Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

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Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering

Collective self-consumption of solar photovoltaic and batteries for a

micro-grid energy system
Qusay Hassan a, *, Majid K. Abbas b, Vahid Sohrabi Tabar b, Sajjad Tohidi b,
Mohammed Al-Hitmi c, Marek Jaszczur d, Aws Zuhair Sameen e, Hayder M. Salman f
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Diyala, Diyala, Iraq
b
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
d
Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
e
College of Medical Techniques, Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad, Iraq
f
Department of Computer Science, Al-Turath University College, Baghdad, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The paper carried out a techno-economic analysis in order to obtain the optimum battery storage capacity in
Solar energy conjunction with a photovoltaic array that can match the desired household load at highest possible self-
Photovoltaic array consumption. In addition, it determined the economic feasibility of a proposed micro-system. Annual energy
Battery storage
consumption, irradiance, and ambient temperature were measured at 1-min resolution for the year 2021. Sim­
Self-consumption
Techno-economic analysis
ulations of a stationary economic model are performed for the years 2021 through 2030.The results showed that
the photovoltaic array at 2.7 kWp capacity can generate an annual energy of approx. 4295.4 kWh and the
optimal battery capacity which can satisfy 91.1% of self-consumption and energy cost of $0.256/kWh is 14.4
kWh. Furthermore, two third-order polynomial relationships between self-consumption and net present cost with
energy cost were solved.

1. Introduction past, exorbitant prices and restricted use-case configurations were sig­
nificant barriers to battery installations. Batteries are currently consid­
Solar energy is generally considered crucial for addressing climate ered one of the most promising alternatives to enable the shift to
change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector renewable energy sources since the rapid drop in battery prices during
[1]. After a downturn in 2018, the worldwide solar energy sector the last decade, driven by improvements in the electric vehicle sector
benefitted from a strong rebound in 2019, with total (PV) installations [5].
around the World reaching approx. 627 GW [2]. This capacity provides In recent years, considerable research has been conducted on the
approximately 3% of global electrical consumption and corresponds to techno-economic evaluations of PV/battery-based systems, particularly
5% of global CO2 emissions connected to electricity [3]. The supply of in German where favorable renewable law was established. Allwyn et al.
assistance and the general decline in costs are major factors in the [6] optimised a PV/BA system for the Sultan Qaboos University Street
expansion of the PV market. However, subsidies designed to compensate lighting system in Oman. The authors compared the life cycle cost
for the capital-intensive nature of PV investments are evolving. Injection analysis and cost per capita for two configurations of PV and battery
remunerations paid by distribution center network operators, which will systems, the first with a large capacity of PV/BA and the second with a
be termed the injection price in the following context. Now or soon, it small one, which helps to determine the techno-economic viability of
will be lower than the retail rate, which promotes PV self-consumption. implementing the system in Oman. For that research study, MATLAB
The use of battery storage (BA), which might increase the rate of tool was used to evaluate optimum system sizing, and inputs were based
self-consumption of locally generated energy while simultaneously on experimental data. The results indicated that the cost per kilowatt
resolving real-time imbalances created by forecast errors, is one of the hour of energy produced with the large panel/BA system was $/0.08
strategies to allow the continued expansion of PV installations [4]. In the compared to $/0.9 per kilowatt-hour for the small system capacity.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: qusayhassan_eng@uodiyala.edu.iq (Q. Hassan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.100925
Received 27 October 2022; Received in revised form 18 January 2023; Accepted 29 January 2023
Available online 3 February 2023
2590-1230/© 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Table 1 China. A two-stage strategy for optimization is proposed: First, the

A review of PV/BA energy micro-systems. HOMER programme is used to determine every viable scenario that
Load type Location Year Model type Battery type used Ref. meets requirements at the lowest cost; Then, a Multi-Criteria Deci­
with PV system sion-Making approach is used to assess all viable situations in order to
Experimental Germany 2014 Optimization PV/Lead–acid [24] establish the ideal option for economic and environmental aspects
Experimental Germany 2016 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [25] monitoring. The optimal combination of the following technologies is
Experimental Germany 2016 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [26] determined as follows PV/BA and PV/WT (wind turbine). The results
Experimental Germany 2016 Simulation n/a [27] obtained indicate that the PV/WT hybrid system has advantages over PV
Experimental Sweden 2016 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion [28]
Experimental Australia 2016 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion & [29]
alone and WT alone in terms of power production in regions with
lead–acid abundant solar and wind energy. Ashtiani et al. [9] demonstrate how
Fabricated Europe 2016 Simulation n/a [30] backup PV/BA systems could turn off power bills, even in countries with
Fabricated Portugal 2017 Simulation PV/Lead–acid [31] inexpensive and subsidised electricity. The NPC and COE of the on-grid
Experimental Germany 2017 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion [32]
PV/BA system are 15.6% and 16.8% higher, respectively, than in the
Fabricated Germany 2017 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [33]
Experimental Sweden 2017 Optimization PV/Hydrogen & [34] non-renewable scenario. The indicators NPC and COE were evaluated
lithium-ion and compared with two other optimization algorithms, in order to verify
Experimental UK 2017 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [35] the proposed methodology and determine the efficiency and precision of
Experimental UK 2017 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion [36] the results. Several cities were analysed to compare the results, and the
Fabricated Portugal 2017 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [37]
Experimental Belgum 2017 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [38]
comparability of the statistics demonstrated that the system is effective
Experimental Australia 2017 Simulation n/a [39] regardless of the local climate. In addition, sensitivity analysis based on
Fabricated China 2017 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion & [40] climate data from different cities, different load needs, and PV costs
lead–acid helped to find the best size system for the economy. Ma et al. [10]
Experimental China 2018 Optimization PV/Lithium-ion [41]
examined PV/BA and PV/WT and found that a hybrid power plant with
Fabricated United 2018 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [42]
States BA can decrease NPC by around 9 and 11% compared to PV and WT
Experimental Australia 2019 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [43] alone. Merei et al. [11] provide optimization results for a supermarket in
Fabricated China 2019 Simulation Reused EV battery [44] Aachen, Germany, in terms of self-sustainability. Using precise experi­
Fabricated Finland 2019 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [45] mental load data and solar radiation data, optimization is achieved.
Fabricated Italy 2020 Simulation n/a [46]
Furthermore, techno-economic and sensitivity assessments have been
Experimental Thailand 2020 Simulation PV/Lithium-ion [47]
conducted to assess the impact of various PV system capacities, PV
system prices, and interest rates. In addition, to increase
Furthermore, the results indicate that the conversion of an 8.6-km-long self-sustainability, several battery sizes and prices have been explored
grid-connected street lighting system with 285,400-W lamps to a PV/BA and analysed for the 2015 and 2025 scenarios. The results indicate that
system with an 80 W lamp is predicted to cut yearly CO2 emissions by the implementation of a PV system may reduce power prices through
133,600 tonnes. self-consumption of PV energy. Furthermore, the combination of battery
Gul et al. [7] developed a novel mathematical model for the PV/BT energy storage with PV systems may reduce power prices even further,
system to optimise power production and balance load demand. The provided that battery costs can be reduced to €200/kWh in the future.
System Advisor Model evaluates energy generation, energy consump­ Shabani et al. [12] examine the technological effects of the two
tion, and economic performance, including capital cost, total invest­ battery configurations on the size of a PV/BA system. The first config­
ment, net present cost (NPC), and project levelized cost of electricity uration is based on a standard, straight-forward battery model and
(COE), using mathematical optimization software. The use of decen­ control approach that reflects the battery condition exclusive of dynamic
tralised load centers to exchange electricity with neighbouring towns is behavior. The second configuration is based on a complicated battery
an innovative solution. The created model is connected to the grid with model that estimates battery parameters in different operating
the purpose of enhancing the flexibility, dependability, and environ­
mental protection of the system to decrease CO2 emissions. The analysis Table 2
revealed that the yearly energy expenses with the proposed solution The technological and economic specifications of the components of the studied
reduced these costs by 45%, in addition the environmental research on system.
the model shows that CO2 emissions have decreased by 1150 tonnes per
Component Rated Power Model Cost Ref.
year.
PV module 0.45 kWp Sunceco $110 [48]
Li et al. [8] explore the techno-economic aspects of hybrid renewable
Battery 200 Ah/2.4 kWh Visionbat $200 [49]
energy design decisions that satisfy the multi-vector energy demand, Converter 8 kW Absopulse $1500 [50]
that is, electricity, hydrogen, and heat, in four different locations in

Fig. 1. Schematic of the studied PV/BA grid energy system.

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 2. Ambient temperature, solar irradiation and load from experimental measurements for four selected days throughout the year.

situations. The results indicated that to obtain the same level of to the first configuration. This study indicates that a comprehensive
self-sufficiency, optimization of a proposed system based on the first battery model with appropriate efficiency is more advantageous from a
configuration requires options with a higher life-cycle cost and larger technological point of view and results in a more precise battery size.
battery capacity than the second configuration. Furthermore, given the The work by Jamroen [13] attempts to find the best techno-economic
same design specifications, the system optimization based on the second size of a floating solar PV/BA energy system to power an aquaculture
configuration provides the end-user with more electricity, resulting in a aeration and monitoring system while maintaining the PV modules and
larger self-sufficiency ratio than when the system is simulated according BA weights under consideration. The reliability was computed to assess

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Table 3 determined over the course of many summer days. From an environ­
The daily energy, irradiance, and ambient temperature for four selected days. mental and economic point of view, the study found that a PV/BA sys­
Day Energy (kWh) Irradiance (kWh/m2) Average Temp. (oC) tem that works on its own is a good way to power an irrigation system.
Hassan et al. [16] constructed a PV/BA system to power small-scale
Jan 05 12.84 3.62 11.8
Apr 05 6.64 8.71 30.7 pump-based diffuser aerators in rural areas. The results suggested that
Jul 05 8.51 6.08 32.2 the system safety factor was adequate to power the aerators. According
Oct 05 5.53 4.34 23.9 to Uddin et al. [17], a techno-economic model has implemented HOMER
and MATLAB/Simulink for the electrical parameters of the modelled
PV/BA energy system. Throughout, techno-economic and ecological
the power supply capacity of the energy system to ensure its properly
assessments are provided to determine the viability and utility of the
functioning. Additionally, the levelized COE was examined to establish
micro-grid system. The simulations show an outstanding correlation,
the cost-effectiveness of energy system designs. According to the con­
such that the optimal COE for the power plant is estimated to be $18.3.
clusions, the PV/BA system is the most technically and economically
The researchers estimate that 2500 home scooters could reduce annual
viable design for both daytime and nighttime ventilation situations.
CO2 emissions by 466,56 tonnes. Hassan [18] identified the appropriate
Hassan et al. [14] evaluated the economic viability of a PV/BA system to
size of a PV/BA system to meet the electrical requirements of household
power the household in a high renewable energy fraction. In terms of
applications. At day time, the PV array was used to feed the electrical
energy cost, the research showed that the proposed system was
load and charge the batteries, and at night the battery was used to
economically viable.
provide energy for load. The ideal system size was reached with the
Abbas et al. [15] studied the viability of a PV/BA system to provide
lowest COE.
electrical energy for irrigation. The size of the proposed system was

Fig. 3. The monthly and annual load, irradiance, and ambient temperature form experimental measurements.

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 4. The studied system simulation flowchart.

Jaszczur et al. [19] analyse PV/BA system in terms of both appropriate size of the battery that can be integrated with the PV system
economical and the environmental impact. The economic feasibility and the best combination of the size of the PV system and battery ca­
assessment showed that the proposed system could generate electricity pacity ensuring at the same time the highest self-consumption. The study
at $0.13 per kilowatt-hour, which was much less than the price of reg­ addresses the following issues:
ular electricity. Ceran et al. [20] construct a computational approach for
the techno-economic evaluation of a PV system with and without energy 1. The optimum battery as a storage unit can match the higher self-
storage systems. A mathematical model used to compute the economic consumption in conjunction with a PV array based on one-year
impact of the PV system integration. Using computational methodolo­ span energy consumption.
gies, five examples were investigated, including the use of no storage 2. The Middle East region is rich with abundant solar energy, a study
system, two configurations including lithium-ion batteries, and two was carried out using households supplied by renewable energy for
cases involving flow batteries. Compared to other PV systems with Iraq. It can be concluded that realistic results may be used in real-
batteries, the PV system with lithium cobalt oxide battery levelized cost world systems to save millions of dollars.
$0.034/kWh. The study indicates that an integrated system with 3. Obtaining the relationship between the self-consumption level and
lithium-ion batteries was considered to be the most practical and the COE.
cost-effective option. In general, the comprehensive study of PV system
with energy storage options demonstrates the distant application of this In this study, the scheduling difficulty of uninterrupted power supply
technology. paddle shift devices is handled from a multi-agent viewpoint, and two
According to Table 1, current techno-economic models can be clas­ strategies are used. Alternatively, a new partially distributed architec­
sified as optimization or simulation models, depending on whether the ture is provided to address the same issue by distributing decision-
capacity of PV and battery units are optimization variables or simulated making across agents and utilizing a heuristic algorithm and a virtual
as exogenous factors. While most available research concentrates on dynamic tariff as a coordination mechanism. The solar energy system is
residential PV/BA systems, several also study commercial and industrial evaluated for PV panels and energy storage batteries of various capac­
applications [21–23]. ities in order to achieve high self-consumption with optimal capacity.
There are several more benefits to using solar energy for powering The suggested unique technology indicates that the quick reaction of
households and residential communities and support the national grid batteries functioning as a storage unit may greatly increase energy self-
systems. Using renewable energy sources to generate electricity con­ consumption. This work is essential for system designers and fills a
tributes to environmental care, which could be used by a company to scientific need in this area. Prior to the implementation of renewable
enhance its image. The presented research study analyses the impact of energy systems on a worldwide scale, it is essential to improve energy
techno-economic visibility in contrast to the self-consumption house­ self-consumption to maintain the grid stability of the system and boost
hold with an annual energy consumption of 3760 kWh. Furthermore, a local energy usage.
technical and economic study was carried out for PV installation with
and without battery storage for a period of time from 2021 up to 2030, 2. System modelling and experimental set-up
taking into account various parameters affecting the installation. This
work is primarily concerned with addressing problems related to the The analysed system under investigation is a PV/BA on-grid system

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 5. Daily power flow at different battery capacity for the day of Jan 05, 2022.

in which the batteries are charged by the PV array during the day in number of batteries to extract adequate storage power to fulfil demand
order to supply the required load at night and on cloudy days. The most with the optimal number of batteries to store the required energy.
important criterion for a reliable system is that the energy stored in the Several terminologies are used in the literature to evaluate the
batteries can support the required load with the maximum level of self- dependability of PV/BA energy systems. In this study, numerical simu­
consumption. Consequently, system modelling entails optimising the lations are used to determine the battery capacity and assess the

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 6. Daily energy from the grid/fed to the grid at different battery capacities for four selected days.

dependability of the studied system to supply the load with renewable ( / ) ( ( ) )

energy at the highest efficiency and at the lowest cost. Fig. 1 shows the EPV = CPV ⋅ HT HT,STC ⋅ αP TC,t − TC,STC + 1 ⋅ηPV (3)
schematic of the investigated PV/BA grid energy system.
where CPV represents the capacity of the PV arrayηPV represents the PV
The technological and economic specifications of the system com­
array derating factor (%), HT and HT,STC represents incident solar radi­
ponents are presented in Table 2.
ation and solar radiation under standard condition, αP represents the
The PV array was positioned at the optimum annual adjustment (tilt
module cell temperature coefficient of power [52,53], TC and TC,STC
angle = 30, azimuth angle α = 0◦ ) south direction for the annual highest
represents the module cell temperature and cell temperature under
incident solar radiation at the investigated site (latitude 33.7733◦ N,
standard condition (STC) respectively.
longitude 45.1495◦ E), where the simulation process was conducted at
The limitation applies to the battery-stored energy that can be
1-min resolution. The project life span is nine years until 2030, and the
expressed as:
economic assessment is made based on the Iraqi regulation (buy from
the grid at $0.33/kWh and sell to the grid at $0.11/kWh), which means EBA,min ≤ EBA ≤ EBA,max (4)
that the annual interest rate is 6%.
The experimental measurements of load, irradiance, and ambient where EBA,min, and EBA,max are the minimum and maximum battery en­
temperature that are required for calculations were carried out over a ergy levels, respectively.
period of one year in 2021 with an acquisition time equal to 1 min. The Considering that on sunny days the storage batteries are fully
most important aspect of such a design system is the yearly electrical charged, the energy stored is used to supply the load at night, however,
energy, and the energy provided by the PV panel is dependent on daily on partially cloudy days the storage batteries supply the load only with
variations in solar irradiation and ambient temperature. Fig. 2 shows the available energy, and the excess required energy can be provided by the
daily experimental measurements for electrical load, solar irradiance, grid as follows [54]:
and ambient temperature for four selected days (at different seasons).
EBA,max = Ah⋅V (5)
Table 3 shows the daily average of energy consumed, solar irradiance,
and ambient temperature for the four selected days. The energy con­ The maximum permitted battery energy level can be expressed as:
sumption is varied from day to day. It showed the highest for January 05 ( )/
EBA (t − 1) = EBA ,max ⋅ NBA − EL NBA (6)
by about 12.8 kWh and the lowest for October 05, while solar irradiance
and ambient temperature were recoded as the lowest during winter time
where NBA is the number of batteries and t is the maximum depth of
for January 05 and October 05, and the highest during spring and
discharge of the batteries, and EL is the desired energy of electrical load.
summer. Fig. 3 shows the monthly and annual averages for experiment
The minimum permitted battery energy level can be expressed as
load, irradiance, and ambient temperature. Energy consumption varies
[55]:
from month to month, which showed the highest in April approximately
1271.71 kWh and the lowest in October approximately 628.55 kWh, and EBA,min = EBA ⋅ NBA ⋅(t − 1) (7)
the annual average showed 925.47 kWh. Solar irradiance and ambient
The simultaneous load-balancing formula, which describes the en­
temperature recoded the lowest during the winter months and the
ergy transport between all system components, is as follows:
highest during the summer months, where the annual average was
⎧
recoded as 4.6 kWh/m2/day and 23.7 ◦ C, respectively (see Fig. 3). ⎪ EPV for EPV ≥ ET
⎪
⎪E
⎪
⎪ BA for EBA ≥ ET ; EPV = 0
⎪
⎪
2.1. Energy flow distribution model ⎪
⎨ EG for EPV + EBA = 0
ET = EG + EPV + EBA for EPV + EBA < ET (8)
⎪
⎪
In the studied system the energy consumption (kWh) can be ⎪ EG + EPV for EBA = 0 and EPV < ET
⎪
⎪
⎪
expressed as: ⎪ EG + EBA for EPV = 0 and EBA < ET
⎪
⎩
EPV + EBA for EPV + EBA ≥ ET
ET = EPV + EBA + EG (1)

where ET represents the total energy usage, EPV is the energy generated 2.2. Technical and economic indicators
by the PV array, EBA, is the energy stored in the battery, and EG is the
energy drawn from the grid. The following section describes the technical metrics for the self-
The energy of the PV array can be calculated as follows [51]: consumption rate, as well as the economic indicator that will be used

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 7. Daily energy self-consumption for the selected days with several battery capacities.

in the subsequent study. ( )/

∑i=n ∑i=n ∑i=n
ESC,(%) = ER − EFed to grid ER ⋅100% (10)
2.2.1. Rate of self-consumption (ESC) i=1 i=1 i=1

The self-consumption indicator defined in Ref. [56] based on load

profiles and generated energy and the value can be defined in kWh as where ER is the energy generated or stored as a consequence of gener­
follows: ation (PV + BAcharge - BAdischarge) and EFed to the grid is the energy fed to
∑i=n ∑i=n the grid (kWh), n denotes the number of simulation steps.
ESC,(kWh) = i=1
ER − i=1
EFed to grid (9)
2.2.2. Cost of electricity
The ESC in percentage is given as:
The COE is computed using the “discounting” approach, which

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

equals the ratio of projected total lifetime cost to lifetime generating

output. Importantly, numerous versions of COE metrics have been
established in recent years, particularly for hybrid systems, and the
conclusions may not be directly comparable due to the varying as­
sumptions and COE formulae they include. Although the COE value is a
good way to compare the results of different studies, readers should be
careful when using these values [57].
/( )
COE = Acost EAC,DC + Egrid sales (11)

where Acost is the total annualized cost of the system, EAC,DC is the annual
Fig. 8. Daily total energy self-consumption for the selected days with various
AC, DC primary load served, and Egrid sales is the annual energy sales to
battery capacities.
the national grid.
The total NPC can be determined using the following formula
[58–60]:
Sc
NPC = (12)
R (i, PS )

where Sc is the system annual cost ($/year), R is recovery factor capital, i

is the annual interest rate (%) and Ps is the project lifespan (year).
The studied system simulation flowchart is shown in Fig. 4. In this
part, the theory of the optimization technique is briefly explained. Fig. 4
displays the MATLAB/SIMULINK-based optimization method diagram.
Each step of the optimization technique, from the definition of design
parameters through the selection of a strategy, is crucial for generating
precise and optimal results. As optimization commences, the perfor­
mance obligation for planned self-consumption must be met at each
Fig. 9. Monthly energy generated by PV array with capacity 2.7 kWp.
stage of the process; otherwise, the preceding steps must be executed. If
the produced requirements do not accurately specify the system, model
parameters must always be replaced immediately. The optimization

Fig. 10. Monthly energy amount fed to the grid and taken from the grid for several battery capacities.

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 11. Monthly energy charge and discharge battery for several battery capacities.

process will move on after the second phase is successfully completed. If

variable parameters do not meet the system’s criteria, the fourth phase
may be sent to the first and second phases. The subsequent step is to
choose an appropriate optimization approach for the specified
maximum self-consumption.

3. Results and discussion

This study analyses various PV/BA energy system configurations in

order to find the best solution for residential applications using a 2.7 kW
PV array and various battery sizes. The number of batteries is adjusted
using a MATLAB programme for each battery to reach the optimal ca­
pacity to provide the highest self-consumption and lowest energy cost.
Fig. 5 shows the daily power flow at different battery capacities for
the day of January 05, 2021. The PV array generated approximately
15.172 kWh and the energy consumption was 12.84 kWh. The energy
from the grid decreases by the battery capacity that compensates for the
desired load. At the same time, the energy fed to the grid is decreased by
increasing the battery capacity, which means more energy for battery
charging.
Fig. 6 shows the daily energy from the grid/fed to the grid for the
four selected days. For all selected days, the energy taken from the grid is
zero at a battery capacity of 9.6 kWh or higher. This means that the
renewable energy generated by the PV array and the BA storage unit can
feed the desired load at the optimal point. For all days, increasing bat­
tery capacity reduces energy fed to the grid because the energy gener­
Fig. 12. Monthly energy self-consumption and percentage for several bat­
ated by the PV array goes to charge the batteries, which are designed to
tery capacities. only charge from the PV array (not from the grid).
Fig. 7 shows the flow of energy self-consumption for the selected four
days with several battery capacities (from 4.8 up to 24 kW, based on the

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Fig. 13. Annual energy taken from the grid and fed back to the grid with several battery capacities.

Fig. 14. The annual energy that charges and discharges batteries at several capacities.

battery specification presented in Table 1). Energy self-consumption solar energy array (refer to Fig. 9). Second, the amount of energy fed to
increases by increasing the battery capacity for all selected days. On the grid decreases with increasing batteries storage capacity due to the
all days, increasing battery capacity reduces the energy fed to the grid energy delivered to charge the batteries, and this value increases with
because the energy generated by the PV array is designed in load increasing batteries capacity, in contrast to the energy taken from the
following strategy and the batteries designed only to charge from the PV grid, which decreases with increasing batteries capacity.
array (not from the grid). Fig. 11 shows the energy charge and discharge of the batteries in
Fig. 8 shows the daily total energy self-consumption for the selected various battery capacities. The amount of energy that batteries store
four days with various battery capacities (4.8 kW–24 kW, based on the increases with increasing battery storage capacity and decreases with
battery specification presented in Table 1). The value of energy self- decreasing battery capacity.
consumption increases as the battery capacity increases for all selected Fig. 12 shows the monthly energy self-consumption and percentage
days. For all days, increasing battery capacity reduces energy fed to the with several battery capacities. The amount of energy self-consumption
grid because the energy generated by the PV array goes to charge the increases as the battery storage capacity and decreases as the battery
batteries, which are designed to only charge from the PV array (not from capacity decrease, which explains why this value differs from month to
the grid). month. The results of the analysis depend on the desired load, energy
Fig. 9 shows the monthly energy generated by a PV array with a generated by the PV array, and the battery storage capacity. It is un­
selected capacity of 2.7 kW based on the modules presented in Table 1. reasonable to evaluate battery storage capacity that guarantees the
The energy generated by the array is highly dependent on incident solar highest energy self-consumption based on daily and monthly results
irradiance (see Fig. 3). The results showed that the highest energy can be only. Such a decision requires at least one year of lead time.
generated by the specified array by about 510 kWh during July and the The experimental measurement of annual energy consumption was
lowest by about 148 kWh during December, and the total annual energy 3755.8 kWh, and the simulation results showed that the PV array at 2.7
can be generated by about 975 kWh. capacity can generate an annual energy of 4295.4 kWh. Fig. 13 shows
Fig. 10 shows the monthly energy supplied to the grid and taken from the annual energy taken from the grid and fed the grid at different
the grid. First, the highest energy is fed to the grid during the summer battery capacities. The results showed that the highest energy taken was
months and the lowest during the winter months, and this is in contrast 1435 kWh at the 4.8 kWh battery, and the lowest energy fed to the grid
to the energy that is taken from the grid, which increases during the was 1487 kWh at the 4.8 kWh battery. Both the energy taken and the
winter months and decreases during the summer months, but in both energy fed to the grid are degreased by increasing the battery storage
cases it depends on the amount of electricity that was produced from the capacity. Due to increasing battery capacities, more energy for charging

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Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

Fig. 15. The annual energy self-consumption for several battery capacities.
Fig. 17. Relation between self-consumption % with NPC and COE for several
battery capacities.

energy to charge or discharge is increased by increasing the battery

storage capacity.
Fig. 15 shows the annual energy self-consumption and percentage
with several battery capacities. The simulation results demonstrated
that the increasing percentage is raised very low after a capacity of 14.4
kWh (6 batteries), which is the energy self-consumption of 5396.85
kWh. It can be said that the optimal battery capacity is 14.4 kWh, which
can match the highest self-consumption for the investigated design.
Fig. 16 shows the annual NPC and the energy cost for several battery
capacities. The simulation showed that both the NPC and the cost of
energy increased as the battery storage capacity increased. The lowest
NPC was $9615 at battery capacity 4.8 kWh and the highest was $11818
at battery capacity 24 kWh. The same was true for the energy cost,
which showed that the lowest was $0.223 at battery capacity 4.8 kWh
and the highest was $0.274 at battery capacity 24 kWh.
Fig. 17 illustrates the percentage of relationship between the per­
centage of energy self-consumption and the total net present plus the
energy cost. The resulting relationship is a polynomial of the third order.
The simulation revealed that when energy self-consumption increased,
both the NPC and the cost of energy increased.

4. Conclusions

Although the integration of PV arrays with batteries leads to higher

NPC than PV alone for various residential customer groups today, the
payback time frames fluctuate between 2021 and 2030 owing to regu­
latory changes, increased costs and price of the power market prices.
Fig. 16. Annual NPC and COE with several battery capacities.
Optimal PV array and battery size increase with time, and by 2050, PV
investment is mostly limited by the size of the roof. The economic
is required – only the surplus energy generated by the PV array (energy viability of PV/BA system investments varies between different resi­
that exceeds the desired load requirements) is going to charge the dential customers, with the most favorable investment being most
batteries. accessible to residential customer groups with higher annual irradiance
Fig. 14 shows the annual energy charge and discharge of batteries. In and electricity consumption. Furthermore, investment decisions are
general, the energy for charge is higher than the energy for discharge strongly influenced by payback periods, future costs, electricity prices,
due to the selected batteries round-trip efficiency of 85%. The batteries and tariff adjustments.

12
Q. Hassan et al. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100925

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Appl. Energy 168 (2016) 171–178.
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placed in the annual orientation. battery energy storage system to power an aquaculture aeration and monitoring
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[16] Q. Hassan, M. Jaszczur, A.M. Abdulateef, J. Abdulateef, A. Hasan, A. Mohamad, An
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gating the escalation of environmental problems and meeting energy system, Energy Rep. 8 (2022) 239–254.
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applicable to any system capacity, allowing the designer to determine the potential solar energy with the models for optimum tilt angles of maximum
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