska.

Fig. 16. Wind farm in West Texas.

Fig. 17. Environmental and anthropogenic factors inﬂuencing hillslope landscapes.

Fig. 19. Example of bombturbation in Pointe du Hoc, France.

Technique Resolution Advantages Limitations

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