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Bachelor of Education

(Early Childhood
Development)

Curriculum Issues in Early


Childhood Development

Module ECD 104


Publishedby: TheZimbabweOpenUniversity

P.O. Box MP1119

MountPleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

TheZimbabweOpenUniversityisadistanceteachingand
openlearninginstitution.

Year: 2011

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Layout: S.Mapfumo

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© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this


publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
Author: Mawere, Virginia Hope
MEd (Curriculum Studies) UZ
BEd (Teacher Education)UZ
T3 Infant Education (UCE)
Certificate in Guidance, Counselling and Skills (Kenya)
Certificate in Science Teaching in Early Childhood Education
(Israel)
Certificate in Supervisory Management (MTB)
Certificate in Strategic HIV/AIDS Policy Planning (DESERET)
Certificate in ICT Based Media for HIV/AIDS Teaching (World
Links)

Content Reviewer: Dr. Alfred C. Ncube


DED (Educational Management) UNISA
MEd (Counselling Psychology) New Castle Upon-Tyne
B.A. (Hons) UNISA
B.A. (UNISA)
Dip. Sp. Ed. (Birmingham)
Dip. P.M. (IPMZ)
Cert. Sp. Ed. (Malawi)
T3 (UCE)
M and O Cert. Birmingham
Certificate in Gender and Women Empowerment Swaziland

Editor: PaulineManjengwa
MasterofArtsinDistanceEducation(IndiraGhandi
OpenUniversity 1998)
PostGraduateDiplomainDistanceEd.(IndiraGhandi
OpenUniversity1996)
B.Ed. UZ (1986)
DiplomainTrEducationUZ(1980)
Certi.inCurriculumDesign&Development(ICIPE)
Kenya (1989)
T3Teacher'sCertificate(NyadireT.T. College)1975
To the student
Thedemandforskillsandknowledge administratorsofvariedbackgrounds,
andtherequirementtoadjustand training, skills, experiences and
changewithchangingtechnology, personalinterests. Thecombination
places on us a need to learn of all these qualities inevitably
continuallythroughoutlife.Asall facilitatestheproductionoflearning
peopleneedaneducationofoneform materialsthatteachsuccessfullyany
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courseteamapproachtoproducing Weaimforproductsthatwillsettle
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whom are you, the students and your Havingworkedasbestwecantoprepareyour
employers.Weconsultyouandlistentoyour learningpath,hopefullylikeJohntheBaptist
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fromuniversitiestheworldoverandother you,willexperienceunimpededsuccessinyour
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programmecomponent.Weareonlytooglad sometimescompleteoverhaulsofboththe
tosubjectourlearningmaterialstoacademic materialsandorganizationalstructuresand
andprofessionalcriticismwiththehopeof culturethatarecentraltoprovidingyouwith
improving them all the time. We are thehighqualityeducationthatyoudeserve.
determined to continue improving by Notethatyourneeds,thelearner‘sneeds,
changingthelearningmaterialstosuitthe occupyacentralpositionwithinZOU’score
idiosyncraticneedsofourlearners,their activities.
employers,research,economiccircumstances,
technologicaldevelopment,changingtimes Bestwishesandsuccessinyourstudies.
andgeographiclocationi,nordertomaintain
ourleadingposition.Weaimatgivingyouan
educationthatwillworkforyouatanytime
anywhereandinvaryingcircumstancesand
thatyourperformanceshouldbesecondto
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_____________________
Asaprogressiveuniversitythatisforward Dr.PrimroseKurasha
lookinganddeterminedtobeasuccessfulpart ViceChancellor
ofthetwenty-firstcentury,ZOUhasstarted
tointroducee-learningmaterialsthatwill
enableyou,ourstudents,toaccessanysource
ofinformation,anywhereintheworld
throughinternetandtocommunicate,
converse, discuss and collaborate
synchronouslyandasynchronouslyw , ithpeers
andtutorswhomyoumaynevermeetinlife.
Itisourintentiontobringthecomputer,
email,internetchat-rooms,whiteboardsand
othermodernmethodsofdeliveringlearning
toallthedoorstepsofourlearners,wherever
theymaybe. Forallthesedevelopmentsand
forthelatestinformationonwhatistaking
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor
discussion and help you put together
to lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
learning university, you the student are at the centre
him/her the topics beforehand so that
of learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to the ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the infor mation being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the


tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)


Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how
you are going to approach the course. During the session, you
will be given the overview of the course, how to tackle the
assignments, how to organize the logistics of the course and
formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is also during
this session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)


This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond
to the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and
ideas that you are facing as you go through the course. In this
session, difficult areas in the module are explained through the
combined effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give
direction and feedback where you have not done well in the
first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)


The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to


contribute in the best way possible so that you
can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self- BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
contained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore, ZOU
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Module Overview

T his module focuses on curriculum issues in early childhood development


(ECD). Some curriculum approaches used in ECD have been examined
to enable you the teacher to effectively implement a developmentally
apppropriate curriculum.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

Unit 1 starts off with an exploration of the meaning of curriculum in ECD,


types of the curriculum and the determinatns of the curriculum. The unit also
covers the distinction between content and porcess oriented curriculum.

Unit 2 discusses curriculum design and development. Conceptual framework


of curriculum development was discussed in detail. The following three models
were examined. Ralph Tylers objectives model, Johnson conceptual model
and Hunkins decisions making mmodel.

Content selection and sequencing of the ECD curriculum is disscussed in


Unit 3. Principles which shoud be considered when selecting and sequencing
should be considered when selecting and sequencing the content are analysed.
The unit also examines challenges in curriculum design in ECD.

Curriculum implementation is the focus of unit 4. Terms such as dissemination,


implementation and approach are defined. The child-centred approach or
informal teaching approach is elaborated and characteristics of the appoprach
are examined. Relevance of this approach to teaching and learning in ECD is
also discussed.

Unit 5 focuses on the nature of the daily programme including its requirements
and major components. This knowledge enables you as a teacher to
implement the ECD curriculum effectively.

Monitoring of the ECD programme is disscused in unit 6. The unit defines


terms such as monitoring, assessment, evaluation and measurement.
Observation as a means of monitoring and assessing children’s holistic
development is discussed in deatil as well as tools such as checklists, anecdots,
narrative diary, descriptions and time sampling.

Unit 7 focuses on Montessori’s approach as one of the child-centred


approaches which can be implementeed in ECD. The unit examines
Montessori’s philosophy, theory and the principles that should be considered
when applying the approach in the teaching-learning process in ECD.

The Reggio Emilia approach is examined in unit 8. The Reggio Emilia approach
was designed by Loris Malaguzzi in Italy. Its theory and philosophy are
explained in detail The unit also covers principles of Reggio Emilia approach
and an explanation on how the appropach can be implemented in ECD.

Unit 9 focuses on the integrated curriculum. The meaning of curriculum


integration is given as well as its rationale and characteristics. Teaching and
learning strategies are also examined.

2 Zimbabwe Open University


Module Overview

The Highscope approach is discussed in unit 10. The focus is on the philosophy
and theory behind the Highscope approach. Principles, relevance and
applicability of the approach in ECD are also examined.

You will notice that a number of in-text activities/questions are included in


each unit. They are to assist you to check on your progress and understanding
of the different units. The activities are very useful and you should attempt
them all. It is important that you develop a habit of responding to print and
wherever possible, use the internet to beef up your knowledge concerning
curriculum issues in ECD.

You will also observe the long list of references at the end of each unit. We do
expect you to read as widely as possible choose among those available. Feel
free to search and read relevant literature that you may find.

We hope you will find studying this module enriching and rewarding. We also
hope you will be able to apply the information in practice. Enjoy your reading.
Good luck!

Zimbabwe Open University 3


Unit One

Curriculum: Foundations,
Principles and Issues

1.0 Introduction

I n Early Childhood Development, we have adopted a developmental point


of view to promote a holistic development of the child. However, this
outcome can only be achieved if the child is exposed to a developmentally
appropriate curriculum. In this unit, we define the term curriculum, explain its
determinants and discuss the various types of the curriculum.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the term curriculum in ECD context
 discuss different types of curriculum
 examine the determinants of the curriculum

1.2 Definition of Terms


1.2.1 Early Childhood Development (ECD)
According to Feeney et al (1983) Early Childhood Development consists of
activities and experiences that are intended to effect developmental changes
in children. Gordon and Browne (1993) say Early Childhood Development
refers to many skills and milestones that children are expected to reach by the
age of five. In most cases, this development occurs naturally when parents/
caregivers, teachers and children spend time playing. In this context therefore
ECD arte educational settings that create child friendly environments to enable
holistic development of children.

1.2.2 ECD Curriculum


In Early Childhood Development, curriculum may mean the following as given
by Valiga and Magel (2001) in Wikipedia.org:

 The planned engagement of learners


 Experiences that children have under the guidance of the school/centre
Doll (1996:75) defines the curriculum as ‘the formal and informal content by
which learners gain knowledge and understanding and alter attitudes,
appreciations and values under the auspices of that school’.

Activity 1.1

? 1. In your own words define the terms curriculum and ECD.


2. Explain why the term curriculum has different meanings in ECD.

6 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit 1 Curriculum:Foundation, Principles and Issues

1.2.3 Robson and Schwarz (1982) gave the following as the


major Definitions of the Curriculum.
 A happening – curriculum is seen as what happens when children’s
choices dominate and teachers support the activities. The teacher trusts
the child to decide how to spend time in school and expects that any
choices the child makes will be constructive and appropriate for the
child at that time. Since it is unpredictable how the programme will go
on any one day, until children make their choices and become involved
their selected activities, the teacher does not plan for content selection
in advance. The teacher should be ready to respond to the flow of
children’s activities their needs and interests. Such a curriculum
approach requires a teacher with rich resources, one who can
comfortably make on-the-spot decisions.
 Curriculum is all the child’s experiences in school from both the child’s
perspective and the teachers. This concept of curriculum is an attempt
to acknowledge the often dominant influence of the hidden curriculum
or incidental and unplanned events that may overshadow teaching plans
in personal significance to the child. It allows that not everything that is
planned to be taught is learned. It also suggests that much school
experience has unintended effect. Advocates of this definition emphasise
the need to examine all aspects of interpersonal relationships to assure
continuity of learning for children. Doll (1996) commented that an
advantage of this definition is the possibility of increasing teacher
sensitivity to the effects of unplanned as well as intended experiences.
 Curriculum includes plans of teaching in which teachers plan activities
for the day, week or longer periods. General curriculum theory has for
a long time defined curriculum as plans of activities for example Johnson
in Robinson and Schwartz (1982:12) defined curriculum as ‘a structured
series of learning outcomes’. Zais in Robinson and Schwartz (1982)
defined curriculum as ‘a plan for the education of the learners’ and
Taba views all curricula as containing the following elements, statement
of specific objectives, some choices and structuring content. Curriculum
viewed as intentional planning may be very specific or broad and it may
feature short range or long range planning. The plans whether written
or oral, can relate to activities, content, processes or a combination of
the three. Activities describe what teachers and children do, while
content describes facts, skills and ideas selected for learning. Processes
stresses long-term developmental pattern such as classification and
matching. In general these three features contrast action, ideas and
ways of thinking.

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

Lastly curriculum is also seen as a programme based on one approach or


theory such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia and Highscope, among others. The
name of the programme may or may not identify the particular curriculum
being followed or constructed. These different approaches will be discussed
in units that follow.

The foregoing discussions indicate the many different ways curriculum is used
or defined. There is no overriding way to define this basic educational term.
Definitions are value laden. We select the meanings that give value to our
own priorities. A distinction between content and process is important in
understanding the unique meaning of curriculum in connection with Early
Childhood Development.

1.3 Content Oriented Curriculum


McCarthy and Houston (1980) say content is the ‘what’ of curriculum.
According to Karnes in McCarthy and Houston (1908:226)

Content is defined as facts, information and concepts. Concern here is for


what a child learns rather than how he learns. In content-oriented pre-school
programme the minimal content necessary for effective learning in later school
has been identified and sequenced for presentation to the child. Such an
approach establishes a finite body of material to be taught but may fail to
provide the child with opportunity to relate what he has learned to other task
and areas. Further since our society is changing at a rapid rate, considerable
effort is required to ensure that the content is always relevant.

1.4 Process Oriented Curriculum


While content-oriented curriculum focuses on what facts and information are
learned, process-oriented curriculum is more concerned with how the child
learns to learn, what learning skills are developed and how these skills are
applied to different situations. Karnes et al (1977:261) refer to process as:

The ability to obtain, organize, manipulate, synthesise, integrate and


communicate information. Programmes that focus on process are concerned
about the way in which children think, evaluate and seek out new information.
A pre-school based on the discovery method is an example of a process
oriented school.

8 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit 1 Curriculum:Foundation, Principles and Issues

Therefore, from the process-oriented perspective, two distinctive views


emerge. One view defines curriculum as ’what happens’. ‘Learning is a
seamless whole, whatever interests the child is useful for constructive
development’ (Robson and Schwartz, 1982:15). Continuity is in the child not
in the ideas or bodies of knowledge. This view assumes that the learner is as
free of exterior influences on choices as is the infant at home. The other view
shows less willingness to give children much choice and guidance is planned
in advance. The teacher may choose to challenge, probe, stimulate, interest
or redirect the child in explorations that might suggest more complex questions
or ideas. The curriculum in this case is likely to be somewhat more selective.
However, selection tends to be based on the kind of tasks that interest children
and that may open a new challenge for them. However, using the definitions
or explanations that seem most in accordance with your professional view.

Activity 1.2

?
1. Compare and contrast the content and process-oriented curricula.
2. In your own view, which curriculum definition is relevant in ECD. Justify
your answer.
3. Give educational implications based on the definitions of curriculum
discussed in this unit.

1.5 Types of Curriculum


1.5.1 The Overt, Explicit, Formal or Written Curriculum
Wilson (1990) observed that the overt curriculum is simply that which is written
as part of formal instruction of schooling experiences. It may refer to a
curriculum document, texts, films and supportive teaching materials that are
overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school or
centre. Thus, the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written
understandings and directions formally designated and reviewed by policy
makers, administrators, curriculum directors and other stakeholders.

1.5.2 The Societal Curriculum


As defined by Cortes (1981), the societal curriculum is the massive, ongoing,
informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, church
organizations, occupations, mass media and other socializing forces that
educate all of us throughout our lives.

Zimbabwe Open University 9


Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

1.5.3 The Hidden Curriculum


That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of
what revolves around daily or established routines. Longstreet and Shane
(1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term:

The ‘hidden curriculum’, which refers to the kinds of learning children derive
from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as
from the behaviours and attitudes of teachers and administrators.

Examples of the hidden curriculum might include the messages and lessons
derived from the mere organization of schools. The emphasis on sequential
room arrangements, the cellular, timed segments of formal instruction, an annual
schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an agrarian age, disciplined
messages where concentration equates to student behaviours where they are
sitting up straight and are continually quiet, students quietly raising their hands
to be called on, the endless competition for grades and so on. The hidden
curriculum may include both positive or negative messages, depending on the
models provided and the perspectives of the learner or the observer.

In what I term floating quotes, popularized quotes that have no direct, cited
sources, David P. Gardner is reported to have said: We learn simply by the
exposure of loving. Much that passes for education is not education at
all but ritual. The fact is that we are being educated when we know it
least.

1.5.4 The Null Curriculum


That which we did not teach, thus giving the student the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his discussion of the null
curriculum. The major point I have been trying to make thus far is that schools
have consequences not only by virtue of what they neglect to teach. What
students can not consider, what they do not process they are unable to use,
have consequences for the kinds of lives they lead.

Eisner (1994) first described and defined aspects of this curriculum. He states:

There is something of paradox involved in writing about a curriculum that


does not exist. Yet, if we are concerned with the consequences, then it seems
to me that we are well advised to consider not only the explicit and implicit
curricula of schools but also what schools do not teach. It is my thesis that
what schools do not teach may be as important as what they do teach. I

10 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit 1 Curriculum:Foundation, Principles and Issues

argue this position because ignorance is not simply a neutral void, it has
important effects on the kinds of options one is bale to consider, the alternatives
that one can examine and the perspectives from which one can view a situation
or problems.

From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught
in schools. Somehow, somewhere, knowledge.

1.5.5 Curriculum-in-Use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks
and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those
‘formal’ elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual
curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.

1.5.6 Received Curriculum


Those things that students actually take out of classroom, those concepts and
content that are truly learned and remembered.

1.5.7 The Internal Curriculum


Processes, content, knowledge and realities of the learner to create new
knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have
little control over the internal curriculum since it is unique to each student.

1.5.8 The Electronic Curriculum


Those lessons learned through searching the internet for information, or through
using e-forms of communication (Wilson, 2004).

This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal and inherent lessons
may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending one
one’s views. Students who use the internet on a regular basis, both for
recreational purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, list servers, through instant
messenger, on-line conversations, or through personal emails and sites like
Facebook, My Space, Youtube) and from personal online research and
information are bombarded with all types of media and messages. Much of
this information may be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or
inspirational but other information may be very incorrect, dated, passé, biased,
perverse, or even manipulative.

Zimbabwe Open University 11


Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

The implications of the electronic curriculum for educational practices are that
part of the overt curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be wise
consumers of information, how to critically appraise the accuracy and
correctness of e-information, as well as the reliability of electronic sources.
Also, students need to learn how to be artfully discerning about the usefulness
and appropriateness of certain types of information. And like other forms of
social interaction, students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be
learned about appropriate and acceptable ‘netiquette’ and online behavior, to
include the differences between ‘fair usage’ and plagiarism.

Activity 1.3

?
1. To what extent does the ECD curriculum implement the societal
curriculum in ECD?
2. Which type of curriculum is being implemented in ECD in Zimbabwe?
Justify your choice.
3. Compare and contrast the covert curriculum and the hidden curriculum
in ECD context.
4. Discuss the applicability of electronic curriculum in ECD in Zimbabwe.
5. Examine the challenges that lead to the null curriculum in ECD.

1.6 Determinants of the Curriculum


There are factors that need to be considered when designing the ECD
curriculum. These determinants are the sociology, psychology and
philosophical foundations as well as other research, technology, the economy
and the church.

1.6.1 Sociological Foundations


Curriculum planners consider the culture of the society, community and family
when they design the curriculum. Ndawi in Peresuh and Nhundu (1999)
pointed out that the curriculum should reflect the customs, values, attitudes
and skills we want our children to acquire. Lawton defines a curriculum as a
selection from culture therefore its important to consider it to enable education
to produce a person who is acceptable in the society. The church, parents/
caregivers also have their own expectations about the ECD curriculum. What
they want their children to be taught and to a certain extent how. When
designing a curriculum we need to consider language. Language is a means of

12 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit 1 Curriculum:Foundation, Principles and Issues

communication and gives us identity as people. We also use language in the


teaching/learning process hence it plays a central role in curriculum
development. Teacher expertise also influences the ECD curriculum.

1.6.2 Psychological Foundation


Curriculum borrows ideas from educational psychology especially the theories
on the nature of the child and how the child learns. These theories assist
designers to come up with a developmentally appropriate curriculum which
places the child at the centre and considers the needs and interest of the
children. Educational psychology also assists planners with child-centred
approaches that will be used in the teaching/learning process. Psychologists
such as Piaget and Bruner also suggest best ways of selecting and sequencing
the content to be learned by the children including the type of physical and
social environment that needs to be created for effective learning to take place
(Ndawi in Nhundu and Peresuh, 1999).

1.6.3 Philosophical Foundations


Philosophy enables us to decide reality, knowledge (epistemology) and values
(axiology). Epistemology enables planners to choose knowledge that is worthy
knowing – relevant knowledge for the children. Epistemology also guides us
on the choice of methods we should choose to teach the knowledge. Ideology
is part of philosophy of the country. It refers to a set of beliefs subscribed to
by a group. For example, at independence socialist principles guided
curriculum planners on the values children should be taught (Ndawi in Nhundu
and Peresuh, 1999).

1.6.4 Research and Technology


The field of ECD is an area of interest to most researchers throughout the
world. Hence their findings do have an influence in the ECD curriculum. For
example, because of research Zimbabwe has now introduced the concept of
child friendly ECD centres and the use of the integrated curriculum in ECD.
Technology is now part and parcel of the ECD curriculum. Children are
expected to be able to acquire computer application skills and use other
electrical gadgets. This enables them to survive in this world of technology.

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

Activity 1.4
1. In what way can technology be a facilitator or an obstacle in curriculum
? projects in ECD?
2. Evaluate any five determinants of the curriculum in ECD.
3. Justify this statement ‘Teacher qualifications and expertise play a role
in curriculum planning’.

1.7 Summary
In this unit we discussed different definitions of the term curriculum and their
implications in ECD. We also examined different types of curriculum and the
determinants of the curriculum. We observed that in ECD the curriculum should
be process oriented since this emphasizes on how children learn to learn.

References
Cortes, C.E. (1981). The Societal Curriculum: Implications for
Multiethnic Educations. National Education Association.
Doll, R.C. (1996). Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
Eisner, E.W. (1994). The Educational Imagination: On Design and
Evaluation of School Programmes. New York, McMillan.
Feeney, S., Christensen, D. and Moravick (1983). Who Am I in the lives of
Children?
Gordon, A. M. and Browne, K. W. (1993). Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. Delmar, New York.
Longstreet, W.S. and Shane, H. G. (1993). Curriculum for a new
Millennium. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
McCarthy, M. A. and Houston, J.P. (1980). Fundamentals of Early
Childhood Education. Massachusetts, Winthrop.
Peresuh, M and Nhundu, T. (eds) (1998). Foundations of Education for
Africa. College Press. Harare.
Posner, G. and Rudnitsky, A (1982). Course Design: A Guide to Curriculum
Development for Teachers. New York, Longman.
Robson, H.F. and Schwartz, S.L. (1982). Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London, Allyn and Bacon.
http://www.uwsp.edu/education/lwilson/curric/curtyp.htm
http://classes.kumc.edu/son/nursedu/nrsg871/content/module01/curric-
definitions.htm

14 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit Two

Curriculum Design and


Development

2.0 Introduction

I n unit one, we discussed the concept curriculum in the content of Early


Childhood Development. This unit will examine curriculum planning/ design
and development. The unit defines curriculum planning and development and
then discusses models of curriculum development
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

2.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
 explain the concepts “curriculum planning and curriculum development
 evaluate the relevance of specified curriculum development models in
ECD
 assess the applicability of each model in developing the ECD curriculum
 compare and contrast the models

2.2 Definition of Terms


2.2.1 Model
Oliva (1992) defines a model as a pattern serving as guidelines to action
which can be found for every form of educational activity, such as models of
instruction, discipline and supervision. A curriculum model therefore provides
a framework by indentifying a set of categories useful for sorting out curriculum
decisions, documents and assumptions. It can be a plan or a series of events
various models have been devised for solving educational problems or
establishing procedures.

2.3 Conceptual Framework of Curriculum


Development
Curriculum development according to Mostert (1989) lends itself to different
interpretations. This divergence has also given rise to different positions and
models. Curriculum development is regarded as an umbrella and ongoing
process in which orderliness and systematic planning figure strongly from design
to evaluation. The process is characterized by various possible phases, which
include initiation, design, dissemination, implementation and evaluation.

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Unit 2 Curriculum Design and Development

Care (1996:47) identified the following six phases of curriculum development.


Phase Activities

1. Initiation An introductory investigation is


launched

2. Planning Situation analysis

Formulation of goals

Determination of criteria for the selection and


classification of content

Planning an experimental design

3. Development Selection and classification of learning content


and refinement of goals
Supplying didactic guidelines
Production of teaching materials
Development of teaching materials
Development of evaluation mechanisms
Submission to experts for evaluation

4. Testing Teacher preparation for instructional task


Instruction
Formative evaluation
Review

5. Implementation Planning of learning contents


Dissemination
Teacher orientation
Instruction

6. Summative Evaluation Final evaluation of the programme

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

We can summarise the process of curriculum development as below.

DESIGN DISSEMINATION
New curriculum is planned or an old Curriculum consumers are prepared
curriculum is re-planned or reviewed for the intended implementation of
considering purpose fullness, content, the curriculum through distribution
methods, learning, experience and or publication of information, ideas
evaluation and notions, in service training and
workshops by curriculum designers
eg CDU

EVALUATION IMPLEMENTATION
Success and effectiveness of the curriculum The relevant curriculum is
are evaluated and its effect/impact on applied in schools by the
children. (Curriculum orientated and learner teachers and other relevant
– orientated and learner oriented evaluation) stakeholders

Adopted from Carl 1996:48

The process of curriculum development therefore has specific nature and


character as a result of specific orientations and approaches to curriculum
development

Activity 2.1

?
1. Explain the term model in your own words.
2. Examine the process of curriculum development.
3. To what extent are the Carls (1996) six phases of curriculum
development applicable in Zimbabwe.

2.4. Models of Curriculum Development


In this section only the following models will be discussed:

 Ralph Tylers Model


 Johnson model

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Unit 2 Curriculum Design and Development

 Hunkins Decision making model


 Hilda Taba’s Model

You are being advised to also refer to unit 3 of BEDS308 for more information
on models.

2.4.1 Ralph Tyler’s Objectives Model


Posner (1995) explained that, Ralph Tyler 1949 model as having had major
influence in curriculum planning. It has been interpreted by most educators as
a procedure to follow when planning a curriculum, that is, it is an answer to
the procedural question “what steps does one follow in planning a curriculum.

In his book, Tyler (1949) suggests that, when planning a curriculum for a
centre/school the following questions need to be answered.

 What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?


 What educational experience can be provided that is likely to attain
these purposes?
 How can this experience be effectively organized?
 How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Tyler (1949)suggest that when planning, a curriculum first, planners need to
decide on the objectives they seek to attain. These objectives should be derived
from systematic studies if the earners, from studies of contemporary life in
society from analysis of the subject matter by specialist. These three sources
of objectives are then screamed through the schools/ECD philosophy and
through knowledge available about the psychology of learning. These
objectives need to be stated as specific and unambiguous as possible to make
evaluation of attainment of objectives easy.

Second, planners need to determine educational experience that is likely to


attain these objectives. Possible experiences are checked for consistency with
objectives and for economy. Third, the planner must find ways to effectively
organize these educational experiences. The planner attempts to provide
experiences that have a cumulative effect on learners. Tyler’s in Carl (1996)
recommends that experiences build on one another and enable learners to
understand the relationships intended learning outcome.” (Kelly, 1989:136).
Thus schooling is conceived as a production system, in which individual learning
outcomes are the primary product.

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

Further, curriculum planning is assumed to be an enterprise in which the planner


objectively and scientifically develops the means necessary to produce the
desired learning outcome. The means-ends reasoning serves as the logical
underlying rational decision making. Education experiences are justified by
the objectives that they serve. The means-ends model takes a linear view,
which makes it easier to follow when planning the curriculum.

However, critiques observed that Tyler’s model is too simple and that evaluation
should not be a terminal process but should take place at every stage. The
model also looks like a closed system, a statement which assumes that the
major considerations are in the model.

Activity 2.2

?
1. Outline features of Tyler’s model.
2. Evaluate the applicability of the objectives model in planning the ECD
curriculum.

2.4.2 The Johnson Conceptual Model


According to Mauritz Johnson’s conceptual model evolved since 1967. It is
early version stipulated a definition of curriculum as “a structured of intended
learning outcomes” he distinguished between curriculum and instruction when
he said curriculum describes what is to be learned whereas instruction is the
process by which t is taught to the learner. The curriculum itself is not a process
but curriculum itself development is. This process consist of selecting and
structuring the intended outcomes from available and teachable culture (ie the
source of the curriculum) in order to produce people with intended
characteristics (as expressed in the educational goals.)

The curriculum in turn, guides the instructional system, which consists of both
content and strategies. In this system, there are two types of content that the
instructional planner selects, namely instrumental and curricular content. The
former content is used as a vehicle for instruction whereas the later is the
content learned. Johnson in Carl (1996) gives an example of computers literacy
as an instrumental content. Teaching number rhymes to help children remember
numbers is what he calls a Mnemomic device. Important concepts and skills
are two sorts of curricula content because the teacher has to teach them,
strategies specify what the teacher is to do with the content in order to facilitate
the intended learning.

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Unit 2 Curriculum Design and Development

In this model Johnson makes a distinction between process and product. For
Johnson, education consists of various processes (Ovals in the diagram below)
which include goals setting, curriculum development instructional planning,
instruction and development. Each process produces corresponding products
(rectangles in diagram below) that is goals, curriculum, instructional plans,
learning outcomes and educational results respectively. The centrality of this
process product distinction is what earns the model its designation as a
production model.

Just as the curriculum distinguished from the instructional mean intended to


accomplish the curriculum that is from instructional plans, curriculum is also
distinguished from educational goals. Goals express the characteristics of people
that are expected to result from achieving the curriculum. Goals answer the
question why people should accomplish the curriculum. However Johnson
also noted that people develop personal characteristics as a result of many
influence including the integration of that they learn both in and out of school
as well as maturation.

Johnson also makes fundamental distinction between intentions and actualities.


This is a symmetry to be noted in the model between the products and processes
by planners (the left side of the model) and those that actually occur the right
side of the model) thus he distinguishes educational goals, intended learning
outcomes and instructional plans from their corresponding educational results,
the actual learning outcomes and the actual process of instruction.

The model’s symmetry and its inherent technical nationality provide a


framework of educational evaluation. This models therefore has four major
element, goal setting, curriculum selection and structuring instructional planning
and technical; evaluation.

2.4.3 Comparison of Johnson and Tyler’s Models


Johnson’s concepts correlate closely with Tyler’s questions but at a deeper
level Johnson shares all the major assumptions of the technical production
model. John in …………………….argues that “the theoretical”
understanding and the ideological (advocacy) exists in conceptually distinct
worlds” further he claims that technology may be influenced by theory and
reach but not by ideology. Like Tyler, Johnson disavows a liner planning
approach but assumes a means – ends logic underlying rational planning.
Further, Jonson concepts of curriculum as “intended learning outcomes” makes
clear his assumption that learning is the primary purpose of schooling.

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

Comparison of Johnson and Tyler’s Models


Johnson Tyler
Goal setting What education purposes?
Curriculum selection What educational experience?
Curriculum structuring What educational experience?
Instructional planning How to organize educational
experience
Technical evaluation
Adapted from Posner 1995:20

Activity 2.3

?
1. Discuss the main features of Johnson’s Model of curriculum
development.
2. Assess the relevance of Johnson model to curriculum planning in ECD.
3. Compare and contrast the objectives model and Johnson’s conceptual
model.
4. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each of these two models
discussed above.

2.4.4 Hunkin’s Decision-Making Model


Wiles and Bondi (198) pointed out that Hunkin’s model has seven major
stages which are: curriculum conceptualization and legitimating, diagnosis
content, section experience, implementation, evaluation and maintain. A scheme
of the model is illustrated below.

What sets these models apart is its recommended first stage of curriculum
decision making – curriculum conceptualization and legitimisation. The first
stage demands that participants engage in discussion regarding the participants
engage in discussions regarding the nature of the curriculum and its educational
and social political value. It requires decision makers to engage in a search for
understanding of curriculum as well as creating educational programmes to
enable them understands the nature and power of curriculum.

In the first stages, planners confront the various conceptions of curriculum


and recognize that the field of curriculum is complicated; that of making decisions
about what ought to be taught and experienced by learners is no simple decision.
Such decisions are fraught with subtexts and power politics and social and
cultural views that demand understanding and sophisticated thinking. The

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Unit 2 Curriculum Design and Development

planners need to engage in a dialogue in order to agree on what curriculum


mean in their school system. They must realize that curriculum decision-making
and actions related to implementing programmes are done in a social context.
The field of curricula is filed with various voices, some of which are in harmony
and others not. Therefore in the first stage one concerns with the players/
stakeholders to interpret the discourses generated in the field by both scholars
and practitioners.

Planners also need to legitimize views of the curriculum and its purposes.
What should be known should have value, negotiated value. Why is what we
want to include in the curriculum legitimate activity? On what do we base our
decision? This is the strength of this model in the sense that no other model of
curriculum development stresses as clearly the need for conceptualization and
legitimization.

The second stage, curriculum diagnosis involves translating needs into causes
and generating goals and objectives from the needs. According to Kelly (1989)
context selection deals with the ‘what of the curriculum, what content is the
staff of the curriculum, what is taught and earned. It is the foundation of the
curriculum. The content refers to facts, concepts principles, theories and
generalization in this context content also refers to cognitive processes tat
learners employ when thinking about what to learn. Also content as process
refers to procedures learners learn to use to apply their knowledge and skills
and to communicate what they know to others.

The next step in the model is experience section. This stage deals with
instruction. How to deliver the content? What teaching methods will be
employed? What educational activities will be designed to make learners
effective and enjoyable and so on? At his stage the teacher also decides
instructional media to be used and so on.

After experiences have been selected, organized and matched with the content
of the programme the curriculum is ready for implementation. This is done in
two stages: an initial piloting of the curriculum to work out any minor challenges
in the programme and the final diffusion of the tested programme and the
second stage is the actual implementation one after adjusting the programme
in line with what was found in pilot testing.

Once the programme is implemented, it is then evaluated. This stage is usually


conducted through the life of the curriculum, to furnish data so that decision
can be made to continue modify or discontinue the programme. The final
stage of this model is maintenance curriculum according to Hunkins in Robinson

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

and Schwartz (1992) encompasses the methods by which an implemented


programme is managed to assure its continued effective functioning. It deals
with issues such as making sure that the new staff is educated into the ongoing
system. It ensures that budget is sufficient to resupply necessary materials. It
also means that supervisors are available to assist teachers when a new strategy
or content organisation is to be tried. It infers communicating with the
community continuing a dialogue, so that al stakeholders feel a sense of
ownership with the ongoing programme.

The unique feature of this technical model is the feedback and adjustment
loop depicted by the dashed lines. This lop allows decision makers as they
proceed to refer back to previous stages and to make necessary modifications.
The feedback loop demotes dynamism. It draws on the principal that a system
is integrated into its environment. This aspect of the model contextualizes the
process of curriculum making.

Activity 2.4

?
1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Hunkin’s decision-making
models.
2. Examine any challenges that curriculum planers might face in using the
Decision making Model.
3. Examine the stages of the Decision making model showing the relevance
of each stag to the ECD curriculum planner.
4. Compare and contract Tyler’s model and Hunkin’s model of curriculum
development.

2.5. Summary
You might be interested to read about other models of curriculum

There are a variety of curriculum development models such as wheeler cyclic


model, the process model, Lawton’s model, Nicholls and Nicholl’s Model,
Taba’s Model and so on. You are being advised to also study these models so
that you conceptualise models of curriculum development.

In this unit we defined the tem model and examined three types of curriculum
development model. Tyler’s model, Johnson’s conceptual model and Hunkin’s
decision making model. We also discussed their strengths and weaknesses
and how they can be used to develop a curriculum in ECD.

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Unit 2 Curriculum Design and Development

References
Beaty, J.B. (1999) Skills for Pre-School Teachers. Columbus Merrill.
Carl, A.E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: theory into practice Jata Capetown.
Kelly A.V (1989) The curriculum: Theory and Practice London
Posner, G. (19950 Analysing the Curriculum McGraw – Hill London
Robinson,. H. F./ and Schwartz, S. L. (1992) Designing Curriculum for
Early Childhood. London.
Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. (1998) Curriculum Development. A guide to practice
Macmillan N.Y

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Unit Three

Content Selection and


Sequencing Curriculum

3.0 Introduction

I n unit 2 we examined models of curriculum development. We identified


their features and also discussed their relevance in ECD. This unit will
discuss what planners need to take into account when designing an ECD
curriculum and how it should be organised.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 critically discuss ways of organizing the curriculum
 discuss common guidelines for sequencing
 examine learning outcomes of early childhood development
 define terms such as content and sequence.

3.2 Definition of Terms


3.2.1 Content
In unit 2 we defined content as the ‘what of the curriculum’. Content is the
stuff of the curriculum. It refers to what is taught and learnt. Wiles and Bondi
“(1998:202), also define content as ‘facts, concepts, principles, theories and
generalisations’. They went on to say that content also refers to cognitive
processes that learners employ when thinking about or studying the content.
In this context therefore content refers to the ‘what’ children are going to
learn.

3.2.2 Sequencing
Sequencing curriculum requires using some logical basis for deciding what
comes next. Robinson and Schwartz (1982) pointed out that sequencing
means that the planner provides a series of learning activities based on some
idea or order. The sequencing of the curriculum is influenced by the planners
views about whether curriculum is content of process based.

McCarthy and Houston (1980:226) observed that the content oriented


curriculum emphasizes content (what) over process how. The concern is
defined as fats, information and concepts. Concern here is for what a child
learns rather than how he learns in a content oriented preschool programme,
the minimal content necessary for effective learning in later school has been
identified and sequenced for presentation to the child. Such an approach
establishes a finite body of material to be taught but may fail to provide the
child with the opportunity to relate what he has learned to other tasks and
areas.

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Unit 3 Content Selection and Sequencing Curriculum

3.2.3 Process Oriented Curriculum


The process oriented curricula are concerned with how the child learns to
learn, what learning skills are developed and how these skills are applied in
different situations. Karnes et al in McCarthy and Houston (1980:227) refer
to process as

The ability to obtain, organize, manipulate, synthesise, integrate and


communicate information. Programmes that focus on process are concerned
about the way in which children think, evaluate and seek out new information.

Planners who regard curriculum as process are bound to sequence content


differently. The key question here is does logic for sequencing stem from the
apparent steps in the subject matter to be learned or from the order in which
children develop understanding and build knowledge?

Activity 3.1

?
1. Define the terms content, sequencing and process.
2. Distinguish between content oriented and process oriented curriculum.
3. In what way do the curriculum planners view of content influence the
way the curriculum is sequenced?

3.3 Content Selection


3.3.1 Deciding on suitable learning content in ECD is no easy task. We need
to be careful not to rely on assumptions on what we think will be suitable.
According to Faber (1998:23) we need to base our choice of content on the
following principles. The learning content should:

 Link with the essential and specific learning outcomes of early childhood
development (whole child).
 Be developmentally appropriate
 Be relevant and meaningful to the group
 Be multicultural and anti-bias (i.e. discourage prejudice)
These principles will be explained below:

3.3.1.1 The learning content should be directly linked to the essential and
specific learning outcomes of ECD. De Corte et al (1981:136) maintained

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Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

that ‘the learning content should be selected to give the best possible guarantee
that the children will learn the behavior set out in the learning outcomes’.
Hence, planners need to be aware of the learning outcomes. These learning
outcomes involve the development of the whole child. The close link between
the children’s physical, intellectual, social, emotional, moral and creative
development compels curriculum planners to select content that promote total
development of the child.

3.3.1.2 The content should be developmentally appropriate. This means that


the content included in the curriculum should link up with what children are
currently able to do. Leeper et al (1979:166) proposed that what is taught
should not be selected in the expectation of what will be taught later but by
considering the characteristic features of the children’s level of development
and has to be within children’s ability level (not frustrating but challenging).

Morrison (1995:301) states four implications of the developmentally


appropriate practices what ECD teachers should keep in mind.

 Learning must be meaningful to children and relate to what they already


know. Children find things meaningful when they are interested to them
and they relate to them.
 Not all children learn in the same way are interested in learning in the
same thing as everyone else all the time. Therefore, teachers need to
individualise as much as possible.
 Learning should be physically and mentally active, children should be
actively involved in learning activities by building, making, experimenting,
investigating and working as a team with their peers.
 Children should be involved in hands-on activities. Emphasis on real-
life as opposed to work sheets and workbook activities.
3.3.1.3 The content should be relevant and meaningful. The content should
be relevant to children so that they can identify with it and become involved.
The content should help children to be more independent and to function
better in their environment. Relevant content should be selected, from the
immediate environment, so that children can become more involved. Topics
must be meaningful, interesting to the children bearing in mind the current
children’s experiences in mind (Doll, 1996).

3.3.1.4 Content should be multicultural and unbiased. One of the essential


learning outcomes of early childhood development is to teach the young child
to accept differences and similarities in people. All individuals and groups

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Unit 3 Content Selection and Sequencing Curriculum

need to know and feel that they are valued by others and that they have a
rightful and important place in the society in which they live. Children need to
be taught knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to live and work together in
harmony. The content should therefore be anti-bias and multicultural. It should
counter prejudiced attitudes.

Activity 3.2
1. Discuss the principles which should be considered when selecting
? content for an ECD curriculum.
2. Explain how an ECD teacher can ensure that the content in the
curriculum is relevant and developmentally appropriate.
In section four we discussed how we can select content which is relevant,
developmentally appropriate, anti-bias and that matches the ability levels of
children. the next section we discuss principles to consider when sequencing
the curriculum.

3.4 Sequencing the Curriculum for Young Children


Sequencing curriculum requires using some logical basis for deciding what
comes next. It means that the curriculum planner provides a series of themes/
topics and activities based on some idea of order.

According to Robinson and Schwartz (1982) different views about what comes
next in a programme or instructional sequence is traced to the dilemma of
logical content order versus developmental psychological order. Does the
logic for sequencing stem from the apparent steps in the subject matter to be
learned or from the order in which children develop understanding and build
knowledge? We could answer this question by conceptualizing the common
guidelines for sequencing.

3.4.1 Common Guidelines for Sequencing


The following guidelines apply whether the curriculum planner or teacher choose
the developmental view of the maturationistic, the behaviourist or the
interactionist. The guidelines have been divided into the content and process,
although most learning experiences deal with both.

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3.4.1.1Guidelines that Relate to Content or What Children


are to Learn
 Learning progress from the concrete to the abstract. Concrete refers
to the world of things and events, present while abstract refers to the
world of symbols that stand for the real thing (such pictures) and ideas
that represent or suggest things and events (Piaget, Bruner).
 Learning progresses from the simple to the complex. Complexity
increases as the number of items, variables or vents increase. For
example it is easier to work with two items than six items. Complexity
also increases as the difference between variables reduces and becomes
more subtle.
 Learning progresses from facts to concepts. Experience challenge
children to reconstruct concepts that no longer serve. Children’s
concepts grow as they understand relationships between objects and
events. The concept of father grows after the child has experienced
different types of men and as the range of images of men increases.
 Learning progresses from the known to unknown. Experiences that
are familiar and those that include only a few unknown facts
accompanied by known facts are easier to process than experiences in
which almost everything is new.

3.4.2 Guidelines that Relate to Processes on how Children


Learn
 The learner progresses from exploration, to experimentation and
hypothesis testing them to problem solving. New materials are examined
to identify familiar and unfamiliar qualities before additional
experimentation is developed to find out more. Eventually, new
knowledge is used to solve problems involving additional elements.
 The learner progresses from a) imitation, b) replication fro memory c)
creation of new sets of objects or events.
 The learner progresses from self identity to perception of others.
Meaning experiences are processed first in terms of one’s own feelings,
perceptions and understandings.
 The child is more likely to learn selected material if principles of practice
are followed. In other words learners need to be involved in the learning
process and there has to be a lot of repetition of activities to help them
master the concepts and skills.

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Unit 3 Content Selection and Sequencing Curriculum

 Reinforcement or reward encourages learners to want to keep on leaning.


Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation should be used by the teacher.
However, reward where there is an effort.
 The curriculum should have a variety of suggested activities and
experiences to enable the learner to master the skills and concepts
(Robinson and Schwartz, 1992)

Activity 3.3
1. Discuss any four sequencing principles that help ECD curriculum
? planners and teachers plan content sequences.
2. Outline and illustrate four sequencing principles that guide the design
of instructional processes or learning activities in ECD.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘begin where the child is’. Give implications for
the ECD teacher.

3.5 Challenges in Curriculum Design in ECD


Early childhood planners/designers and teachers , no matter what their views
on knowledge, child development and programme form, face unique challenges
in designing the curriculum and sequencing the curriculum. According to
Posner and Rudnitsky (1992) one major reason for the difficulty rests on the
immaturity of the children. In terms of content and developmental concerns,
curriculum for three to six year olds can include almost everything to learn.
Therefore, the meet some of the following challenges:

3.5.1 Articulation
A gap between ECD classes and the Grade 1 class means that the programme
prior to grade 1 does not appear to fit current programme expectations. There
seems to be a link between for example ECDB and Grade 1 content and
sometimes the programme goals as well. Teachers vary in curriculum goals,
methodology and related classroom programmes, the philosophical distance
between on playroom or classroom programme and the next differs.
Articulation problems in curriculum design include how to identify children’s
prior experiences and how to help children move into the programme. Ideally,
each year of schooling builds on prior years, and to do so some form of
articulation is required (Valiga and Magel, 2001).

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3.5.2 Knowledge of Content


Hardeman (1984) pointed out that novice early childhood teachers learn how
much knowledge young children seek as they pursue different activities. Isaacs
in Hardeman (1984) referred to this as the ‘illumitable subject of the world’ to
which young children attend and he follows this with a staggering of content
needed by the teacher of young children. No teacher can expect to master
such content. Consequently, problems in designing curriculum include:

 Knowing the volume of knowledge available


 Selecting from that volume to fit the design and
 Tapping into that content when interest emerge

3.5.3 Curriculum Roots


Some societies seek to develop pride in their heritage have designed unique
curricula to teach local languages, religions, values and ways of life. Most of
the societies are multicultural. The curriculum designer will find it difficult to
make a decision on whose culture or which values knowledge and attitudes
to choose from (ecrp.uluc.edu.2010).

3.5.4 Universal or Individualized Curriculum


Universal means ‘for everyone’. When talking about curriculum, the usual
image is one for everybody doing the same time. However, the timing, pacing
and grouping for children’s experiences are not necessarily tied to a curriculum
package. The question is should the curriculum emphasise universal or
individualized instruction, objectives and activities?

3.5.5 Balance
Balance in curriculum means the children’s ebb and flow of energy and their
need for food, rest, spontaneity and social activities. This kind of balance is
achieved through daily schedule of activities alternating passive with active
periods and group times with independent activities.

Another meaning of balance is access to a kind of knowledge, skills and


experiences. There should be a balance in experiences to promote the holistic
development of the child. The curriculum should cater for the major models
of thought and do not just provide learning experiences that stimulate the
different kinds of thinking.

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Unit 3 Content Selection and Sequencing Curriculum

3.5.6 Establishing Objectives


Establishing objectives provokes controversy in early childhood programmes.
Objectives relating to behaviours are easy to formulate. Such objectives as
personal grooming and academic skills are readily stated. It is difficult to
articulate process objectives such as developing and using concepts of balance
in block conceptions.

3.5.7 Process- Product Arguments


Thin the range of beliefs and values for the ECD curriculum. Process-product/
argument are common. Process is concerned with experiences not the end
product. Product emphasizes results, what did the children achieve or learn?’
product may mean stressing expressive, creative forms of activity discovery,
problems solved, self valuing and many more. Hence, in some cases curriculum
planners emphasise product and the expense at process such as completion
of workbooks and other materials. There should be a balance between
process and product. At this stage children are learning to learn (how) through
the subjects (what).

Activity 3.4
?
1. Examine challenges in curriculum design in ECD. Suggest solutions.
2. ‘Children in ECD are learning to learn’. Explain the statement and
give implications for the curriculum designer and the ECD teacher.
3. Explain how balance could be maintained between process and product
in designing an ECD curriculum.

3.7 Summary
In this unit we identified principles and procedures for sequencing the ECD
curriculum. Distinction has been made basing sequencing on content or on
learning processes, on logic or on psychological processes. We concluded
that curriculum planners should make informed decisions on both content and
processes sequence. We also examined challenges in curriculum design. We
observed that constructing a curriculum from scratch is the major issue. It
usually requires deliberate decisions about what, why and how. The next unit
focuses on curriculum implementation.

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References
Doll, R.C. (1996) Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston Allyn and Bacon.
Faber, R. (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria, UNISA
McCarthy, M. A. and Houston, J.P. (1980) Fundamentals of Early
Childhood Education. Massachusetts, Winthrop.
Morrison, G.S. (1995) Early Childhood Education Today. London, Merrill.
Posner, G. and Rudnitsky, A. (1992) Course Design: A Guide to Curriculum
Development for Teachers. New York, Longman.
Posner, G. J. (1995) Analysing the Curriculum. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Robinson, H. F. and Schwartz, S. L. (1992) Designing Curriculum for
Early Childhood. London.
Valiga, T. and Magel, C. (2001) Curriculum Definitions and Influencing
Factors. NLN Faculty Development Institute.
Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. (1998) Curriculum Development: A Guide to
Practice. New York, Macmillan
http://classes.kumc.edu/son/nursedu/mrsg87/content/module01/curri-
definitions.htm
http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4nl/edwards.html
http://www.uwsp.edu/Education/lwilson/curric/curtyp.htm

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Unit Four

Curriculum Implementation

4.0 Introduction

U nit 3 looked at curriculum, principles of sequencing the curriculum and


designing the curriculum. We also examined the challenges of curriculum
design in ECD. Issues such as articulation knowledge of content (Knowledge
explosion) the question of balance and process versus product were discussed
in the unit. In this unit we discuss curriculum implementation. The terms
curriculum dissemination implementation and approach will be defined as well
as the process of implementation in ECD. We shall also examine the factors
that influence effective curriculum implementation in ECD.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

4.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be ale to:
 explain terms such as dissemination, implementation and approach
 evaluate factors that determine effective curriculum implementation in
ECD.
 examine the characteristics of the informal teaching approaches.
 discuss the role of the teacher in implementing the child centered/
informal teaching approach.

4.2 Definition of Terms


4.2.1 Dissemination
Curriculum development involves curriculum dissemination and implementation
as we noted in unit 2. Carl (1995) observed that dissemination and
implementation in theory are regarded as synonymous. It is during dissemination
that the user system is prepared for implementation. This phase comprise the
preparation of curriculum utilisers through the distribution on information
thoughts and concepts in order to make the users aware of the curriculum
demands and expectations of the curriculum planners. Dissemination is done
through the distribution or publication of information, ideas and notions, in-
service training and workshops to prepare all those involved and to inform
them of the proposed curriculum. (Carl 1995)

4.2.2 Curriculum Implementation


Curriculum implementation is the application phase of the curriculum Schubert
(1986:42) regards curriculum implementation as the delivery process;
implementation can be considered a system of engineering the design
specifications through various channels to the teacher and classroom.

The process of implementation involves translating the curriculum into subject


syllabus that at school level teachers interpret the syllabus by drawing up
schemes of work, lesson planning, preparing media, setting the stage for
children’s learning and then the actual teaching – learning process takes place.
In teaching, teachers use teaching approaches which are mostly child centered/
informal.

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4.2.3 Approach
An approach is defined by (Wikipedia.org 2010) as a means of attaining a
goal or a method of dealing with issues of teaching. It is related to a theoretical
aspect in reaching more related to practical teaching and may use more than
one method of teaching. An approach is based on a theory and might see
more than one method for example the highscope approach is based on Piagets
theory and uses methods such as discovery, experimentation problem solving,
role play and so on. Some of these approaches will be explained in this module.

4.3 Teaching Approach in ECD


Faber (1998) pointed out that teaching approach in ECD varies from that
found in traditional primary School. The big difference is that in early childhood
development, the teaching approach is child-centered and informal. This does
not mean that teaching is aimless, unplanned or carried without adult guidance.
On the contrary, the child-centered/informal approach demands more planning
and a greater sense of purpose than the formal approach. It is based on the
principals of progressively, cognitive and behaviorists who place the child at
the centre of the teaching learning process, uses active learning processes,
considers the uniqueness of the child as well as their needs and interests.

Penning (1986) said that informal teaching means teaching which takes place
in a well planned environment and provides the children with optimal
opportunities for self-discovery. Both the learners and the teacher are actively
involved in the teaching learning events. The children are free within limits, to
select and explore learning activities and eventually be assessed according to
their own interest and abilities and at their own pace. The teacher as a personal,
democratic relationship with each child so that the teacher can plan, present
and give assistance with learning opportunities for each individual child. Let
us explain the characteristics of the informal approach to enable use to
effectively implement the ECD curriculum.

4.3.1 Characteristics of the informal/child-centred approach


Characteristics of the informal teaching approach. Informal approach is
characterized by the following:

 The playroom and outdoor play areas are planned to provide a variety
of opportunities for playing and learning

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 The learning content links with the children’s interests and experience
and is flexible
 The teaching method emphasises self-activity (active involvement) and
self- discovery (experimentation) by the children, which leads to
spontaneous learning.
 The teacher is constantly assessing the children’s learning progress. By
observing the children the teacher can guide them to learn by discovery.
 Discipline based on a democratic and open relationship between
teachers and learners. (Faber 1998:17). Let us now discuss each
characteristic in detail.

4.3.1.1 The Environment


Morison (1995) noted that organizations and planning of the centre/school as
a whole and playrooms planning are important in ECD. The centre design is
open. The open plan centre/school building consists of large open areas and
few permanent walls. Some walls can be moved, larger or smaller areas can
be made in a moment to fit the different activities. The playroom can be
adapted to meet both the teaching needs of the teacher and the learning needs
of the children. However Stephens in Morrison (1995) pointed out that we
must emhasise that open centers are in no sense pre-requisite to open education.
Open playrooms can exist in various environments including self- contained
playrooms in quite traditional building but open plan school facilitate child
control approach.

It therefore follows that the playroom should be characterized by the following:

To promote socialization and cooperation between the children, group the


tables and chairs together in different areas rather than arranging them in rigid
rows. Each play must provide room for four to six children.

Promote socialization by allowing children to talk to each other, in pairs and


groups.

Plan to use different play areas each day to create a variety of opportunities
for the children to play, discover and learn.

4.3.1.2 The Learning Content


You need to ensure that the content is meaningful and developmentally
appropriate by linking it with the learner’s familiar environment, needs and

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Unit 4 Curriculum Implementation

interests. The content should make sense to the child (relevant) involve the
children in costing new themes/topics to make sure that the content is relevant
to them. In other words the content/experiences should be child centered and
child – directed. We need to also bear in mind that the content is just a means
to an end and not an end in itself since child centered approach is directed
towards leading learners to solve problems themselves, an end product is not
important. The learning process (how) is emhasised and to the product.
Mastering learning by rouute learning/memorization plays no part in ECD.
Learners use content to think logically, independently and to solve problems.

4.3.1.3 Teaching Methods


The emphasis is on discovery; the children in groups are active partners in the
process. As they play, they discover and solve problems. ECD, approaches
are characterized by:

Self- activity (active involvement) the children are actively involved in the
learning process.

Self-discovery (experimentation) the teacher uses well chosen, concert


materials to guide to children to come to conclusions, find solutions to problems
and gain knowledge by means of their own discoveries.

However, the methods one chooses to use also depends on the approach
being used at the centre. For example, we have centers which either use the
Montessori approach or the Reggio Emilia approach. The set up of the centers
differ from one approach to the other.

4.3.1.4 The Role of the Teacher


The teacher will play the following roles when using the informal/child centered
approaches.

4.3.1.5 Planning
The teacher needs to thoroughly plan the playroom and the subject matter.
Progressivisms such as Devey Frocbel believe that playrooms must have
attractive play areas. This requires thorough planning as the areas must be
organized to offer the children a variety of opportunities for discovery and
learning. The playrooms have a relaxed, spontaneous atmosphere.

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4.3.1.6 Scope of Knowledge


The teacher also needs to have knowledge of the nature and potential of
every child to enable him/her select relevant materials or create opportunities
for discovery which link the interest ands needs of every child. The teacher
also needs to conceptualise the formal curriculum and constantly expand his/
her general knowledge and keep abreast of development in early childhood
teaching.

4.3.1.7 Teacher Child Relations


Child-centered approaches emphasise that the relationship between the teacher
and the child should be characterized by

 Mature trust and accessibility


 Sincerity, honest and openness
 Respect for each others human dignity, opinions and statements
 Empathy with and understanding of the children including their feelings
about the teaching events.
 Understanding and encouragement of the child’s need to be independent
Although the approach is open and the relationship between the teacher and
child is democratic, the teacher still needs to be the responsible adult.

4.3.1.8 Discipline
The teacher’s approach to discipline is closely connected to the teacher-child
relationship. We believe in the principal of childhood innocence meaning that
children learn through making mistakes. Hence they should not be punished
for making mistakes. No corporal punishment is allowed and the teacher has
to be sympathetic and understanding towards children. However, this gentle
form of discipline does not give the learners absolute freedom. The teacher is
still the sympathetic and democratic authority figure.

4.3.1.9 Assessment
It is the responsibility of the teacher to observe and assess children’s progress.
This is done for the teacher to discover.

 If a child needs help and guidance

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Unit 4 Curriculum Implementation

 The right time to ask leading questions and to talk to the children to
guide them to new insights and knowledge during their play.
 The right time to introduce additional materials to enrich the play of a
particular child and to create opportunities for further discoveries.
 The potential, shortcomings, problems and interests of each individual
child provide important information for purposeful planning
 Any special needs a child may have that require attention and help.
Activities should always be assessed in respect of choice, method of
presentation, possibilities for improvisation by the children and their own
contribution. This ongoing assessment helps the teacher to find out whether
the subject matter was relevant and interesting to the children, presentation
time was too long or too short and how much guidance the children need (Do
they need help or guidance?)

Activity 4.1

?
1. Examine four characteristics of the teaching approaches in ECD.
2. Discuss why the relevance of the learning content is an important
principal in early childhood, education
3. Describe four characteristics of the relationship between the teacher
and children in an ECD centre. Why are these characteristics important
4. Assess the role of the teacher in the child centered/informal teaching
approach in ECD.

4.4 Summary
The unit discussed curriculum implementation in ECD. Terms such as curriculum
dissemination implementation and approach were defined. The unit went on
to examine how the ECD curriculum can be implemented emphasizing the
informal/child-centered approach. Principals of the informal approach were
discussed and the role of the teacher in curriculum implementation was also
discussed. The next chapter will discuss the ECD daily programme.

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References
Carl, A.E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town, Juta.
Faber, R. (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria, UNISA
Morrison, G. S. (1995) Early Childhood Education Today. Merrill, London
Robson, H. F. and Schwartz, S.L. (1982) Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London, Allyn and Bacon.
Schubert, W. H. (1986) Curriculum – Perspectives, Paradigm and
Possibility. New York, McMillan Publishing Company.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early-childhood-education
http://www.edweek.org/tm/1997/07mont.h08

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Unit Five

The Daily Programme in the


ECD Centre

5.0 Introduction

I n unit 4 we examined curriculum implementation in general. We defined


dissemination implementation as an approach. The focus in unit 4 was on
familiarising you with the nature of the teaching approach (child centred
approach) in ECD. This unit is meant to familiarise you with the daily schedule
and its requirements and major components. This knowledge will enable you
to implement quality ECD programmes.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

5.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define the concept “Daily programme”.
 examine the major features of the daily programme and the role of the
teacher in each component.
 plan the daily programme.
 discuss the characteristics of a successful daily programme.
 justify the guidelines when planning the daily programme.

5.2 Definition of Terms


5.2.1 Daily Programme
The daily programme is a timetable or a schedule of activities and experiences
exposed to children on a daily basis at an ECD centre. (Hildebrand 1986 &
Faber 1998).

5.2.2 Planning
According to Coll (1996), planning means setting objectives and prearranging
the details of the early childhood development programme in order to achieve
objectives for individuals and the group.

Hilderbrand (1986) went on to say that, planning requires time for studios,
thoughtful, quiet work. Plans are daily, weekly and yearly. They focus on
individual children, and their parents, on the group as a whole, on standards
and goals and on the interests and talents of children.

5.2.3 Organising
Organising means “putting in readiness the facility, equipment, materials,
strategies and procedures for coherent and cooperative action with the goal
of producing a high quality early childhood programme”. (Hildebrand
1986:84).

Robison and Schwartz (1982) pointed out that organising requires “getting
busy” after the quiet planning sessions. However, organising requires time,
energy and creativity of staff. Both planning and organising require that teachers
have knowledge of goals of young children, a philosophical base for the

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Unit 5 The Daily Programme in the ECD Centre

curriculum choices, knowledge of the particular age being taught and


information about individual children and their families. The teachers
experience and ability to evaluate previous planning and organising, that is,
learning from past lead to better performance in future.

Activity 5.1
1. Explain the meaning of the daily programme in ECD.
? 2. Discuss the importance of planning and organising the ECD daily
programme.
3. Examine the requirements for effective planning and organising the ECD
daily programmes.

5.3 The Daily Programme


The daily programme in the Early Childhood Centre differs from the formal
primary school timetable in that it is flexible offering opportunities to link up
with the children’s needs of the moment. A well thought out daily programme
is a prerequisite for successful teaching in the early childhood centre.

Examples of programme timetables for ECD centre

Table 5.1 The half day programme


Time Activity
0800 – 0830 Welcoming children, health check, prayer, free play
0830 – 0930 Free play outside
0930 – 1000 Toilet routine and wash
1000 – 1030 Morning snack and rest
1030 – 1115 Indoor teacher directed activity
1115 – 1145 Indoor free play
1145 – 1200 Tidying up
1200 Dismiss

Table 5.2 Full day programme

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Time Activity
0800 – 0830 Arrival, toilet, routine, health check, prayer
0830 – 0900 Free play outside
0900 – 0930 Toilet routine/wash
0930 – 1000 Teacher directed activity
1000 – 1030 Morning snack
1030 – 1145 Indoor free play and tidying up
1145 – 1245 Lunch hot meal
1245 – 1300 Toilet routine/wash
1300 – 1500 Rest/sleep
1500 – 1530 Outdoor play
1530 – 1600 Toilet routine/wash
1600 – 1630 Afternoon snack
1630 – 1715 Tidying up
1715 - 1730 Going home time
Table 5.3 Time allocation

The time allocation indicated below is based on the daily activities undertaken
at an ECD centre.
Activity Time
Arrival, welcome, roll call and health check 30 minutes
Indoor activities 45 – 50 minutes
Toilet routines 30 minutes
Teacher directed activities 60 minutes (3 activities)
Free play outdoor 45 – 50 minutes
Break 30 minutes
Tidying up and dismissal 10 – 15 minutes
Total hours 4 hours 10 minutes

Please note: Children be at the centre for a minimum of four hours but not
more than five hours.

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Unit 5 The Daily Programme in the ECD Centre

5.3.1 The Timetable


The timetable consists of the following sequence of events.

5.3.1.1 Arrival
Arrival is an important time of the day. It is important that each child should
be greeted by his / her own teacher. This procedure enables the children to
feel secure and welcome. Children feel free if their teacher is there and knows
them by name.

5.3.1.2 Free Play


A variety of activities should be planned for free play activities both indoor
and outdoor for children to choose from. However, you need to provide the
child with a variety of activities which become progressively difficult and
observe groups to ensure that every child is experiencing a balanced variety
of activities.

5.3.1.3 Informed Group Discussions


According to Faber (1998) group discussions in ECD are activities in which
whole group chats informally with the teacher about a particular theme. During
these times, the group discusses daily news, or the teacher introduces new
activities or explains something on the art table. The duration of a discussion
will depend on what is being discussed and the age of the children.

5.3.1.4 Large Group Periods


These periods provide opportunities for the children to participate as a group.
These periods include activities such as music and movement and story time.
Children learn to take part in a group situation where the teacher can direct
their play so that it helps them to learn. As the child is still learning to be part
of a group, these sessions are not very long.

5.3.1.5 Routine Activities


Routine activities (arrival and departure, refreshments, toilet routine and rest)
are also included as the child still needs help with his or her physical care.
These routines enable the child to become more physically independent.

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5.3.1.6 Refreshment Time


Children need to have morning snack since many of them come to school
without a good breakfast. However, refreshments must be nourishing and
should consist of items like fruit, fruit juice, milk, cheese, yoghurt and so on.
In a full day centre children need to have a hot meal (lunch) during midday.
Refreshment time is time for rest and relaxation after the active play of the
morning. This time creates a warm, homely atmosphere which gives children
a sense of security and encourages social interaction.

5.3.1.7 Rest time


After playing all morning, Gordon and Browne, (1991) say children need
rest. A rest time prevents the young one’s from being over tired and irritable
when they are taken home.

5.3.1.8 Departure
The teacher needs to be present when children leave, just as he/she when
they arrived. Faber (1988) pointed out that it is important to ay good bye to
each child individually and to make some friendly remarks.

Activity 5.2

?
1. Justify the nature of the daily timetable in the ECD programme.
2. Discuss the importance of routines to child development and learning.
3. Explain why the teacher should be present when children arrive at and
depart from the centre.

5.4 Factors that influence planning of a timetable in


ECD
It is important to keep the following guidelines in mind when planning the daily
timetable in ECD.

5.4.1 Meet the Unique Needs of the Children in Your Class


The following are some of the needs in children which must be taken into
account.

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Unit 5 The Daily Programme in the ECD Centre

 Children living in high density suburbs will have different needs from
children from a rural farming or low density areas. For example children
who live in flats have little outdoor space hence when they are at the
centre they enjoy outdoor activities and might want to spent more time
than others.
 The special needs of each child must be accommodated such as the
gifted and talented, the challenged (physically / intellectually) and
disadvantaged.

5.4.2 Provide Activities that Will Cater for the Whole Child
Faber (1998) points out a good timetable should include activities that foster
the development of the whole child. For physical development activities should
promote the development of fine and gross motor skills using activities such
as outdoor play area (climbing frames, swings, see saws), toileting and
refreshments. Emotional development can be enhanced by including activities
such as music and story time and religious and moral educators. Intellectual
and creative development is fostered by including activities such as story time
or music (Language development) science, block play, field trips and
educational games, puzzles, help the child to acquire problem solving skills as
well as the number and prescience skills. Aesthetic development is fostered
in activities such as Art and Craft, music and story time.

5.4.3 The Timetable Must be Balanced


A balanced timetable includes time for a whole variety of activities such as
indoor and outdoor play, time to play freely and time for adult guided activities,
group and individual activities active and quiet activities.

Take the centre into consideration

Take into account the following physical considerations. Layout of the centre,
school and the playroom. Ask yourself the following questions.

 Is the playroom big enough to divide into different areas.


 Are there times when children cannot play outside as it will disturb the
older classes.
NB: the weather and the time of the year weather extremes such as hot summers
or cold winters should be taken into account. Plan the timetable so that
children play outside early in the morning in summer and in winter they stay
inside until the outside temperature is comfortable. (Topal: 2008).

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Activity 5.3

?
1. Examine factors you would consider when planning the timetable in
ECD.
2. Why should we consider weather when planning the ECD timetable?
3. Explain how you can plan a balanced ECD timetable?

5.5 Major features of the Daily Programme


According to Topal (2008), the daily programme can be divided into different
time blocks which together comprise the major components of the programme.
The periods are planned in time blocks which can be used to plan the daily
programme. The following time blocks should be included.

 Free play – inside and outside


 Adult – guided group presentations
 Routine activities
The duration of each time block and number of times each is repeated during
the day depends on: -

 The purpose of the early childhood centre


 The needs and interest of children
 Age of children and
 The circumstances and events of the day (Murdoch 1998)
Let us discuss each feature in detail.

5.5.1 The Free Play Sessions


Hymes (1981) says free play forms the heart of the daily programme and
there should be two time blocks of at least an hour each devoted to it everyday.
Hymes (1981:102) has this to say:

Free play is “free” because the child chooses what he does, how he does it
how long he does it, with whom he does it. Free play is “play” because the
activity strikes so deep a chord of pleasure within the child. But free play is
learning. When learning stops, something is wrong. It is time for change.

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Free play offers the freedom to select from a range of activities but it is never
free from the standards of good behaviour, which are always expected.

5.5.2 Importance of Free Play Periods


According to Wikipedia.org (2010) free play periods are important because
they provide the children with opportunities to:

 Choose for themselves, thus laying the foundation for responsible,


independent decision making
 Explore and manipulate different play activities because the activities
are different there are no right or wrong choices, each child can operate
on his own developmental level.
 Earn acceptable social behaviour, while playing together the children
can be helped to become less egocentric and to let others have a turn.
 Independent problem solving, creative thinking and creative language
use and
 Change in the daily programme, as young children are not capable of
sitting still and concentrating for long periods; free play is an essential
break after a less active period such as group discussions.

5.5.3 The Teachers Role


The teacher plays an important role in free play periods. They demand the
following outcomes through planning. Because the children have freedom of
choice during the play periods, the teacher must ensure that the activities are
not overwhelming and confusing. The younger children, the more limited the
choice will be as too much choice leads to insecurity and aimless play. For
older children a small range of play activities which are constantly repeated
will lead to boredom and negative behaviour. The choice of activities must be
made with insight so that individual needs can be met and free play sessions
can be balanced and varied. (Rison & Schwarts 1982).

5.5.4 Preparation
Gordon and Browne (1991) maintain that the teacher must prepare and set
out all the play equipments and materials before children arrive. All media
must be in good order and available. Half an hour before school starts, the
different activities planned for the first free play period must be set out
attractively. It is also important to ensure that the playroom atmosphere is
welcoming and that children feel safe about playing and discovering.

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5.5.5 Maintain Meaningful Discipline


According to Hilderbrand (1986) necessary rules must be decided upon in
advance, kept to the minimum and be consistently applied.

5.5.6 Safety
Some activities are potentially dangerous, threading beads, climbing frames /
trees and so on. It is the duty of the teacher to supervise and ensure that the
children are informed about the possible changes. During outdoor play it is
important to keep a watchful eye and to ensure that the materials are safe and
unbroken.

5.5.7 Individual Attention


The teacher should give individual attention to each and every child, even if it
is only a word of encouragement or a question which can enrich the child’s
play.

5.5.8 Affective Support


Hymes (1981) points out that young children must learn to play together and
the teacher must help them to socialise, to control their emotions and to play
in a socially acceptable way without over organising the play and smothering
initiatives.

5.5.9 Observation
There is need to observe all activities closely during the free play periods so
that children can be given the help and guidance they need. This procedure
assists the teacher to identify the needs of each individual child.

5.5.10 Assessment
The teacher has to assess the events of free play periods once its over so that
he/she might be able to decide whether it was successful or not and why. It
assists the teacher to make future plans.

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5.6 Adult-guided Group Periods


Faber (1998) explains adult guided group periods as period when children
come together as a group and the teacher leads the session making simple
demands of the group. These periods include story time, music and movement,
news time and group discussions.

The adult group discussion sessions assist children acquire social skills and
play habits which improve their concentration span. Adult guided group periods
are important because they contribute to the total development of the child,
that is, special development, aesthetic development, intellectual development,
moral development and creativity.

When planning adult guided periods take into account the following principles:

 The activities should match the developmental level of children.


 Children’s physical control and ability to concentrate. Remember
children cannot sit still and concentrate for long periods. The length of
the period must be modified according to the needs of the children in
your class.
 All the children should be involved in the presentation and there should
be no uninvolved onlookers.
 The nature of activities – quiet like story time or lively like music and
movement activities determine what time of day they are presented.
 The period should end on a quiet, tranquil note so that the children can
change to the next presentation in a calm and relaxed fashion.

5.7 The Role of the Teacher in Adult Guided Group


Presentations
5.7.1 Planning and Preparation
Faber (1998) says that thorough planning and preparation is essential to avoid
boredom in children. Variety and originality are the key features in planning.
You need to know what must be done and how and when it will be presented.
All media must be ready before the beginning of the day.

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5.7.2 Involving all Children


Children need to be actively involved as suggested by Piaget.

5.7.3 Enthusiasm
The teacher needs to enjoy and take an interest in what she presents for
children. Faber (1998:34) says, “If the teacher is half-hearted and uninterested,
the children will develop the same attitude”.

5.7.4 Discipline
Gordon and Browne (1991) pointed out that participation should never be
enforced. The teacher should not use negative discipline. It is important to
always discuss rules with the children so that they understand why they should
misbehave. Be realistic, consistent and flexible.

5.7.5 Observation
Watch the children all the time and adjust the presentation to their needs and
interests.

Activity 5.4

?
1. Justify the inclusion of free play periods in the ECD daily programme.
2. Examine the three main components of the daily programme.
3. Assess the role of adult guided periods to child development.

5.8 Time Management in the Daily Programme


Since we observed earlier on that the ECD timetable is different from the
primary school timetable, it is important that you plan for clearing up after
activities. Children must be helped to gradually learn to tidy up play materials.
Hildebrand (1986:76) says that “if presented in a positive manner, clean-up
time can be fun for the children especially if the teacher is assisting”. In planning
the daily programme, the time and duration of presentations are the only two
factors to consider. However, the unique needs of children determine the time
and duration of the period. Bealy (1984:217) emphasis how important it is to
know the children when the daily programme is being drawn up. She says
‘first it is knowing your children knowing what they are like as a group and

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how they differ as individuals. It is getting a feeling for how they feel at different
times of the day”.

Activity 5.5

?
1. Examine the characteristics of a successful daily ECD programme.
2. Discuss how the daily timetable of an early childhood centre differs
from the primary school timetable.
3. The optimal development of children as a whole is the aim of early
childhood development. Discuss how this objective is being realised
in an ECD programme.
4. Balance is a vital factor in a successful daily programme. Justify this
statement by discussing balance as a requirement in the daily
programme.

5.9 Summary
In this unit we discussed how you can implement an ECD daily programme.
Three components of the daily programme we identified are, free play, adult
guided activities and routine activities. We observed that the teacher has an
important role to play if the programme is to achieve its intended objectives.
Planning and organising the learning environment is fundamental in ECD. The
teacher has to set the stage for effective learning to take place.

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References
Bealy, J.B Skills for Preschool Teachers. Columbus Merrill.
Carl, A.E (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town. Juta
Gordon, A.M & Browne K.W (1991) Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. New York Delmar.
Faber, R (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria UNISA.
Robison H.F & Schwartz, S.L (1992) Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London.
Valiga, T and Magel C (2001) Curriculum Definitions and Influencing
Factors. NLN faculty Development Institute.
http:ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/Edwards.html.
http:www.wwsp.edu/Education/Wilson/curric/curryp.htm.

58 Zimbabwe Open University


Unit Six

Monitoring of the ECD


Programme

6.0 Introduction

A s pointed out in unit 5, the child activities and the programme need to
be monitored and evaluated in order to find out whether objectives
have been achieved and that the programme is relevant to the needs and
abilities of children. The Early Childhood curriculum goal is to develop the
whole child in all the developmental domains (i.e. social, physical, intellectual,
creative and emotional ‘SPICE’). Holistic development of a child can only
be achieved if children are exposed to relevant and developmentally
appropriate experiences. For one to find out if these milestones have been
achieved, one needs to evaluate the programme as a whole including the
children and the environment. This unit therefore discusses on how to evaluate
the programme, assess and monitor children’s progress.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 define assessment, monitoring, measurement and evaluation
 discuss why an ECD teacher should monitor and evaluate programmes
 examine the uses of observation in ECD
 identify and describe types of instruments used to observation
 discuss assessment in ECD

6.2 Definition of Terms


6.2.1 Monitoring
The UNICEF guide for monitoring and evaluation (1991) refer to monitoring
as the systematic assessment on implementation of any activity with the view
to achieve intended goals. In this context, monitoring is the periodic assessment
of ECD experiences, establishing where challenges are, so that timely action
can be taken to address the challenges.

6.2.2 Assessment
Gordon and Browne (1995:167) say assessment ‘involves gathering
information systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal
or evaluation of children and their development’.

6.2.3 Evaluation
Carl (1995:178) defines evaluation as ‘that process during which a value
determination of the standard and outcome of the relevant curriculum is made’.
He goes on to say evaluation should take place on an ongoing basis as well as
during after each of the design, dissemination and implementation phases.
Evaluation according to Doll (1996) is the process of describing and judging
an educational programme. It involves the collection of descriptive data that
will be used to judge the worthiness of that particular programme in terms of
its effectiveness and applicability. Evaluation in ECD is making judgments
about something according to a specified standard. This means the programme
is being measured against a pre-set unit measure in order to find out whether
or not it is achievable.

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6.2.4 Measurement
Measurement is defined by Gilley and Gilley (1980:3) as ‘the assigning of
exact and quantitative numbers to an object such as 3 kilogrammes, 4 metres’.
Faber (1998:12) simply defines measurement as ‘the administration and
scoring of tests’. Therefore, measurement refers to the process of assigning
numbers (scores) to the tests or examinations written by pupils. The process
initially involves selecting test items, designing marking guide, setting group
norms and assigning numbers to the work.

6.2.5 Assessment
Gordon and Browne (1995) say that assessment involves gathering information
systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal or evaluation
of children and their development. Faber (1998) says assessment means
making judgment of the child’s level of school readiness. The purpose of
assessment is to help teachers identify children with possible developmental;
delays of problems and help them assess children’s development in order to
plan programmes appropriately. This is done through informal observations
and formal techniques inorder to get a rich and full picture.

Activity 6.1

? 1.2. Explain in your own words the following terms: monitoring, evaluation,
measurement and assessment.
Compare and contrast monitoring and evaluation in ECD.
3. Discuss the educational implications of Fabers (1998) definition of
assessment to the ECD teacher.

6.3 Observation in ECDS


6.3.1 Meaning of Observation
According to Gordon and Browne (1991:161) observation is more than
ordinary looking. It requires energy and concentration for one to become an
accurate observer. It involves reading the child’s behaviour and this requires
the teacher to act as a camera. Developing sound observational skills enables
teachers to better meet the social, emotional and intellectual needs of the
child. The teacher has to observe children at critical moments. Learning to

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read the child is involves asking yourselves questions such as, what are children
telling us about themselves? Which actions are important to note? You observe
how teachers use their bodies, how they relate to other people and in selecting
play materials and equipment children show what they like to do, how well
they use the environment and what they avoid.

6.3.2 Why Observe in ECD?

6.3.2.1 To Become More Objective


Observing children helps teachers become more objective about children in
their care. When making observation notes, teachers look first at what the
child is doing. This according to Hohmann and Weikart in Wikipedia.org
(2002) is different from looking at how a child ought to do something. The
teacher becomes like a camera, recording what is seen without immediately
judging it. This objectivity can balance the intense personal side of teaching.

Cohen and Stern in Gordon and Browne (1991) suggest that to become a
careful observer is to become in part a scientist. A good observer makes a
clear distinction between fact and influence between real behavior and an
impression or conclusion drawn from it.

6.3.2.2 To Link Theory with Practice


Observations help teachers to link theory with practice. Teachers match what
they see with what they read. By putting together psychology with in class
experiences, teachers gain a deeper understanding of the nature of eh child.

6.3.2.3 To Help Parents


A collection of notes made by teachers about each individual child are useful
in teacher-parent-caregiver conferences. The teacher shares fresh meaningful
examples that demonstrate the child’s growth and abilities. The teacher also
gains a perspective when the notes are accumulated and discussed with parents.
Problems become clearer and plans can be made to work together. Results
can be further tested through continuing observation.

6.3.2.4 To Use an Assessment Tool


According to Hohmann and Weikart in Wikipedia.org (2002) observation
can be used as a tool for teachers to check the accuracy of their own

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impressions. Discussing works with other teachers and parents to help teachers
refine their observations skills and results leads into effective programme
planning. Teachers observe the room arrangement and use of space. For
example, are children stuck in play areas, are the traffic lanes safe and children
can move easily from one place to the other? Observations can clarify which
children are having problems and give teachers a sense of when and where
trouble starts.

6.3.3 Recording Observations


Gordon and Browne (1991) say once ECD practitioners understand why
observation is important, they must then learn how to record what they see.
Systematic observations aid in recording events and help teachers make sense
of them. The key ingredients in all types of observations used in recording
children’s behavior are defining and describing behaviours and repeating the
observation in terms of factors such as time, number of children and activities.
Observation focuses on the following elements:

6.3.3.1 Factors
 What do you want to know?
 Who and what do you want to observe?
 What aspects of behavior do you want to know?
 What is your purpose? (study the environment, observe the daily
schedule, evaluate a child’s skill or analyse transitions?)

6.3.3.2 System
 What will you do, how will you record the information you need and
for how long will you record?

6.3.3.3 Tools
 What will you need for your observations and how will you record
what you observe?

6.3.3.4 Environment
 Where will you watch (outside, playroom) and what are the
restraints inherent in the setting?

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Activity 6.2

?
1. What is observation in ECD?
2. Discuss the purposes of observation in teaching and learning in ECD.
3. Examine the common elements of observation.

6.3.4 Types of Observations


There are several types of observations which can be used in ECD. The
following table gives a summary of the major observational techniques used in
recording children’s behavior.

Method Observational Recording advantages Disadvantages


interval techniques
Narratives diary Day to day Using notebook Rich in detail, Open to observer
description and pencil, can maintains bias, time-
itemize activity or sequence of consuming
other ongoing events, describes
behavior, can see behavior as it
growth patterns occurs

Specimen Continuous Same Less structured Sometimes need


descriptions/running sequences follow-up
record

Journal Regular, preferred Log, usually with


daily/weekly space for each
child, often a
summary of
child’s behaviour

‘On-the-Hoof’ Sporadic Ongoing during Quick and easy to Lack detail, need
Anecdotes class time, using take, short-capture to be filled in at
notepad and paper pertinent later time, can
in hand events/details detract from
teaching
responsibilities

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Time sampling Short and uniform On-the-spot as Easy to record, Limited


time intervals time passes, pre- easy to analyse, behaviours, loss of
arranged relatively bias free
detail, loss of
recording sheets sequence and
ecology of event
Modifications Regular or Using prepared Easy to develop Lack of detail,
Checklists intermittent recording sheets, and use tells little of the
can be both during cause of
or after class behaviours

Rating scales Continuous Same as for Easy to develop Ambiguity of


behavior checklists and use, can use terms, high
for wide range of observer bias
behaviours

Shadow study Continuous Narrative-type Rich in detail, Bias problem, can


behavior recording, uses focuses in depth take away too
prepared on individual much of a
recording sheets teacher’s time and
attention

Experimental Short and uniform May be checklists, Simple, clear, pure Difficult, hard to
procedures pre-arranged study, relatively isolate in the
recording sheets, bias free classroom
audio or video
tape
Clinical method Any time Usually notebook Relevant data, can Adult has changed
or tape recorder be spontaneous, naturally occurring
easy behaviour

(Adapted from Gordon and Browne, 1991:171)

The above observation techniques assist teachers watch children closely to


see what is going on. Whenever a teacher encounters a problem during the
day at the ECD centre the first step towards a solution is systematic observation.

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Activity 6.3

?
1. Compare and contrast time sampling and event sampling.
2. Discuss three types of narratives that can be used to record children’s
behaviour in ECD.
3. Justify any five types of observations used in ECD.

6.4 Assessment
As discussed in section 6.2, assessment involves gathering information
systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal or evaluation
of children and their development. Assessment is done to help teachers identify
children with possible developmental delays or problems and help them assess
children’s development in order to plan programmes accordingly (Gilley and
Gilley, 1990). Assessment can be done informally through observation as
discussed in section 6.3 or it can be done formally.

6.4.1 Types of Assessment

6.4.1.1 Formal Assessment


As mentioned in this module earlier on, in order to be able to meet the needs
of every child and to help them to achieve their full potential, the teacher
needs to have thorough knowledge of each individual child as well as the
principles of child development. This knowledge will enable the teacher to be
objective when assessing children. There are two basic functions of assessment
in ECD, that is:

 Screening – a relatively fast and efficient way to evaluate a large group


of children in order to identify those with challenges (health problems,
slow developers than age mates). Screening uses norms referenced
techniques where the individual child is compared with a norm for a
larger group. The screening is simply a tool used to let us know which
children we need to look at more carefully. Developmental checklists
can be used to measure children’s progress. According to Faber (1998)
a developmental checklist is an observation tool that helps the teacher
to record children’s behavior. A checklist is a pre-set list of
developmental milestones. At various times the teacher indicates on
the list whether or not the specified milestones have been reached.

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 In some classes teachers also use criterion referenced tests. The criterion
referenced tests reflect a child’s degree of mastery of a skill or sequence
of skills but do not compare the child with other children. Teachers
also use teacher made tests in order to assess children’s progress.
Tests as a method of assessing the child’s level of development. Faber (1998)
points out that teacher made tests or commercially made tests are used by
teachers to assess their children’s level of development. However, tests have
the following disadvantages in ECD.

Disadvantages related to the child

 The young child’s language abilities are limited and this may result in the
misunderstanding of instructions which would, in turn, lead to false test
results.
 The emotional aspect of a young child is a very important component
of his total make up. It is very difficult to test or assess the child’s
emotions during a test situation.
 Young children are eager to please adults, they may therefore respond
in the way they think the adult wants them to respond, instead of the
way they think is the correct way.
Reasons related to the test

 Tests do not give a total picture of the child, as they tend to focus on
abilities that are easy to measure, the child’s visual (seeing) and auditory
(hearing) perceptions
 Tests are not always valid (true) and reliable (trustworthy) for all cultural
groups. Children from poor, rural areas in particular are discriminated
against.
 Administering a test to young children is not an easy matter, since the
child’s behavior and performance are influenced by the test
administrator, the test situation and the unfamiliar nature of the test
environment.
 Tests can so easily be misused, teaching can become test orientated
(teaching the test).

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6.5 Summary
This unit discussed about monitoring of the ECD programme. The unit focused
on observation and assessment tools which can be used by the teacher to find
out the strengths and weaknesses of the children. We also noted that the
teacher needs to behave like a camera when assessing children so that he/she
may be able to be objective in their assessment.

References
Carl, A. E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town, Juta.
Cohen, D. H. and Stern, V (1983) Observing and Recording the Behaviour
of Young Children. New York, Teacher’s College Press.
Gilley, J. M. and Gilley, B.H (1980) Early Childhood Development and
Education. Albany, Delma.
Gordon, A. M. and Browne, K.W. (1995) Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. Albany, Delma.
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/early-childhood-education

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Unit Seven

The Montessori Approach

7.0 Introduction

I have studied the child. I have taken what the child has given me and
expressed it and that is what is called the Montessori method’
(Wikipedia.org 2010:9). The unit focuses on the Montessori method. In this
unit, we shall discuss the basic concepts of the Montessori curriculum can be
effectively implemented in the teaching learning process in ECD.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

7.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
 discuss the basic concepts of the Montessori approach.
 outline the Montessori curriculum and examine its relevance to ECD.
 explain the role of the teacher in implementing the Montessori approach.
 critically discuss the characteristics of the prepared environment.

7.2 History of Montessori Method


The Montessori method is an educational approach to children based on the
research and experiences of Italian physician and educator. Maria Montessori
(1870-1952). It arose essentially form Dr. Montessori’s discovery of what
she referred to as ‘the child’s true normal nature’ in 1907, which happened in
the process of her experimental observation of young children given freedom
in an environment prepared with materials designed for their self-directed
learning activity. The method itself aims to duplicate this experimental
observation of children to bring about, sustain and support their true natural
way of being. The method is primarily applied with young children (2-6), due
to the young child’s unique instincts and sensitivity to conditions in the
environment.

The Montessori method developed from experimental research that Dr. Maria
Montessori conducted with disabled and mentally challenged children in the
early 1900’s. She began this research using the basic idea of scientific education
that was developed and employed in the 1800’s with special needs children
by French physicians Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin. A student and associate
of Itard, Seguin extended Itard’s initial idea of observing children in their natural,
free activity by adding a series of exercises with specially designed self-teaching
materials. Based on Dr. Montessori success using this same approach in her
initial research with disabled and physically challenged children, she began to
look for an opportunity to study how it might be applied to benefit the education
of more ordinary children as well.

In 1906, the opportunity presented itself when Montessori was asked to


establish a day care center for young children (2-6) in a low income housing
area of Rome’s San Lorenzo district. She opened the center in 1907, calling
it Casa dei Bambini. Children’s House and began observing the children in
the scientific manner indicated before by Seguin. In this process, Dr. Montessori
soon discovered that the children responded to the materials with a deep

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concentration that resulted in a fundamental shift in their way of being, changing


from the ordinary behavior of fantasy, inattention and disorder to a state of
profound peace, calm and order within their environment, she concluded that
she had discovered the child’s true normal nature. Later, Dr. Montessori
referred to this change as normalization and new emerging children as
normalized.

After 1907, Dr. Montessori reported her discovery and experiences to


educators and others who became increasingly interested in learning how
these changes came about children. This interest soon led her to write various
books on the subject and conduct training programs to explain her approach,
which eventually came to be known as the ‘Montessori method’.

7.3 Philosophy
The philosophy of the Montessori method has remained somewhat obscure
and confused because Dr. Montessori’s 1907 discovery of the child’s true
nature was entirely accidental. Throughout her life, Dr. Montessori never
described the method that evolved from her discovery in great detail, speaking
and writing instead more about the effects of the method on children, rather
than the method itself. The question of its underlying philosophy was therefore
left to others which eventually led in several different directions. For some,
the method was closely linked to Dr. Montessori’s personality, so that when
practiced outside her direct control and presence, it was diluted and misapplied
such as to conform to the needs and interests of the particular cultural context.

Confusion and conflict about the method’s philosophy emerged with particular
intensity in the modern development of Montessori in the United States where,
in 1967, the name ‘Montessori’ was held to be a ‘generic term’ that no
organization could claim for its own exclusive use. Since then, the number
and diversity of Montessori organisations and philosophies have expanded
considerably.

One main philosophy of the Montessori method is attached to the personality


of Dr. Montessori herself. This philosophy defines the Montessori method
according to the pronouncements of Dr. Montessori’s colleagues and
successors who claim authority from Dr. Montessori herself of her biological
son and heir, Mario Montessori.

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A second major philosophy developed around the idea that the method is
controlled by the surrounding culture within which it is operating at the time.
This culture-type philosophy defines the method to fit within the popular theories
and ideas of conventional thinking of the day. For example, in this philosophy,
the particular effects of the method as described by Dr. Montessori in 1907
would be explained as due to the unique Italian context of that day, which is
not possible to replicate with children in a different place and time.

A third main philosophy holds that the Montessori method reflects a way of
being committed to infinite and eternal laws of nature, which is outside the
context of either personality or culture. This philosophy has been described
as a scientific way of following laws of nature to bring about true normal
being. In 2003, a new comprehensive technology was announced for
practicing this particular philosophy. According to Robson and Schwartz
(1996) Montessori approach reflects a theoretical Kinship with progressivists
such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Sequin and Hard. Montessori believed in
children’s natural intelligence involving from the start rational, empirical and
spiritual aspects. A constructivist, Montessori posited an active child eager
for knowledge and prepared to learn, seeking perfection through reality, play
and work.

7.3.1 Concepts
7.3.1.1 Inner Guidance of Nature. All children have inherent inner directives
from nature which guide their true normal development.

7.3.1.2 Freedom for Self-Directed Learning. The Montessori method


respects individual liberty of children to choose their own activities. This
freedom allows children to follow their inner guidance for self-directed learning.

7.3.1.3 Planes of Development. The natural development of children


proceeds through several distinct planes of development, each one having its
own unique conditions and sensitive periods for acquiring basic faculties in
the developmental process. The first plane (0-6) involves basic personality
formation and learning through physical senses. During this plane, children
experience Montessori classrooms provide a prepared environment where
children are free to respond to their natural tendency to work. The prepared
environment offers the essential elements for optimal development. The key
components comprise the children, teacher and physical surroundings including
the specifically designed Montessori educational material.

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7.3.1.4 Prepared Environment. The right precise conditions around children


allow for and support their true natural development. For young children, the
environment must be prepared in this way by providing a range of physical
objects that are organized and made available for free, independent use, to
stimulate their natural instincts an interests for self-directed learning.

7.3.1.5 Observation and Indirect Teaching. The teacher’s role is to observe


children engaged in activities that follow their own natural interests. This indirect
teaching to control the environment, not the child, contrasts sharply with the
ordinary teacher’s role of implementing a pre-determined curriculum. For
example, a Montessori method class has the teacher resolving misbehavior
by refocusing the child to some positive activity, rather than engaging in the
ordinary system of rewards and punishments.

7.3.1.6 Normalization. During the 0-6 plane of development, children have


the ability to shift their fundamental being from the ordinary condition of disorder,
in attention and attachment to fantasy to a state of perfect normal being,
showing such external behavior as spontaneous self-discipline, independence,
love of order and complete harmony and peace with others in the social
situation. This psychological shift to normal being occurs through deep
concentration on some physical activity of the child’s own free choice.

7.3.1.7 Absorbent Mind. The young child (0-6) has an absorbent mind
which naturally incorporates experiences in the environment directly into its
basic character and personality for life. This mental faculty, which is unique to
young children, allows them to learn many concepts in an effortless,
spontaneous manner. It also allows them to undergo the key phenomenon of
normalization to return to their true natural development. After the age of
about six, this absorbent mental faculty disappears.

7.3.1.8 Work not play. Children have an instinctive tendency to develop


through spontaneous experiences on the environment, which Dr. Montessori
referred to as work. In this sense, the children; normal activity is attached to
reality in the present moment, rather than idle play through such means as toys
and fantasy.

7.3.1.9 Multi-age grouping. Children learn from each other in a spontaneous


manner that supports their independent self-directed activity. The ordinary
Montessori classroom therefore consists of a mixed-aged group, such as 2-6
(primary level) or 6 -12 (elementary level).

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This is the time of the unconscious absorbent mind whereas age 3-6 is the
time of the ‘conscious absorbent mind’ in both the child seeks sensory input,
regulation of movement, order and freedom to choose activities and explore
them deeply without interruption in a carefully (serene and beautiful)
environment that help the child to choose well.

7.4 Characteristics of the Prepared Environment


Include:
Beauty, order, reality, simplicity and accessibility. Children must be given
freedom to work and move around within suitable guidelines that enable them
to act as part of a social group. Children should be provided with specifically
designed materials which help them to explore their world and enable them to
develop essential cognitive skills. Mixed age groups (e.g. three to six, six to
nine, nine to twelve) encourage all children to develop their personalities socially
and intellectually at their own pace. ‘Beyond the more obvious reasons why
it is sensible to group the ages three by three, such as the little ones learn from
the older children and older ones learn by teaching the younger, every child
can work at his own pace an rhythm, eliminating the bane of competition,
there is the matter of order and discipline easily maintained even in very large
classes with only one adult in charge. This is due to the sophisticated balance
between liberty and discipline prevalent in Montessori classrooms, established
at the very inception of a class. Children who have acquired the fine art of
working freely in a structured environment, joyfully assume responsibility for
upholding this structure, contributing to the cohesion of their social unit’. There
are prepared environments for children at each successive developmental
plane. These environments allow children to take responsibility for their own
education, giving them opportunity to become human beings able to function
independently and hence interdependently (Chattin-McNicholls, 1992).

7.5 Child Development Theory


7.5.1 Montessori is a child-centred alternative educational method, based on
theories of child development originated by Italian doctor and educator, Maria
Montessori (1870-1952), whose career was dedicated to eth study of children.
She discovered that the characteristics at each stage of human development
are unique and that the foundation of the whole personality is laid during the
early years of life. In her medical practice, her clinical observations led her to

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analyse how children learn. After extensive research, she concluded that they
build themselves from what they find in their environment. Montessori
education is a combination of philosophy, psychology, educational theory and
instructional materials guided by an understanding of developmental stages
and respect for individual characteristics. Through her years of experience
with children around the world, Dr. Montessori proved that children are able
to learn to read, write and calculate as easily and naturally as they learn to
walk and talk. Children develop practical and intellectual abilities through
individual discovery and exploration of language, mathematics, geography,
geometry, art and music. Teachers keep detailed records and notes about
each individual child’s lessons. Progress in social and emotional development
is also noted (Coulter, 1991).

The Montessori classroom allows children to learn independently in an


environment carefully prepared and monitored by an educator trained to work
with children of that specific group. Each child has the same teacher for three
years. This strengthens the bond between teacher, child and parents. Multi-
age grouping allows the child to proceed at an individualized pace. Older
children build their self-esteem by helping younger children. Younger children
learn language and social skills by observing older children. Parents are
encouraged to attend meetings on child development, parenting, school
philosophy and practice and individual parent conferences are routinely held.

7.5.1 Dr Montessori’s Approach is Based on these


Fundamental Principles:
 That learning and well-being are improved when people have a sense
of control over their lives as exemplified by self-directed activity and
freedom with responsibility on the part of the child.
 That movement and cognition are closely entwined and movement can
enhance thinking and learning.
 That children foster their innate love of learning when they are interested
in what they are learning.
 That tying extrinsic rewards to an activity, like candy or high grades,
negatively impacts motivation to engage in that activity when the reward
is withdrawn.
 That order in the environment is beneficial to children.
 Those particular forms of adult interaction, are associated with more
optimal child outcomes: respect for children and their almost effortless

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ability to absorb knowledge fro their surroundings as well as their tireless


interest in manipulating materials.
 That the use of self-correcting equipment for introduction and learning
of various concepts leads to the development of an independent learner.
 That the clinical observation on the part of the teacher in combination
with the adaption of the child’s learning environment to his or her
particular developmental level is essential for optimal learning
(Humphryes, 1998).

7.6 Montessori Materials and Curriculum


The Montessori method involves a curriculum of learning which comes from
the child’s own natural inner guidance and expresses itself in outward behavior
as the child’s various individual interests are at work. Supporting this inner
plan of nature, the method provides a range of materials to stimulate the child’s
interest through self-directed activity. In the first plane of development (0-6),
these materials are generally organized into four basic categories, practical
life, sensorial, math and language.

7.6.1 Practical Life


Practical life materials and exercises respond to the young child’s natural
interests to develop physical coordination, care of self and care of the
environment. Specific materials, for example, provide opportunities for self-
help dressing activities, using various devices to practice buttoning, bow tying
and lacing. Other practical life materials include pouring, scooping and sorting
activities as well as washing a table and food preparation to develop hand-
eye coordination. Theses activities also provide a useful opportunity for children
to concentrate bringing about their normalization. Other practical life activities
include lessons in polite manners, such as folding hands, sitting in a chair and
walking on a line.

7.6.2 Sensorial
The sensorial materials provide a range of activities and exercises for children
to experience the natural order of the physical environment, including such
attributes as size, colour, shape and dimension. Many of these materials were
originally suggested and developed by Seguin in his prior research with
scientific education. Examples of these materials are: pink tower (series of

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ten sequential cubes, varying in volume), knobbed cylinders (wooden blocks


with 10 depressions to fit variable sized cylinders), broad stairs (ten wooden
blocks, sequentially varying in two dimensions), colour tablets (coloured objects
for matching pairs or grading shapes of colour).

7.6.3 Mathematics
In this area, materials are provided to show such basic concepts as numeration,
place value, addition, subtraction, divisions and multiplication. For numeration,
there is a set of ten rods, with segments coloured red and blue and ‘spindle
boxes’, which consist of placing sets of objects in groups, 1-10, into separate
compartments. For learning the numeral symbols, there is a set of sandpaper
numerals, 1-9. For learning addition, subtraction and place value, materials
provide decimal representation of 1, 10, 100 etc. in various shapes made of
beads, plastic or wood. Beyond the basic math materials, there are materials
to show the concept of fraction, geometrical relationships and algebra, such
as the binomial and trinomial theorems (Loeffler, 1992).

7.6.4 Language
In the first plane of development (0-6), the Montessori language materials
provide experiences to develop use of a writing instrument and the basic skills
of reading a written language. For writing skill development, the metal insets
provide essential exercises to guide the child’s hand in following different outline
shapes while using a pencil or a pen. For reading, a set of individual letters,
commonly known as sandpaper letters, provide the basic means for associating
the individual letter symbols with their corresponding phonetic sounds.
Displaying several letters, a lesson, known as the Seguin three-period lesson
(see below), guides children to learn the letter sounds, which finally blend
together to make certain simple phonetic words like ‘up’ and ‘cat’. The aim
of these nomenclature lessons is to show the child that letters make sounds,
which can be blended together to make words.

7.6.5 Cultural Subjects


The Montessori classroom may also include other materials and resources to
learn cultural subjects, such as geography (map puzzles, globes) and science
such as biology in naming and organizing plants and animals. Music and art
are also commonly involved with children in various ways. After the age of
approximately six, learning resources include reading books and more abstract
materials for learning a broad range of advanced subject matter.

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7.6.6 Lessons
In the Montessori method, a lesson is an experimental interaction with children
to support their true normal development. With materials, theses lessons
primarily aim to present their basic use to children according to their own
individual interests. These lessons are therefore given in such a way that the
teacher’s personal involvement is reduced to the least amount possible, so as
not to interfere with the child’s own free learning directly through the materials
themselves.

For many presentations, a 3 step process, described originally by Seguin, is


used in the Montessori method for showing the relationship between objects
and names. This is called the ‘3 period lesson’. With this nomenclature
lesson, 2 or 3 materials are selected from what the children are working with.

 Period 1 consists of providing the child with the name of the material.
In the case of letter sounds, the teacher will have the child trace the
letter and say, ‘This is /u/. This is /p/’. This provides the children with
the name of what they are learning.
 Period 2 is to help the child recognize the different objects. Some things
the teacher might say are, ‘Show me the /u/. Show me the /p/’ or
‘Point to the /u/. Point to the /p/.’ After spending some time in the
second period, the child may move on to period 3.
 Period 3 involves checking to see if the child not only recognizes the
name of the material, but is able to tell you what it is. The teacher will
point to the ‘u’ sandpaper letter and ask the child, ‘What is this?’ If the
child replies with ‘uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu’, the child fully understands it.
With letters, the lesson finally ends with the child blending the letters to
make a simple word, such as ‘up’. From the above discussion periods
two and three apply from grades 1 to 3.

7.6.7 Homeschooling
The Montessori method is readily employed with children at home. With
young children, the practical life materials and exercises are provided through
everyday household activities and chores, such as setting the table for meals,
food preparation and folding clothes for laundry. Parents follow the method
by using slow, simple movements in showing how to do these chores, as well
as by establishing routines for children to conduct their own activities with as
much independence and self-direction as possible.

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7.7 Role of the Teacher


The teacher in Montessori approach is seen as a nurturer, partner and guides
to the children. The teacher plays the role of unobstructive director in the
playroom as children individually or n small groups engage in self-directed
activity. Based on detailed systematic observation of children the teacher
seeks to,

Provide an atmosphere of productive calm as children smoothly move along


in their learning, alternating between long periods of intense concentration
interspersed with brief moments of recovery/recognisation (Oppenheimer,
1999:75).

According to Ruenzel (1997), the teachers goals is to help and encourage the
children, allowing them to develop confidence and inner discipline so that
there is less and less need to intervene as the child develops. Interrupting
children when engaged in purposeful activity interferes with their momentum,
interest and inner workings of thought. During the early childhood years, the
teacher brings the child into close contact with reality through sensory
investigation and practical activity and then relies on the child’s unfolding inner
programme of curiosities and sensitivities to ensure that the child will learn
what he or she needs.

7.8 Criticism of Montessori


Some critic that a flaw, in the Montessori method is its close association with
Dr. Montessori herself. In Maria Montessori: a biography, Rita Kramer
reports that a New York Times writer interviewing Montessori in 1913 stated:

The method is Montessori and Montessori is the method and one may well
have grave doubts about how it will go with ‘auto-education’ when Maria
Montessori’s personality is removed’.

This close association between the method and Dr Montessori led to many
conflicts and lack of collaboration to extend research into the method itself.
For example, despite new insight and greater knowledge available fro applying
the method in a scientific manner, the philosophical differences of personality
and culture still exist to cloud and confuse its representation to the general
public (Greenwald, 1999).

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7.9 Summary
The Montessori approach offers a broad vision of education as an aid to life.
It is designed to help children with their task of inner construction as they
grow from childhood to maturity. It succeeds because it draws its principles
from the natural development of the child. Its flexibility provides a matrix
within which each individual child’s inner directives freely guide the child toward
wholesome growth.

References
Carl, A. E. (1996) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Jata. Capetown.
Chattin-McNicholls, J. (1992a) Montessori Controversy. New York,
Delma.
Chattin-McNicholls, J. (1992b) Montessori and Steiner: A Pattern of
Reverse Symmetries. Holistic Education Review (online), 4 (2)
http://www.oakmeadow.com/resources/articles/coulter.htm (2002)
Doll, R. C. (1996) Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston Allyn and Bacon.
Gandini, L and Edwards, C. (eds) (2001) Bambini: The Italian Approach
to Infant-toddler care. New York, Teachers College Press.
Greenwald, D.C. (1999) Pikkler and Montessori: A Theoretical Dialogue.
Unpublished Masters Thesis. Pacific Oaks College Pasadna.
Haines, A. M. (2000) Montessori in Early Childhood: Positive Outcomes
among social, moral, cognitive and emotional dimensions. NAMTA
Journal, 25(2), pp27-59.
Humphryes, J. (1998) The Developmental Appropriateness of High-quality
Montessori Programs. Young Children, 53(43), 4-16.
Loeffler, M. H. (1992) Montessori in Contemporary American Culture.
Portsmouth, Heinemann.
Montessori and Chattin-McNicholls J (1995) The Absorbent Mind. New
York, Holt.
Oppenheimer, T.(1999) Schooling the Imagination Atlantic Monthly,
284(3), 71-83

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Ruenzel, D. (1997) The Montessori Method. Teacher Magazine (online),


8 (7).
Torrence, M. and Chattin-McNicholls, J. (2000) wikipedia
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/montessori-method
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early-childhood-education
http://www.edweek.org/tm/1997/07mont.h08

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Unit Eight

Reggio Emilia Approach

8.0 Introduction

I n this unit we focus on childhood development. The unit will examine the
historical background of the approach and its philosophy, the main
characteristics of the approach including the philosophy and the lessons we
learn from the approach.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 explain the history and philosophy of the Reggio Emilia Approach.
 examine the characteristics of the approach.
 assess the relevance of the approach to learning in ECD.
 assess the applicability of the approach to ECD in Zimbabwe.
 discuss the lessons learnt from the approach.

8.2 Historical Background


The Reggio Emilia Approach to early childhood development (ECD) is named
after a town in northern Italy, Reggio Emilia in the province of Emilia Romagna.
It began approximately forty years ago. Educators, parents and children
began working together after World War II to construct a society and build
an exemplary system of municipal pre-schools and infant-toddler centres under
the leadership of the visionary director, Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994). Gandini
Edwards (2001) felt that it is in the early years of development that children
are forming who they are as an individual. According to New (2000), the
system evolved from a parent co-operative movement into a city-run system
that exercises a leadership role in Italy and throughout Europe. The Reggio
Emilia Institute is known as a source of innovation and reflection. Programmes
in Reggio are family centred and serve children under the age of six with first
priority given to children with disabilities or social service needs. Reggio Emilia
is not a formal model like Waldorf and Montessori, with defined methods,
teacher certification standards and accreditation processes. Instead, educators
in Reggio Emilia speak of their evolving experience and see themselves as a
provocation and reference point, a way of engaging in dialogue starting from
a strong and rich vision of the child.

8.3 Child Development Theory


According to Malaguzzi (1993) Loris Malaguzzi’s thinking reflects social
constructivism drawing from Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner and others.
Focusing on the infant and pre-school years only, Malaguzzi reflected Piaget’s
stage notions as too limiting. He drew a powerful image of the child, social
from birth, full of intelligence, curiosity and wonder. His vision of an ‘education
based on relationships focused on each child in relation to others and seeks to

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activate and support children’s reciprocal relationships with other children,


family, teachers, environment and the society (Malaguzzi, 1993). This
resourceful child generates changes in the system in which he/she is involved
and becomes a ‘producer of culture, values and rights’ (Rinaldi, 2001:51).
The Reggio Emilia Approach therefore view children as active authors of their
own development, strongly influenced by natural, dynamic, self-righting forces
within themselves, opening the way toward growth and development.

The key components that are derived from the philosophy and which teachers
should take into consideration are:

 Building on the strengths and competencies of children. This is called


the image of the child.
 Encourage, support and develop collaborative learning within the
environment.
 Have carefully planned spaces for learning within the playroom, the
environment is described as the third teacher.
 Negotiate curriculum with the children to develop projects.
 Skilling of children in a variety of art media, this is called ‘the hundred
languages’.
 Development of documentation which demonstrates the child’s
understanding and knowledge.
 Communication with parents and encouraging parents as partners in
their child’s education.

Activity 8.1

?
1. Discuss the philosophy behind the Reggio Emilia Approach to learning
in ECD.
2. Examine the applicability of Malaguzzi’s vision of ‘Education based on
relationships’ in Zimbabwean ECD programme.

8.4 The Philosophy behind the Approach


The city of Reggio Emilia in Italy is recognized worldwide for its innovative
approach to education. Its signature educational philosophy has become
known as the Reggio Emilia Approach which many pre-school programmes

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around the world including in the US have adopted. The Reggio Emilia
philosophy is based upon the following set of principles:

 Children must have some control over the direction of their learning.
 Children must be able to learn through experiences of touching, moving,
listening, seeing and hearing.
 Children have a relationship with other children and with material items
in the world that children must be allowed to explore
 Children must have endless ways and opportunities to express
themselves.
The Reggio Emilia approach to teaching young children puts the natural
development of children as well as the close relationships that they share with
their environment at the centre of its philosophy. Early childhood programmes
that have successfully adapted to this educational philosophy share that they
are attracted by Reggio because of the way it views and respects the child.

Parents are a vital component to the Reggio Emilia philosophy. Parents are
viewed as partners, collaborators and advocates for their children. Teachers
respect parents as each child’s first teacher and involve parents in every aspect
of the curriculum. It is not uncommon to see parents volunteering within
Reggio Emilia classroom/playrooms throughout the school. This philosophy
does not end when the child leaves the classroom/playroom. Most parents
who choose to send their children to a Reggio Emilia programme incorporate
many of the principles within their parenting and home life. Even with this
bridge between school and home, many people wonder what happens to
Reggio Emilia school. The answer is that there is some adjustment that must
take place. In most school environments, intellectual curiosity is rewarded,
so students continue to reap the benefits of Reggio after they have left the
programme.

8.5 Principles of the Reggio Emilia Approach


8.5.1 The Image of the Child
Children are ‘rich, powerful and competent’. Children come into the
educational setting with a wealth of knowledge. Teachers need to tap into the
knowledge and build upon the strengths of the children.

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8.5.2 Curriculum
The curriculum is characterized by many features advocated by contemporary
research on young children, including real-life problem solving among peers,
with numerous opportunities for creative thinking and exploration. Teachers
often work on projects with small groups of children, while the rest of the
class engages in a wide variety of self-selected activities typical of pre-school
classrooms.

The projects that teachers and children engage in are distinct in a number of
ways from those that characterize American teachers’ conceptions of unit or
thematic studies. The topic of investigation may derive directly from teacher
observations of children’s spontaneous play and exploration. Project topics
are also selected on the basis of an academic curiosity or social concern on
the part of teachers or parents, o serendipitous events that direct the attention
of the children’s predisposition to enjoy the unexpected. Regardless of their
origins, successful projects are those that generate a sufficient amount of interest
and uncertainty to provoke children’s creative thinking and problem-solving
and are open to different avenues of exploration. Because curriculum decisions
are based on developmental and socio-cultural concerns, small groups of
children varying abilities and interests, including those with special needs, work
together on projects.

Projects begin with teachers observing and questioning children about the
topic of interest. Based on children’s responses, teachers introduce materials,
questions and opportunities that provoke children to further explore the topic.
While some of these teacher provocations are anticipated, projects often move
in unanticipated directions as a result f problems children identify. Thus,
curriculum planning and implementation revolve around open-ended and often
long term projects that are based on the reciprocal nature of teacher-directed
and child-initiated activity. All of the topics of interest are given by the children.
Within the project approach, children are given opportunities to make
connections between prior and new knowledge while engaging in authentic
tasks.

8.5.3 The Hundred Languages of Children


As children in an investigation, generating and testing their hypotheses, they
are encouraged to depict their understanding through one of many symbolic
languages, including drawing, sculpture, dramatic play and writing. They work
together toward the resolution of problems that arise. Teachers facilitate and
then observe debates regarding the extent to which a child’s drawings (ideas)

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is encouraged and teachers allow children to repeat activities and modify


each other’s work in the collective aim of better understanding the topic.
Teachers foster children’s involvement in the processes of exploration and
evaluation, acknowledging the importance of their evolving products as vehicles
for exchange.

8.5.4 Classroom Environment


Parents are also expected to take part in discussions about school/centre
policy, child development concerns and curriculum planning and evaluation.
Because a majority of parents/caregivers are employed, meetings are held in
the evenings so that that all who wish to participate can do so.

The classroom environment is considered to be the child’s third teacher, and


is carefully designed to be a warm and inviting place for both children and
adults. Teachers capitalize on natural light, inviting children to paint and sketch
in it frequently. There are many plants and ‘homey’ touches in the space to
support a close home-school connection. The teachers often place mirrors in
interesting places around the classroom. The layout of the physical space can
include a common space for children to gather for group work and play.
Children’s artwork and documentation panels are beautifully displayed on the
walls throughout the school.

Each school also has an Atelier or project studio that provides a space for
small groups of children to work on projects over an extended period of time.
Children are naturally drawn to materials relating to art. A variety of media
are provided in the studio and children are encouraged to explore and create
with them on a daily basis.

In summary, this approach supports collaboration on all levels, and nurtures


individuality as well. Encouraging children to be creative problem-solvers
within a community is central to the Reggio Emilia approach.

Our expectations of the child must be very flexible and varied. We must be able
to be amazed and enjoy like children often do. We must be able to catch the
ball that children throw us, and toss it back to them in ways that make the
children want to continue the game with us, developing perhaps other games
as we go along.

The organization of the physical environment is crucial to Reggio Emilia’s


early childhood programme and is often referred to as the child’s ‘third
teacher’. Major aims in the planning of new spaces and the remodeling of old
ones include the integration of each classroom with the rest of the school and

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the school with the surrounding community. The importance of the environment
lies in the belief that children can best create meaning and make sense of their
world through environments which support ‘complex, varied, sustained and
changing relationships between people, the world of experience, ideas and
the many ways of expressing ideas.

The preschools are generally filled with indoor plants and vines and awash
with natural light. Classrooms open to centre pizza, kitchens are open to
view, and access to the surrounding community is assured through wall-size
windows, courtyards and doors to the outside in each classroom. Entries
capture the attention of both children and adults through the use of mirrors
(on the walls, floors and ceilings), photographs and children’s work
accomplished by transcriptions of their discussions. These same features
characterize classroom interiors, where displays of project work are
interspersed with arrays of found objects and classroom materials. In each
case, the environment informs and engages the viewer.

Other supportive elements of the environment include ample space for supplies,
frequently rearranged to draw attention to their aesthetic features. In each
classroom there are studio spaces in the form of a large, centrally located
atelier and a smaller mini-atelier and clearly designated spaces for large and
small group activities. Throughout the school, there is an effort to create
opportunities for children to interact. Thus, the single dress-up area is in the
centre piazza; classrooms are connected with telephones, passageways or
windows and lunchrooms and bathrooms are designed to encourage
community. Groups of children will stay with one particular teacher for a
three year period, creating consistency and an environment where there are
no added pressures from having to form new relationships.

8.5.5 Teachers as Learners


In the Reggio Approach, the teacher is considered as a co-learner and
collaborator with the child and not just an instructor. Teachers are encouraged
to facilitate the child’s learning by planning activities and lessons based on the
child’s interests, asking questions to further understanding and actively engaging
in activities alongside the child. ‘As a partner to the child, the teacher is inside
the learning situation’ (Hewett, 2011:97).

While working on projects with the child, the teacher also expands the child’s
learning by collecting data such as photographs, notes, videos and
conversations that can be viewed at a later time. The teacher needs to maintain
an active, mutual participation in the activity to help ensure that the child clearly

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understands what s being ‘taught’.

Teacher’s long-term commitment to enhancing their understanding of children


is at the crux of the Reggio Emilia approach. Their resistance to the American
use of the term model to describe their ideas and practices. They compensate
for the meager pre-service training of Italian early childhood teachers by
providing extensive staff development opportunities, with goals determined
by the teachers themselves. Teacher autonomy is evident in the absence of
teacher manuals, curriculum guides, or achievement tests. The lack of
externally imposed mandates is joined by the imperative that teachers become
skilled observers of children in order to inform their curriculum planning and
implementation.

In the Reggio approach, the teacher is considered a co-leaner and collaborator


with the child and not just an instructor. Teachers are encouraged to facilitate
the child’s learning by planning activities and lessons based on the child’s
interests, asking questions to further understanding and actively engaging in
the child, the teacher is inside the learning situation’ (Hewett,2001).

While working on projects with the child, the teacher can also expand the
child’s learning by collecting data such as photographs, notes, videos and
conversations that can be reviewed at a later time. The teacher needs to
maintain an active mutual participation in the activity to help ensure that the
child clearly understands what is being ‘taught’.

8.6 Summary
Reggio Emilia’s approach to early education reflects a theoretical kinship with
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner among others. Much
of what occurs in the class reflects a constructivist approach to early education.
Reggio Emilia’s approach does challenge some conceptions of teacher
competence and developmentally appropriate practice. For example, teachers
in Reggio Emilia assert the importance of being confused as a contributor to
learning, thus a major teaching strategy is purposely to allow mistakes to
happen, or to begin a project with no clear sense of where it might end.
Another characteristic that is counter to the beliefs of many Western educators
is the importance of the child’s ability to negotiate in the peer group.

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One of the most challenging aspects of the Reggio Emilia approach is the
solicitation of multiple points of view regarding children’s needs, interests and
abilities and the concurrent faith in parents, teachers, and children to contribute
in meaningful ways to the determination of school experiences. Teachers
trust themselves to respond appropriately to children’s ideas and interests,
they trust children to be interested in things worth knowing about and they
trust parents to be informed and productive members of a cooperative
educational team. The result is an atmosphere of community and collaboration
that is developmentally appropriate for adults and children alike.

References
Cadwell, L. B. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia Home: An Innovative
Approach to Early Childhood Education. New York, Teachers
College Press.
Cadwell, L. B. (2002). Bringing Learning to Life: An Innovative Approach
to Early Childhood Education. New York, Teachers College Press.
Gandini, L. (1984). Not Just Anywhere: Making the Child Care Centres in to
‘Particular’ Places. ‘innings’.
Hewett, V. (2001). Examining the Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood
Education. Early Childhood Education Journal.
Katz, L. (1990). ‘Impressions of Reggio Emilia Preschools. Young Children.
New, R. (1991). ‘Early Childhood Teacher Education in Italy: Reggio Emilia’s
Master Plan for Master Teachers’. The Journal of Early Childhood
Teacher Education
New, R. (1991). ‘Projects and Provocations: Preschool Curriculum Ideas
from Reggio Emilia Montessori Life.
New, R. (1993). ‘Italian Child Care and Early Education: Armor Maternus
and Other Cultural Contributions’. In M. Cochran (Ed), International
Handbook on Child Care Policies and Programs. Westport,
Greenwood Press. ’. The Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education
New, R. (1992). ‘The Integrated Early Childhood Curriculum: New
Perspectives from Research and Practice. In C. Seefeldt (Ed), The
Early Childhood Curriculum: A Review of Current Research.
Revised Edition. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia
University.
Topal, C. W. (2008). Explorations in Art, Kindergarten Program.
Worcester, MA: Davis Publications, Inc.
Wurm, J. (2005). Working in the Reggio Way: A Beginner’s guide for American
Teachers. ‘St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

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Unit Nine

The Integrated Curriculum

9.0 Introduction

I n unit three we discussed about the subject centred curriculum and its
effects on teaching and learning in ECD. In this unit we discuss another
type of the curriculum which is the integrated curriculum. The explanation of
the integration curriculum shall be given as well as the rationale and the principle
areas of argument surrounding curriculum integration.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

9.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
 define curriculum integration
 describe the integrated curriculum appropriate for young children
 justify the rationale behind the integration curriculum in ECD
 discuss the applicability of the integrated curriculum in ECD
 compare and contrast the subject based and the integrated curriculum

9.2 Definition of Terms


Curriculum has been affected in unit one as all the child’s experiences in school
or centre from both the child’s and the teachers’ perspective. It is all that
happens at the centre in which children’s choices dominate and teachers
support children’s activities.

9.3 Curriculum Integration


An integrated curriculum is one that transcends the boundaries imposed by
traditional subject boundaries. It is understanding driven and involves the
integration of content with skills and processes.

Bredekamp (1990) describes the integrated curriculum that is appropriate


for teaching young children. The curriculum is integrated so that children’s
learning in all traditional subject areas occurs primarily through projects and
learning centres that teachers plan and that reflect children’s interests and
suggestions. Teachers guide children’s involvement in projects and enrich the
learning experience by extending children’s ideas, responding to their questions,
engaging them in conversation and challenging their thinking.

The curriculum is integrated so that learning occurs primarily through projects,


learning centres and playful activities that reflect current interests of children.
For example, a social studies project such as building and operating a store
or a science project such as furnishing and caring for an aquarium provide
focused opportunities for children to plan, dictate and/or write their plans
(using invented and teacher-taught spelling), to draw and write about their
activity, to discuss what they are doing, to read non fiction books for needed
information, to work cooperatively with other children, to learn facts in a

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meaningful context and to enjoy learning. Skills are taught as needed to


accomplish projects.’

Activity 9.1

?
1. In your own words explain the terms curriculum and curriculum
integration.
2. Describe an appropriate integrated curriculum for children in ECD.

9.4 Principle Areas of Argument Surrounding


Curriculum Integration
9.4.1 Philosophical /Epistomological Arguments
For the traditionalist, curriculum integration ‘transgresses certain canons of
logic and the requirements imposed by the structure of knowledge itself’
(Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:151). This argument is based on a rationalist view
of knowledge and only has validity

‘if we accept the view that the central concerns of the curriculum are to transmit
certain kinds of valuable knowledge and to do this in such a way as to make clear
to pupilsthta they are divided up into certain timeless and discrete forms of
rationality.’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:151).

Kelly (1982) asks why curriculum integration has ever been seen as a problem
and suggests that this is the result of looking at it from the point of view of this
one particular theory of knowledge. Hirst, for example, sees knowledge as
being organized into several discrete ‘forms of understanding’ (Hirst, 1974:48),
while Phenix (1964:6) talks of six ‘realms of meaning’ which he categorises
as ‘symbolics, empirics, esthetics, synnoetics, ethics and synoptic.

Empiricists, however, claim that subjects ‘should not be seen as the base
from which the curriculum is organized, that such divisions should be natural
and make sense to the child in the organization of his/her knowledge and not
presented as derived from some notion of subjects, disciplines or ‘forms’.
(Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:151).

Kelly (1982:66) suggests that an empiricist view of knowledge has enabled


the ECD sector to espouse curriculum integration with ‘comparatively few
problems’.

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9.4.2 Psychological Considerations


The ECD level has also been more mindful of the results of research into
learning processes – the Plowden Report was firmly based in Piagetian theory,
for example.

The work of Piaget and Bruner in Blenkin and Kelly (1987) showed that the
gap between philosophy and psychology in the discussion of education is not
as wide or as clearly recognizable as some believe. This is a point ‘which
may in itself tell us something about the integration of knowledge’ (Blenkin
and Kelly, 1987:146). The theories of learning posited by Piaget, Bruner and
others suggest that we should be planning education ‘in terms of developmental
process’, trying to develop ‘a unity of understanding in the mind of the individual
pupil’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:131). Dewey felt it important that the child
should organize his/her own knowledge, not have it done for him/her and
Kelly (1982) suggests that motivation, interests and relevance are all
psychological factors in favour of curriculum integration.

9.4.3 Sociological /Political Arguments


Kelly suggests that the integrated curriculum is part of a move towards a
more ‘open’ society in which knowledge is freely available. The effect of this
is seen in schools, ‘when subject boundaries are strongly maintained, the
organization of the institution remains firm in the hands of the Head (Kelly,
1982:69). He also suggests that curriculum integration produces a different
attitude to knowledge in children – greater willingness to share and collaborate.
‘The whole substance on inter-pupil relationships is changed’ (Kelly, 1982:70).
This goes for pupil-teacher relationships too. The teacher is not ‘set in
authority’ but becomes ‘an authority’ (Kelly, 1982:71).

Kelly points out that some themes can only be dealt with in an integrated
curriculum. ‘no adequate examination of racial problems or relations between
the sexes, for example, can be undertaken with any one discipline’ (Kelly,
1978:91). In his later book he also suggests that ‘a changing society will
inevitably create new bases for the organization of knowledge. It is important
to avoid what Whitehead (1932:8) called ‘inert knowledge’.

Schwab underlines this point about the changing nature of knowledge. ‘The
revisionary character of scientific knowledge accrues from the continuing
assessment and modification of substantive structures’ (Schwab in Carl,
1996:266). Pointing out the danger of a purely dogmatic, inculcative curriculum,
Schwab suggests that unless pupils appreciate the limitations if the enquiry

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that produced the knowledge, they will be bewildered by revisions. On the


other hand, if they are given freedom to speculate on the possible change in
structures, they will not only be prepared to meet future revision with intelligence
but will better understand the knowledge they are currently being taught.

Politically, there is pressure at present for a move towards subject specialisation


among teachers. Blenkin and Kelly feel that this has caused tensions in the
schools ‘which are now being resolving very firmly in favour of the subject-
based approach’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:147). Another important example
is the greatly increasing emphasis on specialization advocated by CATE
(Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education), which now insists on
two of the four years of teacher training being spent on a specialist subject,
even for infant and nursery teachers. Like the one-year PGCE (Post Graduate
Certificate in Education) this devalues the professional nature of the work of
the teacher. These moves are an imposition on an ideology of curriculum
‘inimical to our view of education as process’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:148).

The proposed National Curriculum takes this process a huge step further. It is
couched entirely in terms of traditional subjects with one the of barest
acknowledgement of the fact that most schools can not work in this way. It is
based on a view which:

regards subjects as bodies of knowledge that somehow have to be transferred


to the consciousness of the learner rather than as media for the development of
his/her intellectual or cognitive capacities’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:148).

It is concerned with the learning of subjects rather than learning through them,
the emphasis is on content as the prime concern in curriculum planning, content
which can be divided up into neat parcels.

9.4.4 Organisational Issues


Practical matters are more important than they may at first seem. School
organization – allocation of time, space, staff and material resources, decisions
about pupil groupings, accommodation (workshops rather than classrooms)
and furniture (tables and chairs which are child sized and their arrangement)
should support the curriculum but often it the other way round. Blenkin and
Kelly suggest that problems of organization have led to an unbalanced
curriculum for many individual pupils – hence the present concern for the
whole curriculum.

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9.4.5 Contextual Matters


The contextual issues raised by the debate about curriculum integration concern
the relationship between primary and secondary education, the public
examination system, the demands of the employment market and current plans
for assessment and accountability. (There is an overlap here with political
issues and it often difficult to separate the two).

In ECD there have been moves in recent years to break down some of the
barriers between the traditional subjects and the examination, though based
on the subject areas, has injected welcome aspects of the principle of
integration into the ECD curriculum. Unfortunately, the National Curriculum
is likely to erode the progress that has been made by its insistence that the
vast majority of time is spent on traditional subjects. This has a knock-on
effect on ECD centres which have to bear in mind issues of progression and
continuity between ECD and primary schooling.

But perhaps it is the call for greater accountability – involving the use of extensive
testing of pupils – which poses the greatest threat to curriculum integration:

demands that teachers be more directly accountable to outside agencies can


only encourage an emphasis on those aspects of their work (i.e. basic skills) that
these agencies can best understand’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:212).

Pring (1976:102) describes the subject-based curriculum as ‘fragmented,


apathy-inducing, artificially restricting, unrelated, irrelevant and duplicating’.
He suggests three reasons for advocating an integrated curriculum.

 Respect for the varied mental activities of pupils


 Recognition of the commonsense language and understanding through
which the more disciplined modes of enquiry must be related
 The need for a more flexible and cooperative teaching framework.
Kelly (1987) suggests that the most common criticisms of integration are:

 The danger of sameness leading to central control-subject specialization


is seen as helping to prevent this.
 Loss of power by individuals learning to increased autonomy for heads
 Loss of structure and therefore quality in children’s learning
This last argument fails to recognize that a move to integration leads to more
meaning and relevance and should therefore result in better quality and also
that the erosion of specialisms is not a feature of curriculum integration –
indeed, greater expertise is often needed.

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Curriculum integration comes in a variety of forms but anything which breaks


down the traditional subject barriers and makes knowledge more meaningful,
relevant and stimulating for children must be in the interest of effective educator.

9.5 Rationale behind Curriculum Integration


It is believed that learners do not think naturally in terms of different subjects
but tend to have a more holistic view of the world, so an integrated approach
is compatible with our understanding of the ways in which learners learn and
develop. It is believed that an integrated approach:

 Provides students with a holistic approach to learning that helps them


make connections between the different learning areas.
 Provides students with a comprehensive curriculum that develops
concepts, processes and skills.
 Gives students a greater sense of purpose in their day to day experiences
at school.
 Assists students to understand and build on their experiences in order
to make sense of the world.
 Encourages teachers to utilize effective teaching and learning strategies
that will enhance student’s performance and learning outcomes.
 Allows students to demonstrate skills, abilities and knowledge in varied
contexts.
 Values and builds on prior knowledge and out if school experiences of
students.
 Allows for the achievement of many outcomes from some or all learning
areas in a single unit of work.
 Makes the curriculum more manageable for teachers by bringing like
ideas together and creating time for dedicated teaching in each learning
area.
 Allows for the inclusion of students with a wide range of abilities, skills
and knowledge within the same classroom.

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9.6 Aims of the Integrated Curriculum


The integrated curriculum aims to:

 Integrate content and skills with process.


 Provide a context for learning content, processes and skills.
 Provide opportunities for interaction and co-operation with others.
 Engage and interest the learner in what he/she is learning.
 Make prior knowledge and experience valued, explicit and built upon.
 Integrate knowledge, skills, values and actions toward a common
purpose.
 Recognize and value the individual learner’s ways of knowing and
learning.
 Build a partnership between the teacher and the learner.
 Make students aware of the purpose of their learning.
 Empower students to reflect upon how they learn.
 Acknowledge and cater for different learning styles.
 Place some control and responsibility for learning in the hands of
students.
 Involve learners in actively gathering and processing information.
 Encourage students to become independent, resourceful and adaptable
learners.
 Foster dynamic and divergent approaches to teaching.
 Cater for students with a range of different interests, abilities, skills and
motivation

9.7 Guidelines
Each classroom teacher will be responsible for planning and implementing a
minimum of one integrated unit per term with their class.

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9.7.1 Content
The selection of worthwhile content is essential if an integrated curriculum is
to be effective. The content can be packaged in the form of particular topics
around which units of work are developed.

The topics selected for these units need to be based around key understandings
and the Essential Learnings. The Essential Learning as advocate sets of
concepts of understandings in the areas of communicating, thinking, personal
futures, world futures and social responsibility that need to be covered. Topics
also need to be meaningful and be vehicles for assisting students to learn
about the world.

Units of work will focus on processes, skills and conventions as well as content.
Units of work will show a sequential development of concepts and skills.

9.7.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies


The real value of an integrated approach is the opportunity it provides to
focus on skills, strategies, values and understandings in a meaningful framework.
To this end teachers need to use a variety of strategies.

The model of integrated curriculum is based on the principles of inquiry learning.


To this end it follows that the teaching and learning strategies chosen will
reflect the different stages of inquiry – tuning in, finding out, sorting out and
making conclusions.

9.7.3 Planning
All integrated units must be planned for using a suitable planning profoma.
Teachers must plan for processes, skills and conventions as well as content.
Planning of the integrated curriculum can involve the class, teacher or the
whole staff.

9.7.4 Assessment
We assess students to improve their learning. Assessment provides us with
information that, in turn, informs our planning for each child’s learning. The
diagnoses we make on the basis of assessment data helps modify plans and
tailor our work to suit the needs of the individual and the group.

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A wide range of assessment forms should be planned for as part of an


integrated curriculum. By using a diversity of forms and contexts for assessment
you help to ensure a rigorous collection and analysis of data about student
progress. Some general examples of successful assessment strategies include:

 Rubrics (Recommended)
 Concept and mind mapping
 Role play
 Self and group assessment surveys
 Peer assessment
 Reflective learning logs
 Teacher-student interviews
 Diagrams, drawings and other visual representations
 Cloze
 Teacher and student designed tests and quizzes
 Statements of generalisations at the beginning and end of the unit
The assessment process should include assessment of skills, attitudes and
values, as well as knowledge and understandings. Assessment should take
place throughout the unit as well as the end of the unit. Assessment procedures
will be reviewed regularly to ensure they are consistent with the ELs learning,
teaching and assessment guide.

9.7.5 Evaluation
All staff are responsible for evaluating their integrated unit. The following
questions will help guide the processes of evaluating a unit of work:

 How well did students grasp the key understandings around which unit
was based? Are there remaining issues that need to be addressed in
subsequent units?
 How inclusive was the unit? Did the resources or activities exclude
certain students? How could this be rectified in the future?
 How well did students participate in the unit? How enthusiastic were
they about the topic? Were there some students who lacked interest
and motivation? What could be done about this in the future?

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 Did we sue a variety of resources and were they effective in engaging


students and these in future units?
 Did we find the unit personally satisfying to teach? What did we learn?
 Did we provide students with opportunities to help set direction and to
self assess their work?
 Did we use a range of groupings?
 Did we use new teaching procedures in this unit? What new strategies
did we introduce to students? Which strategies need revising in
subsequent units?
 Did we help students see links between this and previous units of work?
 What new questions arose for students and for us about this topic?
 What aspects of the unit were least effective? What should be changed
next time?

9.7.6 Sharing
To facilitate sharing of integrated units, all teachers will place a copy of their
completed integrated curriculum planning sheet in the integrated curriculum
folder by term 3. The integrated curriculum coordinator will be responsible
for maintaining the folder and collating work for staff to access.

9.8 Summary
In this unit we have observed that using an integrated curriculum in ECD
programmes responds to such questions as why integrate the curriculum?
How can curriculum be best designed to cater for all learners? Is there enough
time? Can we extend the range of learning experiences by differentiating
curriculum? How can we widen opportunities for learning when teaching?
We have also seen that theorists argue that skills, values and understandings
are best taught and assessed within meaningful connected contexts (Murdoch,
1998).

Designing curriculum in this way provides opportunities for children to see or


identify ‘big pictures,’ ideas in an overcrowded curriculum by transferring
knowledge across curriculum areas. Learners can then achieve outcomes in
meaningful contexts and reflect between their learning and aspects of the real
world. Different learning styles and divergent thinking can be catered for
whilst encouraging learners to control their own learning through group or
independent activities and tasks.

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References
Blenkin, P. and Kelly, A.V. (1987). The Primary Curriculum: A Process
Approach to Curriculum Planning. London, Harper and Row.
Coll, C (1996). Tools for Teaching and Learning in the Integrated
Classroom. New York, Brown Low.
Hirst, P. H. (1974). Moral Education in a Secular Society. London, U.L.P.
Kelly, A.V. (1982). The Curriculum: Theory and Practice. London, Harper
and Row.
Phenix, P.H. (1964). Realms of Meaning: A Philosophy of the Curricula
for General Education. New York, McGraw Hill.
Pring, R. (1976). Knowledge and Schooling. Wells, Open Books.
Murdoch, K. (1998). Classroom Connections for Integrating Learning.
London, Curtain.
http://www.molecreek.tased.edu.au/integratedcurriculumpolicy.htm
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/earlycld/ea51k7.htm
http://www.dg.dial.pipex.com/articles/educ06.shtml.

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Unit Ten

The Highscope Appraoch

10.0 Introduction

I n unit 4 we discussed the Integrate Curriculum Approach. In this


unit we shall explain the High scope Approach in Early Childhood
Development. The origin and philosophy shall be discussed as well as the
relevance and applicability of the approach to teaching and learning in ECD.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104

10.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 explain the philosophy and theory behind the Highscope approach.
 examine the basic principles of the approach.
 evaluate the relevance and applicability of the approach to the teaching
and learning process in ECD.
 critique the approach.

10.2 Origin
The highscope is an approach of running a preschool or Early Childhood
Development centre developed in the United States in the 1960s. As director
of special services in Michigan, David Weikart became increasingly interested
in the failure of a number of at-risk high scholars from poor neighborhoods.
These students did poorly on district wide, standardized tests and also received
low scores in IQ assessments. According to Hohmann and Weikart (2002),
Weikart brought together and collaborated with, a committee of elementary
education leaders and formed a project called the Perry Pre-school project
in 1962. Members discussed possible changes to teaching methods and
curriculum choices. While searching for better teaching methods and
programmes, Weikart zeroed in on programmes for 3 and 4 year olds. He
opened Michigan’s first preschool which was manned by four teachers.

The Weikart pre-school teachers chose to differ from traditional nursery school
settings by designing a programme that focused on a child’s intellectual
maturation rather than a child’s social and emotional advances. They wanted
a programme that:

 Possessed a firm, legitimate bed of theory for teaching/learning, ungirding


its structure
 Supported the child’s talents through an active process of learning
 Relied on teachers, administrators and families to support the success
of the programme
The highscope is therefore a long-established educational approach which is
used in early years settings in over 20 countries. The main goals were to
promote the learning and development of children worldwide form infancy
through adolescent and to support and train educators and parents as they
help children learn.

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Activity 10.1

? 1. Explain the origin of Highscope Approach to ECD.


2. Examine the goals of the Highscope programme.

10.3 Highscope Philosophy


Joachim (2005) noted that the Highscope educational approach is an open
framework of educational ideas and practices based on the principles of Child
Development based on Jean Piaget’s ideas. The approach believes that
children should be involved actively in their own learning. They ‘learn by
doing’, often working with hands on materials and carrying out projects of
their own choosing. The adults working with the children see themselves
more as facilitators or partners than mangers or supervisors. Highscope’s
approach encompasses all aspects of child development and involves teachers
and parents/caregivers in supporting and extending children’s emotional,
intellectual, social and physical skills and abilities. This approach recognizes
the uniqueness of each child (Montessori) and develops self-confidence by
building on what they can do. The approach is based on sound educational
principles, explained below.

10.3.1 Principles of the Highscope Approach

10.3.1.1 Active Learning


Piaget and Bruner concluded that children learn best by being active-by
engaging with people, materials, events and ideas in ways that are direct,
immediate and meaningful to them. According to Blueskies (2000),
components of active learning are manipulation, choice, language from the
children and support from the adults. The materials typically found in a
highscope pre-school are manipulated by children in a ‘hands on approach’
not teacher directed approach. As children are actively involved with materials,
support from the adults helps children to express what they are doing and
further develop and refine their language and cognition skills. High scope
educational approach supports active learning through a daily routine largely
made up of plan-do-review, in addition to other activities. During the planning
process children use language to make a choice about the materials they are
going to work with, which provides for a consistent time to express their
choice, build on their own interests and recognize themselves as individuals
who act on decisions. Work time allows the children to carry out those plans

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with the support of the adults to encourage, extend those ideas and provide
opportunities to solve problems. Clean-up time is naturally integrated into the
plan-do-review cycle at the end of work time. At this time children return
materials to their labeled places on open shelves. The other elements of the
highscope daily routine are small group time and circle time. Small group may
be used to develop closer relationships between teacher and children in which
the teacher plans the materials for small group and begins the session, but
leaves the remainder of the time to the children to explore the materials in an
open-ended fashion. During circle time, the whole group meets together with
an adult for 10-15 minutes to play games, sing songs or do basic movement
activities.

The framework or curriculum piece to the Highscope approach is based on


key experiences which guide the teacher in supporting and extending the child’s
development. Such key experiences include creative representation, language
and literacy, social relationships and initiative movement, music, classification,
seriation, number, space and time.

10.3.2.2 Personal Initiatives


Rousseau, Froebel, Bruner, Piaget pointed out that children have a natural
desire to learn. The approach recognizes and supports this. It encourages
children to use their initiatives, to plan and develop their own strengths and
interests. As they pursue their choices and plans, children explore, ask and
answer questions, solve problems and interact with peers and adults. The
plan-do-review process gives children the opportunity to create and express
their intentions, to generate their own learning experiences and to reflect on
those experiences.

10.3.2.3 Consistency
To become confident, independent learners, children need consistency. The
highscope approach provides this through the daily routine, the organization
of the learning environment and the ways that the adults interact with the
children.

The Daily Routine Involves

 Meeting and greeting on arrival


 Planning time
 Work time

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 Clean up time
 Recall time
 Snack time
 Large group time
 Small group time
 Outside time
 Departure
 Staff team planning

10.3.2.4 Genuine Relationships


Children achieve more when they feel happy and secure. Highscope
practitioners bring genuine warmth and trust to their relationships with children.
They also respect and value each child’s personal and cultural identity.

10.3.2.5 Appropriate Curriculum


Children need a curriculum that is appropriate to their intellectual, emotional
and physical development. The highscope curriculum has been developed
through extensive observations of young children learning. It is based on key
learning experiences and offers children the foundation of knowledge, skills
and ideas that they will build on throughout their lives. These key experiences
involve:

 Using language
 Representing experiences and ideas
 Developing logical reasoning involving classification, seriation and number
concepts
 Understanding time and space
The adult’s role in this can be described as that of an instigator of problem-
solving opportunities.

As discussed above, through the use of the highscope model, a child’s active
learning focuses on a variety of key experiences. These key experiences,
according to Blueskies (2000), involve children in activities such as pretending
and role playing, having fun with languages, building relationships with other
children and adults, expressing creativity in movement, singing, sorting and
matching, counting objects, fitting together and taking apart objects, learning
routines and anticipating events.

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A variety of thematic activities serve as the vehicle to develop the children’s


emerging academic skills. Readiness skills are integrated with themes such as
All about me, The five senses, Kindness and so on. These active learning
opportunities in the areas of language arts literacy, mathematics and science,
world languages, social studies/emotional development, health education and
movement (PE) are provided in ways to address each child’s individual learning
style. The learning activity centres are established in the playroom to help
children acquire skills and concepts in different play areas.

Activity 10.2

?
1. Discuss how you can apply the principles of highscope approach in an
ECD playroom.
2. Describe the components of the child friendly environment in highscope
approach.
3. Discuss the role of parents/caregivers in the implementation of this
approach.
4. Justify the use of the highscope philosophy in ECD.

Activity 10.3

?
1. How does the highscope playroom environment assist holistic
development of the child?
2. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of using themes as a
teaching-learning strategy in ECD.
3. Discuss the applicability of the highscope curriculum in an ECD A
playroom.

10.4 Highscope Teachers/Caregivers Training


According to Joachim (2005), highscope teachers and caregivers are trained
to participate as partners in children’s activities rather than relate to children
primarily as mangers or supervisors. The training emphasizes positive
interaction strategies, sharing control with children, supporting children’s play
ideas and adopting a problem solving approach to social conflict.

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Activity 10.4
1. Discus the strengths and weaknesses of the highscope approach to
? ECD.
2. ‘Highscope teachers and caregivers are trained to participate as partners
in children’s activities rather than relate to children’. Discus the meaning
of this statement and give implications for the teacher education
programme in Zimbabwe.

10.5 Summary
The unit has explored the origins, philosophy and the curriculum of the
Highscope Approach to ECD. We have observed that an important part of
the Highscope approach is the plan-do-review sequence. Children first plan
what materials they want to work with and what they want to do (this can be
done formally or informally in small groups). Only once they have made a
plan\however vague, of what they want to do can they go and do it. Then,
after this choice work time, the children discuss what they have been doing
and whether it was successful. The Highscope model is therefore based on
active learning.

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References
Hohmann, M. and Weikart, D. (2002). Educating Young Children.
Highscope Educational Research Foundation.
Joachim, H. (2005). Application of the Highscope Approach in Educating
the Gifted to a German Summer Camp. Muenster, Hamburg. What
is the History of Highscope (http://www.londony.ca/childcare/
highscope-history.htm)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High/Scope
http://www.blueskiesmontessori.org/high-scope.html
http://www.lisoctland.org.uk/earlyyears/about/approachestolearnig/
highscope.asp

112 Zimbabwe Open University

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