FATS

Rudy Anthony Reyes, RN, RM,

MAN
There are three classes of lipids, which are referred to as fat:
✓triglycerides (fats and oils), which account for 98% of the fat in food;
✓phospholipids (e.g., lecithin); and
✓sterols (e.g., cholesterol).
TRIGLYCERIDES
Chemically, triglycerides are made of the same elements as
carbohydrates— namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are
proportionately more carbon and hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms, so
triglycerides yield more calories per gram than carbohydrates.
Structurally, triglycerides are composed of a three-carbon atom glycerol
backbone with three fatty acids attached. An individual triglyceride
molecule may contain one, two, or three different types of fatty acids.
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS AND FUNCTIONS

Saturated Fats

Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)

✓ Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA)
✓ Eichosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) n-3 fatty acids
✓ Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) n-3 fatty acids

✓ N-6 fatty acids

The Role of Omega 6 in inflammation

- Omega-6 fatty acids plays a beneficial role in maintaining good health, but
the problem is omega-6 fatty acids also plays a role in the body's
inflammation through prostaglandin

- Health experts then focused on the omega 3s to omega 6s ratios. In order

to maintain good health, the body's omega-3 fatty acid levels should
exceed the omega-6 fatty acid levels

- But according to Dr. Bill Harris, a professor/researcher and an expert on

human nutrition, rather than focusing on decreasing omega-6 intake to
improve the ratio, most people would probably benefit from increasing
omega-3 intake instead to improve overall blood concentrations.
Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are straight-line molecules that can pack
tightly together; thus, they are solid at room temperature and referred
to as “solid fat.”

Unsaturated fatty acids are physically kinked and unable to pack

together tightly; they are liquid at room temperature and are referred
to as “oils.”
Further Unsaturated Fatty Acid Classification Based on the First
Double Bond
Unsaturated fatty acids can be classified according to the location of
their double bonds along the carbon chain. The most common method
of identifying the bond is to count the number of carbon atoms from
the methyl (CH3) end, as denoted by the term n or omega.
Essential Fatty Acids
fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in the body and thus must be consumed through
food.

✓Linoleic Acid (n-6) LA accounts for 80% to 90% of total dietary PUFA intake (Micha et al.,
2014).
• The richest source of LA in the typical American diet is soybean oil (often labeled as
vegetable oil) because it used extensively in processed foods.
• The body can make other n-6 fatty acids, such as ARA, from LA. However, if a deficiency
of LA develops, ARA becomes “conditionally essential” because the body is unable to
synthesize it without a supply of LA.

Alpha-Linolenic Acid (n-3 from plants) ALA is the most prominent n-3 fatty acid in most
Western diets because average seafood intake (source of EPA and DHA) is low.
• The richest sources of ALA are soybean and canola oils.
• Humans can convert ALA into the n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA to only a very limited
extent, so the only practical way to increase the levels of these fatty acids in the body is to
consume seafood or take n-3 fatty acid supplements (National Institutes of Health, Office
of Dietary Supplements, 2019).
Trans fats
In the early 1900s, the food industry figured out how to convert cottonseed oil into a stable semisolid product
through a process known as hydrogenation. This was achieved in huge industrial chemical plants. The high
temperatures, pressures, and solvents used made this “vegetable shortening” rather toxic for humans, but
nobody realized this at the time. The tortured molecules delivered the required properties of solidity and shelf
life. And it was cheap to produce. Since 1911, we have been eating these industrially synthesized saturated fats
known as partially hydrogenated oils. It turns out that hydrogenation creates molecules called trans fats that
we now know are directly linked to coronary heart disease. So, ironically, these products contributed to the
explosion of heart disease.

• Synthetic sources of trans fats were once widespread in the food supply from partially hydrogenated oils
(e.g., stick margarine and shortening) and processed foods containing them (e.g., crackers, doughnuts, frozen
french fries).

• The process of hydrogenation of oils extends stability (e.g., longer shelf life because fewer double bonds
lower the risk of rancidity) and functionality (e.g., crispier french fries, creamier frosting), so partially
hydrogenated oils permeated the food supply.

• It eventually became evident that synthetic trans fats are detrimental to health, because they increase low-
density lipoprotein (LDL)– cholesterol and increase the risk of CVD.

• Trans fatty acid content is listed on the Nutrition Facts label. There is no %Daily Value, because it is
recommended that trans fat intake be as close to zero as possible.
OTHER LIPIDS
Phospholipids and cholesterol are two other types of lipids.

Phospholipids Like triglycerides, phospholipids have a glycerol backbone with

fatty acids attached. What makes them different from triglycerides is that a
phosphate group replaces one of the fatty acids. Although phospholipids
occur naturally in almost all foods, they make up a very small percentage of
total fat intake.
• Phospholipids are both fat soluble (because of the fatty acids) and water
soluble (because of the phosphate group), which is a unique feature that
enables them to act as emulsifiers.
• As emulsifiers, they surround fats and keep them suspended in blood and
other body fluids.
• As a component of all cell membranes, phospholipids provide structure
and help to transport fat-soluble substances across cell membranes.
• Phospholipids are also precursors of prostaglandins.
• Lecithin is the best-known phospholipid.
Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a sterol, a waxy substance whose carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules are
arranged in a ring.
• Cholesterol is found in all cell membranes and in myelin. Brain and nerve cells are especially rich
in cholesterol.
• The body makes cholesterol from acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which can originate from
carbohydrates, protein, fat, or alcohol. Eating an excess of calories, regardless of the source, can
increase cholesterol synthesis.
• All body cells are capable of making enough cholesterol to meet their needs, so cholesterol is not
an essential nutrient. In fact, daily endogenous cholesterol synthesis is approximately two to
three times more than average cholesterol intake.
• Although cholesterol is made from acetyl-CoA, the body cannot break down cholesterol into CoA
molecules to yield energy, so cholesterol does not provide calories.
• The body synthesizes bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D from cholesterol.
• Dietary cholesterol is found exclusively in animals, with organ meats and egg yolks the richest
sources. Meats, shrimp, lobster, and full-fat dairy products provide moderate amounts.
• The cholesterol in food is just cholesterol; descriptions of “good” and “bad” cholesterol refer to
the lipoprotein packages that move cholesterol through the blood. You cannot eat more “good”
cholesterol, but you can make lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking, exercising, and losing
weight if overweight, that increase the amount of “good” cholesterol in the blood.
Digestion and Absorption of Fat
• Fat entering the duodenum stimulates the
release of the hormone cholecystokinin,
which, in turn, stimulates the gallbladder
to release bile.
• Bile, an emulsifier produced in the liver
from bile salts, cholesterol, phospholipids,
bilirubin, and electrolytes, prepares fat for
digestion by suspending the hydrophobic
molecules in the watery intestinal fluid.
Emulsified fat particles have enlarged
surface areas on which digestive enzymes
can work.
• Most fat digestion occurs in the small
intestine. Pancreatic lipase, the most
important and powerful lipase, splits off
one fatty acid at a time from the
triglyceride molecule, working from the
outside in until two free fatty acids and a
monoglyceride remain.
Digestion and Absorption of Fat
• The end products of digestion—
mostly monoglycerides with free
fatty acids and little glycerol— are
absorbed into intestinal cells. It is
normal for a small amount of fat
(4– 5 g) to escape digestion and be
excreted in the feces.
• The digestion of phospholipids is
similar, with the end products
being two free fatty acids and a
phospholipid fragment.
• Cholesterol does not undergo
digestion; it is absorbed as is.
Absorption
• About 95% of consumed fat is absorbed, mostly in the duodenum and jejunum.
• Small fat particles, such as short- and medium-chain fatty acids and glycerol, are
absorbed directly through the mucosal cells into capillaries. They bind with albumin
and are transported to the liver via the portal vein.

• The absorption of larger fat particles— namely, monoglycerides and long-chain

fatty acids— is more complex. Although they are insoluble in water,
monoglycerides and long-chain fatty acids dissolve into micelles, which deliver fat
to the intestinal cells. Once inside the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides and
long-chain fatty acids combine to form triglycerides. The reformed triglycerides,
along with phospholipids and cholesterol, become encased in protein to form
chylomicrons and enter circulation via the lymphatic system.
• Once in the bloodstream, lipoprotein particles circulate, delivering dietary lipids
to various organs for oxidation, metabolism, or to store in adipose tissue.
• Their job done, most of the released bile salts are reabsorbed in the terminal
ileum, transported back to the liver, and recycled (enterohepatic circulation). Some
bile salts become bound to fiber in the intestine and are excreted in the feces.
Sources of Fat: Average Content of Fat per serving
Dietary Reference Intakes for Adults for Total Fat and Specific Types fat
Strategies for Making Healthier Food Choices Regarding Fat
Make better protein choices
• Keep portion sizes of protein to the amount recommended for your appropriate calorie level. 5 ½ oz-
equivalents are recommended per day for a 2000-calorie eating pattern. Limit the intake of red meat (beef,
pork, veal, lamb) to 3 to 4 times per week or 12 to 18 oz total per week. • Minimize processed meat intake:
bacon (regular and turkey), hot dogs, corned beef, pepperoni, salami, beef jerky, bologna, canned meats, etc.
Eat 8 oz of fish per week; best choices regarding mercury content include salmon, sardines, herring, freshwater
trout, and Atlantic mackerel. If you eat more than 8 oz of fish per week, choose a variety of seafood.
• Choose lean cuts of meat that are labeled as “round,” “loin,” or “sirloin.”
• “Select” grades of beef have less fat marbled through than “Choice” grades.
• Choose ground beef that is at least 90% lean. This is indicated on the label.
• Trim all visible fat from meat before cooking and drain fat after cooking.
• Remove poultry skin.
• Bake, broil, grill, stew, or roast meats, poultry, and seafood. Avoid frying and breading meat or poultry.
• Eat more plant-based meals: bean burritos, black beans and rice, meatless chili, vegetable stir-fry with tofu,
and lentil soup.
• Choose unsalted nuts or seeds as a snack, on salads, or in main dishes to replace meat or poultry. Keep
portions small because nuts and seeds are high in calories.
• Replace deli meats with leftover chicken or turkey; use canned tuna or salmon, hummus, or nut butters for
sandwiches.
Strategies for Making Healthier Food Choices Regarding Fat
Choose low-fat or fat-free dairy items.
• fat-free or low-fat milk and yogurt
• cheese with 3 g or less per serving
• sherbet, reduced-fat ice cream, and nonfat ice cream Limit solid fats
used in food preparation.
• Use nonstick spray, olive oil, or canola oil in place of margarine or
butter to sauté foods and “butter” pans.
• Use imitation butter spray to season vegetables and hot-air popcorn.
• Use oils— especially soybean, canola, corn, or olive— instead of
butter or shortening for cooking and baking.
Strategies for Making Healthier Food Choices Regarding Fat

Use oils as a healthier option to solid fat.

• Use soft margarine (liquid or tub) in place of butter or stick margarine.
• Look for margarine that contains no more than 2 g saturated fat per tablespoon
and has liquid vegetable oil as the first ingredient.
• Look for processed foods made with non-hydrogenated oil other than coconut oil,
palm oil, or palm kernel oil.
• Eat nuts and nut butters that are rich in unsaturated fats: peanuts, walnuts,
almonds, hazelnuts, pecans
✓Walnuts also contain ALA.
✓Cashews and macadamia nuts are higher in saturated fats.

• Sprinkle ground flaxseed, chia seeds, or hemp seed (1– 2 tbsp/ day) over cereal or
yogurt.
• Use ground flaxseed as a fat substitute in many recipes: 3 tbsp of ground flaxseed
can replace 1 tbsp of fat or oil.
Strategies for Making Healthier Food Choices Regarding Fat

Replace fatty foods with fruit and vegetables.

• Eat fruit for dessert instead of baked goods or full-fat ice cream.
• Snack on raw vegetables or fresh fruit instead of snack chips.

Consider the following foods as “treats” to be used only on occasion and in

small portions.
• Baked goods: cakes, cookies, pies, doughnuts, muffins, etc.
• candy
• Full-fat dairy: whole milk, sour cream, cheese, and ice cream • pizza and
fast food
• Fatty meats: ribs, Prime rib, fried chicken, etc.
• Processed meats: bacon (regular and turkey), hot dogs, corned beef,
pepperoni, salami, beef jerky, bologna, canned meats, etc.