POSTHARVEST

TECHNOLOGY AND
FOOD PROCESS
ENGINEERING

Prepared by: G.P.Pantuhan

Contents
1 Postharvest Losses/Challenges 7 Size Reduction

2 FAV Physiology 8 Moisture Removal

3 Respiration & Ethylene Production 9 Food Cooling and Freezing

4 Fruit Ripening 10 Heat Treatment

5 Cooling of Fresh FAV 11 Storage and Packaging

6 Separation Operations 12 PAES

POSTHARVEST
LOSSES AND
CHALLENGES
Horticulture – includes the production of fruits,
vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal and aromatic
plants and plantation crops
Pomology – study of fruits
Olericulture – study of vegetables
Anthology – study of flowers
Storage roots and tubers – rich in carbohydrate,
particularly starch, in amounts comparable to the cereal
crops, and can be used as staple foods
Leguminous vegetables – supply as much as 14% protein
Vegetables and root crops – rich in minerals, carotene
(Pro-vitamin A) and vitamin C, and are reasonably good
sources of trace elements such as copper, manganese and
zinc, which act as enzyme cofactors

Inappropriate post-harvest handling causes:

❑ Product losses (quality decay/
physical losses)
❑ High costs and low profits
❑ Loss of market opportunities
❑ Low competitiveness
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST
LOSSES
A. External Factors

1. Mechanical Injury

• Fresh fruits and vegetables are highly susceptible to mechanical

injury owing to their tender texture and high moisture content.

• Poor handling, unsuitable packaging and improper packing during

transportation are the cause of bruising, cutting, breaking, impact
wounding, and other forms of injury in fresh fruits and vegetables.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES
a. Impact injuries, resulting from:
• dropping the product onto a hard surface;
• dropping the product into the back of a car;
• excessive drops during loading and unloading;
• suddenly stopping or accelerating a vehicle.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES
b. Vibration or abrasion injuries result when produce is
able to move within a container because of:
• vehicles with small wheels and bad shock-absorbers;
• weak crates;
• bad roads;
• transmission vibration.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES
c. Compression injuries are caused by improper
packing and inadequate package performance
resulting from:
• over-packing of crates and boxes;
• too high stacking of crates;
• weak packaging.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES
d. Puncturing injuries resulting from:
• nails or splinters from the crate or box;
• fingers or nails of a person;
• other crates, fork-lifts, etc.
• hard and sharp stalks of fruit.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES

2. Parasitic Diseases
• Lack of natural defense mechanisms
in the tissues of fresh produce, and
the abundance of nutrients and
moisture which supports their
growth
• The number of pesticides available is
rapidly declining as consumer
concern for food safety is increasing.
CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES

B. Internal Factors

1. Physiological Deterioration
• Result of mineral deficiency, low or high
temperature injury, or undesirable environmental
conditions, such as high humidity.
• Enzymatic activity
Key process during the postharvest life:

❑ Respiration
❑ Transpiration
❑ Ethylene production
❑ Maturity process
PROBLEMS
• The raw material producer, due to
insufficient demand, weak
infrastructure, poor transportation,
and perishable nature of the
produce, lose substantial money.
• During the post-harvest glut, the
loss is imaginable and often the
fruits have to be fed to animals or
allow to rot.

• Erratic supplies
WHAT FAV CAN BE
PROCESSED:
Practically any fruit and vegetable can be processed, but
some important factors (which determine whether it is to
be processed or not) are the followings:

• the demand for a particular fruit or vegetable in the

processed form;
• the quality of the raw material, i.e. whether it can
stand processing;
• regular supplies of the raw material.
PROCESSING CENTER
PLANNING
• The secret of a well planned fruits and vegetables
processing center is that it must be designed for
operation for as many months during the year as
possible.

• A typical processing center or factory should process four

or five types of fruits harvested at different times of the
year and two or three vegetables.
PROCESSING CENTER
PLANNING
• This processing unit must also be capable of handling
dried/dehydrated finished products, juices, pickles,
tomato juice, ketchup and paste, jams, jellies and
marmalades, semi-processed fruit products.

• The end result of the effort should be a well-managed

processing unit with lower initial investment.
PRODUCERS AND TARGET
MARKETS
Fruit and vegetable producers in the region can
be broadly grouped into four categories:

a. small farmers;
b. groups of farmers, clusters or
cooperatives;
c. commercial farmers; and
d. foreign entities or multinationals
PROCESSING SYSTEMS

A. Small-Scale Processing

This is done by small-scale farmers for

personal subsistence or for sale in nearby
markets. In this system, processing requires
little investment: however, it is time
consuming and tedious.
PROCESSING SYSTEMS
B. Intermediate-Scale Processing
• In this scale of processing, a group of small-scale processors
pool their resources.
• Processing is based on the technology used by small-scale
processors with differences in the type and capacity of
equipment used.
• The raw materials are usually grown by such processors or
purchased on contract from other farmers.
• These operations are usually located at the site of production to
assure raw materials availability and reduce cost of transport.
PROCESSING SYSTEMS
C. Large-Scale Processing

• Processing in this system is highly mechanized and

requires a substantial supply of raw materials for
economical operation.
• This system requires a large capital investment and
high technical and managerial skills.
• Perhaps the most important reason for failure was lack
of adequate quantity and regular of raw materials to
factories.
FRUITS AND
VEGETABLE
PHYSIOLOGY
MORPHO-ANATOMICAL
STRUCTURE OF FAV
1. Roots
a. Tap root – enlarged, functions as storage
organ; ex: carrots, radish, beet sweet
potato, jicama (singkamas), yam (ube)
b. Lateral or fibrous root – removed after
harvest
2. Stem – upward growing axis of a plant that
has nodes from which the undeveloped
leaves or flower buds arise
Internodes – distance between nodes
MORPHO-ANATOMICAL
STRUCTURE OF FAV
3. Flower – basic parts are petals,
calyx, pistil or carpel (female
part), stamen (male part),
inflorescence (a group of
flowers, ex: cauliflower)
4. Leaves
Blade – expanded part of the leaf
Petiole – attaches the leaf to the
stem
MORPHO-ANATOMICAL
STRUCTURE OF FAV
5. Fruits – composed of fruit wall and seeds

Fruit wall – consists of peel and edible portion

Peel – outer part; serve as natural packaging
material and defense against
microorganism
Rind – tough or leathery peel such as
mandarin
Pulp – edible portion of the fruit
Aril – fleshy outgrowth covering the seed such
as rambutan, lanzones, durian, and
mangosteen
WHAT IS A FRUIT?
Fruit – refers to a mature ovary that contains one or more
seeds and may include some floral parts; may be formed from:

• single and enlarged ovary (i.e., avocado, peach, apple,

orange)
WHAT IS A FRUIT?
• multiple ovaries belonging to a single flower
(aggregate fruit or etaerio such as strawberries, sugar
apple, raspberries, and figs)
WHAT IS A FRUIT?
• enlarged ovaries of several flowers including accessory floral parts
fused together to form the fruit (example: pineapples).
WHAT IS A FRUIT?
WHAT IS A FRUIT?
• As the fruit grows and develops, a series of changes
occur: immature tissues generally have a firm
texture with discrete green colors in the skin and
pale neutral colors in the interior.

• As the fruit ripens, the firmness decreases and the

fruit becomes more bright and attractive for
consumption, as pigmentation changes and flavor
and aroma develop.
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Asparagus: spear (stem tips with unopened
buds)
• Banana blossom: bracts (tender yellowish inner
covering), male florets, stalk
• Cabbage head, lettuce, Chinese cabbage: wrapper
leaves – loose leaves that enclose the ball shaped
compact set of leaves called the head, ribs (petiole)
• Broccoli and cauliflower: curd or crown
(inflorescense), floret (each flower)
• Celery: stalk (petiole)
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Garlic bulb: cloves (enlarged fleshy
leafy bases enclosed by papery scales)
• Onion bulb: scales (modified leaf bases
or sheaths), papery scales (dried bases
of the older sheaths)
• Potato: a modified stem, eyes
(depressions; actually a dormant bud),
eyebrow (slight depression above the
eye)
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Sweet corn: husk (green papery covering that
encloses the ear), ear (composed of grains called
kernels attached to a hard part called cob), silk (long
hair-like parts), shank (bottom part of the ear),
young cob corn or baby corn (undeveloped corn, no
kernels, edible part is the tender cob)
• Tomato: blossom end (bottom part of the fruit),
stem scar (depressed top area where the stem was
attached), locule (space inside where the seeds and
juice are found), fruit wall (edible part or pericarp)
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Banana: bunch (whole set of fruits), hands (group
of fruits), fingers (individual fruits connected to a
thick part called crown), cluster (hand that has
been divided or has some fingers removed),
transitional hand (hand with some undeveloped
fingers), false hand (hand with all fingers
undeveloped)
• Cashew apple: nut (the fruit itself), cashew apple
(fleshy part)
• Lanzones: bunch (fruits having one common stem)
• Mangosteen: shell (peel)
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Citrus fruits: flavedo (thin, colored
layer), albedo (thick spongy layer
beneath flavedo), juice resicles (edible
part enclosed by juice sacs), oil cells
(contains the essential oil that gives
aroma)
• Mango: peel, pulp, stone, seed, cheeks
(side of the fruit on both sides of the
stone), shoulder (topmost level parts of
the fruit on both sides of the fruit)
SPECIAL MORPHOLOGICAL
PARTS OF FAV
• Durian: shell or husk (hard peel with spines),
aril, locule, carpel sutures (natural lines
running from top to bottom of the fruit)
• Pineapple: crown (leaves on top of the
fruit), eyes (depressed area on the sides),
fruitlet (segments where the eyes are
located), shell (outer inedible skin), core
(middle part which is a continuation of the
stem or stalk)
FRUIT COMPOSITION
• Water – ranging from 85% to 95% in most of them
- their high level of water is responsible for their high
metabolic activity, which makes fruits very perishable and
negatively affects fruit sensitivity to mechanical damages
throughout postharvest operations.
• Carbohydrates, proteins, and energy
• Essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber – calcium,
phosphorus, iron, and magnesium, vitamin A (β-carotenes),
vitamin B (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid), and vitamin C
(ascorbic acid)
HARVESTING INDICES
• are indicators used to define whether a fruit is
ready to be picked, and they vary among fruits and
regions.

• Best fruit characteristics largely depend on its final

use (fresh market or processing), distance to
markets, produce sensitivity to handling, expected
storage life, and consumer preferences.
HARVESTING INDICES
a. Subjective harvesting criteria
include perception of the fruit using
the human senses: sight (color, size,
shape, and fruit appearance), touch
(texture changes), hearing (sound
when cutting, handling, and hitting
the fruit), smell (odors), and taste
(sweetness, sourness, bitterness,
and flavor).
HARVESTING INDICES
b. Objective criteria – do not depend on the harvester or quality
evaluator, but on fruit characteristics or properties which are recorded
or measured.
- measurements used for harvesting are the
time elapsed from fruit set, light or heat
hours in the fields during the fruit
development, respiration rate, and physical
and chemical attributes of the fruit (size,
weight, shape, skin thickness, fruit firmness,
soluble solids content, acidity, aroma
synthesis, starch hydrolysis, chlorophyll
degradation, carotenoids, and anthocyanins
synthesis, etc.)
MATURITY INDICES
Index Examples

Elapsed days from full bloom to harvest Banana

Mean heat units during development Mango

Development of abscission layer Melon
Surface morphology and structure
Netting formation Cantaloupe melon
Changes in fruit gloss or surface Sweet granadilla (orange
characteristics passion fruit), yellow
passion fruit, avocado
Seed loosing Cherimoya
Trichome losses Cherimoya
MATURITY INDICES
Size All fruits
Cherry, watermelon,
Specific gravity
pineapple, mango
Shape
Finger shape (roundness
Banana, plantain
or angularity)
Full cheeks or shoulders
Mango
protuberance
Textural properties:
Firmness Avocado
Tenderness Apple
MATURITY INDICES
External color Most fruits
Internal color and
structure
Tomato, sweet passion fruit
Jellylike material
(granadilla), yellow passion
formation
fruit (maracuya)
Flesh color Mango
Compositional factors
Starch content Mango
Pineapple, papaya, melon,
Sugar content orange, sweet passion fruit,
red or purple mombin
RESPIRATION
AND ETHYLENE
PRODUCTION
RESPIRATION

Respiration – is the conversion of starch and sugar in plant

tissues to CO2, water, and energy in the presence of O2.
- usually, the higher the respiration rate, the shorter the shelf
life of a fresh product is
 RESPIRATION
Respiration - oxidation of sugars to produce usable
energy(ATP), reductant (NADH), and carbon
“skeletons” for biosynthesis.

Where does it occur?

In the cytosol and
mitochondria of living
cells, both
photosynthetic and non-
photosynthetic.
RESPIRATION
Classification of FAV based on respiration
rates:
• High – asparagus, developing seeds,
sprouts, young corn, shoots
• Low – storage organs: potato (stem),
sweet potato (root), onion (bulb), carrot
(tap root)
• Intermediate – leafy vegetables: cabbage,
lettuce, mustard
FACTORS
Factors affecting Respiration

ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION – the reduction of oxygen or

the increase in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere
surrounding a fruit can reduce its rate of respiration and
increase the shelf life of some fresh fruits.

• When oxygen is readily available, the respiration process

is called aerobic.
FACTORS
• However, if the surrounding atmosphere
becomes deficient in oxygen, then the
metabolic pathways shift and anaerobic
respiration occurs.
• The products of anaerobic respiration include
ketones, aldehydes, and alcohols.
• These products are often toxic to plant tissue
and hasten its death and decay.
FACTORS
TEMPERATURE

• In addition to the final products of aerobic respiration

(carbon dioxide and water), there is also the evolution
of heat.

• For every 10OC temperature increase, biological

reactions involved in the respiration processes are
increased by a factor of 2.
FACTORS
• However, at temp. >35oC, enzymes denature.
• At temp. below freezing, freezing injury occurs; cold
induced membrane changes.
• The rate of heat respiration is associated with the
functional aspect of the vegetable tissue. For example, a
growing part of a plant such as a leaf (in leafy vegetables)
has a higher rate of heat generation than plant tissue
where growth has ceased, such as in a tuber crop.
 FACTORS
• Poor management of storage temperature accelerates physiological
breakdown in fruits and vegetables.
➢ For example, the chilling injury
occurs mostly in commodities from
tropical and subtropical regions
when they are stored at
temperatures above their freezing
point and below 5°C–15°C. This type
of injury causes uneven ripening,
decay, growth of surface molds,
development of off-flavors, and both
surface and internal discoloration.
FACTORS
CONCENTRATION OF SUBSTRATE
• Rate of reaction depends on substrate
concentration given all enzymes are
present and active.
• Leaves do not normally contain large
reserves of carbohydrates – fast decrease
in respiration rate
- harvested early in the day
• Storage organs – tubers, bulbs
• –have excess carbohydrates
• –no effect on respiration rate
FACTORS
CONCENTRATION OF O2
• Considered as a substrate in the Electron Transport Chain
FACTORS
EFFECTS OF HANDLING AND WOUNDING
• Results to cell breakage and disruption of membranes
• Rapid metabolic reactions
• Bruising, dropping, squeezing
• Important to handle with care
FACTORS
FACTORS
STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
• Actively growing organs, higher respiration
• But high rate is not maintained due to fast depletion of sugars
• Rapid post-harvest fall in respiration rate

MOISTURE CONTENT
• Affects respiration rate of dry commodities e.g. grains

TYPE OF COMMODITY
• Difference among cultivars

• Other factors which influence the rate of respiration are water stress, light,
growth regulators, pathological growth, and chemical stresses.
ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
Ethylene (C2H4)
• A naturally occurring gas which participates in various
biological processes in fruits
• Colorless and effective at very low concentrations
• Can be produced in very small quantities by most of
vegetables tissues, which require it for growth and
development, but it diffuses rapidly from the sites of
production
• The response to ethylene presence depends on the maturity
stage of the fruit
ETHYLENE PRODUCTION

• Favors uniform
texture changes as
the fruit ripens
• Stimulates color
development with
the synthesis of
anthocyanin and
carotenoids, and
chlorophyll
degradation (de-
greening) and
yellowing
ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
• Low concentrations of ethylene can promote its
autocatalysis in mature fruits and senescent tissues,
increasing its production. Autocatalytic response is due
to the destruction of endogenous ripening inhibitors in
the presence of ethylene, which at the same time
triggers its production.

• In contrast, ethylene presence can also inhibit its own

production in some products (autoinhibition).
ETHYLENE PRODUCTION

• Ethylene production is also promoted by extrinsic

factors such as mechanical damages (cuts, bruising,
scratches), decay, insect damages, and climate
conditions (temperature, relative humidity), as a
response of the tissues to different type of stress.

• Ethylene also favors some physiological disorders and

increased sensitivity to microbial spoilage.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Fruits can be classified (based on
their respiration pattern) into:
a. Climacteric – an abrupt increase
in the respiration rate is
observed during ripening; it
reaches a maximum (climacteric
peak), followed by a rapid
decrease.
• Climacteric fruits exhibit a high
production of ethylene and
carbon dioxide at the ripening
stage
CLASSIFICATIONS
b. Nonclimacteric – respiration rates show very
little change during ripening

• In non-climacteric fruits, the general

production of carbon dioxide and ethylene
gas remains quite low and there is no
increased evolution rate of these gases at the
ripening stage.
 Classification Examples
avocado, banana, breadfruit, cantaloupe,
cherimoya, fig, guava, honeydew melon,
Climacteric fruits jackfruit, kiwi fruit, mango, muskmelon,
papaya, passion fruit (yellow), plantain,
rambutan, sapote, soursop, watermelon
cashew apple, date, sweet passion fruit,
grapefruit, lemon, lime, litchi, loquat,
Nonclimateric
mandarin, mangosteen, olive, orange,
fruits
pineapple, purple or red mombim, rose apple,
starfruit, tangerine
UNDESIRABLE ETHYLENE
EFFECTS
• Undesired ripening and
excessive softening of fruits in
storage
• Accelerated respiration rate
• Accelerated senescence and
loss of green color in leafy
vegetables and immature fruit
(e.g. cucumbers, tomatoes)
• Undesirable discoloration
UNDESIRABLE ETHYLENE
EFFECTS
• Abscission of leaves (e.g.,
cauliflower, cabbage,
foliage plants, etc.)
• Sprouting (stimulation or
retardation; e.g.,
potatoes)
• Reduction of storage life
• Synthesis of bitter
compounds in carrots.
UNDESIRABLE ETHYLENE
EFFECTS
• Induction of phenolic synthesis
- Bitter principle
(isocoumarin) in carrot
roots
- Toxic ipomeamarone in
sweet potato roots
(solanine in potatoes)
- Russet spotting on lettuce
- Lignification of asparagus
UNDESIRABLE
ETHYLENE EFFECTS
• Physiological disorders of
ornamental crops
- ‘Sleepiness’ of carnations
(failure of bloom to open)
- Flower and leaf abscission
- Inhibition of shoot and root
elongation, bud necrosis,
and flower bud blasting in
bulb crops.
FRUIT RIPENING
RIPENING
Ripening – the process by which fruits attain their
desirable flavour, quality, color, palatable nature and
other textural properties.

• Many fruits are harvested from the plant when fully

mature and ripe.
• However, there are numerous other fruits that may
be harvested when fully mature and then allowed to
ripen during storage and transportation.
RIPENING STAGE
Processes associated with fruit ripening

• Seed maturation – ability of

seeds to germinate successfully
• Development of wax on peel
• Abscission of fruit
• Change in C2H4 production
• Increased sensitivity to C2H4
(climacteric fruits only)
• Change in respiration rate
• Protein and nucleic acid changes
 RIPENING STAGE
• Membrane and cell wall changes:
- increased membrane permeability
affect juice leakage.
- depolymerization of pectins and
other cell wall polysaccharides
results softening.
• Compositional changes
- starch to sugar conversion
- loss of acids
- pigment synthesis (anthocyanins &
carotenoids) and degradation
(chlorophyll)
- formation of flavor volatiles
RIPENING PRACTICES
❖ Keep unripened and ripened fruits together
inside an air tight container.
❖ Smoking inside smoke chambers.
- Smoke emanates acetylene gas.
- But the major drawback of this method
is that the fruits do not attain uniform
colour and flavour.
- In addition, the persistence of smoke
odour on the product impairs its quality.
RIPENING PRACTICES
❖ Spreading unripe fruits as layers over paddy
husk or wheat straw for a week to ripen is an
another alternative.
RIPENING PRACTICES
❖ Stress ethylene

• Wounding a fruit – insertion of

a pointed stick into the stem
end of a jackfruit
- scouring (rubbing vigorously so
that part of the skin comes off;
ex: chico)
- pinching or cutting a piece of
tissue (ex: avocado, papaya)
RIPENING PRACTICES

• Plasmolysis – the sap moves out of the cells due to

higher concentration of salt outside the cells; cells
injured, ethylene released
- ex: putting salt on the stem scar of chico,
immersion of banana fruits in salted or sea water

❖ Use of smoke – contains ethylene and acetylene

 RIPENING PRACTICES
❖ Calcium carbide, once dissolved in water,
produces acetylene which acts as an artificial
ripening agent.
- Industrial-grade calcium carbide usually
contains traces of arsenic and phosphorus,
and, thus, use of this chemical for this purpose
is illegal in most countries.
- Acetylene is believed to affect the nervous
system by reducing oxygen supply to brain.
- Arsenic and phosphorus are toxic and exposure
may cause severe health hazards.
RIPENING PRACTICES
❖ Dipping unripe mature fruits in 0.1 per cent ethrel solution (1 ml of
ethrel solution in 1 litre of water) and wipe it dry.
❖ The fruits are then spread over a newspaper without touching each
other and a thin cotton cloth is covered over this.
❖ In this method, the fruits will ripen within two days.
RIPENING CHAMBERS

• To ripen fruits, specially

constructed ripening rooms
are used where
temperature, humidity,
carbon dioxide, and
ethylene gas concentration
as well as airflow rates are
controlled.
RIPENING CHAMBERS
RIPENING CHAMBERS
• Boxes of product are tightly stacked into a pallet.
• The pallets are raised above the ground.
• Fruit to be ripened ideally is placed in an airtight ripening room
maintained at a constant temperature (18-25oC for most fruits, but 29-
31oC in mango).
• Humidity in ripening rooms
should be maintained at 85%–
95% to keep moisture loss at a
minimum.
• Typically, a spacing of 10–15
cm between pallet loads
ensures good air circulation.
RIPENING CHAMBERS
Ethylene
Ethylene
Exposure Ripening Storage
Commodity Conc.
Time Temp. (oC) Temp. (oC)
(ppm)
(hr.)
Avocado 10-100 12-48 15-18 4.4-13
Banana 100-150 24 15-18 13-14
Honey dew
100-150 18-24 20-25 7-10
melon
Mango 100-150 12-24 20-22 13-14
Orange
1-10 24-72 20-22 5-9
degreening
Optimal ripening conditions for fruit ripening
Temperature 18 to 25oC
Relative humidity 85 to 95%
Ethylene 10 to 100 ppm
concentration
Duration of 24 to 74 hours depending on fruit type and
treatment stage of maturity
Air circulation Sufficient to ensure distribution of ethylene
within ripening room.
Ventilation Require adequate air exchange in order to
prevent accumulation of O2 which reduces
effectiveness of C2H4.
DE-GREENING
❖ Controlled degreening sometimes is carried
out on citrus grown in tropics. Many citrus
cultivars mature before green colour
disappears from peel.
❖ Breakdown of chlorophyll and production of a
rich orange colour require exposure to low
temperature during maturation, and this
explains why mature citrus frequently is sold
green on markets in humid tropics, where
even night temperatures may not drop much
below 25oC.
❖ Degreening is carried out in ripening rooms.
COOLING OF
FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
WATER LOSS
• Typically, the inside of a fruit or vegetable is
near saturation of water.
• The vapor pressure in the surrounding air
depends on the specific humidity of the air.
• The storage room air humidity is maintained
at a high level, 85%–95%, minimizing the
vapor pressure gradient between the
product and the surrounding air.
COOLING
Various factors determine the cooling method for a given
commodity. Some of these factors are as follows:
• Type of product, such as leafy, stem, root crop
• Product size
• Quantity of product to be cooled
• Package size and shape
• Type of packaging material
• Susceptibility to physical damage sustained by product
• Costs of operation, both capital and operating
FORCED-AIR COOLING
- is one of the most common methods used in commercial
operations
❖ Air is first cooled by forcing it over evaporator coils of a
refrigeration system.
❖ Heat is transferred from air to the refrigerant flowing inside
the coils.
❖ The cooled air is then brought into contact with fruits and
vegetables that are usually packed in containers with
openings in the walls.
❖ The warm air leaving the product is directed back toward the
evaporator coils to be recooled.
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil,
2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor.
FORCED-AIR COOLING
A. Tunnel Cooling
• In tunnel cooling system, rows
of pallet boxes are set up in a
cold storage room so that there
is an empty channel, or tunnel,
between them.
• Typically, the two rows of loads
are stacked on each side of the
tunnel.
• The two ends and the top of
the tunnel are covered with a
tarp that guides the airflow
through the boxes.
FORCED-AIR COOLING
B. Serpentine Cooling

• In a serpentine cooling system, the

product is typically packed in pallet-
size bins with air vents in the bottom.
• When pallet bins are placed on each
other, the tines, used by the fork lift to
connect with a bin, help create an
open channel for airflow.
• 10–15 cm from the wall, so that there
are sufficient air openings.
• Air speeds = 5–7.5 m/s
• Airflow rate = 0.25–0.5
L/s/kg, with a cooling
time of 10–12 h.
FORCED-AIR COOLING
C. Cold Wall Cooler
• Commonly used for smaller lots of product
• Pallet loads are placed against a specially constructed
wall.
• When a pallet load is placed against this wall, a lever is
pushed to open a damper that allows air to be drawn
into the plenum.
• This damper opening system may be arranged in such a
manner that it opens only when it is actuated by the
bin.
HYDROCOOLING
• Found to be most cost-effective in cooling fruits, root
crops, and stem vegetables in commercial practice
• Not recommended for grapes and berry fruits, and
even leafy vegetables.
• To effectively transfer heat, water must contact as
much of the product surface as possible, must flow
with a certain velocity over the product surface, and
must be cold and free of microorganisms that may
promote decay.
HYDROCOOLING
Some considerations:

• The containers are vented at the top and bottom. Correct

alignment of vent holes is important.
• The material used for packaging must be water-resistant.
• Wax-dipped corrugated fiberboard is commonly used,
although use of waxed packaging materials is more costly
and there are problems in recycling waxed fiberboard.
HYDROCOOLING
• Clean, potable well, or domestic supply water should be
used at temperatures near 0°C with 100–150 ppm
chlorine. The water in the cooler must be changed at
least once daily.
• Chlorination is achieved by adding either chlorine gas,
sodium hypochlorite, or calcium hypochlorite.
• The pH of the water must be between 6.5 and 7.5 for
chlorine to be effective.
HYDROCOOLING
A. Batch Shower System
• Water cooled by contact with evaporator coils is conveyed to a
distribution pan.
• The pan has small openings that create a uniform shower
underneath.
• The product, in packages, is positioned under the shower.
• Warm water collects in the water reservoir from which it is pumped
to the top and recooled by contact with the evaporator coils.
• Water flow rate is maintained around at 480–490 L/min/m2 for
double-parallel bin depth.
HYDROCOOLING
B. Continuous Shower System

• The product is moved on a conveyor belt.

• The speed of the conveyor is adjusted to cool
the product to the desired temperature.
• In this system, damage from the impact of
water on product should be minimized.
• The distance between the shower and
product should be less than 15–20 cm.
HYDROCOOLING
C. Water Immersion Cooling System

• The conveyor belt contains cleats to aid

product movement and move the product
through a water bath.
• Products suitable for immersion cooling are
those that have a density higher than water,
such as cherries.
• Water must be pumped to create water speeds
of 0.076 m/s.
• Water temperatures should be 0°C–0.5°C even for
chilling-sensitive products, as long as the cooling is
stopped when the required temperature is achieved.
SEPARATION
OPERATIONS

Prepared by: G.P.Pantuhan

MECHANICAL SEPARATION
• Sedimentation: Two immiscible liquids, or a liquid and a solid, differing in
density, are separated by allowing them to come to equilibrium under the
action of gravity, the heavier material falling with respect to the lighter.
• Centrifugal separation: Since sedimentation is often a slow process, it
can be speeded up by applying centrifugal forces to increase the rate of
separation.
• Filtration: It is the separation of solids from liquids, by causing the
mixture to flow through fine pores which are small enough to stop the
solid particles but large enough to allow the liquid to pass.
• Sieving: It is done by interposing a barrier through which the larger
elements cannot pass, and is often used for classification of solid
particles.
SEDIMENTATION
• Sedimentation uses
gravitational forces
to separate
particulate material
from fluid streams.
• The particles are
usually solid, but
they can be small
liquid droplets, and
the fluid can be
either a liquid or a
gas.
SEDIMENTATION

• In sedimentation,
particles are falling from
rest under the force of
gravity.
• Sedimentation is very
often used in the food
industry for separating
dirt and debris from
incoming raw material,
crystals from their mother
liquor and dust or product
particles from air streams.
 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION
• Sometimes, the
separation of food
material may be very
slow because the
specific gravities of
the components may
not be very different,
or because of forces
holding the
components in
association, for
example as occur in
emulsions.
FILTRATION

• It is the process of
separating suspended solid
matter from a liquid, by
causing the latter to pass
through the pores of some
substance, called a filter.
• The liquid which has
passed through the filter is
called the filtrate.
SIEVING
• This is done successively,
using increasingly smaller
screens, to give a series
of particles classified into
size ranges.
• The material is shaken or
agitated above a mesh or
cloth screen; particles of
smaller size than the
mesh openings can pass
through under the force
of gravity.
SIEVING
Rates of throughput of sieves are
dependent upon a number of
factors:
• nature and the shape of the
particles
• frequency and the amplitude of
the shaking
• methods used to prevent
sticking or bridging of particles
in the apertures of the sieve
• tension and physical nature of
the sieve material.
CONTACT EQUILIBRIUM
PROCESSES
• Biological raw materials are usually mixtures, and to prepare
foodstuffs it may be necessary to separate some of the components of
the mixtures.
• One method, by which this separation can be carried out, is by the
introduction of a new phase to the system and allowing the
components of the original raw material to distribute themselves
between the phases.
• For example, freshly dug vegetables have another phase, water, added
to remove unwanted earth.
• A mixture of alcohol and water is heated to produce another phase,
vapor, which is richer in alcohol than the mixture.
CONTACT EQUILIBRIUM
PROCESSES
• By choosing the conditions, one phase
is enriched while the other is depleted
in some component or components.
• The two features that are common to
all equilibrium contact processes are
the attainment of, or approach to,
equilibrium and the provision of
contact stages.
• Equilibrium is reached when a
component is so distributed between
the two streams that there is no
tendency for its concentration in
either stream to change.
CONTACT EQUILIBRIUM
PROCESSES
• Attainment of equilibrium may take appreciable time, and only if this
time is available will effective equilibrium be reached.
• The two phases can then be separated by simple physical methods
such as gravity settling.
• Successive stages can be used to enhance the separation.
• Some examples of contact equilibrium separation processes are:
1. Gas absorption
2. Extraction and washing
3. Distillation
4. Crystallization
GAS ABSORPTION
• It is a unit process to separate a specific gas
from the gas mixture by using an
appropriate solvent.
• It is necessary for the compound to be
slightly concentrated so that the product in
the gaseous state is dissolved in a liquid.
• Firstly, the magnetic stirrer diffuses the compound within the gas phase
towards the surface of the liquid and then the movement produces
condensation and dissolution in the liquid phase. Finally, the compound
is diffused into the liquid phase.
GAS ABSORPTION
• Absorption is usually used to
reduce impurities to enhance
process efficiency, eliminating
toxic gaseous from a gas
mixture, etc.
• Such useful applications for
this process are recovery
alcohol vapor, acid gas
removal, and separation of
hydrocarbons by water,
alkaline aqueous solution, and
hydrocarbon oil, respectively.
EXTRACTION
• It is the process of selectively
removing a compound of
interest from a mixture using a
solvent.
• For an extraction to be
successful the compound must
be more soluble in the solvent
than in the mixture.
• Additionally, the solvent and
mixture must be immiscible
(not soluble in one another).
EXTRACTION

• Making tea is a good example of

extraction. Water is placed in
contact with tea bags and the
"tea" is extracted from the tea
leaves into the water. This works
because the "tea" is soluble in
water but the leaves are not.
WASHING
• It is the process of selectively
removing unwanted
compounds from a mixture
using a solvent.
• The unwanted materials must
be more soluble in the solvent
than in the mixture.
Additionally, the solvent and
mixture must be immiscible.
Immiscible solvents are not
soluble in each other and form
two layers when mixed.
DISTILLATION
• It is the process of separating the
components of a liquid mixture
through selective evaporation and
condensation.
• The basis of separation is the
difference in the vapor pressures
(volatilities) of the respective
components.
• Major uses of distillation in the food
industry are for concentrating
essential oils, flavors and alcoholic
beverages, and in the deodorization
of fats and oils.
EVAPORATION
• A raw material or a potential foodstuff contains more
water than is required in the final product.
• When the foodstuff is a liquid, the easiest method of
removing the water, in general, is to apply heat to
evaporate it.
• The basic factors that affect the rate of evaporation are
the:
a. rate at which heat can be transferred to the liquid
b. quantity of heat required to evaporate each kg of
water
c. maximum allowable temperature of the liquid
d. pressure at which the evaporation takes place
e. changes that may occur in the foodstuff during the
course of the evaporation process
CONDENSATION
• It is the conversion of a vapor
or gas to a liquid.
• It is the reverse action of
evaporation.
• It has also been defined to
include those reactions in
which two molecules are
joined with loss of water.
• It may also refer to the
removal of heat from a
system in such a manner that
vapor is converted into liquid.
CRYSTALLIZATION
• It is used as a unit operation for separation of solids from the liquids or
as a process tool for processing certain foods item.
• In the separation process, in some cases the solids are the desired
products, whereas in others liquid is the desired product.
• Soluble components are removed from solution by adjusting the
conditions so that the solution becomes supersaturated and excess
solute crystallizes out in a pure form. This is generally accomplished by
lowering the temperature, or by concentration of the solution, in each
case to form a supersaturated solution from which crystallization can
occur.
• The equilibrium is established between the crystals and the surrounding
solution, the mother liquor.
CRYSTALLIZATION
• The manufacture of sucrose,
from sugar cane or sugar
beet, is an important
example of crystallization in
food technology.
• Crystallization is also used in
the manufacture of other
sugars (glucose and lactose),
in the manufacture of food
additives (salt), and in the
processing of foodstuffs (ice
cream).
MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES
• It is a process where a
membrane is used to separate
the components in a solution
by rejecting unwanted
substances and allowing the
others to pass through the
membrane.
• These membranes act
somewhat as membranes do in
natural biological systems.
• The role of the membrane is
also to change the composition
of a solution on the basis of
relative permeation rates.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
• Water flows through the membrane from the dilute solution to the more
concentrated one. The force producing this flow is called the osmotic
pressure.
• If pressures greater than the
osmotic pressure are applied
to the more concentrated
solution, the flow will not only
stop but will reverse so that
water passes out through the
membrane making the
concentrated solution more
concentrated.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
• The flow will continue until
the concentration rises to the
point where its osmotic
pressure equals the applied
pressure.
• Special artificial membranes
have been made with the
required "tight" structure to
retain all but the smallest
molecules such as those of
water.
• Water purification
SIZE REDUCTION
SIZE REDUCTION
• It is the unit operation in
which average size of solid
pieces of food is reduced by
application of grinding and
cutting , compression or
impact forces.
• Has little or no preservative
effect
• Used to improve the eating
quality or suitability of foods
further processing
SIZE REDUCTION
• Grinding - reduce the size of solid materials
by mechanical action, dividing them into
smaller particles.
• Ex. milling of grains to make flour, grinding
of corn for manufacture of corn starch, the
grinding of sugar and the milling of dried
foods, such as vegetables.

Comminution – is
Cutting – is used to break down large pieces of the production of
food into smaller pieces suitable for further powders and fine
processing, such as in the preparation of meat particles
for retail sales and in the preparation of
processed meats and processed vegetables.
CLASSIFICATION
Different methods of size reduction according to particle size range:
1. Chopping, cutting, slicing and dicing
a. Large to medium (stewing steak, cheese and slice fruit for
canning)
b. Medium to small (bacon, slice beans, diced carrot)
c. Small to granular (mince or shredded meat, flake fish or nuts,
shredded vegetables)

2. Milling to powder or paste of increasing fineness (grated

products, spices, flours, fruit nectars, powdered sugar,starches,
smooth paste)
THEORY
Types of force used to reduce size Friable or crystalline foods –
of foods: compression force
1. Compression forces Fibrous foods – combine impact
2. Impact forces and shearing
3. Shearing (or attrition) forces Fine grinding and softer foods –
shearing force
THEORY
• When stress (force) is applied to
food, it cause deformation of
tissues.
• On many occasion the strain does
not exceed a certain level named the
elastic stress limit.
• When strain exceed to elastic stress
limit, the food is permanently
deformed.
• When stress is removed, the tissues
is return to their original shape and
released the stored energy as heat.
THEORY
• The energy required depends upon
the hardness of the material and also
upon the tendency of the material to
crack – its friability.
• The harder the food, the more energy
it required and absorb to create
fractures.
• Extent of size reduction and energy
expended (amount of heat generated)
in the food therefore depend on both
size of the forces and the time that
the food is subjected to the force.
THEORY
Factors affecting energy input in food:
1. Moisture content
• Wheat is conditioned to optimum
moisture content before milling
• Maize is thoroughly soaked & wet milled
in order to obtained starchy material
• Excess moisture in dry food can lead to
agglomeration of particles w/c block
the mill. Very dry food create dust that
can cause health hazard and is
extremely inflammable and potentially
explosive.
THEORY
2. Heat sensitivity of food

• Determine the permissible

temperature rise and the necessity to
cool the mill.
• In cryogenic grinding, liquid nitrogen
and solid carbon dioxide are mixed
with food (ex: spices) before milling, to
cool product and to retain volatiles or
other heat sensitivity components.
• Solid carbon dioxide is also used to
cool meat during size reduction in the
manufacture of sausage meat.
 Equipment Type of Product Fineness
1 2 3 4 5 a b c d
Slicers * * * *
1. Soft, brittle,
Dicers * * * * crystalline
Shredders * * * * 2. Hard, abrasive
Bowl Choppers * * * * * 3. Elastic, tough,
Pre crushers * * * * cuttable
4. Fibrous
Hammer mills * * * * * *
5. Heat sensitive,
Fine impact mills * * * * * * greasy
Classifier mills * * *
Air jet mills * * * * a. Coarse lumps
Ball mills * * b. Coarse grits
c. Medium fine to
Disc mills * * * *
fine
Roller mills * * * * d. Fine to ultrafine
Pulpers * * * *
FIBROUS FOODS
• Most meats, fruits, and vegetables fall into general category as “fibrous
foods”

Slicing
Equipment –
consist of
rotating or
reciprocating
blades which
cut the food as
it passes
beneath
FIBROUS FOODS
Dicing Equipment – is for
vegetables, fruits and meats. The
food is first slice and cut into
strips by rotating the blades.

Flaking Equipment – for flaked fish, nuts or

meats; similar to slicing equipment. Adjustment of
the blade type and spacing is used to produce the
flakes.
FIBROUS FOODS
Shredding Equipment – typical
equipment is a modified hammer mill

Pulping Equipment – is used for juice

extraction from fruits and vegetables and for
pureed and pulped meats.
FIBROUS FOODS
Bowl chopper – is used to chop meats and harder fruits and vegetables into a coarse
pulp (ex. For sausage meat or mincement preserve)

1. Cutting blades
2. Cover
3. Rotating cutter bowl
4. Casing
5. Rotating unloader
disc
6. Main motor drive
 DRY FOODS
Ball mills – consists of slow
rotating, horizontal steel
cylinder which is half filled
with steel balls 2.5-15 cm in
diameter.
- if slow speed, shear force
is used
- if higher speed, impact
force is used
Rod mill – used rod instead of
balls to overcome problems
associated with the balls
sticking in adhesive foods.
DRY FOODS
Disc mills – different design of disc mills and
each type employs shearing forces for fine
grinding or shearing and impact forces for
coarser grinding.

• single-disc mills – food passes through an

adjustable gap between a stationary casing
and grooved disc w/c rotates at high speed.
• double-disc mills – two disc rotate in
opposite directions to produce greater
shearing forces
• pin-and-disc mills – have intermeshing pins
fixed either to the single disc and casing or
to double discs
DRY FOODS
Hammer mills
- a horizontal cylindrical
chamber is lined with
toughened steel breaker
plate.
- A high-speed rotor inside
the chamber is fitted with
hammers along its length.
- Food is disintegrated mainly
by impact forces as the
hammers drive it against
the breaker plate.
DRY FOODS
Roller mills
- two or more steel rollers
revolve toward each other
and pull particles of food
through the “nip”.
- the main the force is
compression but if the
rollers rotated at different
speed additional shear force
is exerted
- size of the nip is adjustable
for different foods
 Type of Type(s) of forces Peripheral Typical products
equipment velocity (m/s)
Pin-and-disc mill impact 80-160 Sugar, starch, cocoa powder, nutmeg,
pepper, roasted nuts
Wing beater mill Impact and shear 50-70 Alginates, pepper, paprika, dried
vegetables
Disc-beater mill Impact and shear 70-90 Milk powder, lactose cereals, dried
whey
Vertical toothed disc shear 4-18 Frozen coffee extract
mill 17, Rye, maize, wheat, pepper, juniper
berry
Cutting granulator Impact and shear 5-18 Fish meal, dry fruit and vegetables
Hammer mill Impact and shear 40-50 Sugar, tapioca, dry veg,. dried mill,
spices, pepper
Ball mill Impact and shear 40-50 Food colours
Roller mill Compression and shear 40-50 Sugar cane, wheat
Chocolate refining
EFFECT ON FOODS
• Texture of many food (ex. bread, hamburger
or juices) is controlled by the conditions
during size reduction
• There is indirect effect on the aroma and
flavor of foods
• Has little or no preservative effect on food
• Disruption of the cells and resulting to
increase surface area promotes oxidative
deterioration and higher rates of
microbiological and enzymatic activity.
EFFECT ON FOODS
Sensory Characteristics
• Loss of volatile constituents from spices and some nuts which
is accelerated if temperature is allowed to rise during milling.
• Release of cellular materials provide a suitable substrate for
microbial growth that can result off-flavors and aromas.

Nutritive Value
• Oxidation of fatty acids and vitamin A during size reduction.
• Losses of vitamin C and thiamin (B) in chopped or sliced fruits
and vegetables are substantial
PRESERVATION
BY MOISTURE
REMOVAL
FOOD DEHYDRATION
• One of the oldest methods of preserving
food.
• Alternative to canning and freezing
• Takes little space

• Rely on three basic principles:

a. Heat: removing moisture, but not cook
b. Dry Air: to absorb released moisture
c. Air Circulation: to carry the moisture
away
BENEFITS
1. The opportunity for microbial deterioration is
eliminated and the rates of other deteriorative
reactions are reduced significantly.
2. It reduces product mass and volume by significant
amounts and improves the efficiency of product
transportation and storage.
3. It results in a product that is more convenient for
consumer use.
Forced Convection Dryer
 sat. line

drying
3
H

1 2
heating

Tdb
DRYING CURVE
A-B = transition
B-C = constant drying rate
period (characterized by
the free movement of
moisture from the food to
the air)
C-D = first falling rate period
(critical moisture content
is reached)
D-E - second falling rate
(mass diffusion)
E-F – equilibrium conditions
MECHANISM OF DRYING

When hot air is blown over a wet food, water vapor diffuses through a
boundary film of air surrounding the food and is carried away by the
moving air. Air gradient provides the “driving force” for water removal from
the food.
 CONSTANT-RATE PERIOD
• When food is placed into a drier, there is
a short initial settling down (transition or
initial induction).

• Drying then commences and, provided

water moves from the interior of the food
at the same rate as it evaporates from the
surface, the surface remains wet.

• This is known as the constant-rate period

and continues until a certain critical
moisture content is reached.
FALLING-RATE PERIOD
• In the first falling-rate period, the
plane of evaporation moves from
the surface to inside the food, and
water vapor diffuses through the
dry solids to the drying air.
• The second falling-rate period
occurs when the partial pressure of
water vapor is below the saturated
vapor pressure, and drying is by
desorption.
DRYING TEMPERATURE
Herbs: 90-100°F(in order to maintain the aroma and oil since the
aromatic oils are sensitive to heat)
Nuts and seeds: 90-100°F(nuts and seeds are high in oil and if
higher temperatures are used, they tend to become rancid.)
Fruits and vegetables: 130-140°F (in order to minimize loss of heat
sensitive vitamins A and C)
Meats and fish: 160°F (in order to keep bacteria and spoilage
organisms to a minimum during the first stages of drying)
DRYING TEMPERATURE
Drying too slow =
microorganisms could
grow
Drying too fast = cooked
food or case hardening
Avoid “case hardening” –
dried outside and
moisture is trapped inside
– mold results
DRYING METHODS
SUN DRYING
• The high sugar and acid content of fruits make
them safe to dry in the sun.
• Vegetables are low in sugar and acid, increasing
the risks for food spoilage.
• It needs several days of high temp (at least 85OF)
and low humidity (below 60%).
• Precautions should be taken to protect the fruit
from becoming contamination and rewetting.
DRYING METHODS
Solar Drying
• Need to make a dryer
• Need to stir and turn food
several times a day
• Need several day

Vine Drying
• Dry beans, lentils and soybeans.
• Leave bean pods on vine until
beans inside rattle.
• If not dried can dry further in
oven or dehydrator.
DRYING METHODS
FOOD DEHYDRATOR

• It is a small electrical
appliance for drying foods
indoors.
• It has a small electrical
element for heat and vents
for air circulation.
• The quality of the dried food
will also be better.
TYPES OF DEHYDRATORS

Horizontal Air Flow

• Heating element
and fan are
located on side.
• Major advantages
– reduces flavor
mixing

Vertical Air Flow

• Heating element and fan located at base
• Major disadvantage – flavors can mix
TYPES OF DEHYDRATORS
INDOOR AIR-DRYING

• Most commonly done for herbs,

hot peppers, & nuts in shell.
• Sun drying is not recommended
because the herbs can lose
flavor and color.
• Tie in bundles
• Enclose in paper bags with
openings for air circulation
• Spread in single layer on paper.
DRYING FRUITS
• Fruits are ideal to dry because they have a natural high sugar content
and are high in acid, thus less prone to spoilage.
Pre-treating the fruit:
• To prevent fruit darkening
• Pre-treatment minimizes oxidation.
• Optional
a. Sulfuring – burning sulphites, SO2
b. Sulfite Dip – sulfating, dipping into sodium metasulphite
solution
c. Ascorbic Acid
d. Syrup Blanching
e. Steam Blanching
DRYING FRUITS
Determining Dryness of Fruit:

• 20% moisture content when dried

• Cut several cooled pieces in half, should not:
- see visible moisture
- be able to squeeze moisture
• Not be sticky or tacky
• If piece folded in half, shouldn’t stick to
itself.
DRYING VEGETABLES
• Some vegetables are good dried; some lose their
appeal and are better frozen or fresh.
• Vegetables are low in acid
and sugar, which makes
them more prone to
spoilage and they tend to
have a shorter shelf life
than dried fruits.
DRYING VEGETABLES
Pre-treating vegetables

• Most vegetables must be BLANCHED to slow the

enzymatic activity that will continue during drying
and storage.
• Blanching softens cell structure, allowing moisture
to escape more easily and also allows vegetables to
rehydrate faster.
DRYING VEGETABLES
Pre-treating vegetables

• Water blanching
– Recommended times
– Start timing when
water returns to boil

• Steam blanching
– ≤ 2 inches above boiling water
– Heated through, but not cooked
– Lose less water-soluble vitamins and minerals
DRYING VEGETABLES

Determining dryness of veggies

• Dry vegetables until brittle or

“crisp”
• 10% Moisture
DRYING JERKY
Jerky can be made from:

1. Meats:
• It should be lean cuts (fat gets
rancid).
• Round, flank, and chuck steak, rump
roasts, briskets and cross rib make
excellent jerky.
• For jerky prepared from ground
meat use meat that is 93% lean.
2. Fish (use fillets)
3. Poultry (use precooked meat, breasts)
DRYING JERKY
• It is easier to slice partially frozen meat.
Cut meat into uniform ¼” strips.
• Cut with the grain if chewy jerky is
preferred. Cut across the grain if more
brittle jerky is preferred.
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
A. Tray or Cabinet Dryers
- These types of drying systems use trays or similar product
holders to expose the product to heated air in an enclosed
space.
- Air movement over the product surface is at relatively high
velocities to ensure that heat and mass transfer will proceed
in an efficient manner.
- In most cases, cabinet dryers are operated as batch systems
and have the disadvantage of non-uniform drying of a product
at different locations within the system.
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
B. Tunnel Dryers
• The heated drying air is introduced at one end of the tunnel and
moves at an established velocity through trays of products being
carried on trucks.
• The product trucks are moved through the tunnel at a rate
required to maintain the residence time needed for dehydration.
• The product can be moved in the same direction as the air flow
to provide concurrent dehydration, or the tunnel can be
operated in countercurrent manner with the product moving in
the direction opposite to air flow.
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
B. Tunnel
Dryers

Concurrent-flow
tunnel dryer

Countercurrent-
flow tunnel dryer
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
C. Fluidized-Bed Drying
• In this system, the product pieces are
suspended in the heated air
throughout the time required for
drying.
• The movement of the product created
by fluidized particles results in equal
drying from all product surfaces.
• Smaller particles can be maintained in
suspension with lower air velocities
and will dry more rapidly.
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
D. Spray Drying
• The drying of liquid food products is
often accomplished in a spray dryer.
• Moisture removal from a liquid food
occurs after the liquid is atomized or
sprayed into heated air within a
drying chamber.
• Much of the drying occurs during a
constant-rate period and is limited by
mass transfer at the droplet surface.
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
INDUSTRIAL DEHYDRATION
E. Freeze-Drying • The advantages of the
freeze-drying process are
Freeze-drying is superior product quality
accomplished by resulting from low
reducing the product temperature during
temperature so that sublimation and the
most of the product maintenance of product
moisture is in a solid structure.
state, and by • These advantages are
decreasing the balanced against the
pressure around the energy-intensive aspects
product, sublimation of the product freezing
of ice can be achieved. and vacuum
requirements.
PRESERVATION
BY COOLING
AND FREEZING
WHAT LOW
TEMPERATURE DOES

Low temperatures – are not

lethal to bacteria and
other microorganisms.
- However at temperatures below 10°C, their growth is slow.
- Therefore, both their growth and multiplication are being
retarded by lowering temperature and can be almost stopped
if all the water in food were frozen.
REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration – the process of
removing heat from food for
purposes of lowering temperature
- To inactivate enzyme (combined
with blanching)
- Bacteriostatic effect (not a kill step)
- Reduces metabolic rate of
microorganisms (reduction in
temperature reduces reaction of
microorganisms).
TEMPERATURE AND
MICROBIAL GROWTH
Temperature below 0OC: Microbes can’t grow below
freezing point because there
is no water. They are dormant
(sleeping) until food is
thawed.

0OC to 5OC: Microbes grow very slowly

(chilling and chilled storage).
TEMPERATURE AND
MICROBIAL GROWTH
5OC to 60OC: Microbes grow rapidly. This is called the
temperature danger zone. For every
increase or decrease of 10OC in
temperature, the metabolic rate of
microorganisms doubles in decreasing
rate above and below temperature
danger zone.
60OC and up: Microbes can’t grow above 60OC
(heating).
CHILLING
• Refrigeration at 0 – 4 or 5OC.
• It is used to store perishable foods such as eggs, dairy
products, meats, seafoods, vegetables and fruits for a
limited time.
• Minimal changes to sensory characteristics and nutritional
properties of foods.
• Reduce rate of biochemical changes.
• Bacteriostatic agent (not a kill step)
• Reduces metabolic rate of most microorganisms
• Psychrophilic microorganisms can multiply
• Microorganisms still cause spoilage of food.
CHILLING OF FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES
• Each fruit has its own optimal temperature
and relative humidity for chilling storage (ex:
bananas at 13.3–16.7OC, sweet potatoes at
10–12.8OC).

• Accomplished by the use of cold water, ice, or

mechanical refrigeration or by vacuum cooling
as used for lettuce.
Symptoms of chilling injury
1. Pitting
2. Surface decay (snap beans, cucumbers)
3. Internal browning (apples, sweet potatoes)
4. Surface scald (eggplant)
5. Objectionable flavor (watermelons)
6. Water-soaking (ripe tomatoes)
7. Poor color when ripe (mature-green
tomatoes)
8. Sweetening (potatoes)
9. Hardness when cooked (sweet potatoes)
CHILLING OF FISH
• In general, small fish is more perishable than larger ones because
of greater surface to volume ratio and better aeration.

Methods of chilling
1. Wet ice – direct contact between melted ice and fish
2. Chilled seawater – moisture of seawater and crushed ice
3. Refrigerated air – chilled air circulated by air blowers; slow
4. Dry ice (CO2 at -7.8OC) cooling – effected by evaporation of dry ice;
not direct contact with fish
5. Gel ice mat
CHILLING OF MEAT
• Use of temperatures between -2 and 4OC storage of
meat
• Allow rigor mortis to pass (Rigor mortis is the stiffening
of muscles. Meat will be tough if directly frozen.
Hence, meat should be chilled after slaughtering).
• The internal temperatures of the thickest portion of
the carcass should be reduced to 4OC as rapidly as
possible.
• Chicken (< 24 hrs), pork (24 hrs), and beef (48 hours)
inside the chiller.
• Intestines, stomachs and offals can be sources of
contamination in slaughtered animals.
FACTORS
Factors affecting microbial growth
in chilled meat:
1. Kind and level of initial contamination – meat contaminated
with psychrotrophic (or psychrophilic) bacteria would spoil
faster at chilling temperatures.
2. Physical properties of meat – more expose surface of the
meat, the faster rate of spoilage because of greater load on the
surface.
- Grinding greatly increases surface exposed to the atmosphere
and encourages microbial growth, greater opportunity for
growth of aerobic microorganisms.
FACTORS
4. Chemical properties of meat – moisture content is important
because it affects water activity.
- High protein content and low fermentable carbohydrates in meat
tend to favor non-fermenting microbe types and those which can
utilize protein.
- Glycogen content during slaughter influence microbial growth. High
glycogen means lower pH, inhibiting many bacteria but may favor
yeasts and molds. Low glycogen level means high pH, resulting to
darkening of meat. Desirable is high glycogen level before
slaughtering.
5. Availability of oxygen – encourages growth of molds, yeasts and
aerobic bacteria on surfaces.
FACTORS
5. Temperature – at chilling temperatures, psychrophiles are
favored,
6. Relative humidity (RH) – ranging from 75-92% at 4-0OC; very low
RH cause moisture and weight loss of the meat, while too high
RH favors growth of microorganisms.
7. Protective coverings – fat cover, skin, or scales prevent microbial
contamination, dehydration and discoloration of meat surfaces;
proper packaging
8. Species of animal – pork, poultry and fish have more highly
saturated fats; susceptible to oxidative rancidity
9. Type of product stored – cured meats less susceptible than fresh
meats (prone to temperature abuse)
WHAT IS FREEZING?

Freezing – is utilized to protect perishable foods from

both enzymatic and microbial degradation.
- involves the removal of heat from food to achieve
the following effects:
a. Crystallization as ice of most of the water
present in the food
b. Lowering the temperature of the food to the
desired level.
STAGES OF FREEZING
a. Initial cooling – cold
shock to microorganisms
b. Chilling at the latent heat
“plateau” – phase change
of water into ice; injury
to microorganisms
c. Further cooling to
ultimate temperature for
storage – inhibits the
growth of
microorganisms
CRYSTALLIZATION
First Stage of Crystallization:
Nucleation – aggregation of a group of molecules
into a tiny particle known as a crystal nucleus

Two Types of Nucleation:

a. Homogenous – occurs when water is
exceedingly pure;
- Formed by chance orientation of a suitable
number of molecules into an ice-like mass
CRYSTALLIZATION
b. Heteregenous
- When molecules aggregate in a crystalline arrangement on
a tiny, non-aqueous, solid particle
- Type which occur in food due to presence of these ice-
nucleating particles

Second Stage of Crystallization:

Crystal Growth – affected by temperature and rate of
removal; will occur readily at temperatures very close to
the freezing point (easier to grow from the nucleate)
RECRYSTALLIZATION

Recrystallization - any change in number, size,

shape, orientation or perfection of crystals
following completion of initial solidification
- The rate of which depends on the temperature
and nature of material
- May be minimized by maintaining a low, constant
storage temperature.
FREEZING DIAGRAM

Typical freezing curves. A: Water, B: solution, C: foods, S: supercooling (cooling of

water below freezing point without solidification).
FREEZING DIAGRAM
TYPES OF FREEZING
1. Slow freezing – temperature normally reaches
freezing point slowly
- Desired temperature (-15 to -29OC) is achieved within
3-72 hours.
- Generally causes formation of extracellular ice crystals
- Results in large crystal formation, maximum
dislocation of water, and shrunken appearance of cells
in the frozen state – less than ideal quality of food
product
TYPES OF FREEZING
2. Quick freezing – takes only several minutes or seconds for
which the temperature to reach the freezing point
- Temperature of food is lowered to about -20OC within 30
minutes.
- Results in uniform distribution of intra (and extracellular)
small ice crystals
- Less destruction of intact cells of the food.
- Thawed food after quick freezing is superior in sensory
attributed than slow frozen foods; quality of the food is
closer to the original food.
TYPES OF FREEZING
Methods of quick freezing:
a. Direct immersion of food or package in a
refrigerant – example: freezing of fish in brine
b. Indirect contact of food with the refrigerant,
where food or package is in contact with the
passage through which the refrigerant at -
17.8 to -45.6OC flows.
c. Air blasts of frigid air (-17.8 to -34.4OC) blown
across foods being frozen
EFFECTS ON
MICROORGANISMS
• Growth and metabolic rates of microorganisms depend on
enzymes, while rate of enzyme reactions affected by
temperature.
• Bacteria can grow in meat as low as -5OC.
• Bacteria can grow in cured meat as low as -10OC.
• Bacteria can grow in fish as low as -11OC.
• Bacteria can grow in vegetables as low as -12.2OC.
• Bacteria can grow in ice cream as low as -10OC.
• Most common commercial freezers are at -18OC.
• The lower the freezing temperature, the lesser is the growth of
microorganisms.
EFFECTS OF FREEZING
Lethal effects:
• Denaturation of cell protein and enzymes possibly as a
result of increased concentration of solutes in the
unfrozen water because of physical damage by crystals.
• Due to rapid cooling from optimal temperature to 0OC,
freezing results to “cold shock” which causes alterations
of lipids in the cell membrane with damage to the
permeability of the cell.
• Water is unavailable for metabolism.
EFFECTS OF FREEZING
Sublethal effects:

• Many cells damaged during freezing do not die, but

are unable to initiate growth on media containing
inhibitors.
• Freeze-injured, frost-injured or metabolically-
injured cells
• If given an energy source, cells rapidly repair the
damage and grow.
• Food safety concern.
EFFECTS ON FOOD
Freezing injury in fruits and vegetables:

• Occurs when ice crystals are formed

in the tissue.
• Water-soaked appearance.
• Tissues lose rigidity and become
mushy upon thawing.
EFFECTS ON FOOD

Freezer burn in meats

• Whitish or amber-colored
patches seen on the surface of
frozen food
• Caused by sublimation of ice
crystals
• Loss of moisture at the surface
• Tissues become dry and tough
• Improper packaging
Quick freezing – injures microorganisms faster or
better than slow freezing, and results to better
sensory qualities
Thawing – best done in chilling temperature
Microwave thawing – temperature may not be
uniform throughout the food
Cold water – maximum of two hours thawing (ideal is
only 1 hour)
PRESERVATION
BY HEAT
TREATMENT
WHAT IS
PASTEURIZATION?
• Application of temperature below 100OC
(refers to the internal temperature of food,
not the heating media)
• Heat food by mean of steam, dry heat (baking,
roasting, frying) or electric current
• Products cooled immediately after heat
treatment
HISTORY OF
PASTEURIZATION

• Developed by Louis Pasteur (French chemist)

• Work on solving the problem of souring wine
• Discovered that heating the fermented wine
would kill the microbes that cause it to spoil
• Patented the process and called it pasteurization
APPLICATION OF
PASTEURIZATION IN FOODS
• When target food pathogen to be destroyed is not heat
resistant like Mycobacterium tuberculosis in milk
• When main spoilage organisms are not heat-resistant
• When competing organisms are to be killed, allowing a
desired fermentation (to reduce the count of
undesirable microorganisms to give way to desirable
ones)
• When severe heat treatment will adversely affect food
quality, like milk
METHODS OF
PASTEURIZATION
1. HTST – high temperature, short time
- ex: 71.7OC for 15 seconds in milk
2. LTLT – low temperature, long time
- also called as vat or batch pasteurization
- ex: 62.8OC for 30 minutes in milk
3. Ultra pasteurization – 88.3OC for 1 sec, 95.5OC for 0.05
sec, 100OC for 0.01 sec
4. Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) - The food is heated for
2–4 seconds at 135-150OC; achieve commercial sterility.
Pasteurization of Milk (USFDA)

• 63OC LTLT (vat pasteurization), 30 minutes

• 72OC HTST (higher heat shorter time), 15 sec
• 89OC HTST, 1.0 sec
• 90OC HTST, 0.5 sec
• 94OC HTST, 0.1 sec
• 100OC HTST, 0.01 sec
ULTRA-HIGH TEMPERATURE
(UHT) PROCESSING
• The food is heated for 2–4 seconds at 135-150OC;
achieve commercial sterility.
• Continuous process; closed system; prevents
recontamination.
• Food goes through rapid heating and cooling.
• Aseptic filling; sterile packaging; sterile
environment.
• Product shelf life 6 months without refrigeration.
Advantages of UHT Processing:

• High temperature detrimental to

microorganism but with very little damage to
the product
• Destroy spore-forming pathogens and
spoilage microorganisms (spores form at
80OC);
• Extended shelf-life without refrigeration.
Organisms that survive pasteurization

1. Thermodurics (enduring microorganisms) – survive

exposure to relatively high temperature but do not
necessarily grow at these temperature (micrococci,
bacillus)
2. Thermophiles – survive relatively high temperature
but require high temperature for their growth
3. Spores
STERILIZATION
- removal of all forms of microbial life in an object or material

a. Radiation Sterilization – ultraviolet light irradiation for

sterilization of surfaces (food service operations); ex:
gamma rays (for onions)
b. Chemical Sterilization – used for heat sensitive materials;
ex: chlorine bleach, sodium hypochlorite, calcium
hypochlorite;
- ozone-water sanitizer (used for vegetables)
- hydrogen peroxide (food grade, used for aseptic
packaging)
c. Heat sterilization
- common sterilization form or method in foods
1. Boiling
2. Blanching
3. Roasting – surfaced is sterilized more; 75OC to
the thickest portion of meat
4. Dry heat –ex: sterilization of plates and Petri
dish at 170OC for 2 hours
Disinfection – removal or destruction of microorganisms that cause
damage or infection
- does not imply the destruction of all microorganisms
- destroys those which may cause an unwanted result
- ex: pasteurization of milk, use of chemical agents like alcohol
for destruction of microorganisms

Sanitization – similar to disinfection

- term used in food industry
- disinfection is more strict (around 99.9% microbial
destruction)
Commercial sterilization – application of heat to food in
hermetic containers to destroy both vegetative cells and
spores of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms that
would be capable of growing in the product under normal
storage conditions
- know the most heat-resistant microorganism (for
reference temperature) and enzyme

Commercial sterility – absence of microorganisms capable of

growing in and spoiling food under normal storage
conditions; absence of pathogenic microorganisms
capable of proliferating in the food
Antiseptic – disinfectant; a chemical agent used to destroy
harmful microorganisms; applied to human beings or
animals; ex: mouthwash, hand sanitizer

Asepsis – the continued exclusion of harmful microorganisms

- culturing of microorganisms in the laboratory is carried
out aseptically as in many industrial fermentations
- growth medium or substrate is sterilized to remove all
living organisms and inoculated with the required culture;
the system is no longer sterile but aseptic, as no unwanted
organisms are present
Bactericide – an agent that kills bacteria; most do not kill
endospore; ex: alcohol, heat, sanitizers
Fungicide – an agent that kills fungi; ex; heat, hypochlorite
Sporocide – an agent that kills bacterial endospore or
fungal spores; ex: ethylene oxide which is applied on
packaging materials
Sterile filtration – used for fluids that can be damaged by
heat (wine, beer)
STORAGE AND
PACKAGING

Prepared by: G.P.Pantuhan

WOOD AND TEXTILES

Wooden crates and burlap

bags – are still in
widespread use in many
developing countries.
- Provides good
mechanical strength
when used as a
packaging material
WOOD AND TEXTILES
Not desirable for several reasons:
• The heavy weight of wood means higher transportation
costs.
• Wood causes damage to packaged product due to splinters
and sharp walls.
• A package made of wood, jute, or other textiles harbors
mold and other spoilage microorganisms that can infect
the packaged product.
• The large quantity of wood required for packaging
contributes to deforestation.
POLYMERS
The different gas and water vapor permeabilities of
polymeric films offer a wide range of opportunities for
applications in packaging.

Common examples are

• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
• Polystyrene (PS)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
• Ethyl vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
POLYMERS
CONTROLLED-
ATMOSPHERE STORAGE
• Reduced level of oxygen and increased concentration of carbon
dioxide in the immediate environment surrounding a fruit or
vegetable retards its respiration rate.
• With reduced respiration rate, the storage life of the product is
enhanced.
• Reduction of O2. Nitrogen gas is introduced into the storage by
cylinder to reduce the oxygen level after room is filled and
sealed.
• CO2 is added into storage from CO2 gas cylinder.
ESSENTIALS FEATURES OF CA

• Excess CO2 is removed by dry hydrated lime,

ethanolamine, aluminium calcium silicate,
activated carbon, magnesium oxide, and other CO2
scrubbers.
• Atmospheric composition is crop specific. However,
as a general rule the most common combinations
are 2-5% oxygen and 3-10% carbon dioxide.
• The storage room atmosphere samples are taken
daily for CO2 and O2 monitoring.
MODIFIED-ATMOSPHERE
STORAGE
• The modified atmosphere contains lower oxygen
and higher carbon dioxide concentrations when
compared with the ambient air.
• Implies a lower degree of control of gas
concentration in atmosphere surrounding the
commodity.
• The MA and CA differ only in degree of control, CA
is more exact.
• This factor is kept in mind in the design of a
package for modified-atmosphere applications.
Controlled-Atmosphere Modified-Atmosphere
Storage Storage
High degree of control Low degree
over gas concentration
Longer storage life Less
More expensive Less
technology
Atmosphere is It is created by either
modified by adding gas actively(addition or removal
of gas) or passively(produce
generated)
Specific temperature May or may not be
should maintain maintained
ACTIVE PACKAGING
• Defined as ‘packaging in which subsidiary
constituents have been deliberately
included in or either the packaging material
or the headspace to enhance performance
of the package system’.
• They are designed to intentionally release or
absorb substances into or from the food or
its surroundings.
ACTIVE PACKAGING
• Packaging intended to extend the shelf
life or to maintain or improve the
condition of packaged food
• Comes in the form of sachets, labels,
films
CLASSIFICATIONS

1. Scavengers/Absorbers

2. Releasing systems/Emitters

3. Others (antimicrobial films, self-

venting packaging, and susceptor
laminates)
SCAVENGERS, ABSORBERS
AND SCRUBBERS
• Remove undesired components:
– Oxygen
– Excessive water/moisture
– Ethylene
– Carbon dioxide
– Flavor/odor taints
– Other specific constituents
ACTIVE RELEASING
SYSTEMS/ EMITTERS
• Components migrate from the packaging material
to the packaged food with the aim to extend shelf-
life or improve the quality of the packed food.

• Add compounds to the packaged food: carbon

dioxide, water, antioxidants, preservatives.
ANTIMICROBIAL
PACKAGING
• Used in meat, fish, poultry, bread, cheese,
fruits, and vegetables.
• Substances used: zeolite, ethanol and other
alcohols, carbon dioxide, propionate,
bacteriocins, fungicides, and enzymes
• Disadvantages: Limited effectiveness,
effectiveness influenced by several factors,
and microorganisms may build up resistance
against the antimicrobial compound by
excessive use
FLAVOR-RELEASING
SYSTEMS
• Used to mask
off-odors
coming from
the food or the
packaging.
• Improve
sensory quality
of the product.
ANTIOXIDANT-
RELEASING SYSTEMS

• Can be incorporated in plastic films for

polymer stabilization in order to protect
film from degradation.
• When antioxidant migrates into the food,
it may have an additional positive effect
on the shelf-life of the packed food.
INTELLIGENT PACKAGING

A packaging system that is capable of

carrying out intelligent functions to
facilitate decision-making to extend
shelf life, improve quality, enhance
safety, provide information and warn
about possible problems.
INTELLIGENT PACKAGING
A package can be intelligent
if:

• It has the ability to track

the product.
• It can sense the
environment inside or
outside the package.
• It can communicate with
human.
A. INDICATING PRODUCT QUALITY

1. Time-Temperature indicator
2. Gas Concentration indicator
3. Quality or Freshness indicator
4. Ripeness indicator
5. Radio Frequency Identification
Tags (RFID)
TIME-TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
• It gives information
on temperature
and it shows the
variation and
history in
temperature.
• It is visualised as a
colour movement
or colour change.
OXYGEN INDICATOR
• It gives information on leakage.
• The usage area for this indicator is in
controlled or modified atmosphere food
packaging.
CO2 INDICATOR
• It gives information
on concentration
of carbon dioxide.
• The usage area for
this indicator is in
controlled or
modified label, printed layer,
tablet or laminated
atmosphere in a polymer film.
packaging.
FRESHNESS INDICATOR
• It indicates the microbial quality of the
product by reacting to the metabolites
produced in the growth of microorganisms.
RIPENESS INDICATOR
• It sense aromatics emitted from ripening fruit.
• Signals ripeness by label visual cue/color
change.
Red color for
unripe (crisp)
fruit

Orange to
yellow when
the fruit is very
ripe (juicy)
RADIO FREQUENCY
IDENTIFICATION TAGS
• Tags could be classified as passive tag or
active tag.

TAGS

READER
B. PROVIDING MORE
CONVENIENCE
1. Thermochromic Inks

2. Microwave Doneness
Indicator
THERMOCHROMIC INKS

• The inks will

change color at
specific
temperatures,
and if appropriate
colors are chosen,
hidden message
become visible.
MICROWAVE DONENESS
INDICATOR
• It detects and
visually indicate
the state of
readiness of
foods heated in a
microwave oven.

LIMITATION: Difficulty in observing whether or not a

color change has occurred.
C. PROVIDING PROTECTION AGAINTS THEFT,
COUNTERFEITING AND TAMPERING

• Intelligent tamper-evident technologies

are being developed based on labels or
seals which are transparent until the
package is opened or tampered with.

• Use of holograms, special inks and dyes,

laser labels and electronic tags.
• However, their use in food packaging is
minimal for cost reasons.
Thank You!