BECD104
BECD104
BECD104
(Early Childhood
Development)
MountPleasant
Harare, ZIMBABWE
TheZimbabweOpenUniversityisadistanceteachingand
openlearninginstitution.
Year: 2011
Coverdesign: T.Ndlovu
Layout: S.Mapfumo
Printedby:
TypesetinGaramond,12pointonautoleading
Editor: PaulineManjengwa
MasterofArtsinDistanceEducation(IndiraGhandi
OpenUniversity 1998)
PostGraduateDiplomainDistanceEd.(IndiraGhandi
OpenUniversity1996)
B.Ed. UZ (1986)
DiplomainTrEducationUZ(1980)
Certi.inCurriculumDesign&Development(ICIPE)
Kenya (1989)
T3Teacher'sCertificate(NyadireT.T. College)1975
To the student
Thedemandforskillsandknowledge administratorsofvariedbackgrounds,
andtherequirementtoadjustand training, skills, experiences and
changewithchangingtechnology, personalinterests. Thecombination
places on us a need to learn of all these qualities inevitably
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_____________________
Asaprogressiveuniversitythatisforward Dr.PrimroseKurasha
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ofthetwenty-firstcentury,ZOUhasstarted
tointroducee-learningmaterialsthatwill
enableyou,ourstudents,toaccessanysource
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The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor
discussion and help you put together
to lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
learning university, you the student are at the centre
him/her the topics beforehand so that
of learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University
You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to the ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the infor mation being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Unit 5 focuses on the nature of the daily programme including its requirements
and major components. This knowledge enables you as a teacher to
implement the ECD curriculum effectively.
The Reggio Emilia approach is examined in unit 8. The Reggio Emilia approach
was designed by Loris Malaguzzi in Italy. Its theory and philosophy are
explained in detail The unit also covers principles of Reggio Emilia approach
and an explanation on how the appropach can be implemented in ECD.
The Highscope approach is discussed in unit 10. The focus is on the philosophy
and theory behind the Highscope approach. Principles, relevance and
applicability of the approach in ECD are also examined.
You will also observe the long list of references at the end of each unit. We do
expect you to read as widely as possible choose among those available. Feel
free to search and read relevant literature that you may find.
We hope you will find studying this module enriching and rewarding. We also
hope you will be able to apply the information in practice. Enjoy your reading.
Good luck!
Curriculum: Foundations,
Principles and Issues
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
define the term curriculum in ECD context
discuss different types of curriculum
examine the determinants of the curriculum
Activity 1.1
The foregoing discussions indicate the many different ways curriculum is used
or defined. There is no overriding way to define this basic educational term.
Definitions are value laden. We select the meanings that give value to our
own priorities. A distinction between content and process is important in
understanding the unique meaning of curriculum in connection with Early
Childhood Development.
Activity 1.2
?
1. Compare and contrast the content and process-oriented curricula.
2. In your own view, which curriculum definition is relevant in ECD. Justify
your answer.
3. Give educational implications based on the definitions of curriculum
discussed in this unit.
The ‘hidden curriculum’, which refers to the kinds of learning children derive
from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as
from the behaviours and attitudes of teachers and administrators.
Examples of the hidden curriculum might include the messages and lessons
derived from the mere organization of schools. The emphasis on sequential
room arrangements, the cellular, timed segments of formal instruction, an annual
schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an agrarian age, disciplined
messages where concentration equates to student behaviours where they are
sitting up straight and are continually quiet, students quietly raising their hands
to be called on, the endless competition for grades and so on. The hidden
curriculum may include both positive or negative messages, depending on the
models provided and the perspectives of the learner or the observer.
In what I term floating quotes, popularized quotes that have no direct, cited
sources, David P. Gardner is reported to have said: We learn simply by the
exposure of loving. Much that passes for education is not education at
all but ritual. The fact is that we are being educated when we know it
least.
Eisner (1994) first described and defined aspects of this curriculum. He states:
argue this position because ignorance is not simply a neutral void, it has
important effects on the kinds of options one is bale to consider, the alternatives
that one can examine and the perspectives from which one can view a situation
or problems.
From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught
in schools. Somehow, somewhere, knowledge.
1.5.5 Curriculum-in-Use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks
and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those
‘formal’ elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual
curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.
This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal and inherent lessons
may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending one
one’s views. Students who use the internet on a regular basis, both for
recreational purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, list servers, through instant
messenger, on-line conversations, or through personal emails and sites like
Facebook, My Space, Youtube) and from personal online research and
information are bombarded with all types of media and messages. Much of
this information may be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or
inspirational but other information may be very incorrect, dated, passé, biased,
perverse, or even manipulative.
The implications of the electronic curriculum for educational practices are that
part of the overt curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be wise
consumers of information, how to critically appraise the accuracy and
correctness of e-information, as well as the reliability of electronic sources.
Also, students need to learn how to be artfully discerning about the usefulness
and appropriateness of certain types of information. And like other forms of
social interaction, students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be
learned about appropriate and acceptable ‘netiquette’ and online behavior, to
include the differences between ‘fair usage’ and plagiarism.
Activity 1.3
?
1. To what extent does the ECD curriculum implement the societal
curriculum in ECD?
2. Which type of curriculum is being implemented in ECD in Zimbabwe?
Justify your choice.
3. Compare and contrast the covert curriculum and the hidden curriculum
in ECD context.
4. Discuss the applicability of electronic curriculum in ECD in Zimbabwe.
5. Examine the challenges that lead to the null curriculum in ECD.
Activity 1.4
1. In what way can technology be a facilitator or an obstacle in curriculum
? projects in ECD?
2. Evaluate any five determinants of the curriculum in ECD.
3. Justify this statement ‘Teacher qualifications and expertise play a role
in curriculum planning’.
1.7 Summary
In this unit we discussed different definitions of the term curriculum and their
implications in ECD. We also examined different types of curriculum and the
determinants of the curriculum. We observed that in ECD the curriculum should
be process oriented since this emphasizes on how children learn to learn.
References
Cortes, C.E. (1981). The Societal Curriculum: Implications for
Multiethnic Educations. National Education Association.
Doll, R.C. (1996). Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
Eisner, E.W. (1994). The Educational Imagination: On Design and
Evaluation of School Programmes. New York, McMillan.
Feeney, S., Christensen, D. and Moravick (1983). Who Am I in the lives of
Children?
Gordon, A. M. and Browne, K. W. (1993). Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. Delmar, New York.
Longstreet, W.S. and Shane, H. G. (1993). Curriculum for a new
Millennium. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.
McCarthy, M. A. and Houston, J.P. (1980). Fundamentals of Early
Childhood Education. Massachusetts, Winthrop.
Peresuh, M and Nhundu, T. (eds) (1998). Foundations of Education for
Africa. College Press. Harare.
Posner, G. and Rudnitsky, A (1982). Course Design: A Guide to Curriculum
Development for Teachers. New York, Longman.
Robson, H.F. and Schwartz, S.L. (1982). Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London, Allyn and Bacon.
http://www.uwsp.edu/education/lwilson/curric/curtyp.htm
http://classes.kumc.edu/son/nursedu/nrsg871/content/module01/curric-
definitions.htm
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
explain the concepts “curriculum planning and curriculum development
evaluate the relevance of specified curriculum development models in
ECD
assess the applicability of each model in developing the ECD curriculum
compare and contrast the models
Formulation of goals
DESIGN DISSEMINATION
New curriculum is planned or an old Curriculum consumers are prepared
curriculum is re-planned or reviewed for the intended implementation of
considering purpose fullness, content, the curriculum through distribution
methods, learning, experience and or publication of information, ideas
evaluation and notions, in service training and
workshops by curriculum designers
eg CDU
EVALUATION IMPLEMENTATION
Success and effectiveness of the curriculum The relevant curriculum is
are evaluated and its effect/impact on applied in schools by the
children. (Curriculum orientated and learner teachers and other relevant
– orientated and learner oriented evaluation) stakeholders
Activity 2.1
?
1. Explain the term model in your own words.
2. Examine the process of curriculum development.
3. To what extent are the Carls (1996) six phases of curriculum
development applicable in Zimbabwe.
You are being advised to also refer to unit 3 of BEDS308 for more information
on models.
In his book, Tyler (1949) suggests that, when planning a curriculum for a
centre/school the following questions need to be answered.
However, critiques observed that Tyler’s model is too simple and that evaluation
should not be a terminal process but should take place at every stage. The
model also looks like a closed system, a statement which assumes that the
major considerations are in the model.
Activity 2.2
?
1. Outline features of Tyler’s model.
2. Evaluate the applicability of the objectives model in planning the ECD
curriculum.
The curriculum in turn, guides the instructional system, which consists of both
content and strategies. In this system, there are two types of content that the
instructional planner selects, namely instrumental and curricular content. The
former content is used as a vehicle for instruction whereas the later is the
content learned. Johnson in Carl (1996) gives an example of computers literacy
as an instrumental content. Teaching number rhymes to help children remember
numbers is what he calls a Mnemomic device. Important concepts and skills
are two sorts of curricula content because the teacher has to teach them,
strategies specify what the teacher is to do with the content in order to facilitate
the intended learning.
In this model Johnson makes a distinction between process and product. For
Johnson, education consists of various processes (Ovals in the diagram below)
which include goals setting, curriculum development instructional planning,
instruction and development. Each process produces corresponding products
(rectangles in diagram below) that is goals, curriculum, instructional plans,
learning outcomes and educational results respectively. The centrality of this
process product distinction is what earns the model its designation as a
production model.
Activity 2.3
?
1. Discuss the main features of Johnson’s Model of curriculum
development.
2. Assess the relevance of Johnson model to curriculum planning in ECD.
3. Compare and contrast the objectives model and Johnson’s conceptual
model.
4. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of each of these two models
discussed above.
What sets these models apart is its recommended first stage of curriculum
decision making – curriculum conceptualization and legitimisation. The first
stage demands that participants engage in discussion regarding the participants
engage in discussions regarding the nature of the curriculum and its educational
and social political value. It requires decision makers to engage in a search for
understanding of curriculum as well as creating educational programmes to
enable them understands the nature and power of curriculum.
Planners also need to legitimize views of the curriculum and its purposes.
What should be known should have value, negotiated value. Why is what we
want to include in the curriculum legitimate activity? On what do we base our
decision? This is the strength of this model in the sense that no other model of
curriculum development stresses as clearly the need for conceptualization and
legitimization.
The second stage, curriculum diagnosis involves translating needs into causes
and generating goals and objectives from the needs. According to Kelly (1989)
context selection deals with the ‘what of the curriculum, what content is the
staff of the curriculum, what is taught and earned. It is the foundation of the
curriculum. The content refers to facts, concepts principles, theories and
generalization in this context content also refers to cognitive processes tat
learners employ when thinking about what to learn. Also content as process
refers to procedures learners learn to use to apply their knowledge and skills
and to communicate what they know to others.
The next step in the model is experience section. This stage deals with
instruction. How to deliver the content? What teaching methods will be
employed? What educational activities will be designed to make learners
effective and enjoyable and so on? At his stage the teacher also decides
instructional media to be used and so on.
After experiences have been selected, organized and matched with the content
of the programme the curriculum is ready for implementation. This is done in
two stages: an initial piloting of the curriculum to work out any minor challenges
in the programme and the final diffusion of the tested programme and the
second stage is the actual implementation one after adjusting the programme
in line with what was found in pilot testing.
The unique feature of this technical model is the feedback and adjustment
loop depicted by the dashed lines. This lop allows decision makers as they
proceed to refer back to previous stages and to make necessary modifications.
The feedback loop demotes dynamism. It draws on the principal that a system
is integrated into its environment. This aspect of the model contextualizes the
process of curriculum making.
Activity 2.4
?
1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Hunkin’s decision-making
models.
2. Examine any challenges that curriculum planers might face in using the
Decision making Model.
3. Examine the stages of the Decision making model showing the relevance
of each stag to the ECD curriculum planner.
4. Compare and contract Tyler’s model and Hunkin’s model of curriculum
development.
2.5. Summary
You might be interested to read about other models of curriculum
In this unit we defined the tem model and examined three types of curriculum
development model. Tyler’s model, Johnson’s conceptual model and Hunkin’s
decision making model. We also discussed their strengths and weaknesses
and how they can be used to develop a curriculum in ECD.
References
Beaty, J.B. (1999) Skills for Pre-School Teachers. Columbus Merrill.
Carl, A.E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: theory into practice Jata Capetown.
Kelly A.V (1989) The curriculum: Theory and Practice London
Posner, G. (19950 Analysing the Curriculum McGraw – Hill London
Robinson,. H. F./ and Schwartz, S. L. (1992) Designing Curriculum for
Early Childhood. London.
Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. (1998) Curriculum Development. A guide to practice
Macmillan N.Y
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
critically discuss ways of organizing the curriculum
discuss common guidelines for sequencing
examine learning outcomes of early childhood development
define terms such as content and sequence.
3.2.2 Sequencing
Sequencing curriculum requires using some logical basis for deciding what
comes next. Robinson and Schwartz (1982) pointed out that sequencing
means that the planner provides a series of learning activities based on some
idea or order. The sequencing of the curriculum is influenced by the planners
views about whether curriculum is content of process based.
Activity 3.1
?
1. Define the terms content, sequencing and process.
2. Distinguish between content oriented and process oriented curriculum.
3. In what way do the curriculum planners view of content influence the
way the curriculum is sequenced?
Link with the essential and specific learning outcomes of early childhood
development (whole child).
Be developmentally appropriate
Be relevant and meaningful to the group
Be multicultural and anti-bias (i.e. discourage prejudice)
These principles will be explained below:
3.3.1.1 The learning content should be directly linked to the essential and
specific learning outcomes of ECD. De Corte et al (1981:136) maintained
that ‘the learning content should be selected to give the best possible guarantee
that the children will learn the behavior set out in the learning outcomes’.
Hence, planners need to be aware of the learning outcomes. These learning
outcomes involve the development of the whole child. The close link between
the children’s physical, intellectual, social, emotional, moral and creative
development compels curriculum planners to select content that promote total
development of the child.
need to know and feel that they are valued by others and that they have a
rightful and important place in the society in which they live. Children need to
be taught knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to live and work together in
harmony. The content should therefore be anti-bias and multicultural. It should
counter prejudiced attitudes.
Activity 3.2
1. Discuss the principles which should be considered when selecting
? content for an ECD curriculum.
2. Explain how an ECD teacher can ensure that the content in the
curriculum is relevant and developmentally appropriate.
In section four we discussed how we can select content which is relevant,
developmentally appropriate, anti-bias and that matches the ability levels of
children. the next section we discuss principles to consider when sequencing
the curriculum.
According to Robinson and Schwartz (1982) different views about what comes
next in a programme or instructional sequence is traced to the dilemma of
logical content order versus developmental psychological order. Does the
logic for sequencing stem from the apparent steps in the subject matter to be
learned or from the order in which children develop understanding and build
knowledge? We could answer this question by conceptualizing the common
guidelines for sequencing.
Activity 3.3
1. Discuss any four sequencing principles that help ECD curriculum
? planners and teachers plan content sequences.
2. Outline and illustrate four sequencing principles that guide the design
of instructional processes or learning activities in ECD.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘begin where the child is’. Give implications for
the ECD teacher.
3.5.1 Articulation
A gap between ECD classes and the Grade 1 class means that the programme
prior to grade 1 does not appear to fit current programme expectations. There
seems to be a link between for example ECDB and Grade 1 content and
sometimes the programme goals as well. Teachers vary in curriculum goals,
methodology and related classroom programmes, the philosophical distance
between on playroom or classroom programme and the next differs.
Articulation problems in curriculum design include how to identify children’s
prior experiences and how to help children move into the programme. Ideally,
each year of schooling builds on prior years, and to do so some form of
articulation is required (Valiga and Magel, 2001).
3.5.5 Balance
Balance in curriculum means the children’s ebb and flow of energy and their
need for food, rest, spontaneity and social activities. This kind of balance is
achieved through daily schedule of activities alternating passive with active
periods and group times with independent activities.
Activity 3.4
?
1. Examine challenges in curriculum design in ECD. Suggest solutions.
2. ‘Children in ECD are learning to learn’. Explain the statement and
give implications for the curriculum designer and the ECD teacher.
3. Explain how balance could be maintained between process and product
in designing an ECD curriculum.
3.7 Summary
In this unit we identified principles and procedures for sequencing the ECD
curriculum. Distinction has been made basing sequencing on content or on
learning processes, on logic or on psychological processes. We concluded
that curriculum planners should make informed decisions on both content and
processes sequence. We also examined challenges in curriculum design. We
observed that constructing a curriculum from scratch is the major issue. It
usually requires deliberate decisions about what, why and how. The next unit
focuses on curriculum implementation.
References
Doll, R.C. (1996) Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston Allyn and Bacon.
Faber, R. (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria, UNISA
McCarthy, M. A. and Houston, J.P. (1980) Fundamentals of Early
Childhood Education. Massachusetts, Winthrop.
Morrison, G.S. (1995) Early Childhood Education Today. London, Merrill.
Posner, G. and Rudnitsky, A. (1992) Course Design: A Guide to Curriculum
Development for Teachers. New York, Longman.
Posner, G. J. (1995) Analysing the Curriculum. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Robinson, H. F. and Schwartz, S. L. (1992) Designing Curriculum for
Early Childhood. London.
Valiga, T. and Magel, C. (2001) Curriculum Definitions and Influencing
Factors. NLN Faculty Development Institute.
Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. (1998) Curriculum Development: A Guide to
Practice. New York, Macmillan
http://classes.kumc.edu/son/nursedu/mrsg87/content/module01/curri-
definitions.htm
http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4nl/edwards.html
http://www.uwsp.edu/Education/lwilson/curric/curtyp.htm
Curriculum Implementation
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be ale to:
explain terms such as dissemination, implementation and approach
evaluate factors that determine effective curriculum implementation in
ECD.
examine the characteristics of the informal teaching approaches.
discuss the role of the teacher in implementing the child centered/
informal teaching approach.
4.2.3 Approach
An approach is defined by (Wikipedia.org 2010) as a means of attaining a
goal or a method of dealing with issues of teaching. It is related to a theoretical
aspect in reaching more related to practical teaching and may use more than
one method of teaching. An approach is based on a theory and might see
more than one method for example the highscope approach is based on Piagets
theory and uses methods such as discovery, experimentation problem solving,
role play and so on. Some of these approaches will be explained in this module.
Penning (1986) said that informal teaching means teaching which takes place
in a well planned environment and provides the children with optimal
opportunities for self-discovery. Both the learners and the teacher are actively
involved in the teaching learning events. The children are free within limits, to
select and explore learning activities and eventually be assessed according to
their own interest and abilities and at their own pace. The teacher as a personal,
democratic relationship with each child so that the teacher can plan, present
and give assistance with learning opportunities for each individual child. Let
us explain the characteristics of the informal approach to enable use to
effectively implement the ECD curriculum.
The playroom and outdoor play areas are planned to provide a variety
of opportunities for playing and learning
The learning content links with the children’s interests and experience
and is flexible
The teaching method emphasises self-activity (active involvement) and
self- discovery (experimentation) by the children, which leads to
spontaneous learning.
The teacher is constantly assessing the children’s learning progress. By
observing the children the teacher can guide them to learn by discovery.
Discipline based on a democratic and open relationship between
teachers and learners. (Faber 1998:17). Let us now discuss each
characteristic in detail.
Plan to use different play areas each day to create a variety of opportunities
for the children to play, discover and learn.
interests. The content should make sense to the child (relevant) involve the
children in costing new themes/topics to make sure that the content is relevant
to them. In other words the content/experiences should be child centered and
child – directed. We need to also bear in mind that the content is just a means
to an end and not an end in itself since child centered approach is directed
towards leading learners to solve problems themselves, an end product is not
important. The learning process (how) is emhasised and to the product.
Mastering learning by rouute learning/memorization plays no part in ECD.
Learners use content to think logically, independently and to solve problems.
Self- activity (active involvement) the children are actively involved in the
learning process.
However, the methods one chooses to use also depends on the approach
being used at the centre. For example, we have centers which either use the
Montessori approach or the Reggio Emilia approach. The set up of the centers
differ from one approach to the other.
4.3.1.5 Planning
The teacher needs to thoroughly plan the playroom and the subject matter.
Progressivisms such as Devey Frocbel believe that playrooms must have
attractive play areas. This requires thorough planning as the areas must be
organized to offer the children a variety of opportunities for discovery and
learning. The playrooms have a relaxed, spontaneous atmosphere.
4.3.1.8 Discipline
The teacher’s approach to discipline is closely connected to the teacher-child
relationship. We believe in the principal of childhood innocence meaning that
children learn through making mistakes. Hence they should not be punished
for making mistakes. No corporal punishment is allowed and the teacher has
to be sympathetic and understanding towards children. However, this gentle
form of discipline does not give the learners absolute freedom. The teacher is
still the sympathetic and democratic authority figure.
4.3.1.9 Assessment
It is the responsibility of the teacher to observe and assess children’s progress.
This is done for the teacher to discover.
The right time to ask leading questions and to talk to the children to
guide them to new insights and knowledge during their play.
The right time to introduce additional materials to enrich the play of a
particular child and to create opportunities for further discoveries.
The potential, shortcomings, problems and interests of each individual
child provide important information for purposeful planning
Any special needs a child may have that require attention and help.
Activities should always be assessed in respect of choice, method of
presentation, possibilities for improvisation by the children and their own
contribution. This ongoing assessment helps the teacher to find out whether
the subject matter was relevant and interesting to the children, presentation
time was too long or too short and how much guidance the children need (Do
they need help or guidance?)
Activity 4.1
?
1. Examine four characteristics of the teaching approaches in ECD.
2. Discuss why the relevance of the learning content is an important
principal in early childhood, education
3. Describe four characteristics of the relationship between the teacher
and children in an ECD centre. Why are these characteristics important
4. Assess the role of the teacher in the child centered/informal teaching
approach in ECD.
4.4 Summary
The unit discussed curriculum implementation in ECD. Terms such as curriculum
dissemination implementation and approach were defined. The unit went on
to examine how the ECD curriculum can be implemented emphasizing the
informal/child-centered approach. Principals of the informal approach were
discussed and the role of the teacher in curriculum implementation was also
discussed. The next chapter will discuss the ECD daily programme.
References
Carl, A.E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town, Juta.
Faber, R. (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria, UNISA
Morrison, G. S. (1995) Early Childhood Education Today. Merrill, London
Robson, H. F. and Schwartz, S.L. (1982) Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London, Allyn and Bacon.
Schubert, W. H. (1986) Curriculum – Perspectives, Paradigm and
Possibility. New York, McMillan Publishing Company.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early-childhood-education
http://www.edweek.org/tm/1997/07mont.h08
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
define the concept “Daily programme”.
examine the major features of the daily programme and the role of the
teacher in each component.
plan the daily programme.
discuss the characteristics of a successful daily programme.
justify the guidelines when planning the daily programme.
5.2.2 Planning
According to Coll (1996), planning means setting objectives and prearranging
the details of the early childhood development programme in order to achieve
objectives for individuals and the group.
Hilderbrand (1986) went on to say that, planning requires time for studios,
thoughtful, quiet work. Plans are daily, weekly and yearly. They focus on
individual children, and their parents, on the group as a whole, on standards
and goals and on the interests and talents of children.
5.2.3 Organising
Organising means “putting in readiness the facility, equipment, materials,
strategies and procedures for coherent and cooperative action with the goal
of producing a high quality early childhood programme”. (Hildebrand
1986:84).
Robison and Schwartz (1982) pointed out that organising requires “getting
busy” after the quiet planning sessions. However, organising requires time,
energy and creativity of staff. Both planning and organising require that teachers
have knowledge of goals of young children, a philosophical base for the
Activity 5.1
1. Explain the meaning of the daily programme in ECD.
? 2. Discuss the importance of planning and organising the ECD daily
programme.
3. Examine the requirements for effective planning and organising the ECD
daily programmes.
Time Activity
0800 – 0830 Arrival, toilet, routine, health check, prayer
0830 – 0900 Free play outside
0900 – 0930 Toilet routine/wash
0930 – 1000 Teacher directed activity
1000 – 1030 Morning snack
1030 – 1145 Indoor free play and tidying up
1145 – 1245 Lunch hot meal
1245 – 1300 Toilet routine/wash
1300 – 1500 Rest/sleep
1500 – 1530 Outdoor play
1530 – 1600 Toilet routine/wash
1600 – 1630 Afternoon snack
1630 – 1715 Tidying up
1715 - 1730 Going home time
Table 5.3 Time allocation
The time allocation indicated below is based on the daily activities undertaken
at an ECD centre.
Activity Time
Arrival, welcome, roll call and health check 30 minutes
Indoor activities 45 – 50 minutes
Toilet routines 30 minutes
Teacher directed activities 60 minutes (3 activities)
Free play outdoor 45 – 50 minutes
Break 30 minutes
Tidying up and dismissal 10 – 15 minutes
Total hours 4 hours 10 minutes
Please note: Children be at the centre for a minimum of four hours but not
more than five hours.
5.3.1.1 Arrival
Arrival is an important time of the day. It is important that each child should
be greeted by his / her own teacher. This procedure enables the children to
feel secure and welcome. Children feel free if their teacher is there and knows
them by name.
5.3.1.8 Departure
The teacher needs to be present when children leave, just as he/she when
they arrived. Faber (1988) pointed out that it is important to ay good bye to
each child individually and to make some friendly remarks.
Activity 5.2
?
1. Justify the nature of the daily timetable in the ECD programme.
2. Discuss the importance of routines to child development and learning.
3. Explain why the teacher should be present when children arrive at and
depart from the centre.
Children living in high density suburbs will have different needs from
children from a rural farming or low density areas. For example children
who live in flats have little outdoor space hence when they are at the
centre they enjoy outdoor activities and might want to spent more time
than others.
The special needs of each child must be accommodated such as the
gifted and talented, the challenged (physically / intellectually) and
disadvantaged.
5.4.2 Provide Activities that Will Cater for the Whole Child
Faber (1998) points out a good timetable should include activities that foster
the development of the whole child. For physical development activities should
promote the development of fine and gross motor skills using activities such
as outdoor play area (climbing frames, swings, see saws), toileting and
refreshments. Emotional development can be enhanced by including activities
such as music and story time and religious and moral educators. Intellectual
and creative development is fostered by including activities such as story time
or music (Language development) science, block play, field trips and
educational games, puzzles, help the child to acquire problem solving skills as
well as the number and prescience skills. Aesthetic development is fostered
in activities such as Art and Craft, music and story time.
Take into account the following physical considerations. Layout of the centre,
school and the playroom. Ask yourself the following questions.
Activity 5.3
?
1. Examine factors you would consider when planning the timetable in
ECD.
2. Why should we consider weather when planning the ECD timetable?
3. Explain how you can plan a balanced ECD timetable?
Free play is “free” because the child chooses what he does, how he does it
how long he does it, with whom he does it. Free play is “play” because the
activity strikes so deep a chord of pleasure within the child. But free play is
learning. When learning stops, something is wrong. It is time for change.
Free play offers the freedom to select from a range of activities but it is never
free from the standards of good behaviour, which are always expected.
5.5.4 Preparation
Gordon and Browne (1991) maintain that the teacher must prepare and set
out all the play equipments and materials before children arrive. All media
must be in good order and available. Half an hour before school starts, the
different activities planned for the first free play period must be set out
attractively. It is also important to ensure that the playroom atmosphere is
welcoming and that children feel safe about playing and discovering.
5.5.6 Safety
Some activities are potentially dangerous, threading beads, climbing frames /
trees and so on. It is the duty of the teacher to supervise and ensure that the
children are informed about the possible changes. During outdoor play it is
important to keep a watchful eye and to ensure that the materials are safe and
unbroken.
5.5.9 Observation
There is need to observe all activities closely during the free play periods so
that children can be given the help and guidance they need. This procedure
assists the teacher to identify the needs of each individual child.
5.5.10 Assessment
The teacher has to assess the events of free play periods once its over so that
he/she might be able to decide whether it was successful or not and why. It
assists the teacher to make future plans.
The adult group discussion sessions assist children acquire social skills and
play habits which improve their concentration span. Adult guided group periods
are important because they contribute to the total development of the child,
that is, special development, aesthetic development, intellectual development,
moral development and creativity.
When planning adult guided periods take into account the following principles:
5.7.3 Enthusiasm
The teacher needs to enjoy and take an interest in what she presents for
children. Faber (1998:34) says, “If the teacher is half-hearted and uninterested,
the children will develop the same attitude”.
5.7.4 Discipline
Gordon and Browne (1991) pointed out that participation should never be
enforced. The teacher should not use negative discipline. It is important to
always discuss rules with the children so that they understand why they should
misbehave. Be realistic, consistent and flexible.
5.7.5 Observation
Watch the children all the time and adjust the presentation to their needs and
interests.
Activity 5.4
?
1. Justify the inclusion of free play periods in the ECD daily programme.
2. Examine the three main components of the daily programme.
3. Assess the role of adult guided periods to child development.
how they differ as individuals. It is getting a feeling for how they feel at different
times of the day”.
Activity 5.5
?
1. Examine the characteristics of a successful daily ECD programme.
2. Discuss how the daily timetable of an early childhood centre differs
from the primary school timetable.
3. The optimal development of children as a whole is the aim of early
childhood development. Discuss how this objective is being realised
in an ECD programme.
4. Balance is a vital factor in a successful daily programme. Justify this
statement by discussing balance as a requirement in the daily
programme.
5.9 Summary
In this unit we discussed how you can implement an ECD daily programme.
Three components of the daily programme we identified are, free play, adult
guided activities and routine activities. We observed that the teacher has an
important role to play if the programme is to achieve its intended objectives.
Planning and organising the learning environment is fundamental in ECD. The
teacher has to set the stage for effective learning to take place.
References
Bealy, J.B Skills for Preschool Teachers. Columbus Merrill.
Carl, A.E (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town. Juta
Gordon, A.M & Browne K.W (1991) Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. New York Delmar.
Faber, R (1998) Early Childhood Teaching. Pretoria UNISA.
Robison H.F & Schwartz, S.L (1992) Designing Curriculum for Early
Childhood. London.
Valiga, T and Magel C (2001) Curriculum Definitions and Influencing
Factors. NLN faculty Development Institute.
http:ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/Edwards.html.
http:www.wwsp.edu/Education/Wilson/curric/curryp.htm.
6.0 Introduction
A s pointed out in unit 5, the child activities and the programme need to
be monitored and evaluated in order to find out whether objectives
have been achieved and that the programme is relevant to the needs and
abilities of children. The Early Childhood curriculum goal is to develop the
whole child in all the developmental domains (i.e. social, physical, intellectual,
creative and emotional ‘SPICE’). Holistic development of a child can only
be achieved if children are exposed to relevant and developmentally
appropriate experiences. For one to find out if these milestones have been
achieved, one needs to evaluate the programme as a whole including the
children and the environment. This unit therefore discusses on how to evaluate
the programme, assess and monitor children’s progress.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104
6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
define assessment, monitoring, measurement and evaluation
discuss why an ECD teacher should monitor and evaluate programmes
examine the uses of observation in ECD
identify and describe types of instruments used to observation
discuss assessment in ECD
6.2.2 Assessment
Gordon and Browne (1995:167) say assessment ‘involves gathering
information systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal
or evaluation of children and their development’.
6.2.3 Evaluation
Carl (1995:178) defines evaluation as ‘that process during which a value
determination of the standard and outcome of the relevant curriculum is made’.
He goes on to say evaluation should take place on an ongoing basis as well as
during after each of the design, dissemination and implementation phases.
Evaluation according to Doll (1996) is the process of describing and judging
an educational programme. It involves the collection of descriptive data that
will be used to judge the worthiness of that particular programme in terms of
its effectiveness and applicability. Evaluation in ECD is making judgments
about something according to a specified standard. This means the programme
is being measured against a pre-set unit measure in order to find out whether
or not it is achievable.
6.2.4 Measurement
Measurement is defined by Gilley and Gilley (1980:3) as ‘the assigning of
exact and quantitative numbers to an object such as 3 kilogrammes, 4 metres’.
Faber (1998:12) simply defines measurement as ‘the administration and
scoring of tests’. Therefore, measurement refers to the process of assigning
numbers (scores) to the tests or examinations written by pupils. The process
initially involves selecting test items, designing marking guide, setting group
norms and assigning numbers to the work.
6.2.5 Assessment
Gordon and Browne (1995) say that assessment involves gathering information
systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal or evaluation
of children and their development. Faber (1998) says assessment means
making judgment of the child’s level of school readiness. The purpose of
assessment is to help teachers identify children with possible developmental;
delays of problems and help them assess children’s development in order to
plan programmes appropriately. This is done through informal observations
and formal techniques inorder to get a rich and full picture.
Activity 6.1
? 1.2. Explain in your own words the following terms: monitoring, evaluation,
measurement and assessment.
Compare and contrast monitoring and evaluation in ECD.
3. Discuss the educational implications of Fabers (1998) definition of
assessment to the ECD teacher.
read the child is involves asking yourselves questions such as, what are children
telling us about themselves? Which actions are important to note? You observe
how teachers use their bodies, how they relate to other people and in selecting
play materials and equipment children show what they like to do, how well
they use the environment and what they avoid.
Cohen and Stern in Gordon and Browne (1991) suggest that to become a
careful observer is to become in part a scientist. A good observer makes a
clear distinction between fact and influence between real behavior and an
impression or conclusion drawn from it.
impressions. Discussing works with other teachers and parents to help teachers
refine their observations skills and results leads into effective programme
planning. Teachers observe the room arrangement and use of space. For
example, are children stuck in play areas, are the traffic lanes safe and children
can move easily from one place to the other? Observations can clarify which
children are having problems and give teachers a sense of when and where
trouble starts.
6.3.3.1 Factors
What do you want to know?
Who and what do you want to observe?
What aspects of behavior do you want to know?
What is your purpose? (study the environment, observe the daily
schedule, evaluate a child’s skill or analyse transitions?)
6.3.3.2 System
What will you do, how will you record the information you need and
for how long will you record?
6.3.3.3 Tools
What will you need for your observations and how will you record
what you observe?
6.3.3.4 Environment
Where will you watch (outside, playroom) and what are the
restraints inherent in the setting?
Activity 6.2
?
1. What is observation in ECD?
2. Discuss the purposes of observation in teaching and learning in ECD.
3. Examine the common elements of observation.
‘On-the-Hoof’ Sporadic Ongoing during Quick and easy to Lack detail, need
Anecdotes class time, using take, short-capture to be filled in at
notepad and paper pertinent later time, can
in hand events/details detract from
teaching
responsibilities
Experimental Short and uniform May be checklists, Simple, clear, pure Difficult, hard to
procedures pre-arranged study, relatively isolate in the
recording sheets, bias free classroom
audio or video
tape
Clinical method Any time Usually notebook Relevant data, can Adult has changed
or tape recorder be spontaneous, naturally occurring
easy behaviour
Activity 6.3
?
1. Compare and contrast time sampling and event sampling.
2. Discuss three types of narratives that can be used to record children’s
behaviour in ECD.
3. Justify any five types of observations used in ECD.
6.4 Assessment
As discussed in section 6.2, assessment involves gathering information
systematically with the purpose of making some kind of appraisal or evaluation
of children and their development. Assessment is done to help teachers identify
children with possible developmental delays or problems and help them assess
children’s development in order to plan programmes accordingly (Gilley and
Gilley, 1990). Assessment can be done informally through observation as
discussed in section 6.3 or it can be done formally.
In some classes teachers also use criterion referenced tests. The criterion
referenced tests reflect a child’s degree of mastery of a skill or sequence
of skills but do not compare the child with other children. Teachers
also use teacher made tests in order to assess children’s progress.
Tests as a method of assessing the child’s level of development. Faber (1998)
points out that teacher made tests or commercially made tests are used by
teachers to assess their children’s level of development. However, tests have
the following disadvantages in ECD.
The young child’s language abilities are limited and this may result in the
misunderstanding of instructions which would, in turn, lead to false test
results.
The emotional aspect of a young child is a very important component
of his total make up. It is very difficult to test or assess the child’s
emotions during a test situation.
Young children are eager to please adults, they may therefore respond
in the way they think the adult wants them to respond, instead of the
way they think is the correct way.
Reasons related to the test
Tests do not give a total picture of the child, as they tend to focus on
abilities that are easy to measure, the child’s visual (seeing) and auditory
(hearing) perceptions
Tests are not always valid (true) and reliable (trustworthy) for all cultural
groups. Children from poor, rural areas in particular are discriminated
against.
Administering a test to young children is not an easy matter, since the
child’s behavior and performance are influenced by the test
administrator, the test situation and the unfamiliar nature of the test
environment.
Tests can so easily be misused, teaching can become test orientated
(teaching the test).
6.5 Summary
This unit discussed about monitoring of the ECD programme. The unit focused
on observation and assessment tools which can be used by the teacher to find
out the strengths and weaknesses of the children. We also noted that the
teacher needs to behave like a camera when assessing children so that he/she
may be able to be objective in their assessment.
References
Carl, A. E. (1995) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Cape Town, Juta.
Cohen, D. H. and Stern, V (1983) Observing and Recording the Behaviour
of Young Children. New York, Teacher’s College Press.
Gilley, J. M. and Gilley, B.H (1980) Early Childhood Development and
Education. Albany, Delma.
Gordon, A. M. and Browne, K.W. (1995) Beginnings and Beyond:
Foundations in Early Childhood Education. Albany, Delma.
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/early-childhood-education
7.0 Introduction
I have studied the child. I have taken what the child has given me and
expressed it and that is what is called the Montessori method’
(Wikipedia.org 2010:9). The unit focuses on the Montessori method. In this
unit, we shall discuss the basic concepts of the Montessori curriculum can be
effectively implemented in the teaching learning process in ECD.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104
7.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
discuss the basic concepts of the Montessori approach.
outline the Montessori curriculum and examine its relevance to ECD.
explain the role of the teacher in implementing the Montessori approach.
critically discuss the characteristics of the prepared environment.
The Montessori method developed from experimental research that Dr. Maria
Montessori conducted with disabled and mentally challenged children in the
early 1900’s. She began this research using the basic idea of scientific education
that was developed and employed in the 1800’s with special needs children
by French physicians Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin. A student and associate
of Itard, Seguin extended Itard’s initial idea of observing children in their natural,
free activity by adding a series of exercises with specially designed self-teaching
materials. Based on Dr. Montessori success using this same approach in her
initial research with disabled and physically challenged children, she began to
look for an opportunity to study how it might be applied to benefit the education
of more ordinary children as well.
7.3 Philosophy
The philosophy of the Montessori method has remained somewhat obscure
and confused because Dr. Montessori’s 1907 discovery of the child’s true
nature was entirely accidental. Throughout her life, Dr. Montessori never
described the method that evolved from her discovery in great detail, speaking
and writing instead more about the effects of the method on children, rather
than the method itself. The question of its underlying philosophy was therefore
left to others which eventually led in several different directions. For some,
the method was closely linked to Dr. Montessori’s personality, so that when
practiced outside her direct control and presence, it was diluted and misapplied
such as to conform to the needs and interests of the particular cultural context.
Confusion and conflict about the method’s philosophy emerged with particular
intensity in the modern development of Montessori in the United States where,
in 1967, the name ‘Montessori’ was held to be a ‘generic term’ that no
organization could claim for its own exclusive use. Since then, the number
and diversity of Montessori organisations and philosophies have expanded
considerably.
A second major philosophy developed around the idea that the method is
controlled by the surrounding culture within which it is operating at the time.
This culture-type philosophy defines the method to fit within the popular theories
and ideas of conventional thinking of the day. For example, in this philosophy,
the particular effects of the method as described by Dr. Montessori in 1907
would be explained as due to the unique Italian context of that day, which is
not possible to replicate with children in a different place and time.
A third main philosophy holds that the Montessori method reflects a way of
being committed to infinite and eternal laws of nature, which is outside the
context of either personality or culture. This philosophy has been described
as a scientific way of following laws of nature to bring about true normal
being. In 2003, a new comprehensive technology was announced for
practicing this particular philosophy. According to Robson and Schwartz
(1996) Montessori approach reflects a theoretical Kinship with progressivists
such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Sequin and Hard. Montessori believed in
children’s natural intelligence involving from the start rational, empirical and
spiritual aspects. A constructivist, Montessori posited an active child eager
for knowledge and prepared to learn, seeking perfection through reality, play
and work.
7.3.1 Concepts
7.3.1.1 Inner Guidance of Nature. All children have inherent inner directives
from nature which guide their true normal development.
7.3.1.7 Absorbent Mind. The young child (0-6) has an absorbent mind
which naturally incorporates experiences in the environment directly into its
basic character and personality for life. This mental faculty, which is unique to
young children, allows them to learn many concepts in an effortless,
spontaneous manner. It also allows them to undergo the key phenomenon of
normalization to return to their true natural development. After the age of
about six, this absorbent mental faculty disappears.
This is the time of the unconscious absorbent mind whereas age 3-6 is the
time of the ‘conscious absorbent mind’ in both the child seeks sensory input,
regulation of movement, order and freedom to choose activities and explore
them deeply without interruption in a carefully (serene and beautiful)
environment that help the child to choose well.
analyse how children learn. After extensive research, she concluded that they
build themselves from what they find in their environment. Montessori
education is a combination of philosophy, psychology, educational theory and
instructional materials guided by an understanding of developmental stages
and respect for individual characteristics. Through her years of experience
with children around the world, Dr. Montessori proved that children are able
to learn to read, write and calculate as easily and naturally as they learn to
walk and talk. Children develop practical and intellectual abilities through
individual discovery and exploration of language, mathematics, geography,
geometry, art and music. Teachers keep detailed records and notes about
each individual child’s lessons. Progress in social and emotional development
is also noted (Coulter, 1991).
7.6.2 Sensorial
The sensorial materials provide a range of activities and exercises for children
to experience the natural order of the physical environment, including such
attributes as size, colour, shape and dimension. Many of these materials were
originally suggested and developed by Seguin in his prior research with
scientific education. Examples of these materials are: pink tower (series of
7.6.3 Mathematics
In this area, materials are provided to show such basic concepts as numeration,
place value, addition, subtraction, divisions and multiplication. For numeration,
there is a set of ten rods, with segments coloured red and blue and ‘spindle
boxes’, which consist of placing sets of objects in groups, 1-10, into separate
compartments. For learning the numeral symbols, there is a set of sandpaper
numerals, 1-9. For learning addition, subtraction and place value, materials
provide decimal representation of 1, 10, 100 etc. in various shapes made of
beads, plastic or wood. Beyond the basic math materials, there are materials
to show the concept of fraction, geometrical relationships and algebra, such
as the binomial and trinomial theorems (Loeffler, 1992).
7.6.4 Language
In the first plane of development (0-6), the Montessori language materials
provide experiences to develop use of a writing instrument and the basic skills
of reading a written language. For writing skill development, the metal insets
provide essential exercises to guide the child’s hand in following different outline
shapes while using a pencil or a pen. For reading, a set of individual letters,
commonly known as sandpaper letters, provide the basic means for associating
the individual letter symbols with their corresponding phonetic sounds.
Displaying several letters, a lesson, known as the Seguin three-period lesson
(see below), guides children to learn the letter sounds, which finally blend
together to make certain simple phonetic words like ‘up’ and ‘cat’. The aim
of these nomenclature lessons is to show the child that letters make sounds,
which can be blended together to make words.
7.6.6 Lessons
In the Montessori method, a lesson is an experimental interaction with children
to support their true normal development. With materials, theses lessons
primarily aim to present their basic use to children according to their own
individual interests. These lessons are therefore given in such a way that the
teacher’s personal involvement is reduced to the least amount possible, so as
not to interfere with the child’s own free learning directly through the materials
themselves.
Period 1 consists of providing the child with the name of the material.
In the case of letter sounds, the teacher will have the child trace the
letter and say, ‘This is /u/. This is /p/’. This provides the children with
the name of what they are learning.
Period 2 is to help the child recognize the different objects. Some things
the teacher might say are, ‘Show me the /u/. Show me the /p/’ or
‘Point to the /u/. Point to the /p/.’ After spending some time in the
second period, the child may move on to period 3.
Period 3 involves checking to see if the child not only recognizes the
name of the material, but is able to tell you what it is. The teacher will
point to the ‘u’ sandpaper letter and ask the child, ‘What is this?’ If the
child replies with ‘uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu’, the child fully understands it.
With letters, the lesson finally ends with the child blending the letters to
make a simple word, such as ‘up’. From the above discussion periods
two and three apply from grades 1 to 3.
7.6.7 Homeschooling
The Montessori method is readily employed with children at home. With
young children, the practical life materials and exercises are provided through
everyday household activities and chores, such as setting the table for meals,
food preparation and folding clothes for laundry. Parents follow the method
by using slow, simple movements in showing how to do these chores, as well
as by establishing routines for children to conduct their own activities with as
much independence and self-direction as possible.
According to Ruenzel (1997), the teachers goals is to help and encourage the
children, allowing them to develop confidence and inner discipline so that
there is less and less need to intervene as the child develops. Interrupting
children when engaged in purposeful activity interferes with their momentum,
interest and inner workings of thought. During the early childhood years, the
teacher brings the child into close contact with reality through sensory
investigation and practical activity and then relies on the child’s unfolding inner
programme of curiosities and sensitivities to ensure that the child will learn
what he or she needs.
The method is Montessori and Montessori is the method and one may well
have grave doubts about how it will go with ‘auto-education’ when Maria
Montessori’s personality is removed’.
This close association between the method and Dr Montessori led to many
conflicts and lack of collaboration to extend research into the method itself.
For example, despite new insight and greater knowledge available fro applying
the method in a scientific manner, the philosophical differences of personality
and culture still exist to cloud and confuse its representation to the general
public (Greenwald, 1999).
7.9 Summary
The Montessori approach offers a broad vision of education as an aid to life.
It is designed to help children with their task of inner construction as they
grow from childhood to maturity. It succeeds because it draws its principles
from the natural development of the child. Its flexibility provides a matrix
within which each individual child’s inner directives freely guide the child toward
wholesome growth.
References
Carl, A. E. (1996) Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum
Development: Theory into Practice. Jata. Capetown.
Chattin-McNicholls, J. (1992a) Montessori Controversy. New York,
Delma.
Chattin-McNicholls, J. (1992b) Montessori and Steiner: A Pattern of
Reverse Symmetries. Holistic Education Review (online), 4 (2)
http://www.oakmeadow.com/resources/articles/coulter.htm (2002)
Doll, R. C. (1996) Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process. Boston Allyn and Bacon.
Gandini, L and Edwards, C. (eds) (2001) Bambini: The Italian Approach
to Infant-toddler care. New York, Teachers College Press.
Greenwald, D.C. (1999) Pikkler and Montessori: A Theoretical Dialogue.
Unpublished Masters Thesis. Pacific Oaks College Pasadna.
Haines, A. M. (2000) Montessori in Early Childhood: Positive Outcomes
among social, moral, cognitive and emotional dimensions. NAMTA
Journal, 25(2), pp27-59.
Humphryes, J. (1998) The Developmental Appropriateness of High-quality
Montessori Programs. Young Children, 53(43), 4-16.
Loeffler, M. H. (1992) Montessori in Contemporary American Culture.
Portsmouth, Heinemann.
Montessori and Chattin-McNicholls J (1995) The Absorbent Mind. New
York, Holt.
Oppenheimer, T.(1999) Schooling the Imagination Atlantic Monthly,
284(3), 71-83
8.0 Introduction
I n this unit we focus on childhood development. The unit will examine the
historical background of the approach and its philosophy, the main
characteristics of the approach including the philosophy and the lessons we
learn from the approach.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104
8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
explain the history and philosophy of the Reggio Emilia Approach.
examine the characteristics of the approach.
assess the relevance of the approach to learning in ECD.
assess the applicability of the approach to ECD in Zimbabwe.
discuss the lessons learnt from the approach.
The key components that are derived from the philosophy and which teachers
should take into consideration are:
Activity 8.1
?
1. Discuss the philosophy behind the Reggio Emilia Approach to learning
in ECD.
2. Examine the applicability of Malaguzzi’s vision of ‘Education based on
relationships’ in Zimbabwean ECD programme.
around the world including in the US have adopted. The Reggio Emilia
philosophy is based upon the following set of principles:
Children must have some control over the direction of their learning.
Children must be able to learn through experiences of touching, moving,
listening, seeing and hearing.
Children have a relationship with other children and with material items
in the world that children must be allowed to explore
Children must have endless ways and opportunities to express
themselves.
The Reggio Emilia approach to teaching young children puts the natural
development of children as well as the close relationships that they share with
their environment at the centre of its philosophy. Early childhood programmes
that have successfully adapted to this educational philosophy share that they
are attracted by Reggio because of the way it views and respects the child.
Parents are a vital component to the Reggio Emilia philosophy. Parents are
viewed as partners, collaborators and advocates for their children. Teachers
respect parents as each child’s first teacher and involve parents in every aspect
of the curriculum. It is not uncommon to see parents volunteering within
Reggio Emilia classroom/playrooms throughout the school. This philosophy
does not end when the child leaves the classroom/playroom. Most parents
who choose to send their children to a Reggio Emilia programme incorporate
many of the principles within their parenting and home life. Even with this
bridge between school and home, many people wonder what happens to
Reggio Emilia school. The answer is that there is some adjustment that must
take place. In most school environments, intellectual curiosity is rewarded,
so students continue to reap the benefits of Reggio after they have left the
programme.
8.5.2 Curriculum
The curriculum is characterized by many features advocated by contemporary
research on young children, including real-life problem solving among peers,
with numerous opportunities for creative thinking and exploration. Teachers
often work on projects with small groups of children, while the rest of the
class engages in a wide variety of self-selected activities typical of pre-school
classrooms.
The projects that teachers and children engage in are distinct in a number of
ways from those that characterize American teachers’ conceptions of unit or
thematic studies. The topic of investigation may derive directly from teacher
observations of children’s spontaneous play and exploration. Project topics
are also selected on the basis of an academic curiosity or social concern on
the part of teachers or parents, o serendipitous events that direct the attention
of the children’s predisposition to enjoy the unexpected. Regardless of their
origins, successful projects are those that generate a sufficient amount of interest
and uncertainty to provoke children’s creative thinking and problem-solving
and are open to different avenues of exploration. Because curriculum decisions
are based on developmental and socio-cultural concerns, small groups of
children varying abilities and interests, including those with special needs, work
together on projects.
Projects begin with teachers observing and questioning children about the
topic of interest. Based on children’s responses, teachers introduce materials,
questions and opportunities that provoke children to further explore the topic.
While some of these teacher provocations are anticipated, projects often move
in unanticipated directions as a result f problems children identify. Thus,
curriculum planning and implementation revolve around open-ended and often
long term projects that are based on the reciprocal nature of teacher-directed
and child-initiated activity. All of the topics of interest are given by the children.
Within the project approach, children are given opportunities to make
connections between prior and new knowledge while engaging in authentic
tasks.
Each school also has an Atelier or project studio that provides a space for
small groups of children to work on projects over an extended period of time.
Children are naturally drawn to materials relating to art. A variety of media
are provided in the studio and children are encouraged to explore and create
with them on a daily basis.
Our expectations of the child must be very flexible and varied. We must be able
to be amazed and enjoy like children often do. We must be able to catch the
ball that children throw us, and toss it back to them in ways that make the
children want to continue the game with us, developing perhaps other games
as we go along.
the school with the surrounding community. The importance of the environment
lies in the belief that children can best create meaning and make sense of their
world through environments which support ‘complex, varied, sustained and
changing relationships between people, the world of experience, ideas and
the many ways of expressing ideas.
The preschools are generally filled with indoor plants and vines and awash
with natural light. Classrooms open to centre pizza, kitchens are open to
view, and access to the surrounding community is assured through wall-size
windows, courtyards and doors to the outside in each classroom. Entries
capture the attention of both children and adults through the use of mirrors
(on the walls, floors and ceilings), photographs and children’s work
accomplished by transcriptions of their discussions. These same features
characterize classroom interiors, where displays of project work are
interspersed with arrays of found objects and classroom materials. In each
case, the environment informs and engages the viewer.
Other supportive elements of the environment include ample space for supplies,
frequently rearranged to draw attention to their aesthetic features. In each
classroom there are studio spaces in the form of a large, centrally located
atelier and a smaller mini-atelier and clearly designated spaces for large and
small group activities. Throughout the school, there is an effort to create
opportunities for children to interact. Thus, the single dress-up area is in the
centre piazza; classrooms are connected with telephones, passageways or
windows and lunchrooms and bathrooms are designed to encourage
community. Groups of children will stay with one particular teacher for a
three year period, creating consistency and an environment where there are
no added pressures from having to form new relationships.
While working on projects with the child, the teacher also expands the child’s
learning by collecting data such as photographs, notes, videos and
conversations that can be viewed at a later time. The teacher needs to maintain
an active, mutual participation in the activity to help ensure that the child clearly
While working on projects with the child, the teacher can also expand the
child’s learning by collecting data such as photographs, notes, videos and
conversations that can be reviewed at a later time. The teacher needs to
maintain an active mutual participation in the activity to help ensure that the
child clearly understands what is being ‘taught’.
8.6 Summary
Reggio Emilia’s approach to early education reflects a theoretical kinship with
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner among others. Much
of what occurs in the class reflects a constructivist approach to early education.
Reggio Emilia’s approach does challenge some conceptions of teacher
competence and developmentally appropriate practice. For example, teachers
in Reggio Emilia assert the importance of being confused as a contributor to
learning, thus a major teaching strategy is purposely to allow mistakes to
happen, or to begin a project with no clear sense of where it might end.
Another characteristic that is counter to the beliefs of many Western educators
is the importance of the child’s ability to negotiate in the peer group.
One of the most challenging aspects of the Reggio Emilia approach is the
solicitation of multiple points of view regarding children’s needs, interests and
abilities and the concurrent faith in parents, teachers, and children to contribute
in meaningful ways to the determination of school experiences. Teachers
trust themselves to respond appropriately to children’s ideas and interests,
they trust children to be interested in things worth knowing about and they
trust parents to be informed and productive members of a cooperative
educational team. The result is an atmosphere of community and collaboration
that is developmentally appropriate for adults and children alike.
References
Cadwell, L. B. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia Home: An Innovative
Approach to Early Childhood Education. New York, Teachers
College Press.
Cadwell, L. B. (2002). Bringing Learning to Life: An Innovative Approach
to Early Childhood Education. New York, Teachers College Press.
Gandini, L. (1984). Not Just Anywhere: Making the Child Care Centres in to
‘Particular’ Places. ‘innings’.
Hewett, V. (2001). Examining the Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood
Education. Early Childhood Education Journal.
Katz, L. (1990). ‘Impressions of Reggio Emilia Preschools. Young Children.
New, R. (1991). ‘Early Childhood Teacher Education in Italy: Reggio Emilia’s
Master Plan for Master Teachers’. The Journal of Early Childhood
Teacher Education
New, R. (1991). ‘Projects and Provocations: Preschool Curriculum Ideas
from Reggio Emilia Montessori Life.
New, R. (1993). ‘Italian Child Care and Early Education: Armor Maternus
and Other Cultural Contributions’. In M. Cochran (Ed), International
Handbook on Child Care Policies and Programs. Westport,
Greenwood Press. ’. The Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education
New, R. (1992). ‘The Integrated Early Childhood Curriculum: New
Perspectives from Research and Practice. In C. Seefeldt (Ed), The
Early Childhood Curriculum: A Review of Current Research.
Revised Edition. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia
University.
Topal, C. W. (2008). Explorations in Art, Kindergarten Program.
Worcester, MA: Davis Publications, Inc.
Wurm, J. (2005). Working in the Reggio Way: A Beginner’s guide for American
Teachers. ‘St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
9.0 Introduction
I n unit three we discussed about the subject centred curriculum and its
effects on teaching and learning in ECD. In this unit we discuss another
type of the curriculum which is the integrated curriculum. The explanation of
the integration curriculum shall be given as well as the rationale and the principle
areas of argument surrounding curriculum integration.
Curriculum Issues in Early Childhood Development Programmes ECD 104
9.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
define curriculum integration
describe the integrated curriculum appropriate for young children
justify the rationale behind the integration curriculum in ECD
discuss the applicability of the integrated curriculum in ECD
compare and contrast the subject based and the integrated curriculum
Activity 9.1
?
1. In your own words explain the terms curriculum and curriculum
integration.
2. Describe an appropriate integrated curriculum for children in ECD.
‘if we accept the view that the central concerns of the curriculum are to transmit
certain kinds of valuable knowledge and to do this in such a way as to make clear
to pupilsthta they are divided up into certain timeless and discrete forms of
rationality.’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:151).
Kelly (1982) asks why curriculum integration has ever been seen as a problem
and suggests that this is the result of looking at it from the point of view of this
one particular theory of knowledge. Hirst, for example, sees knowledge as
being organized into several discrete ‘forms of understanding’ (Hirst, 1974:48),
while Phenix (1964:6) talks of six ‘realms of meaning’ which he categorises
as ‘symbolics, empirics, esthetics, synnoetics, ethics and synoptic.
Empiricists, however, claim that subjects ‘should not be seen as the base
from which the curriculum is organized, that such divisions should be natural
and make sense to the child in the organization of his/her knowledge and not
presented as derived from some notion of subjects, disciplines or ‘forms’.
(Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:151).
The work of Piaget and Bruner in Blenkin and Kelly (1987) showed that the
gap between philosophy and psychology in the discussion of education is not
as wide or as clearly recognizable as some believe. This is a point ‘which
may in itself tell us something about the integration of knowledge’ (Blenkin
and Kelly, 1987:146). The theories of learning posited by Piaget, Bruner and
others suggest that we should be planning education ‘in terms of developmental
process’, trying to develop ‘a unity of understanding in the mind of the individual
pupil’ (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987:131). Dewey felt it important that the child
should organize his/her own knowledge, not have it done for him/her and
Kelly (1982) suggests that motivation, interests and relevance are all
psychological factors in favour of curriculum integration.
Kelly points out that some themes can only be dealt with in an integrated
curriculum. ‘no adequate examination of racial problems or relations between
the sexes, for example, can be undertaken with any one discipline’ (Kelly,
1978:91). In his later book he also suggests that ‘a changing society will
inevitably create new bases for the organization of knowledge. It is important
to avoid what Whitehead (1932:8) called ‘inert knowledge’.
Schwab underlines this point about the changing nature of knowledge. ‘The
revisionary character of scientific knowledge accrues from the continuing
assessment and modification of substantive structures’ (Schwab in Carl,
1996:266). Pointing out the danger of a purely dogmatic, inculcative curriculum,
Schwab suggests that unless pupils appreciate the limitations if the enquiry
The proposed National Curriculum takes this process a huge step further. It is
couched entirely in terms of traditional subjects with one the of barest
acknowledgement of the fact that most schools can not work in this way. It is
based on a view which:
It is concerned with the learning of subjects rather than learning through them,
the emphasis is on content as the prime concern in curriculum planning, content
which can be divided up into neat parcels.
In ECD there have been moves in recent years to break down some of the
barriers between the traditional subjects and the examination, though based
on the subject areas, has injected welcome aspects of the principle of
integration into the ECD curriculum. Unfortunately, the National Curriculum
is likely to erode the progress that has been made by its insistence that the
vast majority of time is spent on traditional subjects. This has a knock-on
effect on ECD centres which have to bear in mind issues of progression and
continuity between ECD and primary schooling.
But perhaps it is the call for greater accountability – involving the use of extensive
testing of pupils – which poses the greatest threat to curriculum integration:
9.7 Guidelines
Each classroom teacher will be responsible for planning and implementing a
minimum of one integrated unit per term with their class.
9.7.1 Content
The selection of worthwhile content is essential if an integrated curriculum is
to be effective. The content can be packaged in the form of particular topics
around which units of work are developed.
The topics selected for these units need to be based around key understandings
and the Essential Learnings. The Essential Learning as advocate sets of
concepts of understandings in the areas of communicating, thinking, personal
futures, world futures and social responsibility that need to be covered. Topics
also need to be meaningful and be vehicles for assisting students to learn
about the world.
Units of work will focus on processes, skills and conventions as well as content.
Units of work will show a sequential development of concepts and skills.
9.7.3 Planning
All integrated units must be planned for using a suitable planning profoma.
Teachers must plan for processes, skills and conventions as well as content.
Planning of the integrated curriculum can involve the class, teacher or the
whole staff.
9.7.4 Assessment
We assess students to improve their learning. Assessment provides us with
information that, in turn, informs our planning for each child’s learning. The
diagnoses we make on the basis of assessment data helps modify plans and
tailor our work to suit the needs of the individual and the group.
Rubrics (Recommended)
Concept and mind mapping
Role play
Self and group assessment surveys
Peer assessment
Reflective learning logs
Teacher-student interviews
Diagrams, drawings and other visual representations
Cloze
Teacher and student designed tests and quizzes
Statements of generalisations at the beginning and end of the unit
The assessment process should include assessment of skills, attitudes and
values, as well as knowledge and understandings. Assessment should take
place throughout the unit as well as the end of the unit. Assessment procedures
will be reviewed regularly to ensure they are consistent with the ELs learning,
teaching and assessment guide.
9.7.5 Evaluation
All staff are responsible for evaluating their integrated unit. The following
questions will help guide the processes of evaluating a unit of work:
How well did students grasp the key understandings around which unit
was based? Are there remaining issues that need to be addressed in
subsequent units?
How inclusive was the unit? Did the resources or activities exclude
certain students? How could this be rectified in the future?
How well did students participate in the unit? How enthusiastic were
they about the topic? Were there some students who lacked interest
and motivation? What could be done about this in the future?
9.7.6 Sharing
To facilitate sharing of integrated units, all teachers will place a copy of their
completed integrated curriculum planning sheet in the integrated curriculum
folder by term 3. The integrated curriculum coordinator will be responsible
for maintaining the folder and collating work for staff to access.
9.8 Summary
In this unit we have observed that using an integrated curriculum in ECD
programmes responds to such questions as why integrate the curriculum?
How can curriculum be best designed to cater for all learners? Is there enough
time? Can we extend the range of learning experiences by differentiating
curriculum? How can we widen opportunities for learning when teaching?
We have also seen that theorists argue that skills, values and understandings
are best taught and assessed within meaningful connected contexts (Murdoch,
1998).
References
Blenkin, P. and Kelly, A.V. (1987). The Primary Curriculum: A Process
Approach to Curriculum Planning. London, Harper and Row.
Coll, C (1996). Tools for Teaching and Learning in the Integrated
Classroom. New York, Brown Low.
Hirst, P. H. (1974). Moral Education in a Secular Society. London, U.L.P.
Kelly, A.V. (1982). The Curriculum: Theory and Practice. London, Harper
and Row.
Phenix, P.H. (1964). Realms of Meaning: A Philosophy of the Curricula
for General Education. New York, McGraw Hill.
Pring, R. (1976). Knowledge and Schooling. Wells, Open Books.
Murdoch, K. (1998). Classroom Connections for Integrating Learning.
London, Curtain.
http://www.molecreek.tased.edu.au/integratedcurriculumpolicy.htm
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/earlycld/ea51k7.htm
http://www.dg.dial.pipex.com/articles/educ06.shtml.
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
explain the philosophy and theory behind the Highscope approach.
examine the basic principles of the approach.
evaluate the relevance and applicability of the approach to the teaching
and learning process in ECD.
critique the approach.
10.2 Origin
The highscope is an approach of running a preschool or Early Childhood
Development centre developed in the United States in the 1960s. As director
of special services in Michigan, David Weikart became increasingly interested
in the failure of a number of at-risk high scholars from poor neighborhoods.
These students did poorly on district wide, standardized tests and also received
low scores in IQ assessments. According to Hohmann and Weikart (2002),
Weikart brought together and collaborated with, a committee of elementary
education leaders and formed a project called the Perry Pre-school project
in 1962. Members discussed possible changes to teaching methods and
curriculum choices. While searching for better teaching methods and
programmes, Weikart zeroed in on programmes for 3 and 4 year olds. He
opened Michigan’s first preschool which was manned by four teachers.
The Weikart pre-school teachers chose to differ from traditional nursery school
settings by designing a programme that focused on a child’s intellectual
maturation rather than a child’s social and emotional advances. They wanted
a programme that:
Activity 10.1
with the support of the adults to encourage, extend those ideas and provide
opportunities to solve problems. Clean-up time is naturally integrated into the
plan-do-review cycle at the end of work time. At this time children return
materials to their labeled places on open shelves. The other elements of the
highscope daily routine are small group time and circle time. Small group may
be used to develop closer relationships between teacher and children in which
the teacher plans the materials for small group and begins the session, but
leaves the remainder of the time to the children to explore the materials in an
open-ended fashion. During circle time, the whole group meets together with
an adult for 10-15 minutes to play games, sing songs or do basic movement
activities.
10.3.2.3 Consistency
To become confident, independent learners, children need consistency. The
highscope approach provides this through the daily routine, the organization
of the learning environment and the ways that the adults interact with the
children.
Clean up time
Recall time
Snack time
Large group time
Small group time
Outside time
Departure
Staff team planning
Using language
Representing experiences and ideas
Developing logical reasoning involving classification, seriation and number
concepts
Understanding time and space
The adult’s role in this can be described as that of an instigator of problem-
solving opportunities.
As discussed above, through the use of the highscope model, a child’s active
learning focuses on a variety of key experiences. These key experiences,
according to Blueskies (2000), involve children in activities such as pretending
and role playing, having fun with languages, building relationships with other
children and adults, expressing creativity in movement, singing, sorting and
matching, counting objects, fitting together and taking apart objects, learning
routines and anticipating events.
Activity 10.2
?
1. Discuss how you can apply the principles of highscope approach in an
ECD playroom.
2. Describe the components of the child friendly environment in highscope
approach.
3. Discuss the role of parents/caregivers in the implementation of this
approach.
4. Justify the use of the highscope philosophy in ECD.
Activity 10.3
?
1. How does the highscope playroom environment assist holistic
development of the child?
2. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of using themes as a
teaching-learning strategy in ECD.
3. Discuss the applicability of the highscope curriculum in an ECD A
playroom.
Activity 10.4
1. Discus the strengths and weaknesses of the highscope approach to
? ECD.
2. ‘Highscope teachers and caregivers are trained to participate as partners
in children’s activities rather than relate to children’. Discus the meaning
of this statement and give implications for the teacher education
programme in Zimbabwe.
10.5 Summary
The unit has explored the origins, philosophy and the curriculum of the
Highscope Approach to ECD. We have observed that an important part of
the Highscope approach is the plan-do-review sequence. Children first plan
what materials they want to work with and what they want to do (this can be
done formally or informally in small groups). Only once they have made a
plan\however vague, of what they want to do can they go and do it. Then,
after this choice work time, the children discuss what they have been doing
and whether it was successful. The Highscope model is therefore based on
active learning.
References
Hohmann, M. and Weikart, D. (2002). Educating Young Children.
Highscope Educational Research Foundation.
Joachim, H. (2005). Application of the Highscope Approach in Educating
the Gifted to a German Summer Camp. Muenster, Hamburg. What
is the History of Highscope (http://www.londony.ca/childcare/
highscope-history.htm)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High/Scope
http://www.blueskiesmontessori.org/high-scope.html
http://www.lisoctland.org.uk/earlyyears/about/approachestolearnig/
highscope.asp